phd abbreviation in education

EdD vs. PhD in Education: What’s the Difference?

Industry Advice Education

If you’re interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in education, one of the first questions you’ll face is: Should I apply for a Doctor of Education (EdD) or a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Education?

The decision between these two culminating degrees can be career-defining as each serves a very different purpose despite being equivalent in level. In order to ensure you choose the path that best aligns with your future goals and career path, it’s important to take the time to first understand the differences in program curriculum and future career opportunities that relate to each degree.

Read on to learn about the defining qualities and key differences of an EdD and a PhD in Education to determine which program is the right fit for you.

EdD vs. PhD in Education

A Doctor of Education (EdD) is a professional degree designed for practitioners pursuing educational leadership roles. A PhD in education , on the other hand, is designed to prepare graduates for research and teaching roles.

“With a PhD, [students are] reviewing the research, seeing a gap in the literature, and generating new knowledge based on a theory or hypothesis,” Joseph McNabb , a professor of practice in Northeastern’s Graduate School of Education , explains. “Conversely, an EdD student starts with a problem of practice and [works to learn] the skills it will take to resolve that complex problem of practice.”

What is an EdD Degree?

An EdD, or Doctor of Education , is a professional doctorate best suited for experienced educators and mid- to senior-level working professionals who want to lead and implement change within their organization.

EdD candidates work in a broad range of fields ranging from K-12 and higher education to nonprofits, government, healthcare, and the military. What each share is a desire to transform their everyday environment and apply the lessons learned through their doctorate to a complex, critical issue facing their workplace. 

The EdD is practice-based. Students in an EdD program don’t want to just research their area of interest, but leverage that research in ways that could positively influence their community or organization’s decision-making process.

Learn More: 5 Tips for Choosing Your EdD Concentration

Those who pursue an EdD focus on qualitative, exploratory research. Students collect data and conduct individual interviews, observations, or focus groups to construct hypotheses and develop strategies that can help solve or clarify a specific problem of practice, such as how to support student veterans transitioning to civilian life or how to foster more female leaders in higher education—two dissertation topics recently explored through Northeastern’s EdD program .

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What Can You Do with an EdD Degree?

While an EdD can be applied to a variety of industries and career options—such as K-12, higher education, the nonprofit sector, or civic service—there are several job titles you’ll likely come across within your cohort of classmates. They include:

• Postsecondary Education Administrators: Postsecondary education administrators work in colleges or universities, and typically oversee faculty research, academics, admissions, or student affairs. Some job titles that fall under this category include president, vice president, provost, and dean. The average annual salary for a postsecondary education administrator rings in at $99,940 .
• Elementary and Secondary School Education Administrators: Superintendents, who are the top executives of a school district, fall under this category. They manage academic programs, spending, and the staffing of all educational facilities within their district, and typically earn an average of $106,850 per year .
• Top Executives : In education, a top executive could be a “chief learning officer” or “chief academic officer”—senior-level professionals who drive and develop strategies that help their organization meet critical business goals. Top executives make an average of approximately $100,090 per year .
• Instructional Coordinators : Instructional coordinators create and manage school curricula and other educational materials. They help teachers implement effective classroom learning strategies and measure the effectiveness of what’s being taught and how. The average annual salary for instructional coordinators is roughly $66,490 .

These are just a few of the many career opportunities available to EdD graduates.

Learn More: Top Careers with a Doctorate in Education

What is a PhD in Education?

A PhD in Education is a terminal degree best suited for individuals who want to pursue a career in academia or research at the university level.

Students in PhD or doctoral programs take a more theoretical, study-based approach to learning. In most cases, their goal is to master a specific subject or add their unique findings to a body of existing literature. PhD candidates conduct original research in the hopes of driving change in their field or inspiring others to make change based on their work.

A PhD is the degree most popular amongst those who aspire to become a professor or obtain a tenure position. Through these programs, students tend to focus on getting published in well-respected journals, presenting at national conferences, and learning how to teach future educators.

What Can You Do with a PhD in Education?

While some of the above roles can also be earned through a PhD program, the most common job titles for PhD-holders include:

• Postsecondary Teachers: Postsecondary teachers instruct students at a college or university. When they’re not in the classroom, they’re often focused on conducting research, attending conferences, and publishing scholarly papers and books. Postsecondary teachers earn an average $80,840 per year .
• Academic Researcher : Researchers often have the opportunity to create their own centers or institutes, hire staff to help carry out their work, and secure funding for that work. Salaries often vary by subject area, but a general academic researcher typically earns an average $83,971 per year .

EdD or PhD: Which is Better For You?

Once you’ve explored the differences between an EdD and PhD in Education, the most relevant question to consider will be: What’s the next step I want to take in my career, and which degree can help me achieve my professional goals? The answer to this question will determine which degree program you ultimately pursue.

Earning your doctorate can pay off no matter which path you choose. Professionals with a doctoral degree earn an average $98,000 a year —nearly $20,000 more a year than master’s degree holders. Similarly, doctoral degree holders see an unemployment rate of only one percent compared to the national unemployment rate of two percent.

Regardless of which degree you ultimately pursue, there is enormous potential for you to advance your career in the field of education. Evaluating your needs and values will help you understand whether an EdD or PhD in Education is best suited to your personal and professional goals.

This article was originally published in July 2017. It has since been updated for accuracy and relevance.

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What’s the Difference Between a PhD and EdD in Education?

What Is an Ed.D. Degree?

What is a ph.d. in education, ed.d. vs ph.d. in education: key differences.

• Ed.D. vs Ph.D. in Education: Which is Right for You?

An Ed.D. degree is a doctoral degree in education focused on educational leadership. The abbreviation stands for Educationis Doctor, and the degree indicates that the person holding it has advanced leadership knowledge in teaching, administration, and education research. According to the Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate, the Ed.D. “prepares educators for the application of appropriate and specific practices, the generation of new knowledge, and for the stewardship of the profession.” (Source: https://www.cpedinitiative.org/page/framework)

Ed.D. degrees emphasize transformational leadership skills—that is, leadership that can change systems to better serve students and their communities, rather than leadership that merely manages efforts within the existing system. In the modern educational environment, where educators seek to provide an excellent education to students from an ever more diverse range of background and abilities, transformational leadership is in demand.

By completing an Ed.D. program, experienced educators can develop executive-level leadership skills, advanced education policy knowledge, pedagogical skills, and research capabilities to innovatively solve problems for the schools and students they serve.

Who Is a Good Fit for an Ed.D. Degree?

Ed.D. degrees are aimed at current education professionals working directly in their organizations outside of academia. These professionals may include:

• Pre-K-12 teachers, counselors, curriculum advisors, and other classroom personnel
• School principals and other administrators
• School district officials
• Administrators within government education departments
• College administrators
• Mid-career executives in educational consultancies or private businesses such as textbook publishers

Essentially, Ed.D. programs are ideal for experienced education professionals who hold a master’s degree and who do not want to work mostly within academic education research. While Ed.D. programs can also teach advanced classroom teaching skills, the primary role of an Ed.D. degree vs. a Ph.D. is to empower the professionals who are shaping and leading today’s schools and colleges.

