health social media and its impact essay

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Social Media and Mental Health: Benefits, Risks, and Opportunities for Research and Practice

John a. naslund.

a Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA

Ameya Bondre

b CareNX Innovations, Mumbai, India

John Torous

c Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA

Kelly A. Aschbrenner

d Department of Psychiatry, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH

Social media platforms are popular venues for sharing personal experiences, seeking information, and offering peer-to-peer support among individuals living with mental illness. With significant shortfalls in the availability, quality, and reach of evidence-based mental health services across the United States and globally, social media platforms may afford new opportunities to bridge this gap. However, caution is warranted, as numerous studies highlight risks of social media use for mental health. In this commentary, we consider the role of social media as a potentially viable intervention platform for offering support to persons with mental disorders, promoting engagement and retention in care, and enhancing existing mental health services. Specifically, we summarize current research on the use of social media among mental health service users, and early efforts using social media for the delivery of evidence-based programs. We also review the risks, potential harms, and necessary safety precautions with using social media for mental health. To conclude, we explore opportunities using data science and machine learning, for example by leveraging social media for detecting mental disorders and developing predictive models aimed at characterizing the aetiology and progression of mental disorders. These various efforts using social media, as summarized in this commentary, hold promise for improving the lives of individuals living with mental disorders.

Introduction

Social media has become a prominent fixture in the lives of many individuals facing the challenges of mental illness. Social media refers broadly to web and mobile platforms that allow individuals to connect with others within a virtual network (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, or LinkedIn), where they can share, co-create, or exchange various forms of digital content, including information, messages, photos, or videos ( Ahmed, Ahmad, Ahmad, & Zakaria, 2019 ). Studies have reported that individuals living with a range of mental disorders, including depression, psychotic disorders, or other severe mental illnesses, use social media platforms at comparable rates as the general population, with use ranging from about 70% among middle-age and older individuals, to upwards of 97% among younger individuals ( Aschbrenner, Naslund, Grinley, et al., 2018 ; M. L. Birnbaum, Rizvi, Correll, Kane, & Confino, 2017 ; Brunette et al., 2019 ; Naslund, Aschbrenner, & Bartels, 2016 ). Other exploratory studies have found that many of these individuals with mental illness appear to turn to social media to share their personal experiences, seek information about their mental health and treatment options, and give and receive support from others facing similar mental health challenges ( Bucci, Schwannauer, & Berry, 2019 ; Naslund, Aschbrenner, Marsch, & Bartels, 2016b ).

Across the United States and globally, very few people living with mental illness have access to adequate mental health services ( Patel et al., 2018 ). The wide reach and near ubiquitous use of social media platforms may afford novel opportunities to address these shortfalls in existing mental health care, by enhancing the quality, availability, and reach of services. Recent studies have explored patterns of social media use, impact of social media use on mental health and wellbeing, and the potential to leverage the popularity and interactive features of social media to enhance the delivery of interventions. However, there remains uncertainty regarding the risks and potential harms of social media for mental health ( Orben & Przybylski, 2019 ), and how best to weigh these concerns against potential benefits.

In this commentary, we summarized current research on the use of social media among individuals with mental illness, with consideration of the impact of social media on mental wellbeing, as well as early efforts using social media for delivery of evidence-based programs for addressing mental health problems. We searched for recent peer reviewed publications in Medline and Google Scholar using the search terms “mental health” or “mental illness” and “social media”, and searched the reference lists of recent reviews and other relevant studies. We reviewed the risks, potential harms, and necessary safety precautions with using social media for mental health. Overall, our goal was to consider the role of social media as a potentially viable intervention platform for offering support to persons with mental disorders, promoting engagement and retention in care, and enhancing existing mental health services, while balancing the need for safety. Given this broad objective, we did not perform a systematic search of the literature and we did not apply specific inclusion criteria based on study design or type of mental disorder.

Social Media Use and Mental Health

In 2020, there are an estimated 3.8 billion social media users worldwide, representing half the global population ( We Are Social, 2020 ). Recent studies have shown that individuals with mental disorders are increasingly gaining access to and using mobile devices, such as smartphones ( Firth et al., 2015 ; Glick, Druss, Pina, Lally, & Conde, 2016 ; Torous, Chan, et al., 2014 ; Torous, Friedman, & Keshavan, 2014 ). Similarly, there is mounting evidence showing high rates of social media use among individuals with mental disorders, including studies looking at engagement with these popular platforms across diverse settings and disorder types. Initial studies from 2015 found that nearly half of a sample of psychiatric patients were social media users, with greater use among younger individuals ( Trefflich, Kalckreuth, Mergl, & Rummel-Kluge, 2015 ), while 47% of inpatients and outpatients with schizophrenia reported using social media, of which 79% reported at least once-a-week usage of social media websites ( Miller, Stewart, Schrimsher, Peeples, & Buckley, 2015 ). Rates of social media use among psychiatric populations have increased in recent years, as reflected in a study with data from 2017 showing comparable rates of social media use (approximately 70%) among individuals with serious mental illness in treatment as compared to low-income groups from the general population ( Brunette et al., 2019 ).

Similarly, among individuals with serious mental illness receiving community-based mental health services, a recent study found equivalent rates of social media use as the general population, even exceeding 70% of participants ( Naslund, Aschbrenner, & Bartels, 2016 ). Comparable findings were demonstrated among middle-age and older individuals with mental illness accessing services at peer support agencies, where 72% of respondents reported using social media ( Aschbrenner, Naslund, Grinley, et al., 2018 ). Similar results, with 68% of those with first episode psychosis using social media daily were reported in another study ( Abdel-Baki, Lal, D.-Charron, Stip, & Kara, 2017 ).

Individuals who self-identified as having a schizophrenia spectrum disorder responded to a survey shared through the National Alliance of Mental Illness (NAMI), and reported that visiting social media sites was one of their most common activities when using digital devices, taking up roughly 2 hours each day ( Gay, Torous, Joseph, Pandya, & Duckworth, 2016 ). For adolescents and young adults ages 12 to 21 with psychotic disorders and mood disorders, over 97% reported using social media, with average use exceeding 2.5 hours per day ( M. L. Birnbaum et al., 2017 ). Similarly, in a sample of adolescents ages 13-18 recruited from community mental health centers, 98% reported using social media, with YouTube as the most popular platform, followed by Instagram and Snapchat ( Aschbrenner et al., 2019 ).

Research has also explored the motivations for using social media as well as the perceived benefits of interacting on these platforms among individuals with mental illness. In the sections that follow (see Table 1 for a summary), we consider three potentially unique features of interacting and connecting with others on social media that may offer benefits for individuals living with mental illness. These include: 1) Facilitate social interaction; 2) Access to a peer support network; and 3) Promote engagement and retention in services.

Summary of potential benefits and challenges with social media for mental health

Facilitate Social Interaction

Social media platforms offer near continuous opportunities to connect and interact with others, regardless of time of day or geographic location. This on demand ease of communication may be especially important for facilitating social interaction among individuals with mental disorders experiencing difficulties interacting in face-to-face settings. For example, impaired social functioning is a common deficit in schizophrenia spectrum disorders, and social media may facilitate communication and interacting with others for these individuals ( Torous & Keshavan, 2016 ). This was suggested in one study where participants with schizophrenia indicated that social media helped them to interact and socialize more easily ( Miller et al., 2015 ). Like other online communication, the ability to connect with others anonymously may be an important feature of social media, especially for individuals living with highly stigmatizing health conditions ( Berger, Wagner, & Baker, 2005 ), such as serious mental disorders ( Highton-Williamson, Priebe, & Giacco, 2015 ).

Studies have found that individuals with serious mental disorders ( Spinzy, Nitzan, Becker, Bloch, & Fennig, 2012 ) as well as young adults with mental illness ( Gowen, Deschaine, Gruttadara, & Markey, 2012 ) appear to form online relationships and connect with others on social media as often as social media users from the general population. This is an important observation because individuals living with serious mental disorders typically have few social contacts in the offline world, and also experience high rates of loneliness ( Badcock et al., 2015 ; Giacco, Palumbo, Strappelli, Catapano, & Priebe, 2016 ). Among individuals receiving publicly funded mental health services who use social media, nearly half (47%) reported using these platforms at least weekly to feel less alone ( Brusilovskiy, Townley, Snethen, & Salzer, 2016 ). In another study of young adults with serious mental illness, most indicated that they used social media to help feel less isolated ( Gowen et al., 2012 ). Interestingly, more frequent use of social media among a sample of individuals with serious mental illness was associated with greater community participation, measured as participation in shopping, work, religious activities or visiting friends and family, as well as greater civic engagement, reflected as voting in local elections ( Brusilovskiy et al., 2016 ).

Emerging research also shows that young people with moderate to severe depressive symptoms appear to prefer communicating on social media rather than in-person ( Rideout & Fox, 2018 ), while other studies have found that some individuals may prefer to seek help for mental health concerns online rather than through in-person encounters ( Batterham & Calear, 2017 ). In a qualitative study, participants with schizophrenia described greater anonymity, the ability to discover that other people have experienced similar health challenges, and reducing fears through greater access to information as important motivations for using the Internet to seek mental health information ( Schrank, Sibitz, Unger, & Amering, 2010 ). Because social media does not require the immediate responses necessary in face-to-face communication, it may overcome deficits with social interaction due to psychotic symptoms that typically adversely affect face-to-face conversations ( Docherty et al., 1996 ). Online social interactions may not require the use of non-verbal cues, particularly in the initial stages of interaction ( Kiesler, Siegel, & McGuire, 1984 ), with interactions being more fluid, and within the control of users, thereby overcoming possible social anxieties linked to in-person interaction ( Indian & Grieve, 2014 ). Furthermore, many individuals with serious mental disorders can experience symptoms including passive social withdrawal, blunted affect and attentional impairment, as well as active social avoidance due to hallucinations or other concerns ( Hansen, Torgalsbøen, Melle, & Bell, 2009 ); thus, potentially reinforcing the relative advantage, as perceived by users, of using social media over in person conversations.

Access to a Peer Support Network

There is growing recognition about the role that social media channels could play in enabling peer support ( Bucci et al., 2019 ; Naslund, Aschbrenner, et al., 2016b ), referred to as a system of mutual giving and receiving where individuals who have endured the difficulties of mental illness can offer hope, friendship, and support to others facing similar challenges ( Davidson, Chinman, Sells, & Rowe, 2006 ; Mead, Hilton, & Curtis, 2001 ). Initial studies exploring use of online self-help forums among individuals with serious mental illnesses have found that individuals with schizophrenia appeared to use these forums for self-disclosure, and sharing personal experiences, in addition to providing or requesting information, describing symptoms, or discussing medication ( Haker, Lauber, & Rössler, 2005 ), while users with bipolar disorder reported using these forums to ask for help from others about their illness ( Vayreda & Antaki, 2009 ). More recently, in a review of online social networking in people with psychosis, Highton-Williamson et al (2015) highlight that an important purpose of such online connections was to establish new friendships, pursue romantic relationships, maintain existing relationships or reconnect with people, and seek online peer support from others with lived experience ( Highton-Williamson et al., 2015 ).

Online peer support among individuals with mental illness has been further elaborated in various studies. In a content analysis of comments posted to YouTube by individuals who self-identified as having a serious mental illness, there appeared to be opportunities to feel less alone, provide hope, find support and learn through mutual reciprocity, and share coping strategies for day-to-day challenges of living with a mental illness ( Naslund, Grande, Aschbrenner, & Elwyn, 2014 ). In another study, Chang (2009) delineated various communication patterns in an online psychosis peer-support group ( Chang, 2009 ). Specifically, different forms of support emerged, including ‘informational support’ about medication use or contacting mental health providers, ‘esteem support’ involving positive comments for encouragement, ‘network support’ for sharing similar experiences, and ‘emotional support’ to express understanding of a peer’s situation and offer hope or confidence ( Chang, 2009 ). Bauer et al. (2013) reported that the main interest in online self-help forums for patients with bipolar disorder was to share emotions with others, allow exchange of information, and benefit by being part of an online social group ( Bauer, Bauer, Spiessl, & Kagerbauer, 2013 ).

For individuals who openly discuss mental health problems on Twitter, a study by Berry et al. (2017) found that this served as an important opportunity to seek support and to hear about the experiences of others ( Berry et al., 2017 ). In a survey of social media users with mental illness, respondents reported that sharing personal experiences about living with mental illness and opportunities to learn about strategies for coping with mental illness from others were important reasons for using social media ( Naslund et al., 2017 ). A computational study of mental health awareness campaigns on Twitter provides further support with inspirational posts and tips being the most shared ( Saha et al., 2019 ). Taken together, these studies offer insights about the potential for social media to facilitate access to an informal peer support network, though more research is necessary to examine how these online interactions may impact intentions to seek care, illness self-management, and clinically meaningful outcomes in offline contexts.

Promote Engagement and Retention in Services

Many individuals living with mental disorders have expressed interest in using social media platforms for seeking mental health information ( Lal, Nguyen, & Theriault, 2018 ), connecting with mental health providers ( M. L. Birnbaum et al., 2017 ), and accessing evidence-based mental health services delivered over social media specifically for coping with mental health symptoms or for promoting overall health and wellbeing ( Naslund et al., 2017 ). With the widespread use of social media among individuals living with mental illness combined with the potential to facilitate social interaction and connect with supportive peers, as summarized above, it may be possible to leverage the popular features of social media to enhance existing mental health programs and services. A recent review by Biagianti et al (2018) found that peer-to-peer support appeared to offer feasible and acceptable ways to augment digital mental health interventions for individuals with psychotic disorders by specifically improving engagement, compliance, and adherence to the interventions, and may also improve perceived social support ( Biagianti, Quraishi, & Schlosser, 2018 ).

Among digital programs that have incorporated peer-to-peer social networking consistent with popular features on social media platforms, a pilot study of the HORYZONS online psychosocial intervention demonstrated significant reductions in depression among patients with first episode psychosis ( Alvarez-Jimenez et al., 2013 ). Importantly, the majority of participants (95%) in this study engaged with the peer-to-peer networking feature of the program, with many reporting increases in perceived social connectedness and empowerment in their recovery process ( Alvarez-Jimenez et al., 2013 ). This moderated online social therapy program is now being evaluated as part of a large randomized controlled trial for maintaining treatment effects from first episode psychosis services ( Alvarez-Jimenez et al., 2019 ).

Other early efforts have demonstrated that use of digital environments with the interactive peer-to-peer features of social media can enhance social functioning and wellbeing in young people at high risk of psychosis ( Alvarez-Jimenez et al., 2018 ). There has also been a recent emergence of several mobile apps to support symptom monitoring and relapse prevention in psychotic disorders. Among these apps, the development of PRIME (Personalized Real-time Intervention for Motivational Enhancement) has involved working closely with young people with schizophrenia to ensure that the design of the app has the look and feel of mainstream social media platforms, as opposed to existing clinical tools ( Schlosser et al., 2016 ). This unique approach to the design of the app is aimed at promoting engagement, and ensuring that the app can effectively improve motivation and functioning through goal setting and promoting better quality of life of users with schizophrenia ( Schlosser et al., 2018 ).