Ed.D. Career Options

Ed.D. career options will vary depending on your previous work experience and your master’s degree field of study. However, the degree is designed to equip you for senior leadership roles.

• School District Administrator or Superintendent - An Ed.D. degree can equip you to lead in public school districts, either as an upper-level administrator or as the superintendent (in some larger cities known as the Chief Executive Officer). According to Payscale.com, the average salary for a school superintendent in the U.S. is currently $117,216. *Source  
• Academic Dean - Usually found in colleges and universities but sometimes also in larger private K-12 schools, deans oversee a specific academic department or area of operations (e.g. student affairs). They manage instructors, analyze student performance data, help set curriculum plans, etc. According to Payscale.com, the average salary for an academic dean is $90,236. *Source  
• Provost - A provost or vice president is a senior academic administrator who acts as deputy to a college president. Provosts are primarily responsible for directing the academic programs at a college or university and have authority over deans. Payscale.com currently estimates the average annual salary for provosts at $147,730. *Source  
• College President - Earning your Ed.D. could prepare you to become the CEO or president of a college or university, ultimately responsible for setting the academic and social direction of your school, as well as ensuring it has the budgetary resources to change and expand with the times. Pay for college presidents can vary widely depending on the size and type of their institution, but in 2016, the median take-home pay for public university presidents was $431,000. *Source  
• Company Executive - The skills you learn in an Ed.D. program can also apply to careers in private industry, particularly companies within the education sector such as textbook publishers or educational technology companies. However, the Ed.D. can also equip you to lead training efforts within large corporations unrelated to education. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, median pay for top executives in 2017 was $104,700 per year. * Source

Benefits of an Ed.D. Program

What are the benefits of an Ed.D. program? Aside from expanded pay potential and the opportunity for more responsibility, there are several.

• Advanced research with practical outcomes: In an Ed.D. program, you’ll be required to conduct research into an educational problem, and thanks to the program’s more practical focus, you can dive deep into an area which is of pressing concern to you at your current place of work.
• Raise your relevance: Earning your doctorate in education can help you stay up to date on policy, technology, and pedagogical ideas that are changing the field.
• Fill in skill and knowledge gaps: Most educators spend their time focused on one aspect of teaching or leadership. By completing your Ed.D., you can round out your knowledge and expertise with advanced course content in teaching methods, building community relationships, education law, etc.
• Time to completion: In general, an Ed.D. degree requires 60 credits of work beyond the master’s degree and a dissertation or capstone project. They usually take less time to complete than a Ph.D.—in some cases, depending on the program, as few as three years.
• Study while continuing to work: Because the Ed.D. is aimed more at administrators and practitioners, institutions often structure the program to accommodate working schedules, meaning you can “earn while you learn”.

A Ph.D. in Education is a research-intensive academic degree focused on producing leaders who can nurture new educators, either within college classrooms or as leaders within educational institutions. Ph.D. programs in education emphasize the production of scholarship-- the research and analysis which describes for practitioners and policy makers what works in education, what doesn’t work, and why that is.

Typically, Ph.D. in Education degrees aim to produce researchers who can also teach at the university level, ensuring that new teachers get off to a strong start in their careers and that mid-career teachers gain the advanced skills they need to serve students even more effectively, whether as master teachers, administrators, or school counselors. Education Ph.D. graduates may also serve as administrators, whether at the K-12 level, in higher education, or in government departments and private companies which serve education.

Who Is a Good Fit for a Ph.D. in Education?

While current teachers and administrators can make a good fit for Ph.D. in education programs, they should already have a demonstrated focus on research in their careers before applying. Other potential good fits for education Ph.D.s are academics from other fields who are interested in investigating specific problems within the field of education.

These may include:

• Sociologists
• Counselors or people with psychology degrees
• Child social workers

Ph.D. in Education Career Options

There is some overlap between the careers you can pursue with an Ed.D. and the careers you can pursue with a Ph.D. in Education. Your ability to pursue administrative roles will vary depending on your previous experience managing others within an education setting. Other roles may include:

• College Professor   – Ph.D. graduates in education can often obtain work teaching in education programs at colleges and universities. They may work with new undergraduates, experienced teachers, administrators, or public policy students. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median 2017 salary for postsecondary teachers of all types was $76,000. *Source  
• Sociologist   – As a graduate of a Ph.D. in Education program, you could work in sociological research related to education, conducting surveys, analyzing data, and working to identify the impact of educational policies on schools and students. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the median salary for sociologists in 2017 was $79,650. *Source  
• Training and Development Manager   – Private companies need skilled educational professionals who can help them develop effective training programs for employees and executives. As a training and development manager, you can put the knowledge gained in your education Ph.D. program to work researching and designing corporate training plans. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that training and development managers earned a median salary of $108,250 in 2017. *Source  
• Public Policy Director   – With your Ph.D. in Education, you may also qualify to lead policy creation and advocacy efforts within non-profit organizations or government departments. You would apply your research and analysis skills to this role, along with managerial skills as you direct the work of junior policy analysts and researchers. Payscale.com reports that the average annual salary for this role is $76,486. *Source

Benefits of a Ph.D. in Education Program

With its emphasis on research and teaching, the Ph.D. in Education demands full-time commitment, can take longer to complete than an Ed.D. and can be difficult to complete while continuing to work. However, it has its own benefits for those who truly want to follow a scholarly career path.

• More common degree: There are more Ph.D. programs in education available than there are Ed.D. programs. This means you will have more options when it comes to finding a college that suits you. It also means you will have more options in terms of choosing a specialization program.
• Funding is more available: Many colleges and universities provide funding for Ph.D. students to pay their tuition and some living costs while they study. In exchange, Ph.D. students assist their supervisors in research, perform graduate assistant teaching duties, and represent the university at conferences and other professional events. These are all excellent activities for building a resume in academia—and you could get paid to do them.
• Learn widely applicable research skills: The research methodologies you learn in a Ph.D. program go beyond those taught in an Ed.D. program and can apply to many career paths after graduation. This is especially true if you work with research involving large data sets and analysis software. Many companies are looking for data analysts, no matter what field of study their degree was in. *Source

The two doctoral degrees in education overlap in many ways, but also feature key differences in terms of their intended student prospects, aims, goals, and formats.

Career Path Direction

When it comes to deciding on a Ph.D. vs. Ed.D., consider where you’ve come from and where you want to go. If you are an established classroom teacher or administrator and want advanced skills to continue solving complex problems as a leader in that area, choose an Ed.D. If you have a more academic background and want to investigate major issues around education through research or want to contribute to the profession by training new teachers in colleges, choose the Ph.D.

Skill Set Emphasis

Related to the differing career path goals of a Ph.D. vs. Ed.D., the skills emphasized in each degree do vary. Ed.D. students will focus primarily on hands-on, transformational leadership skills within education settings at any level. Ph.D. students will cover many courses in research methodologies, spend more time producing a dissertation and other scholarly publications, and focus on teaching and mentoring college students.