Social media platforms could also be used to promote engagement and participation in in-person services delivered through community mental health settings. For example, the peer-based lifestyle intervention called PeerFIT targets weight loss and improved fitness among individuals living with serious mental illness through a combination of in-person lifestyle classes, exercise groups, and use of digital technologies ( Aschbrenner, Naslund, Shevenell, Kinney, & Bartels, 2016 ; Aschbrenner, Naslund, Shevenell, Mueser, & Bartels, 2016 ). The intervention holds tremendous promise as lack of support is one of the largest barriers toward exercise in patients with serious mental illness ( Firth et al., 2016 ) and it is now possible to use social media to counter such. Specifically, in PeerFIT, a private Facebook group is closely integrated into the program to offer a closed platform where participants can connect with the lifestyle coaches, access intervention content, and support or encourage each other as they work towards their lifestyle goals ( Aschbrenner, Naslund, & Bartels, 2016 ; Naslund, Aschbrenner, Marsch, & Bartels, 2016a ). To date, this program has demonstrate preliminary effectiveness for meaningfully reducing cardiovascular risk factors that contribute to early mortality in this patient group ( Aschbrenner, Naslund, Shevenell, Kinney, et al., 2016 ), while the Facebook component appears to have increased engagement in the program, while allowing participants who were unable to attend in-person sessions due to other health concerns or competing demands to remain connected with the program ( Naslund, Aschbrenner, Marsch, McHugo, & Bartels, 2018 ). This lifestyle intervention is currently being evaluated in a randomized controlled trial enrolling young adults with serious mental illness from a variety of real world community mental health services settings ( Aschbrenner, Naslund, Gorin, et al., 2018 ).

These examples highlight the promise of incorporating the features of popular social media into existing programs, which may offer opportunities to safely promote engagement and program retention, while achieving improved clinical outcomes. This is an emerging area of research, as evidenced by several important effectiveness trials underway ( Alvarez-Jimenez et al., 2019 ; Aschbrenner, Naslund, Gorin, et al., 2018 ), including efforts to leverage online social networking to support family caregivers of individuals receiving first episode psychosis services ( Gleeson et al., 2017 ).

Challenges with Social Media for Mental Health

The science on the role of social media for engaging persons with mental disorders needs a cautionary note on the effects of social media usage on mental health and well being, particularly in adolescents and young adults. While the risks and harms of social media are frequently covered in the popular press and mainstream news reports, careful consideration of the research in this area is necessary. In a review of 43 studies in young people, many benefits of social media were cited, including increased self-esteem, and opportunities for self-disclosure ( Best, Manktelow, & Taylor, 2014 ). Yet, reported negative effects were an increased exposure to harm, social isolation, depressive symptoms and bullying ( Best et al., 2014 ). In the sections that follow (see Table 1 for a summary), we consider three major categories of risk related to use of social media and mental health. These include: 1) Impact on symptoms; 2) Facing hostile interactions; and 3) Consequences for daily life.

Impact on Symptoms

Studies consistently highlight that use of social media, especially heavy use and prolonged time spent on social media platforms, appears to contribute to increased risk for a variety of mental health symptoms and poor wellbeing, especially among young people ( Andreassen et al., 2016 ; Kross et al., 2013 ; Woods & Scott, 2016 ). This may partly be driven by the detrimental effects of screen time on mental health, including increased severity of anxiety and depressive symptoms, which have been well documented ( Stiglic & Viner, 2019 ). Recent studies have reported negative effects of social media use on mental health of young people, including social comparison pressure with others and greater feeling of social isolation after being rejected by others on social media ( Rideout & Fox, 2018 ). In a study of young adults, it was found that negative comparisons with others on Facebook contributed to risk of rumination and subsequent increases in depression symptoms ( Feinstein et al., 2013 ). Still, the cross sectional nature of many screen time and mental health studies makes it challenging to reach causal inferences ( Orben & Przybylski, 2019 ).

Quantity of social media use is also an important factor, as highlighted in a survey of young adults ages 19 to 32, where more frequent visits to social media platforms each week were correlated with greater depressive symptoms ( Lin et al., 2016 ). More time spent using social media is also associated with greater symptoms of anxiety ( Vannucci, Flannery, & Ohannessian, 2017 ). The actual number of platforms accessed also appears to contribute to risk as reflected in another national survey of young adults where use of a large number of social media platforms was associated with negative impact on mental health ( Primack et al., 2017 ). Among survey respondents using between 7 and 11 different social media platforms compared to respondents using only 2 or fewer platforms, there was a 3 times greater odds of having high levels of depressive symptoms and a 3.2 times greater odds of having high levels of anxiety symptoms ( Primack et al., 2017 ).

Many researchers have postulated that worsening mental health attributed to social media use may be because social media replaces face-to-face interactions for young people ( Twenge & Campbell, 2018 ), and may contribute to greater loneliness ( Bucci et al., 2019 ), and negative effects on other aspects of health and wellbeing ( Woods & Scott, 2016 ). One nationally representative survey of US adolescents found that among respondents who reported more time accessing media such as social media platforms or smartphone devices, there was significantly greater depressive symptoms and increased risk of suicide when compared to adolescents who reported spending more time on non-screen activities, such as in-person social interaction or sports and recreation activities ( Twenge, Joiner, Rogers, & Martin, 2018 ). For individuals living with more severe mental illnesses, the effects of social media on psychiatric symptoms have received less attention. One study found that participation in chat rooms may contribute to worsening symptoms in young people with psychotic disorders ( Mittal, Tessner, & Walker, 2007 ), while another study of patients with psychosis found that social media use appeared to predict low mood ( Berry, Emsley, Lobban, & Bucci, 2018 ). These studies highlight a clear relationship between social media use and mental health that may not be present in general population studies ( Orben & Przybylski, 2019 ), and emphasize the need to explore how social media may contribute to symptom severity and whether protective factors may be identified to mitigate these risks.

Facing Hostile Interactions

Popular social media platforms can create potential situations where individuals may be victimized by negative comments or posts. Cyberbullying represents a form of online aggression directed towards specific individuals, such as peers or acquaintances, which is perceived to be most harmful when compared to random hostile comments posted online ( Hamm et al., 2015 ). Importantly, cyberbullying on social media consistently shows harmful impact on mental health in the form of increased depressive symptoms as well as worsening of anxiety symptoms, as evidenced in a review of 36 studies among children and young people ( Hamm et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, cyberbullying disproportionately impacts females as reflected in a national survey of adolescents in the United States, where females were twice as likely to be victims of cyberbullying compared to males ( Alhajji, Bass, & Dai, 2019 ). Most studies report cross-sectional associations between cyberbullying and symptoms of depression or anxiety ( Hamm et al., 2015 ), though one longitudinal study in Switzerland found that cyberbullying contributed to significantly greater depression over time ( Machmutow, Perren, Sticca, & Alsaker, 2012 ).

For youth ages 10 to 17 who reported major depressive symptomatology, there was over 3 times greater odds of facing online harassment in the last year compared to youth who reported mild or no depressive symptoms ( Ybarra, 2004 ). Similarly, in a 2018 national survey of young people, respondents ages 14 to 22 with moderate to severe depressive symptoms were more likely to have had negative experiences when using social media, and in particular, were more likely to report having faced hostile comments, or being “trolled”, from others when compared to respondents without depressive symptoms (31% vs. 14%) ( Rideout & Fox, 2018 ). As these studies depict risks for victimization on social media and the correlation with poor mental health, it is possible that individuals living with mental illness may also experience greater hostility online compared to individuals without mental illness. This would be consistent with research showing greater risk of hostility, including increased violence and discrimination, directed towards individuals living with mental illness in in-person contexts, especially targeted at those with severe mental illnesses ( Goodman et al., 1999 ).

A computational study of mental health awareness campaigns on Twitter reported that while stigmatizing content was rare, it was actually the most spread (re-tweeted) demonstrating that harmful content can travel quickly on social media ( Saha et al., 2019 ). Another study was able to map the spread of social media posts about the Blue Whale Challenge, an alleged game promoting suicide, over Twitter, YouTube, Reddit, Tumblr and other forums across 127 countries ( Sumner et al., 2019 ). These findings show that it is critical to monitor the actual content of social media posts, such as determining whether content is hostile or promotes harm to self or others. This is pertinent because existing research looking at duration of exposure cannot account for the impact of specific types of content on mental health and is insufficient to fully understand the effects of using these platforms on mental health.

Consequences for Daily Life

The ways in which individuals use social media can also impact their offline relationships and everyday activities. To date, reports have described risks of social media use pertaining to privacy, confidentiality, and unintended consequences of disclosing personal health information online ( Torous & Keshavan, 2016 ). Additionally, concerns have been raised about poor quality or misleading health information shared on social media, and that social media users may not be aware of misleading information or conflicts of interest especially when the platforms promote popular content regardless of whether it is from a trustworthy source ( Moorhead et al., 2013 ; Ventola, 2014 ). For persons living with mental illness there may be additional risks from using social media. A recent study that specifically explored the perspectives of social media users with serious mental illnesses, including participants with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, bipolar disorder, or major depression, found that over one third of participants expressed concerns about privacy when using social media ( Naslund & Aschbrenner, 2019 ). The reported risks of social media use were directly related to many aspects of everyday life, including concerns about threats to employment, fear of stigma and being judged, impact on personal relationships, and facing hostility or being hurt ( Naslund & Aschbrenner, 2019 ). While few studies have specifically explored the dangers of social media use from the perspectives of individuals living with mental illness, it is important to recognize that use of these platforms may contribute to risks that extend beyond worsening symptoms and that can affect different aspects of daily life.

In this commentary we considered ways in which social media may yield benefits for individuals living with mental illness, while contrasting these with the possible harms. Studies reporting on the threats of social media for individuals with mental illness are mostly cross-sectional, making it difficult to draw conclusions about direction of causation. However, the risks are potentially serious. These risks should be carefully considered in discussions pertaining to use of social media and the broader use of digital mental health technologies, as avenues for mental health promotion, or for supporting access to evidence-based programs or mental health services. At this point, it would be premature to view the benefits of social media as outweighing the possible harms, when it is clear from the studies summarized here that social media use can have negative effects on mental health symptoms, can potentially expose individuals to hurtful content and hostile interactions, and can result in serious consequences for daily life, including threats to employment and personal relationships. Despite these risks, it is also necessary to recognize that individuals with mental illness will continue to use social media given the ease of accessing these platforms and the immense popularity of online social networking. With this in mind, it may be ideal to raise awareness about these possible risks so that individuals can implement necessary safeguards, while also highlighting that there could also be benefits. For individuals with mental illness who use social media, being aware of the risks is an essential first step, and then highlighting ways that use of these popular platforms could also contribute to some benefits, ranging from finding meaningful interactions with others, engaging with peer support networks, and accessing information and services.

To capitalize on the widespread use of social media, and to achieve the promise that these platforms may hold for supporting the delivery of targeted mental health interventions, there is need for continued research to better understand how individuals living with mental illness use social media. Such efforts could inform safety measures and also encourage use of social media in ways that maximize potential benefits while minimizing risk of harm. It will be important to recognize how gender and race contribute to differences in use of social media for seeking mental health information or accessing interventions, as well as differences in how social media might impact mental wellbeing. For example, a national survey of 14- to 22-year olds in the United States found that female respondents were more likely to search online for information about depression or anxiety, and to try to connect with other people online who share similar mental health concerns, when compared to male respondents ( Rideout & Fox, 2018 ). In the same survey, there did not appear to be any differences between racial or ethnic groups in social media use for seeking mental health information ( Rideout & Fox, 2018 ). Social media use also appears to have a differential impact on mental health and emotional wellbeing between females and males ( Booker, Kelly, & Sacker, 2018 ), highlighting the need to explore unique experiences between gender groups to inform tailored programs and services. Research shows that lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender individuals frequently use social media for searching for health information and may be more likely compared to heterosexual individuals to share their own personal health experiences with others online ( Rideout & Fox, 2018 ). Less is known about use of social media for seeking support for mental health concerns among gender minorities, though this is an important area for further investigation as these individuals are more likely to experience mental health problems and more likely to experience online victimization when compared to heterosexual individuals ( Mereish, Sheskier, Hawthorne, & Goldbach, 2019 ).

Similarly, efforts are needed to explore the relationship between social media use and mental health among ethnic and racial minorities. A recent study found that exposure to traumatic online content on social media showing violence or hateful posts directed at racial minorities contributed to increases in psychological distress, PTSD symptoms, and depression among African American and Latinx adolescents in the United States ( Tynes, Willis, Stewart, & Hamilton, 2019 ). These concerns are contrasted by growing interest in the potential for new technologies including social media to expand the reach of services to underrepresented minority groups ( Schueller, Hunter, Figueroa, & Aguilera, 2019 ). Therefore, greater attention is needed to understanding the perspectives of ethnic and racial minorities to inform effective and safe use of social media for mental health promotion efforts.

Research has found that individuals living with mental illness have expressed interest in accessing mental health services through social media platforms. A survey of social media users with mental illness found that most respondents were interested in accessing programs for mental health on social media targeting symptom management, health promotion, and support for communicating with health care providers and interacting with the health system ( Naslund et al., 2017 ). Importantly, individuals with serious mental illness have also emphasized that any mental health intervention on social media would need to be moderated by someone with adequate training and credentials, would need to have ground rules and ways to promote safety and minimize risks, and importantly, would need to be free and easy to access.

An important strength with this commentary is that it combines a range of studies broadly covering the topic of social media and mental health. We have provided a summary of recent evidence in a rapidly advancing field with the goal of presenting unique ways that social media could offer benefits for individuals with mental illness, while also acknowledging the potentially serious risks and the need for further investigation. There are also several limitations with this commentary that warrant consideration. Importantly, as we aimed to address this broad objective, we did not conduct a systematic review of the literature. Therefore, the studies reported here are not exhaustive, and there may be additional relevant studies that were not included. Additionally, we only summarized published studies, and as a result, any reports from the private sector or websites from different organizations using social media or other apps containing social media-like features would have been omitted. Though it is difficult to rigorously summarize work from the private sector, sometimes referred to as “gray literature”, because many of these projects are unpublished and are likely selective in their reporting of findings given the target audience may be shareholders or consumers.

Another notable limitation is that we did not assess risk of bias in the studies summarized in this commentary. We found many studies that highlighted risks associated with social media use for individuals living with mental illness; however, few studies of programs or interventions reported negative findings, suggesting the possibility that negative findings may go unpublished. This concern highlights the need for a future more rigorous review of the literature with careful consideration of bias and an accompanying quality assessment. Most of the studies that we described were from the United States, as well as from other higher income settings such as Australia or the United Kingdom. Despite the global reach of social media platforms, there is a dearth of research on the impact of these platforms on the mental health of individuals in diverse settings, as well as the ways in which social media could support mental health services in lower income countries where there is virtually no access to mental health providers. Future research is necessary to explore the opportunities and risks for social media to support mental health promotion in low-income and middle-income countries, especially as these countries face a disproportionate share of the global burden of mental disorders, yet account for the majority of social media users worldwide ( Naslund et al., 2019 ).

Future Directions for Social Media and Mental Health

As we consider future research directions, the near ubiquitous social media use also yields new opportunities to study the onset and manifestation of mental health symptoms and illness severity earlier than traditional clinical assessments. There is an emerging field of research referred to as ‘digital phenotyping’ aimed at capturing how individuals interact with their digital devices, including social media platforms, in order to study patterns of illness and identify optimal time points for intervention ( Jain, Powers, Hawkins, & Brownstein, 2015 ; Onnela & Rauch, 2016 ). Given that most people access social media via mobile devices, digital phenotyping and social media are closely related ( Torous et al., 2019 ). To date, the emergence of machine learning, a powerful computational method involving statistical and mathematical algorithms ( Shatte, Hutchinson, & Teague, 2019 ), has made it possible to study large quantities of data captured from popular social media platforms such as Twitter or Instagram to illuminate various features of mental health ( Manikonda & De Choudhury, 2017 ; Reece et al., 2017 ). Specifically, conversations on Twitter have been analyzed to characterize the onset of depression ( De Choudhury, Gamon, Counts, & Horvitz, 2013 ) as well as detecting users’ mood and affective states ( De Choudhury, Gamon, & Counts, 2012 ), while photos posted to Instagram can yield insights for predicting depression ( Reece & Danforth, 2017 ). The intersection of social media and digital phenotyping will likely add new levels of context to social media use in the near future.

Several studies have also demonstrated that when compared to a control group, Twitter users with a self-disclosed diagnosis of schizophrenia show unique online communication patterns ( Michael L Birnbaum, Ernala, Rizvi, De Choudhury, & Kane, 2017 ), including more frequent discussion of tobacco use ( Hswen et al., 2017 ), symptoms of depression and anxiety ( Hswen, Naslund, Brownstein, & Hawkins, 2018b ), and suicide ( Hswen, Naslund, Brownstein, & Hawkins, 2018a ). Another study found that online disclosures about mental illness appeared beneficial as reflected by fewer posts about symptoms following self-disclosure (Ernala, Rizvi, Birnbaum, Kane, & De Choudhury, 2017). Each of these examples offers early insights into the potential to leverage widely available online data for better understanding the onset and course of mental illness. It is possible that social media data could be used to supplement additional digital data, such as continuous monitoring using smartphone apps or smart watches, to generate a more comprehensive ‘digital phenotype’ to predict relapse and identify high-risk health behaviors among individuals living with mental illness ( Torous et al., 2019 ).

With research increasingly showing the valuable insights that social media data can yield about mental health states, greater attention to the ethical concerns with using individual data in this way is necessary ( Chancellor, Birnbaum, Caine, Silenzio, & De Choudhury, 2019 ). For instance, data is typically captured from social media platforms without the consent or awareness of users ( Bidargaddi et al., 2017 ), which is especially crucial when the data relates to a socially stigmatizing health condition such as mental illness ( Guntuku, Yaden, Kern, Ungar, & Eichstaedt, 2017 ). Precautions are needed to ensure that data is not made identifiable in ways that were not originally intended by the user who posted the content, as this could place an individual at risk of harm or divulge sensitive health information ( Webb et al., 2017 ; Williams, Burnap, & Sloan, 2017 ). Promising approaches for minimizing these risks include supporting the participation of individuals with expertise in privacy, clinicians, as well as the target individuals with mental illness throughout the collection of data, development of predictive algorithms, and interpretation of findings ( Chancellor et al., 2019 ).

In recognizing that many individuals living with mental illness use social media to search for information about their mental health, it is possible that they may also want to ask their clinicians about what they find online to check if the information is reliable and trustworthy. Alternatively, many individuals may feel embarrassed or reluctant to talk to their clinicians about using social media to find mental health information out of concerns of being judged or dismissed. Therefore, mental health clinicians may be ideally positioned to talk with their patients about using social media, and offer recommendations to promote safe use of these sites, while also respecting their patients’ autonomy and personal motivations for using these popular platforms. Given the gap in clinical knowledge about the impact of social media on mental health, clinicians should be aware of the many potential risks so that they can inform their patients, while remaining open to the possibility that their patients may also experience benefits through use of these platforms. As awareness of these risks grows, it may be possible that new protections will be put in place by industry or through new policies that will make the social media environment safer. It is hard to estimate a number needed to treat or harm today given the nascent state of research, which means the patient and clinician need to weigh the choice on a personal level. Thus offering education and information is an important first step in that process. As patients increasingly show interest in accessing mental health information or services through social media, it will be necessary for health systems to recognize social media as a potential avenue for reaching or offering support to patients. This aligns with growing emphasis on the need for greater integration of digital psychiatry, including apps, smartphones, or wearable devices, into patient care and clinical services through institution-wide initiatives and training clinical providers ( Hilty, Chan, Torous, Luo, & Boland, 2019 ). Within a learning healthcare environment where research and care are tightly intertwined and feedback between both is rapid, the integration of digital technologies into services may create new opportunities for advancing use of social media for mental health.

As highlighted in this commentary, social media has become an important part of the lives of many individuals living with mental disorders. Many of these individuals use social media to share their lived experiences with mental illness, to seek support from others, and to search for information about treatment recommendations, accessing mental health services, and coping with symptoms ( Bucci et al., 2019 ; Highton-Williamson et al., 2015 ; Naslund, Aschbrenner, et al., 2016b ). As the field of digital mental health advances, the wide reach, ease of access, and popularity of social media platforms could be used to allow individuals in need of mental health services or facing challenges of mental illness to access evidence-based treatment and support. To achieve this end and to explore whether social media platforms can advance efforts to close the gap in available mental health services in the United States and globally, it will be essential for researchers to work closely with clinicians and with those affected by mental illness to ensure that possible benefits of using social media are carefully weighed against anticipated risks.

Acknowledgements

Dr. Naslund is supported by a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (U19MH113211). Dr. Aschbrenner is supported by a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (1R01MH110965-01).

Publisher's Disclaimer: This Author Accepted Manuscript is a PDF file of a an unedited peer-reviewed manuscript that has been accepted for publication but has not been copyedited or corrected. The official version of record that is published in the journal is kept up to date and so may therefore differ from this version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have nothing to disclose.

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How Does Social Media Affect Your Mental Health?

Facebook has delayed the development of an Instagram app for children amid questions about its harmful effects on young people’s mental health. Does social media have an impact on your well-being?

By Nicole Daniels

What is your relationship with social media like? Which platforms do you spend the most time on? Which do you stay away from? How often do you log on?

What do you notice about your mental health and well-being when spending time on social networks?

In “ Facebook Delays Instagram App for Users 13 and Younger ,” Adam Satariano and Ryan Mac write about the findings of an internal study conducted by Facebook and what they mean for the Instagram Kids app that the company was developing:

Facebook said on Monday that it had paused development of an Instagram Kids service that would be tailored for children 13 years old or younger, as the social network increasingly faces questions about the app’s effect on young people’s mental health. The pullback preceded a congressional hearing this week about internal research conducted by Facebook , and reported in The Wall Street Journal , that showed the company knew of the harmful mental health effects that Instagram was having on teenage girls. The revelations have set off a public relations crisis for the Silicon Valley company and led to a fresh round of calls for new regulation. Facebook said it still wanted to build an Instagram product intended for children that would have a more “age appropriate experience,” but was postponing the plans in the face of criticism.

The article continues:

With Instagram Kids, Facebook had argued that young people were using the photo-sharing app anyway, despite age-requirement rules, so it would be better to develop a version more suitable for them. Facebook said the “kids” app was intended for ages 10 to 12 and would require parental permission to join, forgo ads and carry more age-appropriate content and features. Parents would be able to control what accounts their child followed. YouTube, which Google owns, has released a children’s version of its app. But since BuzzFeed broke the news this year that Facebook was working on the app, the company has faced scrutiny. Policymakers, regulators, child safety groups and consumer rights groups have argued that it hooks children on the app at a younger age rather than protecting them from problems with the service, including child predatory grooming, bullying and body shaming.

The article goes on to quote Adam Mosseri, the head of Instagram:

Mr. Mosseri said on Monday that the “the project leaked way before we knew what it would be” and that the company had “few answers” for the public at the time. Opposition to Facebook’s plans gained momentum this month when The Journal published articles based on leaked internal documents that showed Facebook knew about many of the harms it was causing. Facebook’s internal research showed that Instagram, in particular, had caused teen girls to feel worse about their bodies and led to increased rates of anxiety and depression, even while company executives publicly tried to minimize the app’s downsides.

But concerns about the effect of social media on young people go beyond Instagram Kids, the article notes:

A children’s version of Instagram would not fix more systemic problems, said Al Mik, a spokesman for 5Rights Foundation, a London group focused on digital rights issues for children. The group published a report in July showing that children as young as 13 were targeted within 24 hours of creating an account with harmful content, including material related to eating disorders, extreme diets, sexualized imagery, body shaming, self-harm and suicide. “Big Tobacco understood that the younger you got to someone, the easier you could get them addicted to become a lifelong user,” Doug Peterson, Nebraska’s attorney general, said in an interview. “I see some comparisons to social media platforms.” In May, attorneys general from 44 states and jurisdictions had signed a letter to Facebook’s chief executive, Mark Zuckerberg, asking him to end plans for building an Instagram app for children. American policymakers should pass tougher laws to restrict how tech platforms target children, said Josh Golin, executive director of Fairplay, a Boston-based group that was part of an international coalition of children’s and consumer groups opposed to the new app. Last year, Britain adopted an Age Appropriate Design Code , which requires added privacy protections for digital services used by people under the age of 18.

Students, read the entire article , then tell us:

Do you think Facebook made the right decision in halting the development of the Instagram Kids app? Do you think there should be social media apps for children 13 and younger? Why or why not?

What is your reaction to the research that found that Instagram can have harmful mental health effects on teenagers, particularly teenage girls? Have you experienced body image issues, anxiety or depression tied to your use of the app? How do you think social media affects your mental health?

What has your experience been on different social media apps? Are there apps that have a more positive or negative effect on your well-being? What do you think could explain these differences?

Have you ever been targeted with inappropriate or harmful content on Instagram or other social media apps? What responsibility do you think social media companies have to address these issues? Do you think there should be more protections in place for users under 18? Why or why not?

What does healthy social media engagement look like for you? What habits do you have around social media that you feel proud of? What behaviors would you like to change? How involved are your parents in your social media use? How involved do you think they should be?

If you were in charge of making Instagram, or another social media app, safer for teenagers, what changes would you make?

Want more writing prompts? You can find all of our questions in our Student Opinion column . Teachers, check out this guide to learn how you can incorporate them into your classroom.

Students 13 and older in the United States and Britain, and 16 and older elsewhere, are invited to comment. All comments are moderated by the Learning Network staff, but please keep in mind that once your comment is accepted, it will be made public.

Nicole Daniels joined The Learning Network as a staff editor in 2019 after working in museum education, curriculum writing and bilingual education. More about Nicole Daniels

• Open access
• Published: 06 July 2023

Pros & cons: impacts of social media on mental health

• Ágnes Zsila 1 , 2 &
• Marc Eric S. Reyes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5280-1315 3  

BMC Psychology volume  11 , Article number:  201 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The use of social media significantly impacts mental health. It can enhance connection, increase self-esteem, and improve a sense of belonging. But it can also lead to tremendous stress, pressure to compare oneself to others, and increased sadness and isolation. Mindful use is essential to social media consumption.

Social media has become integral to our daily routines: we interact with family members and friends, accept invitations to public events, and join online communities to meet people who share similar preferences using these platforms. Social media has opened a new avenue for social experiences since the early 2000s, extending the possibilities for communication. According to recent research [ 1 ], people spend 2.3 h daily on social media. YouTube, TikTok, Instagram, and Snapchat have become increasingly popular among youth in 2022, and one-third think they spend too much time on these platforms [ 2 ]. The considerable time people spend on social media worldwide has directed researchers’ attention toward the potential benefits and risks. Research shows excessive use is mainly associated with lower psychological well-being [ 3 ]. However, findings also suggest that the quality rather than the quantity of social media use can determine whether the experience will enhance or deteriorate the user’s mental health [ 4 ]. In this collection, we will explore the impact of social media use on mental health by providing comprehensive research perspectives on positive and negative effects.

Social media can provide opportunities to enhance the mental health of users by facilitating social connections and peer support [ 5 ]. Indeed, online communities can provide a space for discussions regarding health conditions, adverse life events, or everyday challenges, which may decrease the sense of stigmatization and increase belongingness and perceived emotional support. Mutual friendships, rewarding social interactions, and humor on social media also reduced stress during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 4 ].

On the other hand, several studies have pointed out the potentially detrimental effects of social media use on mental health. Concerns have been raised that social media may lead to body image dissatisfaction [ 6 ], increase the risk of addiction and cyberbullying involvement [ 5 ], contribute to phubbing behaviors [ 7 ], and negatively affects mood [ 8 ]. Excessive use has increased loneliness, fear of missing out, and decreased subjective well-being and life satisfaction [ 8 ]. Users at risk of social media addiction often report depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem [ 9 ].

Overall, findings regarding the impact of social media on mental health pointed out some essential resources for psychological well-being through rewarding online social interactions. However, there is a need to raise awareness about the possible risks associated with excessive use, which can negatively affect mental health and everyday functioning [ 9 ]. There is neither a negative nor positive consensus regarding the effects of social media on people. However, by teaching people social media literacy, we can maximize their chances of having balanced, safe, and meaningful experiences on these platforms [ 10 ].

We encourage researchers to submit their research articles and contribute to a more differentiated overview of the impact of social media on mental health. BMC Psychology welcomes submissions to its new collection, which promises to present the latest findings in the emerging field of social media research. We seek research papers using qualitative and quantitative methods, focusing on social media users’ positive and negative aspects. We believe this collection will provide a more comprehensive picture of social media’s positive and negative effects on users’ mental health.

Data Availability

Not applicable.

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Acknowledgements

Ágnes Zsila was supported by the ÚNKP-22-4 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Culture and Innovation from the source of the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund.

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Ágnes Zsila

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Department of Psychology, College of Science, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, 1008, Philippines

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AZ conceived and drafted the Editorial. MESR wrote the abstract and revised the Editorial. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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The Social Media and Mental Health Connection

Sherri Gordon, CLC is a published author, certified professional life coach, and bullying prevention expert. She's also the former editor of Columbus Parent and has countless years of experience writing and researching health and social issues.

Rachel Goldman, PhD FTOS, is a licensed psychologist, clinical assistant professor, speaker, wellness expert specializing in eating behaviors, stress management, and health behavior change.

Verywell / Catherine Song

Why Social Media Is Growing in Popularity

Social media and mental health concerns, signs social media is impacting your mental health.

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in social media use. According to the Pew Research Center, 72% of Americans in the U.S. use social media.

People use social networking tools to stay in touch with family and friends, get their news, and share their political views . This has some researchers wondering about the long-term effects of social media use.

Because social media use is still relatively new, there are no long-term studies documenting its effects. But several studies indicate that social media impacts mental health in a number of ways. The increasing reliance on and use of social media puts a large number of Americans at an increased risk for feeling anxious, depressed, lonely, envious, and even ill over social media use.

Aside from the fact that social media allows people to reconnect with family and friends that live far away or that they have lost touch with, it became a vital communication tool during the pandemic.

Social Media Supports Connections

People used social media to share information and connect with others when stay-at-home orders kept them from meeting in person. It became a vehicle for social support and connectedness that they would not otherwise have had.

Social Media Makes People Feel Good

Social media has a tendency to reinforce use. People quickly become hooked on checking their statuses for comments and likes, as well as perusing other people's posts.

Using social media sometimes activates the brain's reward center by releasing dopamine , also known as the feel-good chemical. This dopamine release, in turn, keeps people coming back because they want to repeat those feel-good experiences.

Social Media Boosts Self-Esteem

Social media also can boost self-esteem , especially if a person is viewed favorably online or gets a number of likes or interactions on their content. And social media allows some people to share parts of their identity that may be challenging to communicate in person.

Social media can be particularly helpful for people with social anxiety who struggle to interact with people in person.

Despite the above benefits, researchers are discovering that there are some downsides to social media, particularly with regard to mental health.

Social Media Use May Contribute to Depression

For a technology that's supposed to bring people closer together, it can have the opposite effect—especially when disagreements erupt online. Social media has been linked to depression , anxiety, and loneliness. It can make people feel isolated and alone.