Research Goals

Both Ed.D. and Ph.D. programs teach advanced research skills, including statistics, data analysis, and qualitative and quantitative methodologies such as surveys and other investigation tools. However, the research aims in each degree differ.

Ed.D. programs teach research skills to help students employ those processes to solve very specific problems through the application of evidence to practical solutions.

Ph.D. programs teach more open-ended academic inquiry skills, designed to contribute to the wider body of scholarship which informs education practice and policy.

Program Format and Completion Length

The final difference between Ed.D. programs vs. Ph.D. programs is the way the formats are commonly structured by colleges and universities. Because of its more practical, hands-on focus, the Ed.D. is usually a credit-based program that can be delivered via online study as well as on-campus study (or with some combination of the two). In addition, Ed.D. programs are often designed to accommodate working education professionals, whether they are teachers, curriculum designers, or administrators.

Finally, Ed.D. degree programs are typically shorter than other doctoral degrees in education, with programs lasting anywhere from two to four years in length. Ph.D. in Education programs are more likely to be full-time residential programs which require students to leave full-time jobs to pursue. While some Ph.D. programs focused on educational leadership may be structured for people who need to keep working, they are less common in other specialization areas. Ph.D. degrees are also competency-based, meaning whether you earn the degree or not depends on the defense of your dissertation. Because of this requirement, they are more likely to take in the region of 5-7 years to finish.

Ed.D. vs Ph.D. in Education: Which Is Right for You?

In summary, the chief difference between an Ed.D. and a Ph.D. is about the long-term career goals of the student. Which one is right for you will depend on where you’ve come from in your career to this point and where you want to go. Dedicated to solving problems in education through hands-on, transformational leadership? An Ed.D. program is likely to be the best bet for you. Passionate about scholarly research and policy development within academic settings? You may be ideal for a Ph.D. program. We hope this guide has helped you understand the differences between an   Ed.D. in Education Leadership   and a Ph.D. program in education with more clarity. Good luck with your career in education, no matter which degree you choose!

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Doctor of Philosophy in Education

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The Harvard Ph.D. in Education trains cutting-edge researchers who work across disciplines to generate knowledge and translate discoveries into transformative policy and practice.

Offered jointly by the Harvard Graduate School of Education and the Harvard Kenneth C. Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the Ph.D. in Education provides you with full access to the extraordinary resources of Harvard University and prepares you to assume meaningful roles as university faculty, researchers, senior-level education leaders, and policymakers.

As a Ph.D. candidate, you will collaborate with scholars across all Harvard graduate schools on original interdisciplinary research. In the process, you will help forge new fields of inquiry that will impact the way we teach and learn. The program’s required coursework will develop your knowledge of education and your expertise in a range of quantitative and qualitative methods needed to conduct high-quality research. Guided by the goal of making a transformative impact on education research, policy, and practice, you will focus on independent research in various domains, including human development, learning and teaching, policy analysis and evaluation, institutions and society, and instructional practice.   

Curriculum Information

The Ph.D. in Education requires five years of full-time study to complete. You will choose your individual coursework and design your original research in close consultation with your HGSE faculty adviser and dissertation committee. The requirements listed below include the three Ph.D. concentrations: Culture, Institutions, and Society; Education Policy and Program Evaluation; and Human Development, Learning and Teaching . 

We invite you to review an example course list, which is provided in two formats — one as the full list by course number and one by broad course category . These lists are subject to modification. 

Ph.D. Concentrations and Examples

Summary of Ph.D. Program

Doctoral Colloquia  In year one and two you are required to attend. The colloquia convenes weekly and features presentations of work-in-progress and completed work by Harvard faculty, faculty and researchers from outside Harvard, and Harvard doctoral students. Ph.D. students present once in the colloquia over the course of their career.

Research Apprenticeship The Research Apprenticeship is designed to provide ongoing training and mentoring to develop your research skills throughout the entire program.

Teaching Fellowships The Teaching Fellowship is an opportunity to enhance students' teaching skills, promote learning consolidation, and provide opportunities to collaborate with faculty on pedagogical development.

Comprehensive Exams  The Written Exam (year 2, spring) tests you on both general and concentration-specific knowledge. The Oral Exam (year 3, fall/winter) tests your command of your chosen field of study and your ability to design, develop, and implement an original research project.

Dissertation  Based on your original research, the dissertation process consists of three parts: the Dissertation Proposal, the writing, and an oral defense before the members of your dissertation committee.

Culture, Institutions, and Society (CIS) Concentration

In CIS, you will examine the broader cultural, institutional, organizational, and social contexts relevant to education across the lifespan. What is the value and purpose of education? How do cultural, institutional, and social factors shape educational processes and outcomes? How effective are social movements and community action in education reform? How do we measure stratification and institutional inequality? In CIS, your work will be informed by theories and methods from sociology, history, political science, organizational behavior and management, philosophy, and anthropology. You can examine contexts as diverse as classrooms, families, neighborhoods, schools, colleges and universities, religious institutions, nonprofits, government agencies, and more.

Education Policy and Program Evaluation (EPPE) Concentration

In EPPE, you will research the design, implementation, and evaluation of education policy affecting early childhood, K–12, and postsecondary education in the U.S. and internationally. You will evaluate and assess individual programs and policies related to critical issues like access to education, teacher effectiveness, school finance, testing and accountability systems, school choice, financial aid, college enrollment and persistence, and more. Your work will be informed by theories and methods from economics, political science, public policy, and sociology, history, philosophy, and statistics. This concentration shares some themes with CIS, but your work with EPPE will focus on public policy and large-scale reforms.

Human Development, Learning and Teaching (HDLT) Concentration

In HDLT, you will work to advance the role of scientific research in education policy, reform, and practice. New discoveries in the science of learning and development — the integration of biological, cognitive, and social processes; the relationships between technology and learning; or the factors that influence individual variations in learning — are transforming the practice of teaching and learning in both formal and informal settings. Whether studying behavioral, cognitive, or social-emotional development in children or the design of learning technologies to maximize understanding, you will gain a strong background in human development, the science of learning, and sociocultural factors that explain variation in learning and developmental pathways. Your research will be informed by theories and methods from psychology, cognitive science, sociology and linguistics, philosophy, the biological sciences and mathematics, and organizational behavior.

Program Faculty

The most remarkable thing about the Ph.D. in Education is open access to faculty from all Harvard graduate and professional schools, including the Harvard Graduate School of Education, the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the Harvard Kennedy School, the Harvard Law School, Harvard Medical School, and the Harvard School of Public Health. Learn about the full Ph.D. Faculty.

Jarvis R. Givens

Jarvis Givens studies the history of American education, African American history, and the relationship between race and power in schools.

Paul L. Harris

Paul Harris is interested in the early development of cognition, emotion, and imagination in children.

Meira Levinson

Meira Levinson is a normative political philosopher who works at the intersection of civic education, youth empowerment, racial justice, and educational ethics. 