One 2017 study found that young people who use social media more than two hours per day are much more likely to categorize their mental health as fair or poor compared to occasional social media users.

A large-scale study of young adults in the U.S. found that occasional users of social media are three times less likely to experience symptoms of depression than heavy users.

Social Media May Hurt Your Self-Esteem

While social media can sometimes be a self-esteem booster, it can also cause you to experience feelings of inadequacy about your life and your appearance. Even if you know that the images you see online are manipulated or represent someone else's highlight reel, they can still cause feelings of insecurity, envy, and dissatisfaction.

Fear of Missing Out

Another mental health phenomenon associated with social media is what is known as FOMO , or the "fear of missing out." Social media sites like Facebook and Instagram exacerbate the fear that you're missing something or that other people are living a better life than you are.

In extreme cases, FOMO can cause you to become tethered to your phone where you are constantly checking for updates or responding to every single alert.

Social Media Can Lead to Self-Absorption

Sharing endless selfies as well as your innermost thoughts on social media can create an unhealthy self-centeredness that causes you to focus on crafting your online image rather than making memories with your friends and family members in real life.

In fact, strenuous efforts to engage in impression management or get external validation can have psychological costs, especially if the approval you're seeking is never received. Ultimately, the lack of positive feedback online can lead to self-doubt and self-hatred .

Impulse Control Issues

Excessive social media use can lead to impulse control issues , especially if you access your social networks using a smartphone. This means that you have round-the-clock access to your accounts, which not only makes it easy for you always to be connected, but can affect your concentration and focus. It can even disturb your sleep and compromise your in-person relationships.

Social Media May Be Used As an Unhealthy Coping Mechanism

Social media can become an unhealthy way of coping with uncomfortable feelings or emotions . For instance, if you turn to social media when you're feeling down, lonely, or bored, you're potentially using it as a way to distract you from unpleasant feelings.

Ultimately, social media is a poor way to self-soothe, especially because perusing social media can often make you feel worse instead of better.

Press Play For Advice on Reducing Screen Time

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares effective ways to reduce screen time. Click below to listen now.

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Because everyone is different, there is no set amount of time spent on social media that is recommended. Instead, you need to evaluate how your social media use is impacting your life, including how you feel when you don't use social media as well as how you feel after using it.

A 2018 University of Pennsylvania study suggests that self-monitoring can change one's perception of social media. According to the lead researcher, psychologist Melissa G. Hunt, PhD, using social media less than you normally do, can lead to significant decreases in loneliness and depression. By using self-monitoring and making adjustments, people can significantly improve their overall well-being.

Social Media Distracts You

If you find that your social media use is impacting your relationships or is distracting you from work or school, it may be problematic. Additionally, if scrolling through social media leaves you feeling envious, depressed, anxious, or angry, then you need to re-evaluate your use.

It could be that you need to detox from social media and spend some time offline in order to safeguard your mental health.

You Use Social Media to Avoid Negative Emotions

Social media also could be an issue if you tend to use it to fight boredom or to deal with loneliness. Although these feelings are uncomfortable and it's only natural to want to alleviate them, turning to social media for comfort or as a distraction is not a healthy way to cope with difficult feelings and emotions.

As a result, it may be time for you to reassess your social media habits. Here are some additional signs that social media may be having a negative impact on your life and your mental health:

• Your symptoms of anxiety, depression, and loneliness are increasing.
• You are spending more time on social media than with your real-world friends and family members.
• You tend to compare yourself unfavorably with others on social media or you find that are your frequently jealous of others.
• You are being trolled or cyberbullied by others online.
• You are engaging in risky behaviors or taking outrageous photos in order to gain likes.
• Your work obligations, family life, or school work is suffering because of the time you spend on social media.
• You have little time for self-care activities like mindfulness , self-reflection, exercise, and sleep.

If you're spending a significant amount of time on social media and you're beginning to notice feelings of sadness, dissatisfaction, frustration, and loneliness that are impacting your life and your relationships, it may be time to re-evaluate your online habits.

If you find that even after adjusting your social media use, you're still experiencing symptoms of depression or anxiety, it's important to talk with your healthcare provider so that you can be evaluated. With proper treatment, you will soon be feeling better.

If you or a loved one are struggling with [condition name], contact the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline at 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database .

Pew Research Center. Social media fact sheet .

Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Social media use and mental health among students in Ontario . CAMH Population Studies eBulletin . 2018;19(2).

Lin LY, Sidani JE, Shensa A, et al. Association between social media use and depression among U.S. young adults . Depress Anxiety . 2016;33(4):323-31. doi:10.1002/da.22466.

Chou H-TG, Edge N. “They are happier and having better lives than i am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives .  Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw . 2012;15(2):117-121. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0324

Hunt MG, Marx R, Lipson C, Young J. No more FOMO: limiting social media decreases loneliness and depression . J Soc Clin Psychol . 2018;37(10):751-768. doi:10.1521/jscp.2018.37.10.751

Karim F, Oyewande AA, Abdalla LF, Chaudhry Ehsanullah R, Khan S. Social media use and its connection to mental health: a systematic review .  Cureus . 2020;12(6):e8627. doi:10.7759/cureus.8627

Pantic I. Online social networking and mental health .  Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw . 2014;17(10):652-657. doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0070

By Sherri Gordon Sherri Gordon, CLC is a published author, certified professional life coach, and bullying prevention expert. She's also the former editor of Columbus Parent and has countless years of experience writing and researching health and social issues.

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Science News

Social media harms teens’ mental health, mounting evidence shows. what now.

Understanding what is going on in teens’ minds is necessary for targeted policy suggestions

Most teens use social media, often for hours on end. Some social scientists are confident that such use is harming their mental health. Now they want to pinpoint what explains the link.

Carol Yepes/Getty Images

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By Sujata Gupta

February 20, 2024 at 7:30 am

In January, Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of Facebook’s parent company Meta, appeared at a congressional hearing to answer questions about how social media potentially harms children. Zuckerberg opened by saying: “The existing body of scientific work has not shown a causal link between using social media and young people having worse mental health.”

But many social scientists would disagree with that statement. In recent years, studies have started to show a causal link between teen social media use and reduced well-being or mood disorders, chiefly depression and anxiety.

Ironically, one of the most cited studies into this link focused on Facebook.

Researchers delved into whether the platform’s introduction across college campuses in the mid 2000s increased symptoms associated with depression and anxiety. The answer was a clear yes , says MIT economist Alexey Makarin, a coauthor of the study, which appeared in the November 2022 American Economic Review . “There is still a lot to be explored,” Makarin says, but “[to say] there is no causal evidence that social media causes mental health issues, to that I definitely object.”

The concern, and the studies, come from statistics showing that social media use in teens ages 13 to 17 is now almost ubiquitous. Two-thirds of teens report using TikTok, and some 60 percent of teens report using Instagram or Snapchat, a 2022 survey found. (Only 30 percent said they used Facebook.) Another survey showed that girls, on average, allot roughly 3.4 hours per day to TikTok, Instagram and Facebook, compared with roughly 2.1 hours among boys. At the same time, more teens are showing signs of depression than ever, especially girls ( SN: 6/30/23 ).

As more studies show a strong link between these phenomena, some researchers are starting to shift their attention to possible mechanisms. Why does social media use seem to trigger mental health problems? Why are those effects unevenly distributed among different groups, such as girls or young adults? And can the positives of social media be teased out from the negatives to provide more targeted guidance to teens, their caregivers and policymakers?

“You can’t design good public policy if you don’t know why things are happening,” says Scott Cunningham, an economist at Baylor University in Waco, Texas.

Increasing rigor

Concerns over the effects of social media use in children have been circulating for years, resulting in a massive body of scientific literature. But those mostly correlational studies could not show if teen social media use was harming mental health or if teens with mental health problems were using more social media.

Moreover, the findings from such studies were often inconclusive, or the effects on mental health so small as to be inconsequential. In one study that received considerable media attention, psychologists Amy Orben and Andrew Przybylski combined data from three surveys to see if they could find a link between technology use, including social media, and reduced well-being. The duo gauged the well-being of over 355,000 teenagers by focusing on questions around depression, suicidal thinking and self-esteem.

Digital technology use was associated with a slight decrease in adolescent well-being , Orben, now of the University of Cambridge, and Przybylski, of the University of Oxford, reported in 2019 in Nature Human Behaviour . But the duo downplayed that finding, noting that researchers have observed similar drops in adolescent well-being associated with drinking milk, going to the movies or eating potatoes.

Holes have begun to appear in that narrative thanks to newer, more rigorous studies.

In one longitudinal study, researchers — including Orben and Przybylski — used survey data on social media use and well-being from over 17,400 teens and young adults to look at how individuals’ responses to a question gauging life satisfaction changed between 2011 and 2018. And they dug into how the responses varied by gender, age and time spent on social media.

Social media use was associated with a drop in well-being among teens during certain developmental periods, chiefly puberty and young adulthood, the team reported in 2022 in Nature Communications . That translated to lower well-being scores around ages 11 to 13 for girls and ages 14 to 15 for boys. Both groups also reported a drop in well-being around age 19. Moreover, among the older teens, the team found evidence for the Goldilocks Hypothesis: the idea that both too much and too little time spent on social media can harm mental health.

“There’s hardly any effect if you look over everybody. But if you look at specific age groups, at particularly what [Orben] calls ‘windows of sensitivity’ … you see these clear effects,” says L.J. Shrum, a consumer psychologist at HEC Paris who was not involved with this research. His review of studies related to teen social media use and mental health is forthcoming in the Journal of the Association for Consumer Research.

Cause and effect

That longitudinal study hints at causation, researchers say. But one of the clearest ways to pin down cause and effect is through natural or quasi-experiments. For these in-the-wild experiments, researchers must identify situations where the rollout of a societal “treatment” is staggered across space and time. They can then compare outcomes among members of the group who received the treatment to those still in the queue — the control group.

That was the approach Makarin and his team used in their study of Facebook. The researchers homed in on the staggered rollout of Facebook across 775 college campuses from 2004 to 2006. They combined that rollout data with student responses to the National College Health Assessment, a widely used survey of college students’ mental and physical health.

The team then sought to understand if those survey questions captured diagnosable mental health problems. Specifically, they had roughly 500 undergraduate students respond to questions both in the National College Health Assessment and in validated screening tools for depression and anxiety. They found that mental health scores on the assessment predicted scores on the screenings. That suggested that a drop in well-being on the college survey was a good proxy for a corresponding increase in diagnosable mental health disorders. 

Compared with campuses that had not yet gained access to Facebook, college campuses with Facebook experienced a 2 percentage point increase in the number of students who met the diagnostic criteria for anxiety or depression, the team found.

When it comes to showing a causal link between social media use in teens and worse mental health, “that study really is the crown jewel right now,” says Cunningham, who was not involved in that research.

A need for nuance

The social media landscape today is vastly different than the landscape of 20 years ago. Facebook is now optimized for maximum addiction, Shrum says, and other newer platforms, such as Snapchat, Instagram and TikTok, have since copied and built on those features. Paired with the ubiquity of social media in general, the negative effects on mental health may well be larger now.

Moreover, social media research tends to focus on young adults — an easier cohort to study than minors. That needs to change, Cunningham says. “Most of us are worried about our high school kids and younger.” 

And so, researchers must pivot accordingly. Crucially, simple comparisons of social media users and nonusers no longer make sense. As Orben and Przybylski’s 2022 work suggested, a teen not on social media might well feel worse than one who briefly logs on. 

Researchers must also dig into why, and under what circumstances, social media use can harm mental health, Cunningham says. Explanations for this link abound. For instance, social media is thought to crowd out other activities or increase people’s likelihood of comparing themselves unfavorably with others. But big data studies, with their reliance on existing surveys and statistical analyses, cannot address those deeper questions. “These kinds of papers, there’s nothing you can really ask … to find these plausible mechanisms,” Cunningham says.

One ongoing effort to understand social media use from this more nuanced vantage point is the SMART Schools project out of the University of Birmingham in England. Pedagogical expert Victoria Goodyear and her team are comparing mental and physical health outcomes among children who attend schools that have restricted cell phone use to those attending schools without such a policy. The researchers described the protocol of that study of 30 schools and over 1,000 students in the July BMJ Open.

Goodyear and colleagues are also combining that natural experiment with qualitative research. They met with 36 five-person focus groups each consisting of all students, all parents or all educators at six of those schools. The team hopes to learn how students use their phones during the day, how usage practices make students feel, and what the various parties think of restrictions on cell phone use during the school day.

Talking to teens and those in their orbit is the best way to get at the mechanisms by which social media influences well-being — for better or worse, Goodyear says. Moving beyond big data to this more personal approach, however, takes considerable time and effort. “Social media has increased in pace and momentum very, very quickly,” she says. “And research takes a long time to catch up with that process.”

Until that catch-up occurs, though, researchers cannot dole out much advice. “What guidance could we provide to young people, parents and schools to help maintain the positives of social media use?” Goodyear asks. “There’s not concrete evidence yet.”

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Does social media impact mental health? What we really know

Over the last 20 years, social media has risen from relative obscurity to become a fully accepted and integrated part of everyday life. However, despite social media’s ubiquity, the research on how it affects mental health remains inconclusive.

So far, most research investigating the effects of social media on mental health has focused on the potential negative aspects.

For instance, a 2019 study involving 6,595 teenagers from the United States concludes that those who spend more than 3 hours per day on social media may have a higher risk of mental health problems than those who do not.

But the degree to which social media actually harms mental health is debatable. A recent review, available as a preprint , found that most studies investigating the link between social media and mental health demonstrate “weak” or “inconsistent” associations.

Another review found that while there may be a small negative association between social media use and mental health, the link is complex and depends on exactly how researchers define mental health and social media use.

Meanwhile, other research suggests that social media may even benefit mental health, especially for people belonging to LGBTQIA+ communities and those living with mental health conditions.

These conflicting findings make it challenging to navigate the research investigating the effects of social media on mental health and how best to use social media. With this in mind, Medical News Today sought the input of seven psychology experts at the intersection of social media and mental health.

‘We simply don’t know about cause and effect’

“One promising area of research is the role of online peer networks, where it appears that connecting online with others who share similar mental health challenges can offer important benefits for feeling less alone, learning coping skills, and being able to offer/receive emotional or informational support from others,” Dr. John Naslund, Ph.D. , an instructor in global health and social medicine at Harvard Medical School, told MNT.

Dr. Niklas Johannes , a postdoctoral researcher in the Adolescent Well-Being in the Digital Age program at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom, agreed that social media might be linked to some mental health benefits. However, he added that more research is necessary to confirm the direction in which this connection lies.

“There’s a lot of research out there that suggests social media are a useful tool to stay connected to others. In fact, those who use social media more also report feeling more social support. However, all of this comes with a huge caveat: We simply don’t know about cause and effect. It’s just as plausible that heavy social media users make more friends or that those with a lot of friends use more social media. It’s also plausible that both are true,” he explained.

Other research suggests that “how” a person uses social media rather than “how much” may have a stronger association with mental health outcomes.

“There is evidence that routine social media use in the general population is positively associated with mental health and social well-being, as long as one is not ’emotionally invested’ in the media, in which case the outcomes are negative,” Dan-Mircea Mirea , a doctoral candidate in psychology at Princeton University, and project coordinator at Mental Health for Romania, told MNT.

Dr. Gonneke Stevens , associate professor of social and behavioral sciences at Utrecht University in the Netherlands, agreed that “emotional investment” in social media use may be more indicative of mental health outcomes than how much a person uses it.

“[O]ur research suggests that not so much the intense use of social media, but social media use problems — that is, addiction-like symptoms such as feeling bad when social media use is restricted, loss of control over and preoccupation with social media, and conflicts with others because of the social media use — are associated with mental health problems.” – Dr. Gonneke Stevens

“Indeed, we found that social media use problems predicted increases in mental health problems 1 year later — this was true for both depressive symptoms and ADHD [attention deficit hyperactivity disorder] symptoms,” she added.

Social media and mental health risk factors

“For children and teens, I think the most compelling evidence is the research regarding cyberbullying on social media,” said Dr. Kya Barounis , a senior mental health researcher at the University of California, San Diego. “Cyberbullying is associated with symptoms of depression and suicidality. It may be a particular problem for youth who identify as sexual or gender minorities.”

Dr. Barounis also noted that social media use could displace other behaviors, such as sleep and exercise, which are “important for maintaining good mental health.” Researchers study this process through what is known as “ displacement theory .”

To give an example, she said: “If a youth is staying up late each night on social media and not getting enough sleep, the lack of sleep can lead to feelings of irritability or depressed mood the next day.”

She cautioned, however, that this does not mean that social media use causes mental health conditions, noting that the relationship between chronic sleep problems and clinical depression in youth is complicated.

Dr. Naslund agreed that social media can perpetuate “targeted hate from others” or cyberbullying, which can have a negative effect.

He added that although research related to social media and mental health is generally mixed, “exposure to hateful content online — such as viewing or being targeted by derogatory content targeting race, ethnicity, or gender — is associated with poorer mental health and feelings of distress.”

Questionable data

Beyond the risk of cyberbullying and exposure to hate content, others say that it is important to interpret with caution any studies related to more generalized social media use because they are often based on unreliable data.

“There are multiple observational studies that find that social media use is negatively associated with mental health,” said Mirea.

“However,” he added, “there are also studies looking at similar datasets, or sometimes the same dataset with different methods, that find no effect. One study found only small negative associations between mental health and using digital/electronic technologies, including social media — about as large as regularly eating potatoes!”

“It seems that the conclusions are very much affected by how researchers analyze their data, which makes it hard to draw a concrete conclusion about to what extent social media has negative effects on mental health. A plausible explanation for these unclear findings is that social media use affects some people more and others less.” – Dan-Mircea Mirea

To give an example of how difficult it can be to interpret studies on the mental health effects of social media, Dr. Craig Sewall , a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Pittsburgh, told MNT :

“The strongest evidence indicating that social media can have negative effects on mental health — that I am aware of — comes from a randomized experiment that examined the impact of Facebook deactivation on well-being among a large sample of U.S. adults. This study found that, overall, the group that deactivated their Facebook account experienced increased levels of subjective well-being compared with the group that did not.”

“However, there are a couple of important limitations to this study. First, the ‘treatment effect’ — that is, the effect of deactivating Facebook — was very small. Second, the sample of participants was older, so it’s not clear how these results would apply to younger people,” Dr. Sewall noted.

“And, finally, it’s unclear whether the effects observed for deactivating Facebook would be consistent across other social media platforms, as there are many differences between Facebook and TikTok, for example.”

Best to look at the different aspects of social media separately

For some people, it is also difficult to establish whether social media has positive or negative effects on mental health because it is unclear to which platform or platforms the terms “social media” refer.

Dr. Jacob T. Fisher , assistant professor at the Institute of Communications Research and the College of Media at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, told MNT :

“I just don’t really know that we have compelling evidence for ‘social media,’ in a general sense, having adverse effects on mental health. ‘Social media,’ as a descriptor, covers a vast range of platforms and services, each of which is very different from one another, enabling and incentivizing very different sorts of behaviors. To add to this, both social media platforms and how people use social media have changed drastically over the years.”

“In this sense,” he said, “trying to define the ‘effect [of] social media on well-being’ is a lot like trying to determine the ‘effect of food on health’ — the question is so broad so as to be essentially unanswerable.”

“In my opinion,” Dr. Fisher added, “a better approach would be to break apart the different features and design decisions that comprise social media platforms — how information is presented, how the algorithm amplifies or suppresses content, the behavioral engineering involved in how a platform solicits (or even demands) our attention — and start to investigate the influence of those things on well-being.”

“A central issue here is that social media platforms refuse to share data that can begin to answer these questions with researchers like my colleagues and me,” he explained.

Caution when interpreting research 

“There are two completely different stories being told about the effects of social media on well-being,” said Dr. Sewall. “In the popular media — where the vast majority of people get their information on this subject — the story is often some version of ‘social media is bad, especially for younger people.'”

Yet, he cautioned, “[t]he evidence cited in these popular media pieces is often cherry-picked, oversimplified, and overinterpreted — giving the impression to readers that social media causes harm to well-being.”

“On the other hand, in the scientific literature — which has a much smaller, niche readership — the story is much more complicated . The fundamental complexity of the issue combined with a litany of methodological issues and contradictory findings make it difficult, if not impossible, to conclude anything with confidence,” Dr. Sewall added.

“If anything, our best evidence to date suggests that social media does not have a meaningful impact on well-being. However, this story — that it’s very complicated, and there’s a lot we don’t know — does not generate many clicks,” he explained.

Dr. Barounis added that much research on the topic is based on people having symptoms of mental health issues, as opposed to receiving a formal diagnosis. “It’s really important to distinguish between symptoms of mental health problems versus a diagnosis of a mental health problem,” he explained. “One can have a few symptoms without having a full diagnosis. So far, a lot of researchers have examined the relationship between social media use and symptoms of depression or anxiety (as measured on a survey) in typically developing youth.”

“It is a mistake to interpret a positive relationship in these studies’ results as evidence that social media use causes youth to meet all of the criteria for a diagnosis of clinical anxiety or depression. Also, there is a measurement issue. Self-reports of time spent on social media may not be very accurate,” she explained.

To help navigate through exaggerated claims and confusing literature, Mirea recommended four points to bear in mind when looking into the link between social media and mental health:

• Follow trustworthy sources (academic journals or trusted outlets ) : You shouldn’t have to play the detective every time you see a scientific claim. Fortunately, if your sources are reputable, most of the work is being done for you.
• Avoid clickbait-sounding headlines: Good reporting would never trade accuracy for the prospect of attracting your attention. Also, be cautious if an article uses words that a scientist (especially one in the social or clinical sciences) would never use — such as that something is “a fact” or that they “proved” something.
• Be wary of ideological content [and] your own biases: Ask yourself: “Do I want this to be true, or the opposite?” If so, then be extra careful when assessing the information.
• Ask an expert friend, if you have one: If you’re in doubt about the scientific aspects of a claim and you’re not sure how to assess it, think of someone you know that might be able to help (such as someone that majored in that field in college — e.g., biosciences for COVID-19 studies or psychology for mental health studies).

Social media use for better mental health

Dr. Barounis recommended that parents or caregivers of children and adolescents “talk with their children about cyberbullying and take steps to address it if it is occurring.”

She further explained: “Parents can also monitor their child’s use to see if it is displacing healthier behaviors, like sleep and exercise. Simple steps, like limiting use before bedtime and charging mobile devices outside the bedroom, can help prevent social media use from disrupting sleep.”

“In terms of the pandemic, parents should remind youth that a lot of their friends and followers on social media may be feeling slightly anxious or depressed during these uncertain times. Youth can support these friends and followers by refraining from posting content that could be misinterpreted in a negative way (i.e., a joking comment in reaction to someone’s post that might come across as mean-spirited) or content that could increase anxiety.” – Dr. Kya Barounis

Due to a lack of consensus on whether and how social media relates to mental health, some experts say that it is difficult to make specific recommendations.

“Unfortunately, the scientific evidence isn’t strong enough to make specific recommendations,” said Dr. Johannes. “I’d advise, just like with any other activity, to observe what’s good for the user. If I feel like I’m comparing myself with others and it isn’t good for me, then take more breaks and maybe focus on different functions of social media. If I feel lonely and know that going on social media makes me feel connected, go for it. It’s rather obvious advice, I’m afraid.”

For others, using social media with an intention clearly in mind is key to avoiding getting swept up in any of its potentially harmful effects — from wasting time to damaging mental well-being.

“I’d suggest that the best way for people to use social media is to use it intentionally ,” said Dr. Fisher. “Like lots of big businesses, social media platforms frequently incentivize mindlessness on the part of their users because it makes it easier for them to make money (both from showing you advertisements and collecting more data about you).”

“Curate who you follow, how much time you spend on the platform(s), etc., and do your best to cultivate a healthy relationship with the platforms you use,” he added.

“Something that is becoming clear from recent studies is that the effects of social media, or certain aspects of social media use, can differ significantly from person to person,” said Dr. Sewall. “So, there’s no one-size-fits-all approach.”

“However, in general, I’d say the best way to use social media is to make sure you are getting out of it what you are intending. That is, if you are intending to use social media as a way to stay connected with others, or as a form of entertainment, or whatever, try to be mindful about whether the way you are using social media in that instance is helping you meet that intention,” he concluded.

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Social Media and Mental Health Essay

The role of social media in people’s lives has increased exponentially over the past decade. The online personas that people create matter to them nearly just as much as their real-life image due to the constant communication and the opportunity to track down their responses to specific posts at any time. As a result, the impact of social media on the mental well-being of its users is worth considering. Sumner et al. point to the positive effects of social media, clarifying that the specified technological innovation can be used as the tool for improving mental health of its users. Namely, the research states that social media allows spreading useful and positive information about health-related issues much faster than traditional media. As a result, the opportunities for increasing the levels of public health and addressing some of the most common public health issues emerge.

The connection between the positivity of a message and its reception in social media is a crucial piece of information that needs to be incorporated into the current approach toward increasing the levels of public health, citizens’ health literacy, and the accessibility of health services. Namely, the conclusions that Sumner et al. make concerning the direct correlation between the positivity of a message and the likelihood of it being transmitted to a greater number of people should be used as the tool fro encouraging better health management: “Sheer volume of supportive content provided by produced by organizations or individuals may be less important than creating higher-quality messages” (p. 143). Thus, the conclusion that the authors provide should be used to enhance the efficacy and accessibility of the current health services.

One could argue that the general research outcomes should be seen as quite upsetting given the implications that they provide. Namely, the fact that the work of health professionals, who perform meticulous studies and arrange the data as carefully as possible to provide accurate and concise guidelines may be less important than an upbeat yet empty message is a rather sad idea. The specified conclusions may lead to a drop in the extent of health practitioners’ and nurse educators’ enthusiasm in providing the services of the highest quality.

However, the message that Sumner et al. convey could also be seen as an opportunity for enhancing health education and raising health literacy within the community by building a better rapport with its members. Namely, the data about the significance of the use of positivity in social networks as the tool for attracting the attention of patients and target audiences should be utilized to shape the current approach toward promoting health literacy. Specifically, healthcare practitioners and registered nurses, especially those that address the issues of patient education directly, need to create the strategy for the online conversation with patients through social media. The specified dialogue could be based on a combination of positive messages and clear visuals that inform patients about key issues in health management and provide them with an opportunity to improve their health literacy.

Additionally, the authors have provided an important tool for the development of a campaign aimed at public health management and improvement. Namely, based on the outcomes of the research carried out by Sumner et al. have informed the strategies for improving communication between patients and nurse educators. The specified change in how people perceive health management is especially important in the context of the present-day epidemic of coronavirus. Given the rapid spread of the epidemic and its recent transformation into the pandemic, reinforcing the instructions for people to remain safe is an essential task for APRNs and healthcare experts worldwide. In turn, the application of social media suits perfectly for the described purpose since it allows sharing information instantly and providing people with clear and concise guidelines for them to follow. Although social media mostly do not allow for detailed descriptions of specific health concerns and profound analysis of these issues, they serve their purpose of bulletin boards with clear and distinct guidelines that the members of the global community can apply to their daily routine.

Specifically, the use of positive messages in social media will reinforce the importance of guidelines and ensuring that people will follow them properly. For instance, Sumner et al. mention that the use of social networks has helped to promote social sharing. As the authors explain, “In topic areas such as cancer support, investigators found that the degree of positive sentiment in a message is associated with increased message spread” (Summer et al, p. 143). Therefore, the inclusion of positive thinking and positive emotions into the process of knowledge sharing enhances the extent to which people are willing to engage in the discussion. Moreover, the rise in the inclination to share a message that is positive will allow fighting some of the most severe health concerns that the global community is facing presently, primarily, the coronavirus.

Furthermore, the discussion sparked by the authors raises the question of inaccurate health-related information in social media and the means of filtering data. Indeed, for an uninitiated user of social media, discerning between accurate health-related information and the posts that reinforce health-associated myths is virtually impossible. Although some indicators such as the identity of the user posting the information could provide hints regarding the veracity of data, social media users have to rely on their intuition for the most part. Therefore, it is also critical for nurses to develop strategies for shielding social media users from the data that provides a distorted picture of health management.

Finally, the issue of addressing serious health concerns in social media should be discussed as a contentious subject. Given the outcomes of the research performed by Summer et al., it is critical to focus on delivering positive messages to target audiences to increase compliance with the established health management strategies. However, when tackling a serious health concern that has led or may potentially lead to a rapid rise in lethal outcomes, remaining positive becomes quite challenging. Not only will a message sound false in the specified circumstances, but it is also likely to be perceived in a negative light due to the dissonance between the subject matter and the tone of its delivery. Therefore, the outcomes of the study pose a difficult dilemma for educators and healthcare providers to resolve when addressing their target audiences via social media. Namely, retaining positivity while talking about serious issues is likely to become a major stumbling block for most healthcare service members.

The outcomes of the study performed by Summer et al. have offered a range of important insights, the significance of positivity in modern media as the means of encouraging citizens to accept healthy behaviors being one of the key conclusions. However, to apply the specified results to the management of current public health concerns, one will have to shape the existing framework for communicating with patients significantly. Therefore, the research should be seen as the basis for redesigning the present health education strategy, as well as the approach toward conversing with patients.

Sumner, Steven A., et al. “Factors Associated with Increased Dissemination of Positive Mental Health Messaging on Social Media.” Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention , vol. 41, no. 2, 2019, pp. 141-145. doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000598.

• The Importance of Positivity at Work and in Life
• Social Darwinism Through the History
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• Self-Disclosure and Social Media
• Social Media Satirical Cartoon by M. Wuerker
• “Westside Today” and “Gazette Newspapers”: Comparative Characteristics
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IvyPanda. (2022, February 17). Social Media and Mental Health. https://ivypanda.com/essays/social-media-and-mental-health/

"Social Media and Mental Health." IvyPanda , 17 Feb. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/social-media-and-mental-health/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Social Media and Mental Health'. 17 February.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Social Media and Mental Health." February 17, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/social-media-and-mental-health/.

1. IvyPanda . "Social Media and Mental Health." February 17, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/social-media-and-mental-health/.

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Is the Internet bad for you? Huge study reveals surprise effect on well-being

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A global, 16-year study 1 of 2.4 million people has found that Internet use might boost measures of well-being, such as life satisfaction and sense of purpose — challenging the commonly held idea that Internet use has negative effects on people’s welfare.

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New Report From Common Sense Media and Hopelab Reveals How Social Media Can Both Help and Harm Mental Health in Young People from Diverse Communities

Findings show that youth from marginalized communities use social media for mental health support but it also creates a challenging environment that requires them to take steps to protect themselves

SAN FRANCISCO, May 21, 2024 —Today, Common Sense Media and Hopelab released a comprehensive research report detailing the role that social media plays in young people's mental health. "A Double-Edged Sword: How Diverse Communities of Young People Think About the Multifaceted Relationship Between Social Media and Mental Health" found that, while levels of depression have returned to pre-pandemic levels, young people are still encountering harmful content on social media and using curation tools or taking breaks to strike a healthy balance.