Luke W. Miratrix

Luke Miratrix is a statistician who explores how to best use modern statistical methods in applied social science contexts.

Eric Taylor

Eric Taylor studies the economics of education, with a particular interest in employer-employee interactions between schools and teachers — hiring and firing decisions, job design, training, and performance evaluation.

Paola Uccelli

Paola Ucelli studies socio-cultural and individual differences in the language development of multilingual and monolingual students.

View Ph.D. Faculty

Dissertations.

The following is a complete listing of successful Ph.D. in Education dissertations to-date. Dissertations from November 2014 onward are publicly available in the Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) , the online repository for Harvard scholarship.

• 2022 Graduate Dissertations (265 KB pdf)
• 2021 Graduate Dissertations (177 KB pdf)
• 2020 Graduate Dissertations (121 KB pdf)
• 2019 Graduate Dissertations (68.3 KB pdf)

Student Directory

An opt-in listing of current Ph.D. students with information about their interests, research, personal web pages, and contact information:

Doctor of Philosophy in Education Student Directory

Introduce Yourself

Tell us about yourself so that we can tailor our communication to best fit your interests and provide you with relevant information about our programs, events, and other opportunities to connect with us.

Program Highlights

Explore examples of the Doctor of Philosophy in Education experience and the impact its community is making on the field:

Reshaping Teacher Licensure: Lessons from the Pandemic

Olivia Chi, Ed.M.'17, Ph.D.'20, discusses the ongoing efforts to ensure the quality and stability of the teaching workforce

Lost in Translation

New comparative study from Ph.D. candidate Maya Alkateb-Chami finds strong correlation between low literacy outcomes for children and schools teaching in different language from home

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Doctoral programs.

The goal of the GSE PhD in Education is to prepare the next generation of leading education researchers. The cornerstone of the doctoral experience at the Stanford Graduate School of Education is the research apprenticeship that all students undertake, typically under the guidance of their academic advisor, but often with other Stanford faculty as well.

In this apprenticeship model, doctoral students are provided with a multi-year funding package that consists of opportunities each quarter to serve as teaching and research assistants for faculty members' courses and research projects. By this means, and in combination with the courses they take as part of their program, students are prepared over an approximately five-year period to excel as university teachers and education researchers.

The doctoral degree in Education at the GSE includes doctoral program requirements as well as a specialization, as listed below, overseen by a faculty committee from one of the GSE's three academic areas.

Doctoral programs by academic area

Curriculum studies and teacher education (cte).

• ‌ Elementary Education
• ‌ History/Social Science Education
• ‌ Learning Sciences and Technology Design
• ‌ Literacy, Language, and English Education
• ‌ Mathematics Education
• ‌ Science, Engineering and Technology Education
• ‌ Race, Inequality, and Language in Education
• ‌ Teacher Education

Developmental and Psychological Sciences (DAPS)

• ‌ Developmental and Psychological Sciences

Social Sciences, Humanities, and Interdisciplinary Policy Studies in Education (SHIPS)

• ‌ Anthropology of Education
• ‌ Economics of Education
• ‌ Education Data Science
• ‌ ‌Educational Linguistics
• ‌ Educational Policy
• ‌ Higher Education
• ‌ History of Education
• ‌ International Comparative Education
• ‌ Organizational Studies
• ‌ Philosophy of Education
• ‌ Sociology of Education

Cross-area specializations

Learning sciences and technology design (lstd).

LSTD allows doctoral students to study learning sciences and technology design within the context of their primary program of study (DAPS, CTE, or SHIPS).

Race, Inequality, and Language in Education (RILE)

RILE trains students to become national leaders in conducting research on how race, inequality, and language intersect to make both ineffective and effective educational opportunities. RILE allows students to specialize within their program of study (DAPS, CTE, or SHIPS).

Other academic opportunities

• ‌ Concentration in Education and Jewish Studies
• ‌ PhD Minor in Education
• ‌ Stanford Doctoral Training Program in Leadership for System-wide Inclusive Education (LSIE)
• ‌ Certificate Program in Partnership Research in Education
• ‌ Public Scholarship Collaborative

“I came to Stanford to work with faculty who value learning in informal settings and who are working to understand and design for it.”

Doctoral graduates were employed within four months of graduation

of those employed worked in organizations or roles related to education

For more information about GSE admissions and to see upcoming events and appointments:

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University of Bridgeport News

Ed.D. vs. Ph.D. in Education: What is the Difference?

If you’re considering advancing your career in education, you’ve likely considered choosing between a Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) vs. a Ph.D. in Education. Or, at the very least, you’ve probably wondered what the difference between a Doctorate in Education and a Ph.D. is.

While these are both advanced doctoral programs, choosing one of these degree paths over another can ultimately define the direction in which your career goes.

A Doctorate in Education is a professional degree program for those who want to become leaders. The Ph.D. in Education, on the other hand, is designed for those who wish to continue teaching or who desire to conduct research that will add to the breadth of knowledge surrounding the field of education. And as such, the content of these degree programs is different.

This article will explore these doctoral programs to help you decide which program is right for you and your career goals.

Ed.D. — An Introduction to a Doctorate of Education

What is a doctorate of education degree and its purpose.

A Doctorate in Education, or Ed.D., is a terminal degree that prepares students for academic and administrative roles in K-12 and higher education.

A Program for School Leaders

Students in this doctoral program gain the skills and experience they need to become influential leaders, policymakers, and researchers with a focus on education in an increasingly global world.

Graduates of this program use existing research to help improve practices in the field of education and develop new research.

Prerequisites and Qualifications

Every college and university will have different prerequisites and qualifications for students to earn acceptance into their Educational Leadership degree program.

At University of Bridgeport, our Educational Leadership (Ed.D.) degree requirements include the following:

• Master’s degree from an accredited institution with a cumulative graduate GPA of 3.0 or higher
• Certificate of advanced studies, education specialist (Ed.S.), or a sixth-year degree

Additionally, Ed.D. candidates will need the following required materials:

• Application
• Official transcripts for the last degree earned
• One letter from a colleague and one letter from a supervisor
• The reasons for wanting to undertake doctoral studies
• The most significant personal and professional accomplishments
• The extent to which your personal and professional responsibilities will allow you to devote the necessary time and effort to the program
• A detailed description of your potential research topic
• Writing sample (ex: Master’s thesis, published or submitted journal article, scholarly paper)
• Official TOEFL scores for non-native English speakers

Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) Curriculum

A Doctorate in Education prepares students to take active leadership careers upon graduation.

Thus, the Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) program curriculum comprises courses in educational leadership, research and analysis, international education, and dissertation.

Students can expect to take hybrid Ed.D. courses such as:

• Public School Finance Workshop in Curriculum Development
• Constitutional Law
• Intro to Research
• Action Research
• Literature Review
• Organization Management
• Education Leadership
• Urban Leadership
• Postsecondary Teaching or Leadership Experience
• Comparative Education
• Dissertation Proposals

Expected Length of Program

An Ed.D. generally takes between three and four years to be completed. However, with a focus on career advancement and leadership, this degree can be completed more quickly than a Ph.D.

At University of Bridgeport, our students enroll in a hybrid (primarily online) program and earn their degree in as few as three years. Students will complete all their classes online except for two one-week doctoral residences in person during the first two summers of the program.

Throughout these three years, candidates collaborate and communicate with peers worldwide and our expert faculty through online discussion boards and collaborative assignments. In the third year of the Ed.D. program, students dedicate their time to writing and defending their dissertations.

Ed.D. Career Goals and Outcomes

The primary goal for many Doctorate of Education graduates is to become a leader in their school or school district. However, an Ed.D. prepares candidates for various Ed.D. career opportunities , including school leadership. Here are just a few of the jobs that an Ed.D. can prepare you for after graduation:

• Higher Education Administrator
• Academic Dean
• College Professor
• Curriculum Specialist
• Education Consultant
• Leadership in K-12 educational settings
• Policymaker
• A leader of independent/private schools worldwide

Advantages of Earning a Doctorate in Education

Pursuing a Doctorate in Education comes with many benefits. Not only can you serve as a leader in education, but you can also rest assured knowing that these programs are designed with the working teacher in mind.

Many Ed.D. programs offer asynchronous learning options or the ability to take a lower course load while still being considered a “full-time” student. Additionally, some programs require fewer years of study to be completed, allowing working educators to begin their careers as school leaders all the more quickly.

Plus, there are even online Ed.D. programs available for students who require even more flexibility in their doctorate program.

Ready to become a more experienced leader in your organization?

Take the next step in your career and learn more about university of bridgeport’s online ed.d. program, ph.d. — introduction to ph.d. in education, what is a ph.d. in education.

A Ph.D. in Education is typically research-oriented and prepares students for intellectual leadership roles.

An Academic Degree for Researchers and Professors

Graduates with a Ph.D. in Education often pursue careers conducting research, curriculum analysis and development, or educating future teachers.

If interested in leadership roles, Ph.D. graduates are more likely to find positions as college or university administrators than as K-12 administrators.

Admission requirements, prerequisites, and qualifications for Ph.D. in Education programs will vary depending on the institution. For example, while many programs require a master’s degree in a related field, others might only require a bachelor’s degree.

That said, typical requirements for Ph.D. in Education programs include the following:

• Qualifying GRE or GMAT scores
• Postsecondary transcripts
• Statement of purpose
• Writing sample
• Personal statement
• Letters of recommendation

Students should be aware that nearly all Ph.D. candidates have prior experience in research. Therefore, coming to the table with previous research experience from their undergraduate and graduate studies can help set students apart from other applicants.

Ultimately, research the Ph.D. programs you are interested in to ensure you meet all the admission prerequisites and requirements.

Ph.D. in Education Curriculum

Ph.D. programs focus on the development of strong foundational knowledge in theory. And like a Doctorate in Education program, a Ph.D. in Education will focus on research and analysis topics.

Coursework involves qualitative and quantitative research and is marked by close collaboration with faculty. Students might also learn how to publish their research in academic journals, present research findings at educational conferences, and secure grant funding as future faculty.

A Ph.D. in Education typically consists of ninety credits. Some courses that students in Ph.D. programs may take include:

• Introduction to Quantitative Methods in Educational Research
• Design Research in Education
• Educational Policy Analysis
• Foundations of Teaching and Learning
• Professional Seminar in Administration
• Dissertation Proposal Seminar

Additionally, students must pass a cumulative exam and submit a dissertation before earning their Ph.D. in Education.

Both Ph.D. and Ed.D. programs have similar curriculums. They both cover various research topics to provide students with the skills in research and analysis needed for upper-level careers in education.

However, Ed.D. courses go beyond these research topics by covering educational leadership, international education, and dissertation preparation. This prepares students for a variety of career outcomes.

Length of Program

Unlike an Ed.D., the Ph.D. can last between four and six years. And a student may sometimes take even longer to complete their research and dissertation.

As such, a Ph.D. is not typically the best program for professionals who wish to continue working while pursuing their doctorate.

Ph.D. in Education Career Goals and Outcomes

While a Ph.D. certainly offers graduates exciting job opportunities, it is heavily geared towards preparing graduates for a career in academia.

Some career opportunities that Ph.D. graduates can look forward to include:

• University professor
• College President
• Sociologists
• Clinical, counseling, and school psychologists
• Training and development specialists

Reasons to Pursue a Ph.D. in Education

For students who are highly motivated to add knowledge to the field of education, the Ph.D. is an excellent choice. It is primarily earned based on intensive, individual research that will eventually be used to create their dissertation.

For example, a Ph.D. fellow might make their dissertation about a specific approach to studying education by focusing on educational policy and how it impacts children.

Additionally, students in Ph.D. in Education programs are often passionate about teaching, learning, and improving education as a whole through research. If you enjoy reading, writing, researching, and communicating, a Ph.D. is the right choice.

Ed.D vs. Ph.D. — What’s the Difference?

Ed.d. vs. ph.d. in education key differences.

Despite the Doctorate in Education and Ph.D. in Education being advanced doctoral degrees and having some curriculum overlap, their outcomes and career goals differ.

Let’s review the key differences between these two programs:

• Average credits: sixty
• Time to complete: three to four years
• Focus: practical application of research
• Ph.D. in Education
• Average credits: ninety
• Time to complete: five to seven years
• Focus: Original research and academic scholarship
• Career outcomes: professor, academic researcher, educational consultant

Career Path Direction

Deciding which degree is right for you will largely depend on the above factors and what you hope to achieve during and after the degree.

If you want a career in administration, policymaking, leadership, and higher education, you should enroll in a Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) program. Graduates have careers as school superintendents, curriculum directors, and educational policymakers.

On the other hand, students interested in teaching at the collegiate level or careers in research, consulting, and government should enroll in a Ph.D. in Education program. They will then be qualified to pursue jobs as professors, academic researchers, and educational consultants.

Skill Set Emphasis

Candidates in Doctorate in Education programs have proven leadership experience and the ability to recognize the problems facing districts or business organizations. They then use their education and training to create and manage education curriculums, help implement effective learning strategies, and measure the effectiveness of what’s being taught and how.

Conversely, Ph.D. in Education candidates prefer to use theoretical and study-based approaches to learning to add their unique findings to the existing field of education. Candidates should be proficient writers and speakers as they focus on being published in well-respected journals and presenting at national conferences.

Program Format and Completion Length

Most colleges and universities offer Ed.D. programs in flexible part-time and online options so that students can continue to work and pursue this advanced degree. However, these programs typically take between three to four years to complete.

Ph.D. in Education programs are primarily in-person, and it is challenging for candidates to work and attend class full-time. They typically take between five to seven years to complete.

Ready to Take the Next Step?

No matter which advanced doctoral degree you choose, both will further your education career and expand your abilities to influence how students learn.