One of the major findings from the report revealed that for Black, Latino, and LGBTQ+ youth, social media is a vital source of connection, news, and inspiration, and that they are more likely to take active steps to navigate its specific challenges in comparison to their white and non-LGBTQ+ peers.

"One of the key learnings from this report is that the experiences of young people on social media are incredibly varied, and different groups may have different levels of susceptibility to the negatives of these platforms," said Amanda Lenhart, Head of Research at Common Sense Media . "This research surfaces the voices of diverse young people on a complex topic that demands national attention and a thoughtful approach from companies that build these platforms."

The report is the third in a series that tracks the role of social media in how young people ages 14-22 support their mental health and well-being. Conducted by NORC at the University of Chicago, the study was uniquely co-created with young people themselves, who not only provided direction and input regarding survey content but also worked with the research team to prioritize and interpret results through focus groups and individual interviews. It takes a deep dive into the differences in experiences between teens (ages 14-17) and young adults (ages 18-22), variations across racial and ethnic groups, and comparisons among those who identify as LGBTQ+ and those who do not.

"Most conversations and headlines surrounding social media and youth mental focus solely on the harms, portraying young people as passive consumers. This research shows that it's much more complex. Many acknowledge and take actions to minimize the harmful parts of social media, while also describing social media as an important and positive aspect of their lives," said Amy Green , Head of Research at Hopelab . "If we truly want to improve the well-being of young people, we need to listen to their experiences and ensure that we do not inadvertently remove access to crucial positive benefits, particularly among Black, Latino, and LGBTQ+ young people."

Building upon data trends from prior surveys released in 2018 and 2021 , key findings from the 2024 report include:

• Social connection: While pandemic-era social isolation has ended, young people continue to highly value social media for social connection and self-expression. Nearly three-fourths of LGBTQ+ youth surveyed (74%) said social media platforms were especially valuable for combating feelings of loneliness.
• Information access: Both Black and Latino young people are more likely to indicate social media is important for finding information or resources about mental health or well-being than their white peers (64% Black and 59% Latino vs. 44% white).
• Pressing pause: Young people are actively managing their social media consumption by taking temporary (63%) and permanent breaks (41%) from a social media account so that they would not be tempted to spend so much time on it, and three-quarters (76%) of young people are putting measures in place to try to control what they see on social media with 67% "curating their feed" by spending more time on specific types of content or liking posts, challenging the stereotype that they're passive consumers of social content.
• State of mind matters : 64% of young people with moderate to severe depressive symptoms indicate that when they use social media, they feel as if others' lives are better than theirs, compared to 38% of those with no symptoms.

More details on the methodology and a copy of the full report and findings can be downloaded at www.commonsense.org/youth-perspectives-social-media-mental-health .

About Common Sense

Common Sense is the nation's leading nonprofit organization dedicated to improving the lives of kids and families by providing the trustworthy information, education, and independent voice they need to thrive in the 21st century. Learn more at commonsense.org

About Hopelab

Hopelab is a transformative social innovation lab and impact investor working to support the mental well-being of adolescents, ages 10-25, especially BIPOC and LGBTQ+ youth. Through targeted social impact investments, youth-centered design and research support, and translational science partnerships, the organization leverages 20+ years of co-creation experience to influence systems change while centering health equity. Learn more at hopelab.org .

Gen Z, Social Media, and Mental Health

A generation raised on the internet is feeling its effects, navigating algorithms, and forging community.

By Shelby Crosier

Years of growing youth mental health concerns came to a head during the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, the American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and Children’s Hospital Association declared a National State of Emergency in Children’s Mental Health in 2021. However, a mental health crisis was beginning in young people long before the pandemic began.

“There was an inflection point starting between 2010 and 2012 where we started seeing spiking levels of everything,” says Benjamin Druss, MD , professor and Rosalynn Carter Chair in Mental Health in the Department of Health Policy and Management. “From reports of feeling lonely and left out, to depressive symptoms, to rising rates of diagnosed and treated anxiety and depression.”

Since 2011, the number of high school-aged youth (12- to 17-years-old) experiencing depressive symptoms—like sadness or hopelessness—considering suicide, and attempting suicide has gone up . In 2021, almost one third of high school students had experienced poor mental health within the past month. Concerningly, there are large disparities in this trend, with female, LGBTQ+, and  racial and ethnic minority youth being more likely to experience poor mental health.

The youth mental health crisis has, in many ways, fallen onto the shoulders of Generation Z. Defined by Pew Research Center as anyone born between 1997 and roughly 2012 (putting them between 12 and 27 years old), this generation has almost always been exposed to mobile devices, high speed Wi-Fi, social media, and an internet landscape that allows for constant connectedness—for better or for worse.

Rising Time Online, Rising Mental Health Concerns

Overall use of all social media sites has risen in the last decade , and youth are the most likely to use YouTube, TikTok, Snapchat, and Instagram. Members of Gen Z in particular are more likely than older generations to spend more time on social media daily , and a third of teenagers use at least one site almost constantly .

A growing body of research shows that this level of near-constant social media and internet use negatively impacts youth mental health. For example, one study showed that youth who spend over 3 hours each day on social media are at higher risk for mental health problems . According to a 2023 U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory on social media and youth mental health , some of the major concerns that come with social media use are sleep loss, cyberbullying and harassment, body image issues and disordered eating behaviors, and depressive symptoms.

“A lot of youth say that social media is too much for them, but often this realization comes after significant negative experiences. They only see it once it’s really harmful to them,” says Dean M. Daniele Fallin, PhD . Some of this harm, according to the Surgeon General’s Advisory, could stem from exposure to harmful content, from influencers who encourage physical and social comparison, to violent and explicit material.

Algorithms and features built into digital platforms to maximize user engagement are another important factor in the mental health harms of social media. This fact is mentioned in the Surgeon General’s Advisory and emphasized by Janet Cummings, PhD , professor of health policy and management.

“These algorithms are developed to hold our attention and drive ad revenue,” says Cummings. “If what’s holding our attention online is something that creates or exacerbates loneliness, depression, or anxiety, those could get ramped up by increased engagement with these platforms.”

It is no wonder, then, that Gen Zers are more likely than their older counterparts to report feeling negative mental health effects from social media use.

“Social media is like a vector of contagion where things get magnified and amplified,” says Druss. “Once there is some bad feeling, it just tends to get bounced around and amplified in a way that it wouldn’t in real-life interactions.”

Finding Connection and Community Online

Social media can also have positive impacts on young people. It often provides an avenue for youth to find community and connection with others . This can be especially important for LGBTQ+ youth, who often use social media to connect with and support each other.

Some young people also find that online spaces positively affect their mental health by allowing them to be creative and build communities around their creative output. Sarah Timbie, an MPH student in global environmental health at Rollins and self-identified member of Gen Z, runs an online jewelry business and “does a lot of arts and crafts” in her free time.

“A huge positive impact [of social media] for me has been having an artistic community,” she shares. “Social media can be really helpful for people who are starting out in a new hobby or project. People can be super positive and encouraging about the growth of new artists, and they love giving tips.”

According to Druss, social media may also play a role in increasing conversations about mental health.

“Social media has helped facilitate more openness in discussing mental health problems among young people. That may help reduce stigma and get more people into treatment,” he says.

Where Do We Go from Here?

To improve youth mental health outcomes, especially as they relate to social media and internet usage, it is important to build a strong base of evidence about the impacts and potential solutions. However, there are currently several gaps in our knowledge.

“Many people have the sense that social media can be bad. And there has been some research, particularly around body image and girls that shows this to be true, but there is a lot of research that hasn’t been done,” says Fallin. “The [Surgeon General’s] report highlighted that some of the major social media companies have not been cooperative in sharing data with researchers, so it is very hard to do this research when you are limited by access. While we can work on that front to push for data access, we need also to think of other ways to get this kind of research done, because we simply don’t have a strong evidence base.”

There is also a need for research about what interventions may be the most effective in combatting the negative effects of social media. For Cummings, that means focusing on education and strategies to improve digital literacy.

“If this issue is going to be tackled, there needs to be an education component, and it needs to start young,” says Cummings. “We need an evidence base about how to do it well.”

Associated Topics:

• Mental Health
• Health Disparities
• Health Policy and Management
• Rollins News
• In the Media
• Rollins Experts

Show and tell: Creating guidelines for assuring the credibility of health information sources on social media

You’re reading Show and Tell, which highlights communication “wins” from our community. Want more inspiration like this?  Subscribe to our Call to Action newsletter . What to see your work here?   Tell us about your win . 

Who I am : Dr. James O’Donovan, MBBS, MRes, PhD, Director of Research at Community Health Impact Coalition , Technical Advisor to WHO, NHS physician, and creator of the Doctor O’Donovan Medical Education channels , which have 300,000+ subscribers and 100,000 million video views.

What I created: In 2023 I was one of two expert clinician creators involved in the co-development of the Academy of Medical Royal Colleges guidelines titled “ Assuring the credibility of health information sources on social media platforms “, which were produced with funding from YouTube. These are the first guidelines to help creators and organizations create digital content that is reliable, trustworthy, and accessible. They also highlight ways to identify and continuously assess the credibility of creators and organizations.

Why it matters: Social media content is a major and valuable source of health information for millions of people. In fact, almost 6 in 10 U.S. adults search the internet for health information that they use to inform their health decisions. It is therefore essential that this information is accurate and trustworthy and that health communicators assure the public of the quality and credibility of that information. This is why we developed these guidelines. It is unrealistic and not necessarily desirable to monitor every piece of health information on social media. Instead, we devised a system to help people evaluate the credibility of the sources and communicators of health information.

What I learned: Being involved in this process taught me several valuable lessons:

• Diverse stakeholder engagement is crucial: Developing guidelines with entities like The Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, NHS Providers, and patient advocacy groups taught me the importance of engaging with a diverse group of stakeholders. Doing so is critical to create comprehensive and inclusive guidelines.
• Evidence-based communication is essential: The development of the guidelines made me reflect on the importance of grounding communication in reliable and scientifically valid data. Beyond this, it made me reflect on how we communicate this effectively to a general audience. In an age of mis- and dis-information it is critical that health information is conveyed in plain, jargon-free language, is presented in a range of languages for diverse audiences, cites trusted sources, and is delivered in an engaging fashion that harnesses the full ’social-learning’ capacities of digital technologies (e.g. patients sharing their experiences to facilitate community and peer-to-peer learning).
• Effective communication is based on a foundation of trust: Part of the guidelines focus on how to effectively communicate potential conflicts of interest with your audience. This involves disclosing conflicts in a way that is accessible to content users. We need to provide a mechanism for public feedback and post public corrections or retractions. In an age of increasing commercial interests in the health space, establishing trust though clear and transparent communication is paramount. With significant influence, health creators should always adhere to the principle of “primum non nocere” (“first, do no harm”) when creating content that has the potential to be accessed by millions globally.

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Providing compassionate care to marginalized people

The Link Between Social Media and Body Image Issues Among Youth in the United States

Photo by Carolina Basi

By James Krzymowski

Published Winter 2024

Special thanks to Becca Linford for editing and research contributions.

Social media has a pervasive impact on body image in the United States, influencing one’s mental, physical, and social health. Body image issues encompass negative feelings and experiences related to one's physical appearance and are characterized by a preoccupation with perceived physical defects. This occurrence is especially common among youth. The harmful effects of constant exposure to idealized images, unrealistic beauty standards, and the influence of social media influencers Individuals who use social media as a platform to interact with an audience by promoting products, sharing information or opinions, and entertaining their audience or followers. are wide-ranging and severe. This brief focuses on the United States because of the competitive culture, the high cosmetic surgery rates, and leadership in social media use. Contributing factors such as comparative culture, social comparison theory, and the impact of influencers are all responsible for the spread of social media’s negative effects. Negative consequences include risky health behaviors, depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and the correlation with suicidal thoughts and attempts. The social impairments, such as interpersonal problems, low self-esteem, and bullying, are correlated to barriers to social connection. Interventions such as CBT therapy are being implemented to help the youth of America adapt to healthy habits of social media use and improve their self-image. By implementing professional therapy, there is hope that we can increase the benefits of addicting technology and minimize its harmful outcomes.

Key Takeaways+

• Forty percent of teens reported that content on social media caused them to worry about their image. 1
• There exists a notable correlation between when kids receive their first phone (12–13) and the onset of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (also ages 12–13).
• As a result of excessive exposure to social media, teens who view themselves as very fat or very skinny are twice as likely to attempt or think about suicide than their “normal weight” peers. 2 , 3
• Over 7% of adolescents and young adults in the US were at risk for exercise addiction because of a high use of social media. 4
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has been shown to greatly reduce the negative effects caused by social media and assist in the healthy incorporation of media in the lives of youth in the US.

Comorbidity —Refers to when someone has multiple existing conditions simultaneously. In the context of this brief, this includes mental, physical, or other health conditions. 5

Feedback loop —This is the process of social media users’ responses to determine which content gets results and what appears on their media feed. 6

Internet addiction —A behavioral addiction that occurs when someone becomes dependent on the Internet or other online devices as a maladaptive way to cope with life’s stresses. 7

Neuroplasticity —The brain's capacity to continue growing and evolving in response to life experiences. Through the process of creating new neurons and building new networks, the brain is shaped, molded, and altered. 8

Social media —Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat.

Social media influencers —Individuals who use social media as a platform to interact with an audience by promoting products, sharing information or opinions, and entertaining their audience or followers.

Subclinical symptoms —Low-level or short-lived mental or emotional drawbacks that are serious enough to affect people’s personal and professional lives but not so obvious or sufficiently severe to qualify as a diagnosable disorder. 9

Q: What is the difference between body image issues, body dysmorphia, and body dysmorphic disorder?

A: Body image issues refer to a broad range of negative feelings or experiences surrounding someone’s interaction with their own body and the way they see themselves physically. 10 The two core components of body image are the mental picture that someone has of their physical body, such as their shape, size, and appearance, and the attitude they have towards their physical self, such as their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs. 11 Problems with body image can be experienced in the mind (such as obsessing over calories), felt by emotions (such as anxiety or depression), or a combination manifesting into actions (such as skipping meals because of weight anxiety). These problems can be demonstrated in a number of ways, such as disordered eating, lower self-esteem, relationship problems, body dysmorphia, and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD). 12

Photo by Hannah Xu from Unsplash

Body dysmorphia is characterized by a distorted body image but is considered to be less disruptive or severe than BDD. 13 There are levels to the severity of body image issues: the lowest level is negative (or distorted) body image, then body dysmorphia, and, in extreme cases, body dysmorphic disorder. 15 The difference between these categories is derived from the severity of an individual’s ability or inability to regulate their beliefs about their body image and their subsequent actions because of those beliefs. 15 According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual V (DSM-V), cases that do not meet the full criteria for BDD may still suffer many of the same consequences as those with BDD, though their symptoms are considered subclinical Low-level or short-lived mental or emotional drawbacks that are serious enough to affect people’s personal and professional lives but not so obvious or sufficiently severe to qualify as a diagnosable disorder. . 16 While there is a range of severity in body dysmorphia, only the most severe cases receive a diagnosis. 17

The most extreme case of body dysmorphia is Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD). This eating disorder is defined as the preoccupation with an aspect of one’s physical appearance that is perceived to be defective in some way. 18 This preoccupation or obsession negatively affects daily living and disrupts typical functioning, such as spending large amounts of time examining oneself in the mirror, changing clothes repeatedly to hide perceived flaws, covering one's face during social interactions, and shaming oneself because of physical appearance. 19

Although BDD can be generalized as a distorted view of one’s entire body, it is typical that individuals primarily focus on specific body parts. 20 For women, the most common are hips, breasts, nose, legs, stomach, and facial skin. 21 Men are more preoccupied with their genitals, body fat composition, and hair loss. In general population studies, BDD diagnoses are more common in women (60%) than men (40%). 22 The current number of people affected by BDD is between 1.7–2.9% of the general population (5–10 million in the US). 23 It is likely that diagnoses are higher than these statistics because there are very few ways to identify or diagnose this disorder unless individuals voluntarily share their symptoms or perceptions of themselves. For the purpose of this brief, we will focus mainly on body image issues and discuss the consequences of these problems as they relate to BDD.