If you want to impact what students learn directly, consider a Ph.D. in Education. However, a Doctorate in Education is the right choice if you want to pursue leadership roles in PreK-12 or higher education and have even more career opportunities.

Take the next step in your career as an education leader by applying to University of Bridgeport’s Ed.D. program today!

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PhD: so what does it really stand for?

Recently, during some particularly thorough literature research, I stumbled on a list of alternative interpretations of the acronym PhD. Most were funny: protein has degraded, parents have doubts. But one froze my face in a bittersweet grimace: paid half of what I deserve.

When I was still a rookie PhD student, I read with outrage an Economist article entitled the disposable academic , which argued that doing a PhD is mostly needless. Lately, I've come to think of the PhD as more of a heavily spicy meal. It doesn't matter how much you enjoy the process, once you're done, you still have half of the pain ahead.

The years of academic slog to work your way up to a full tenure slot (professorship? ha – dream on!) are not much different from the work of a PhD in terms of relentless benchwork (pipetting hand disease) and unceasing literature research (pound head on desk), served on a fixed menu with professional uncertainty (please hire: desperate). All of which result in, if not professorship, then potential heavy drinking.

PhD students and postdocs are the working class of academic research and paid accordingly. Although postgraduates are crucial to the generation, discussion and dissemination of knowledge, 50% pay (i.e half of what they deserve) is standard for PhDs in natural sciences and not even guaranteed in the arts and humanities. It's depressing to think that the overall salary of a PhD candidate is less than the cost of much lab equipment. Lab devices are meant to last years – but, hell, what about the work of PhD students in a system where knowledge is incremental?

There could be several reasons for this discrepancy. Equipment and consumables are costly and have a substantial impact on future budget setting. The number of PhDs, meanwhile, is inflated and international competition is fierce. PhD candidates are earning a degree, which shouldn't come for free, and demands motivation and not a little self-denial – including financially.

PhD candidates are at their infancy in science and being trained to do something different from their education to date – lessons in theory combined with practical labwork – as they move into more independent, innovative research. And contributing to the advancement of knowledge requires a certain naive idealism, right? But does this mean it's okay to exploit highly educated individuals ( probably heavily in debt )? No.

The possible solutions are simple. The most obvious is: raise the salary of PhD students. A remedy for the resulting scarcity of resources would be stricter selection so that only the best candidates started a PhD. Realistically though, this is never going to happen. It's not because policymakers are greedy but because it would mean a reduction of PhDs and thus a slowdown of science.

A second option wouldn't hinder research, and might even enhance it: cut the salary of professors by half. If there are solid reasons for PhDs being paid half of what they deserve, then the same hold good for professors. They too are doing something different from their previous jobs. After tenure, natural scientists move out of the lab and into an office from where they supervise the research of their team members. The knowledge acquired before (both theoretical and practical) still counts, but the job looks quite different.

Political and managerial skills are equally essential, and nurtured for the sake of tenure, not science. Top-tier staff write proposals, manage funds and coordinate subaltern research units and are sometimes scarcely involved with the generation, presentation and discussion of results which is the core purpose of science. Some department chairs merely take note of advancements generated from the institutes they preside over, but co-author papers nonetheless.

Wages of these academic administrators, then, don't deserve to sit even at 50%. And however grim this may sound to today's professors and those postdocs close to a permanent role, the benefits might appeal to future professors much more. Reduction in salaries for tenured staff will create new professorial appointments and reduce the imbalance between the number of temporary researchers and professors, while smaller research units will favour better supervision of PhD candidates and reduce fixed costs.

Today's professors probably already earn too little, after so many years of being underpaid. As one reader wrote in response to that Economist article: "The PhD student is someone who forgoes current income in order to forgo future income." But if some of the surplus resulting from a slash in professorial salaries flowed down to PhDs and postdocs, then entry level professors would be put in a better financial position.

In this light, cuts to science funding (like those we have seen recently in the US) could be an opportunity. Will they slow down scientific advancement? Most probably, yes. But here is a chance for the elite to rethink the way science is done and stop placing merit only on the levels of grant money they gain, the papers they publish, and the prestige they acquire, but instead taking a closer look at the predicament of those who prop this community up.

Advocates of competition see it as a positive outcome of the current shortage of funding and resources. But to defend job insecurity as the main incentive to scientific advancement is offensive. Science would benefit more from a harmonious coexistence of its members than by favouring ruthless competition.

Jorge Cham, creator of the wittily depressing PhD Comics series, revealed that a major motivation for his sketches was to give solace to fellow PhDs struggling as he did through their postgraduate years. He interprets the acronym as piled higher and deeper. You might think of the paper bulk on your desk, but I believe he had something else in mind.

PhD actually stands for philosophiae doctor , or doctor of philosophy. As we say in my native Italian: prendila con filosofia (take it easy, take it as it comes). And waiting for a change in the current system, or for a global PhD manifesto to emerge, one cannot take it any other way.

This blog was written by a current PhD student in Italy

This content is brought to you by Guardian Professional . Looking for your next university role? Browse Guardian jobs for thousands of the latest academic, administrative and research posts

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What is a PhD?

• Types of Doctorates
• A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is the highest globally recognized postgraduate degree that higher education institutions can award.
• PhDs are awarded to candidates who undertake original and extensive research in a particular field of study.
• Full time PhD programmes typically last three to four years, whilst part time PhD programmes typically last six to seven years.
• A PhD can lead to an academia teaching role or a career in research. A PhD can also equip you with skills suitable for a wide range of jobs unrelated to your research topic or academia.

Definition of a PhD – A Doctor of Philosophy (commonly abbreviated to PhD , Ph.D or a DPhil ) is a university research degree awarded from across a broad range of academic disciplines; in most countries, it is a terminal degree, i.e. the highest academic degree possible.

PhDs differ from undergraduate and master’s degrees in that PhDs are entirely research-based rather than involving taught modules (although doctoral training centres (DTCs) offer programmes that start with a year of lecture-based teaching to help develop your research skills prior to starting your project).

In most English-speaking countries, those that complete a PhD use the title “Doctor” (typically abbreviated to Dr) in front of their names and are referred to as such within academic and/or research settings. Those that work in fields outside of academia may decide not to use the formal doctor title but use post-nominal letters (e.g. John Smith PhD); it’s unusual though for someone to use both the Doctor title and post-nominal letters in their name.

PhD vs Doctorate

A PhD and a professional doctorate are both research-based terminal degrees.

However, where a PhD focuses on original research mostly around theoretical concepts, a professional doctorate focuses on examining existing knowledge to solve real-life, practical problems.

While there is much crossover between the two, a PhD is generally better suited for an individual to wants to advance the knowledge and understanding in their field, and a professional doctorate degree is better suited to a working professional who wants to better be able to apply knowledge and understanding to their field.

What Are the Entry Requirements for a PhD?

To be accepted on to a PhD programme, students usually need to hold at least a high ( 2:1 and above ) undergraduate degree that is related to the field of research that they want to pursue. A PhD candidate may also be expected to hold a Master’s degree , however, this does not mean you must have one, as it is still possible to enrol into a PhD without a Master’s .