Q: What is the connection between social media and body image issues?

A: As technology has advanced quickly and spread even faster, new social behaviors are emerging before the world has the opportunity to analyze these technologies and determine what their unintended consequences may be. 24 However, one of the more studied trends is the relationship between body image issues and social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. . 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32

In one such study, researchers recruited over 1,300 individuals to discover social media's effects on body image and the desire to be thin. After completing their data analysis, the researchers concluded a strong association between the frequency of comparing one's own physical appearance to those on social media and body dissatisfaction. 33 It was found that those who compared themselves with others on social media scored 8.5 points (0–27) higher on a body dissatisfaction survey than those who did not. 34

Photo by Jennifer Burk

In another study, researchers surveyed over 62,000 participants on their cell phone usage to determine how it affects weight control behavior. 35 They divided the participants into two groups based on whether their main purpose for using their phones was to use social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. or not, and found that the participants who spent more time on their smartphones had a higher distorted perception of their body and inappropriate weight control behavior. 36 An even stronger correlation between time spent and body image issues was found among those whose primary purpose for using their phone was for social media. The study concluded that excessive social media usage is strongly associated with body image distortion and unhealthy weight control behavior in adolescents, and recommended that adolescents reduce their amount of time on screens in general and increase media literacy to assist with healthy body awareness. 37

Q: Why is the United States the focus of this brief?

A: In the United States, there is a highly competitive attitude toward things that can be measured or ranked, such as sports and business. 38 Beauty standards are no different for Americans, who are highly comparative and competitive in their attempts to increase their individual status and appeal. In a study of 672 undergraduate women, each participant was given two sets of pictures: one depicting what the media deems as "ideal," and the other was deemed as the "controls," meaning pictures that were not glorified. Over 71% of the participants reported higher body dissatisfaction after viewing the “ideal” model slides. 39 In another study involving American girls aged 13, nearly 50% reported that they felt unhappy about their bodies. This percentage grew to nearly 80% by the time those same teens turned 17. 40 , 41

These competitive attitudes often lead to behaviors such as unnecessary or elective cosmetic surgery. While about 1 in 3 (31%) Americans have undergone cosmetically enhancing surgery of some kind, it was also found that Americans reported having had cosmetic dental procedures to improve their smile (11%), elective cosmetic surgery (4%), skin or lip injections (2%), and hair replacement surgery (1%). 42 , 43 The United States leads the world in cosmetic surgeries and surpasses the next highest country (Brazil) by over 2.5 times. 44 The price to appear beautiful according to society’s standards is not cheap; typical cosmetic surgery costs range from $2,500–9,500. 45

Another reason this brief focuses on the United States is because “the heart of the internet” (the telephone and computer) was made and continues to grow in the US. 46 Media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, and Snapchat are also American-made, placing the US as the leader of modern technological advancement. Foreign platforms are also being highly used, with TikTok naming the US as having the highest number of engaged users at 143 million. 47 To put this into context, that would be every citizen in the top seven most populated states in the US—California, Texas, Florida, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio—using TikTok. 48 Though many countries in the world face body image issues due to social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. , the US was chosen because of its distinct issues that have been thoroughly studied, making this a more synthesized work to be applied to other countries.

Q: Who is primarily affected by social media and body image issues?

A: Body image issues affect more than 20% of all adults who use social media. However, among teenagers, this percentage doubles. 49 When comparing American girls and boys, girls have a higher rate of dissatisfaction with their body appearance. According to one study, almost 50% of girls reported that they worry “often” or “always” about their bodies, whereas only a quarter of the boys surveyed felt similarly. 50 On average, girls spend almost an hour more on social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. than their male peers. 51 Confirming this, in other countries with similar technology and social structures, we can observe many of the same trends in mental disorders. For example, in China, where the number of social network users is the highest in the world, 52 about 12% of Chinese girls and young women were affected by the pressure of the ideal "thin" and were affected by eating disorders. 53 In India as well (the second-ranked country in social network users), body image dissatisfaction was reported among 77.6% of girls. 54

Body image issues are present in almost every demographic, age, race, and ethnicity. In its most extreme form, BDD is more common among teens, with two-thirds of those diagnosed experiencing onset before age 18. 55 Some studies indicate the onset of BDD starts between 12 and 13 years old and is strongly correlated with the average age adolescents receive a cell phone (also 12–13 years old). 56 , 57 Social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. consumption often becomes a typical part of daily living for most teens once they receive a cell phone. 58 Correspondingly, this age is when they are beginning their transition through adolescence into adulthood, and their developing neurochemistry is especially plastic and impressionable. 59 Social media provides these adolescents with role models, beauty standards, and an idea of what their lives should look like if they want to be happy. These factors form a setting where body image issues and attitudes are common. 60

Contributing Factors

Accessibility to social media.

The accessibility of social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. to teens is a large contributor to the development of body image issues because the exposure to unrealistic content is seen as reality by teens' developing brains. As of July 2023, there were 5.19 billion internet users worldwide, which amounted to 64.6% of the global population. 61 Of this total, 4.88 billion, or 59.9% of the world's population, were social media users. 62 Additionally, from 2015 to 2019, the number of 12-year-olds who owned a smartphone increased from 41% to 69%. 63 To put this into perspective, in 2015, in a classroom of 30 kids, 12 would have their own cell phone. By 2019, this number would jump to 20 students. Increasing with each year, by age 16, 90% of children own a smartphone, making social media more and more immediately available. 64 With a higher percentage of adolescents using smartphones, they are able to access virtually unlimited social media content in as little time as it takes to provide their name, email, and age. Most social media apps require their users to be at least 13 years old, which is also the age at which poor body image symptoms most commonly begin to appear. Currently, the average time that teens spend on some form of social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. equates to nearly 5 hours per day (ranging from as low as 4.1 hours for early teens to 5.8 hours for 17-year-olds). 65 According to an online survey conducted in 2022 in the United States, 45% of teen girls said they felt “addicted” to TikTok or ended up using the platform for longer than they originally wanted. Of these respondents, 32% reported using the app on a daily basis. 66 In January 2023, 8% of all Instagram users were aged 13–17. 67 Around 10% of Snapchat’s half a billion users are 13–17. 68 In 2021, 63% of Gen-Z (age 12–17) reported using TikTok at least weekly. 69 For middle-school-aged users, over half their screen time is spent on social media. For their high-school-aged peers, roughly 40% of screen time is spent on social media. 70 This means that younger audiences are more likely to spend their screen time browsing social media which exposes them to more edited content and increases the volume of social media time that contributes to poor body image.

Unrealistic Content

Filter and editing apps.

Body image issues among youth in the United States have increased because in recent years, the standards for beauty are more extreme, and their qualifications are harder to achieve. 74 Filters and photo editing apps on social media allow individuals to present an idealized version of themselves. This can distort one's perception of what is realistic and attainable, leading to dissatisfaction with their natural appearance. 75 Beauty filters, originally used for humor, have had unintended consequences on the psychological health of modern media users. 76 The filters have taken beauty standards beyond what is physically possible by altering, manipulating, and tuning photos beyond perfection. 77

In recent years, plastic surgeons have begun to see patients requesting surgeries similar to how they would appear on Snapchat filters, and some patients even show the doctors filtered images from Snapchat depicting exactly what they would like to have done in surgery. 78 , 79 This new “Snapchat dysmorphia” is an example of how filters, originally designed as a quirky way to make people feel more comfortable sending pictures of themselves, have become a standard that is not only unrealistic but entirely artificial. 80 , 81

Photo by Joeyy Lee

A study of 425 males and females evaluated the perceptions of 10 body-positive images, some filtered and others non-filtered. Even though these images were created to promote a body-positive mindset, the results proved that these were demeaning the purpose of the movement by creating more comparisons. 82 Another study of 144 adolescent girls asked them to assess their physical appearance after being exposed to Instagram-style social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. images of other women. 83 Some of the girls were shown edited images, whereas others were shown original photos of the same women. The girls presented with manipulated photos reported lower body image than the girls who were shown unedited versions. Concordantly, the manipulated photo subjects were said to be prettier and more attractive than the others. The participants in the study had no idea that any of the photos were edited and believed that all subjects were accurately representing reality. 84 Yet another study of over 100 seventh-grade girls found that the more these girls engaged in photo-editing behavior, the more they worried about dieting and their physical appearance. 85 This research demonstrates the relationship between edited, unrealistic, or idealized images presented through social media and the development of body image issues. 86 , 87 , 88

Feedback Loops

Another contributor to the unrealistic content presented by social media is the use of feedback loops This is the process of social media users’ responses to determine which content gets results and what appears on their media feed. present in most platform algorithms. Feedback loops are part of marketing and are often used to incorporate customer feedback to improve or enhance the customer experience. 89 In social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. , these loops happen when the content that users interact with is recorded by the media platform and used to suggest future content. 90 In other words, when a teen likes an image of a fitness model, that action is recorded and used to present the viewer with more similar content. 91

For someone struggling with body image issues, the problem is inflated by these content algorithms by increasing the volume of photoshopped or edited photos for the user to compare themselves with. 92 , 93 On their website, Instagram describes how their algorithms are used to provide personalized content to each user. Metrics on the posts that a user likes, comments on, shares, and even looks at are all recorded and used to select future content to put on their feed. 94 For example, when a user pauses to look at an image of a fitness model that has probably been edited or photoshopped, the algorithm on Instagram will track the time the viewer looks and then place priority on future fitness model content in their feed. 95 The constant feedback and validation-seeking behavior on social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. can contribute to a cycle where individuals become increasingly focused on their appearance. This focus causes them to look at themselves compared to what they see on social media and feel the inevitable disappointment that they are not what they want to be. Negative feelings about their body follow, and the cycle continues.

Comparative Culture

Social comparison theory.

Social comparison from social media contributes to feelings of body dissatisfaction and low self-esteem because individuals are bombarded by social icons and beauty symbols with whom they compare themselves. 96 Although the tendency to compare and evaluate each other has existed as long as humans have, 97 social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. has only accentuated the issue. 98 According to some studies, as many as 1 out of every 10 of our thoughts involve comparison of some kind. 99

The social comparison theory states that individuals determine their own social and even personal worth on how they stack up against others. 100 Though there are arguably both positive and negative outcomes to social comparison, research has shown that people who regularly compare themselves experience feelings of deep dissatisfaction, remorse, and anger and may even engage in self-destructive behaviors like disordered eating and self-harm because of these feelings. 101 , 102 Research conducted to explore the connection between self-rated attractiveness, comparisons, and harmful behaviors found that among teen girls aged 15–17, more than 27% contemplated suicide. By age 20, over 40% of both boys and girls contemplated suicide as a result of comparison. 103 Social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. provides an environment for constant social comparison. In the analysis of current research, there appears to be a strong correlation between the social comparison that occurs to attain an unrealistic body image, like those found on social media, and the development of body image issues, body dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphia. 104 , 105 , 106

Comparison with Influencers and Celebrities

Though it is certain that social media influencers Individuals who use social media as a platform to interact with an audience by promoting products, sharing information or opinions, and entertaining their audience or followers. (SMIs) can significantly impact their followers, research is still unclear on exactly how powerful that influence actually is. 107 , 108 , 109 The purpose of these influencers is to present some kind of better or more appealing aspect of life that can be adopted by their followers. 110 The natural tendency for influencers to want to appear as socially, intellectually, and physically appealing as possible results in a misrepresented reality to their followers, causing them to believe that it is attainable or expected for their own lives. 111 , 112 Before social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. apps, this could be observed in the effect of magazines on adolescents' self-image. In a cross-sectional survey of 548 girls from grades 5–12, participants self-reported the frequency of reading fashion magazines, and attitudes and behaviors, including dieting and exercise. After controlling for weight status, school level, and racial group, those who frequently read fashion magazines were twice as likely to have dieted and 3 times as likely to have initiated an exercise program to lose weight than infrequent readers. 113

In the current media, common trends that are started and promoted by influencers like “body checking,” “fitspiration,” and “thinspiration” are being observed to have negative effects on body image. 114 , 115 Body checking involves seeking validation for one’s body by talking about weight, size, and shape and posting content intended to receive feedback with hashtags like #jawlinecheck, #smallwaist, and #sideprofile. 116 Such an emphasis on body image has led to subtly promoting pro-anorexia (pro-ana) behaviors like skipping meals and looking critically at one’s appearance. 117 Fitspiration is a genre of content aimed at promoting a healthy lifestyle centered on diet and exercise. 118 In research on fitspiration trends, it has been found that most content in this genre presents sexualized or idealized bodies that can actually increase body dissatisfaction in the viewer. 119 This “fitspo” content is foundational for many online fitness influencers and as they propagate these trends throughout social media, they may unknowingly cause more harm than good. 120 Though the exact number of posts and those affected by them can be hard to calculate, trends like these can explode on social media reaching millions and making any potentially negative effects spread just as rapidly. 121

Though there is significant variability in the quality and accuracy of information provided by SMIs, many feel that much of what is provided is inaccurate and damaging. 122 The validation given to influencers encourages behaviors that may not be entirely beneficial to their audience. 123 Because there is no vetting process and very little fact-checking on social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. , misinformation, unreasonable fitness content, rituals, routines, and false ideals are incredibly common. 124 Teenagers are more prone to developing BDD than adults, and if unrealistic ideals are presented through social media, this can trigger the development of symptoms of the illness. 125 Constant exposure to the images and lifestyles of these individuals can lead to unrealistic body image ideals and influence the development of BDD. 126

Photo by Yan Krukau

Bullying and Cyberbullying

Negative comments, criticism, or bullying related to one's appearance on social media can significantly impact a person's self-esteem and body image. One Pew Research study showed that nearly half of teens 13–17 had experienced cyberbullying of some kind. 127 Other research shows that body image teasing is associated with higher levels of anxiety and low self-esteem in adolescents. 128 These experiences can exacerbate body image issues for individuals with or without body dysmorphia. 129 In one study, 94% of youth with BDD described experiencing social difficulties resulting from embarrassment and shame related to their appearance. 130 Different kinds of bullying, such as body shaming, fat shaming, and slut shaming, negatively affect body image and contribute to low self-esteem, which are both closely correlated to body image issues. 131

Causing people to be more self-conscious about how they look, bullying gives significant negative feedback on physical appearance. This can lead to shame-promoting behaviors like covering your body with baggy clothing or hiding specific parts of your body because of hurtful comments or negative social interactions. 132 A study involving over 500 women found that for those with poor body image and disordered eating, clothing-related management behaviors were used to camouflage or cover up their bodies. 133 In another study discussing the negative effects of social pressures, including bullying, common behaviors for women and girls’ motivation to be thin were found to be restricted diets, prescription weight-loss drugs, and using dark clothing to hide the imperfect body. 134

Consequences

Physical health—exercise and risky health behaviors.