Self-funded courses may sometimes be more relaxed in relation to entry requirements. It may be possible to be accepted onto a self-funded PhD programme with lower grades, though these students typically demonstrate their suitability for the role through professional work experience.

Whilst a distance learning project is possible , most PhD candidates will carry out their research over at least three years based at their university, with regular contact with two academic supervisors (primary and secondary). This is particularly the case for lab-based projects, however, some PhD projects require spending time on-site away from university (e.g. at a specialist research lab or at a collaborating institution abroad).

How Long Does a PhD Take?

Typically, full-time PhDs last 3-4 years and part-time PhDs last 6-7 years. However, at the discretion of the university, the thesis writing-up period can be extended by up to four years.

Although most doctoral programmes start in September or October, they are generally much more flexible than taught-courses and can start at any time of the year.

How Much Does a PhD Cost?

Tuition fees for UK and EU students vary between £3,000 and £6,000 per year, with the average tuition fee of £4,712 per year for 2023/24 programmes.

Tuition fees increase considerably for international students, varying between £16,000 to £25,000 per year, with an average tuition fee of £19,600 per year .

Nonetheless, most students will secure PhD funding in the form of studentships, scholarships and bursaries to help pay for these fees. These funding opportunities can either be partial, which cover tuition fees only, or full, which cover both tuition fees and living expenses.

UK national students can also apply for Doctoral Loans from Student Finance England if they are unable to secure funding.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

What Does a PhD Involve?

To be awarded a PhD, a doctoral student is required to produce a substantial body of work that adds new knowledge to their chosen field.

A PhD programme will typically involve four key stages:

Stage 1: Literature Review

The first year of a PhD involves attending regular meetings with your supervisors and carrying out a search on previously published work in your subject area. This search will be used to produce a literature review which should set the context of the project by explaining the foundation of what is currently known within the field of research, what recent developments have occurred, and where the gaps in knowledge are. In most cases, this will be an extension of your research proposal should you have produced one as part of your application. The literature review should conclude by outlining the overarching aims and objectives of the research project. This stage of setting achievable goals which are original and contribute to the field of research is an essential first step in a successful PhD.

The supervisor is the main point of contact through the duration of a PhD – but remember: they are there to mentor, not to teach, or do it for you . It will be your responsibility to plan, execute and monitor your own work as well as to identify gaps in your own knowledge and address them.

Stage 2: Research

The second year (and prehapse some of your third year) is when you work on your research. Having identified novel research questions from your review of the literature, this is where you collect your data to help answer these questions. How you do this will depend on the nature of your doctoral research: for example, you may design and run experiments in a lab alongside other PhD students or visit excavation sites in remote regions of the world. You should check in regularly with your supervisors to update them and run any ideas or issues past them.

Have the structure and chapters of your thesis in mind as you develop and tackle your research questions. Working with a view of publishing your work will be very valuable later on.

Stage 3: Write up of Thesis

The next key stage of a PhD is writing a doctoral thesis , which typically takes from anywhere between three months to one year. A thesis is a substantial body of work that describes the work and outcomes of the research over the previous two to three years. It should tell a detailed story of the PhD project – focusing on:

• The motivations for the research questions identified from the literature review.
• The methodologies used, results obtained, and a comprehensive analysis and discussion of the findings.
• A detailed discussion of the key findings with an emphasis on the original contributions made to your field of research and how this has been impactful.

There is no universal rule for the length of a PhD thesis, but general guidelines set the word count between 80,000 to 100,000 words.

For your thesis to be successful, it needs to adequately defend your argument and provide a unique or increased insight into your field that was not previously available.

Stage 4: Attending the Viva

A viva voce , most commonly referred to as just a ‘ viva ‘, is an interview-style examination where the PhD student is required to engage in a critical appraisal of their work and defend their thesis against at least two examiners. The examiners will ask questions to check the PhD student has an in-depth understanding of the ideas and theories proposed in their thesis, and whether they have developed the research skills that would be expected of them.

The viva is one of the final steps in achieving a PhD, and typically lasts at least two hours, but this duration can vary depending on the examiners, the university and the PhD project itself.

Once you have done the viva – you’re on the home stretch. You will typically be asked to make some amendments to your thesis based on the examiner’s feedback. You are then ready to submit your final thesis for either:

• PhD – If you pass the requirements you will be awarded a PhD degree (most common outcome),
• MPhil – If you failed to meet requirements for a PhD, you may be downgraded to an MPhil degree (uncommon outcome),
• Fail – No award is given, typically for cases of plagiarism (extremely uncommon outcome).

What Is It Like to Undertake a PhD?

We’re often asked what it is like to undertake a PhD study. Unfortunately, this isn’t a simple answer to this question as every research project is different.

To help give insight into the life of a PhD student, we’ve interviewed PhD students at various stages of their programmes and put together a series of PhD Student Interviews . Check out the link to find out what a PhD is like and what advice they have to offer you.

What Are the Benefits of A PhD?

A PhD is the highest globally recognised postgraduate degree that higher education institutions can award. The degree, which is awarded to candidates who demonstrate original and independent research in a particular field of study, is not only invaluable in itself, but sets you up with invaluable skills and traits.

Career Opportunities

First, a PhD prepares you for a career in academia if you wish to continue in this area. This takes form as a career in the Higher Education sector, typically as a lecturer working their way to becoming a professor leading research on the subject you’ve studied and trained in.

Second, a PhD also enables the opportunity for landing a job in a research & development role outside of the academic environment. Examples of this include laboratory work for a private or third sector company, a governmental role and research for commercial and industrial applications.

Transferable Skills

Finally, in possessing a PhD degree, you can show to employers that you have vital skills that make you an asset to any company. Three examples of the transferable skills that you gain through a PhD are effective communication, time management, and report writing.

• Communication – presenting your work in written and oral forms using journal papers and podium presentations, shows your ability to share complex ideas effectively and to those with less background knowledge than you. Communication is key in the professional environment, regardless of the job.
• Time management – The ability to prioritise and organise tasks is a tremendous asset in the professional industry. A PhD holder can use their qualification to demonstrate that they are able to manage their time, arrange and follow a plan, and stick to deadlines.
• Report writing – Condensing three years of work into a thesis demonstrates your ability to filter through massive amounts of information, identify the key points, and get these points across to the reader. The ability to ‘cut out the waffle’ or ‘get to the point’ is a huge asset in the professional industry.

Aside from the above, you also get to refer to yourself as a Doctor and add fancy initials after your name!

What Can I Do After a PhD?

One of the most desirable postdoctoral fields is working within independent Research and Development (R&D) labs and new emerging companies. Both industries, especially R&D labs, have dedicated groups of PhD graduates who lead research activities, design new products and take part in crucial strategic meetings. Not only is this a stimulating line of work, but the average salaries in R&D labs and emerging start-ups are lucrative. In comparison, an undergraduate with five years of experience within their given field will, on average, likely earn less than a new PhD graduate taking on a R&D position.