The development of body image issues is physically harmful to teens in the United States because it causes them to develop unhealthy habits such as over-exercising and disordered eating. 135 In a study involving 1,550 people, 61% reported that their perception of their physical body had a negative impact on their physical health. 136 Many of the physical effects are comorbid Refers to when someone has multiple existing conditions simultaneously. In the context of this brief, this includes mental, physical, or other health conditions. with mental detriments but carry their own consequences. When teens struggle to feel satisfied with their own body image, it can cause unhealthy eating habits, dieting, and either an aversion to or obsession with exercise. 137 , 138 Though some would think that negative body image would cause a greater aversion to exercise, the research indicates that the opposite is a bigger concern. 139 The concept of “exercise addiction” is marked by compulsive or excessive exercising even when it has lost its benefits and may be detrimental to the body physically. 140 The DSM-5 (The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) lists exercise addiction with other “behavioral addictions” which is controversial but informative about its many negative effects. 141 Social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. and social pressure are often accused of being a cause for over-exercise because of the pressure people feel to look like the models they so often see on their phones. 142 In one study conducted by the University of Milwaukee, researchers found that for almost 60% of people who exercised, their body image was a significant factor for why and where they exercised. 143 Among the general population, one study estimated that close to 3% of people have an addiction to exercise. 144 In another study, 7.1% of adolescents and young adults were at risk for exercise addiction because of a high use of social media. 145 Common effects of overexercise include lower performance levels, excessive tiredness, anxiety, and overuse injuries. 146 Going without hours of daily exercise causes anxiety, frustration, or emotional discomfort in people with exercise addiction. 147

Photo by Andres Ayrton

Constant exposure to idealized and often unrealistic body images of models on social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. can lead to feelings of discouragement and shame among teenagers when it comes to exercise. 148 Many teens may perceive these images as the ultimate standard of beauty, leading them to believe that their own bodies fall short. This can create a sense of futility in their efforts to work out, as they may feel that they can never attain such standards. 149

Excessive social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. use and the resulting development of body image issues can create a distressing and vulnerable state for some individuals. 152 In severe cases, this distress may lead to self-harm and suicidal contemplation, with teens who view themselves as very fat or very skinny being twice as likely to attempt or think about suicide than their “normal weight” peers. 153 , 154 The constant comparison with idealized body images can intensify feelings of self-worthlessness and hopelessness, pushing some people to seek harmful coping mechanisms like self-harm as a way to deal with their emotional pain. 155 Body image issues are also considered a risk factor for poor physical health outcomes and risky health behaviors like smoking, drug use, and self-harm. 156 The physically detrimental effects of having poor body image are wide-ranging and significant. Though severity is variable, problems with exercise, disordered eating, and numerous risky health behaviors are all related or connected to underlying body image problems.

Mental Health Detriments—Depression, Anxiety, and Eating Disorders

Additionally, the pressure to achieve high beauty standards on social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. can result in the development of severe mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa. 164 These can greatly impact the development of unhealthy lifestyle behaviors, reinforcing thought patterns in a developing youth's mind. 165 Consumption of social media can impact disordered thinking, which deepens the patterns and increases the behavior. One Mental Health Foundation report in 2019 found that 31% of teenagers and 35% of adults feel ashamed or depressed because of their body image. 166 The mental energy and stress involved with such mental disorders can impair the healthy function of typical life activities like relationships, academic or vocational pursuits, and extracurricular activities. 167

Social media often promotes and glamorizes extreme weight loss and dieting practices to achieve the "perfect" body. 168 Children who are still developing their identity and self-image are especially susceptible to external influences on their own body image. 169 Many adolescents with serious eating disorders state that their symptoms are linked to the unrealistic body image standards presented to them through social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. . 170 Teens exposed to these messages may be more likely to engage in unhealthy dieting practices and disordered eating behaviors, such as restrictive eating, binge eating, or purging. 171 This can lead to the development of eating disorders like anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or binge-eating disorder, which have serious physical and psychological consequences. 172 , 173 , 174 , 175 Studies indicate that over half of teenage girls and a third of teenage boys have participated in unhealthy weight-controlling behaviors like misusing laxatives, skipping meals, and intentional vomiting. 176 Acknowledging the multiple contributing factors to the development of an eating disorder, research indicates that body dissatisfaction is the best-known influence on developing disorders like bulimia and anorexia. 177

The negative feelings surrounding body image after spending time on social media contribute to obsessive feelings about one’s perceived flaws. 178 For those currently diagnosed with BDD, the effects of social media can be more intense and potentially catastrophic. 179 These effects range from social anxiety symptoms to suicide ideation. According to the Anxiety and Depression Association of America, 15 million Americans, almost 7% of the entire population, are plagued by social anxiety. 180 Many scholars believe that a high percentage of those 15 million who are affected by social anxiety are affected heavily by body image issues. 181 Suicide attempts are higher among youth with BDD, with around 80% with BDD reporting having experienced suicidal thoughts and 1 in 4 actually having attempted suicide. 182 This concern is even greater for individuals with comorbid anorexia, depression, and body dysmorphia. 183 The combined negative effects of social media Social media is broadly defined as media accessed through personal electronic devices to interact with others online. For this brief, most of the research includes sites such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Pinterest, and Snapchat. use on the developing brain are significant enough that the surgeon general issued a warning in May 2023 attempting to spread awareness of the potentially disastrous effects of social media content for youth. 184

Professional Therapy

Photo by Priscilla Du Preez

Therapists often employ evidence-based techniques, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) to challenge distorted thought patterns and promote healthier attitudes toward one's body. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a form of therapy that emphasizes the importance of identifying and changing thought patterns. 185 For individuals experiencing body image issues, these patterns can be behavioral or cognitive in nature, sometimes making the root cause more difficult to identify. 186 By becoming aware of the thoughts that lead to unhealthy behaviors, the individual can begin to change the source of the problem, which changes the outcome. 187

Different therapy methods have been shown to significantly help individuals struggling with body image issues. 194 One qualitative study on individuals with BDD introduced therapy as an intervention and found that on a scoring scale of 16–80, interpersonal problems decreased from 65 at pre-intervention to 39 at a 3-month follow-up and worry decreased from 59 to 33. All domains of quality of life (physical, psychological, social, and environmental) also increased compared with pre-intervention: that physical domain increased from 41 to 75, the psychological domain from 36 to 72, the social from 32 to 75, and the environment from 41 to 73. 195 The intensity of such an impactful intervention consisted of only 1 therapy session per week for 8 weeks demonstrating a significant effect in a relatively short amount of time. In another pilot study of 21 participants who underwent a 12-week therapy intervention, 68% reported significantly improved BDD symptoms, a substantial decrease in depressive symptoms, and an increase in self-reported quality of life. 196 In this study, both the clinically assessed symptoms and self-reported symptoms were largely affected by the introduction of therapy. A third study conducted by Ritter and colleagues in Germany found similar results in 40 adults with BDD who were introduced to a 12-week CBT treatment plan. 197 A considerable reduction in shame, depression, and symptom severity were all listed as positive outcomes for those who participated. The research is patently obvious that the impact of therapy on even severe body image issues is positive and significant.

Though therapy has been shown to help with the issues surrounding body image, many people are not able to benefit from its significant effects. For instance, some cannot afford therapy, some believe their issues will go away on their own, and some do not have the time for therapy. The average cost of a therapy session is between $100–200 and with only about 20% of therapists choosing to accept insurance to help cover the cost, therapy can be financially impossible for low-income or financially struggling individuals. A typical 1-hour session costing $150 just once per week would cost a patient $15,600 over 2 years of therapy. Because therapy is highly individualized and not a one-size-fits-all solution, patients can receive treatment for anywhere from a few months to several years before experiencing significant improvement. 198 Self-selected dropout is another concern for therapy success with one study showing that about 1 in 5 patients discontinue therapy prematurely. 199 It is also common to see the negative stigma associated with therapy as something that discourages people from seeking treatment. 200 There are currently limited studies on the long-term effects of CBT on body dysmorphic patients. 201 Though it is clear that there are significant positive effects for at least 2–4 months following therapy intervention, there is very little research examining the effectiveness of treatment after more time has passed. 202 One study on the remission of patients with eating disorders found that roughly half of individuals with binge eating disorders remit after receiving therapy while remission rates for bulimia and anorexia hover around 30% respectively. 203

Preferred Citation: Krzymowski, James. “The Link Between Social Media and Body Image Issues Among Youth in the United States.” Ballard Brief. May 2024. www.ballardbrief.byu.edu.

Viewpoints published by Ballard Brief are not necessarily endorsed by BYU or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

James is a senior majoring in Psychology with minors in Entrepreneurship and Global and Community Impact. He plans to attend graduate school and ultimately complete a PhD in Organizational Psychology. Outside of school, he enjoys triathlons, classical music, window washing, and motorcycles. In his career, he hopes to combine the worlds of mental health and business to create a lasting impact in a scalable way.

The Harmful Effects of Living in Brick Kiln Communities in the South Asia Region

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Pope Francis says social media can be alienating, making young people live in "unreal world"

By Jennifer Earl

Updated on: May 21, 2024 / 2:21 AM EDT / CBS News

Pope Francis says hours spent consuming content every day, whether on smartphones or televisions, can take a toll on health — particularly for young people.

"What is social media doing to the world and our children?" CBS Evening News anchor and managing editor Norah O'Donnell asked Francis during a recent sit-down interview .

Francis said there are some benefits of communication media because they "have a conscience," knowing how to report the news and also how to render criticism. That can help with development, he explained. 

But, he admitted, there are also downsides.

"There are communication media that alienate young people, don't they? It makes them live in an unreal world, made up of fantasy, or in an aggressive world or a rosy world ... and so many things," Francis told O'Donnell.

The pontiff went on to say the media has a "serious responsibility" as an information source for people of all ages.

"A media outlet that only lives off propaganda — off gossip, off soiling others — is a dirty media outlet, and that soils the minds of the young and of the old as well," he said. 

Francis then asked, "Today, how many hours does a person spend in front of the TV or on their little phones? How many hours?" 

The impact of social media is one of the many topics the pontiff addressed in an hour-long interview with O'Donnell  airing on Monday at 10 p.m. ET on CBS and streaming on Paramount+.

During a Monday appearance on "CBS Mornings," O'Donnell said the prime-time special allows more time to discuss in-depth issues — like social media's impact on kids. 

"You see a part of the pope that I think probably you haven't seen anywhere else," O'Donnell told "CBS Mornings."

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2024 Gen Z and Millennial Survey: Living and working with purpose in a transforming world

The 13th edition of Deloitte’s Gen Z and Millennial Survey connected with nearly 23,000 respondents across 44 countries to track their experiences and expectations at work and in the world more broadly.

Gen Zs and millennials are cautiously optimistic about the economy and their personal finances, but uncertainty remains

Just under a third of Gen Zs and millennials believe the economic situation in their countries will improve over the next year, reflecting the most optimism respondents have shown about the economy since our 2020 study fielded just before the COVID-19 pandemic. This optimism is also reflected in Gen Zs’ and millennials’ outlook for their personal financial situations, although financial insecurity continues to plague these generations.

Three in 10 say they do not feel financially secure. And roughly six in 10 live paycheck to paycheck. The cost of living remains their top concern by a wide margin compared to their other leading concerns, which include climate change, unemployment, mental health, and crime/personal safety.

There is some uncertainty about the social and political outlook, with only about a quarter of respondents believing it will improve in their country over the next year.

Gen Zs and millennials think the following will improve in their countries in the year ahead

Nearly all gen zs and millennials want purpose-driven work, and they are not afraid to turn down work that doesn’t align with their values.

Having a sense of purpose is key to workplace satisfaction and well-being. And increasingly, these generations are willing to turn down assignments and employers based on their personal ethics or beliefs. Reasons for rejecting an employer or an assignment include factors such as having a negative environmental impact, or contributing to inequality through non inclusive practices, and more personal factors such as a lack of support for employees’ mental well-being and work/life balance.

Those who...

Climate action, environmental sustainability is everyone’s responsibility.

Environmental sustainability continues to be among Gen Zs’ and millennials’ top priorities. It is a personal concern that consistently weighs heavily on them, with roughly six in 10 Gen Zs and millennials saying they have felt worried or anxious about climate change in the last month.

The majority of them take action to minimize their impact on the environment. They feel governments should play a bigger role in pushing business to address climate change. And that business, in turn, could and should do more to enable consumers to make more sustainable purchasing decisions.

Protecting the environment is the societal challenge where respondents feel businesses have the most opportunity to drive change. Gen Zs and millennials are pushing business to act through their career decisions and consumer behaviors.

Percentage of Gen Zs and millennials who...

Genai at work, positive perceptions of genai increase with more hands-on experience, but so do workplace concerns.

Among both generations, frequent users of GenAI are more likely to believe the technology will have positive effects on their work and improve their work/life balance.

But, conversely, the more a respondent uses GenAI, the more likely they are to have some concerns as well, such as believing that GenAI will cause the elimination of jobs, make it harder for younger generations to enter the workforce, or that they’ll have to find job opportunities that are less vulnerable to automation.

In response to these types of concerns, both generations are thinking about how to adapt, with a focus on reskilling and GenAI training.

Respondents who say that GenAI in the workplace will...

Future of work, gen zs’ and millennials’ career and workplace expectations are evolving.

Many Gen Zs and millennials are choosing career paths based on environmental concerns, or which they believe will be less vulnerable to automation. And, once they do choose an employer, they push for change, particularly when it comes to workload, the services offered to clients, learning and development, DEI, wellness, social impact, and environmental efforts.

Work remains key to Gen Zs’ and, even more so to millennials’, sense of identity, with their jobs coming second only to friends and family. However, they are very focused on maintaining a positive work/life balance. And their strong preference for flexible work is driving greater demand for part-time jobs, job-sharing options, and models such as four-day work weeks for full-time employees.

Meanwhile, roughly a third of Gen Zs and millennials say they work for organizations who have recently implemented a return-to-office policy. These policies have yielded mixed results.

• Six in 10 Gen Zs (61%) and millennials (58%) believe they have the power to drive change within their organizations.
• Consistent with last year’s findings, work/life balance is the top consideration when Gen Zs and millennials are choosing an employer.
• Two-thirds of Gen Zs (64%) and millennials (66%) say they work for organizations who have recently implemented a return-to-office policy.

Mental health

As workplace factors contribute to stress levels, employers must stay focused on providing better workplace mental health.

Only about half of Gen Zs (51%) and millennials (56%) rate their mental health as good or extremely good. And while stress levels have improved slightly since last year, they remain high, with 40% of Gen Zs and 35% of millennials saying they feel stressed all or most of the time.

About a third of respondents say that their job and their work/life balance contribute a lot to their stress levels.

Financial concerns, and family welfare are major stressors, alongside job related factors such as long working hours and lack of recognition.

Many respondents believe that their employers are taking mental health seriously. But despite some positive changes, there is room for improvement when it comes to enabling people to feel comfortable speaking openly about mental health at work. Managers and senior leaders need to play an important role to remove stigma.

Percentage of respondents who say...

To learn more about the mental health findings, read the Mental Health Deep Dive .

Gen Zs and millennials have played a significant role in pushing the boundaries of what is expected from employers over the last decade, and they will continue to do so. Employers who listen and adjust their strategies will likely have a more satisfied, productive, and agile workforce who are better prepared to adapt to a transforming world.

Additional links

• Gen Z and Millennial Survey press release
• 2023 Gen Z and Millennial Survey
• Deloitte Insights article

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