It’s a common misunderstanding that PhDs only opens the door for an academic career such as university lecturers and training providers. Although obtaining a PhD opens these doors, the opportunities extend far beyond educational roles. In fact, recent data from the UK’s Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) indicates only 23% of PhD graduates take a position in educational roles . This low percentage is primarily because PhD graduates have a wide range of skills that make them suitable for a broad spectrum of roles. This is being seen first hand by the increasing number of PhD graduates who are entering alternative roles such as research, writing, law and investment banking.

How Do I Find a PhD?

We appreciate that finding a PhD programme to undertake can be a relatively daunting process. According to Higher Education Student Statistics , over 22,000 PhDs were awarded in 2016/17 within the United Kingdom alone. Clearly there are a huge number of PhD programmes available. This can sometimes be confusing for prospective doctorates, particularly when different programmes are advertised in different places. Often, it is difficult to know where to look or where to even start. We’ve put together a list of useful sources to find the latest PhD programmes:

• A great place to start is with our comprehensive and up-to-date database of available PhD positions .
• Assuming you are still at university, speak to an existing PhD supervisor within your department.
• Attend as many postgraduate open days as you can. Whilst there, speak to current PhD students and career advisors to get an awareness of what PhDs are on offer.
• Visit the postgraduate section of university websites and the PhD Research Council section of the UKRI website.

Browse PhDs Now

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Definition of PhD noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

• to do/have/be a PhD
• Anne Thomas, PhD
• acquire/​get/​lack (an) education/​training/ (British English) (some) qualifications
• receive/​provide somebody with training/​tuition
• develop/​design/​plan a curriculum/ (especially British English) course/ (North American English) program/​syllabus
• give/​go to/​attend a class/​lesson/​lecture/​seminar
• hold/​run/​conduct a class/​seminar/​workshop
• sign up for/​take a course/​classes/​lessons
• go to/​start preschool/​kindergarten/​nursery school
• be in (North American English) the first, second, etc. grade/ (British English) year 1, 2. etc. (at school)
• study/​take/​drop history/​chemistry/​German, etc.
• (British English) leave/​finish/​drop out of/ (North American English) quit school
• (North American English) graduate high school/​college
• be the victim/​target of bullying
• (British English) play truant from/ (both British English, informal) bunk off/​skive off school (= not go to school when you should)
• (both especially North American English) skip/​cut class/​school
• (British English) cheat in/ (North American English) cheat on an exam/​a test
• get/​be given a detention (for doing something)
• be expelled from/​be suspended from school
• do your homework/ (British English) revision/​a project on something
• work on/​write/​do/​submit an essay/​a dissertation/​a thesis/​an assignment/ (North American English) a paper
• finish/​complete your dissertation/​thesis/​studies/​coursework
• hand in/ (North American English) turn in your homework/​essay/​assignment/​paper
• study/​prepare/ (British English) revise/ (North American English) review/ (North American English, informal) cram for a test/​an exam
• take/ (both British English) do/​sit a test/​an exam
• (especially British English) mark/ (especially North American English) grade homework/​a test
• (British English) do well in/ (North American English) do well on/ (especially North American English, informal) ace a test/​an exam
• pass/​fail/ (especially North American English, informal) flunk a test/​an exam/​a class/​a course/​a subject
• apply to/​get into/​go to/​start college/ (British English) university
• leave/​graduate from law school/​college/ (British English) university (with a degree in computer science)
• study for/​take/ (British English) do/​complete a law degree/​a degree in physics
• (both North American English) major/​minor in biology/​philosophy
• earn/​receive/​be awarded/​get/​have/​hold a master’s degree/​a bachelor’s degree/​a PhD in economics
• dissertation

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abbreviation or noun

Definition of phd, examples of phd in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'PhD.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

New Latin philosophiae doctor

1839, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near PhD

Cite this entry.

“PhD.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/PhD. Accessed 17 May. 2024.

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What Does Ph.D. Stand For?

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Ever wondered why someone with the title “Doctor of Philosophy” isn’t necessarily pondering the mysteries of existence like Descartes or Nietzsche? That’s because the term encompasses many disciplines beyond its traditional confines. Whether it’s exploring the mysteries of the cosmos, deciphering intricate economic systems or unraveling the complexities of human behavior, a Ph.D. can be earned in any field ranging from science and economics to humanities and beyond. 

In this article, we’ll explore the multifaceted world of Ph.D. studies, beginning with the fundamental question: What does Ph.D. stand for? 

Beyond merely defining the acronym, we provide crucial information to assist you in determining whether pursuing this advanced degree aligns with your goals, aspirations and intellectual passions.

Meaning of Ph.D.

A Ph.D., short for Doctor of Philosophy, is an esteemed academic degree marking the pinnacle of in-depth study and innovative research in a specific area of expertise. Attaining a Ph.D. involves not just a broad mastery of the field at large but also acquiring specialized knowledge and insights into a distinct facet of that discipline.

For instance, pursuing a Ph.D. in literature involves acquiring a thorough understanding of literary theory and criticism while also focusing deeply on a particular literary period or genre, such as Victorian literature, postcolonial literature, or contemporary poetry. This process ensures that Ph.D. candidates achieve a comprehensive grasp of their broader discipline while also cultivating an expert-level specialization.

Education Requirements for a Ph.D.

In order to pursue a Ph.D. program, you must first fulfill some education prerequisites. Both a bachelor’s degree and often a master’s degree serve as essential stepping stones toward this advanced academic pursuit.

Bachelor’s degree

A bachelor’s degree is a fundamental requirement for individuals who aspire to pursue higher education, including Ph.D. studies. Although having a major directly related to the intended Ph.D. field is not mandatory, it can undoubtedly provide a beneficial foundation for handling advanced coursework. Therefore, aligning undergraduate studies with future graduate pursuits can significantly ease the transition into more advanced academic pursuits, ensuring a smoother progression through graduate coursework.

Master’s degree

To be eligible for Ph.D. programs, candidates typically need to have completed a master’s degree. The duration of a master’s degree program can vary depending on whether a student is enrolled part-time or full-time, but typically it lasts between one and three years. 

Maintaining a high GPA during master’s studies can improve your chances of getting into a Ph.D. program. Generally, a GPA of 3.0 or higher is seen as favorable. However, this can vary based on factors like your field of study and the program’s competitiveness.

How Long Does a Ph.D. Take?

The typical duration of a Ph.D. program ranges from five to six years, yet this timeframe can vary significantly depending on the academic field and individual circumstances.

Several factors play a pivotal role in determining the length of Ph.D. studies. Firstly, the depth and breadth of the research project can significantly influence the timeline. The dissertation phase, which involves original research, data analysis, and presenting your findings, often requires a considerable amount of time. Secondly, the availability of funding and resources is crucial. Access to financial support and adequate research facilities can either speed up the process or cause delays.

Moreover, specific program or institutional requirements, such as compulsory coursework, teaching commitments, or comprehensive exams, may affect the overall timeline. These obligations can increase the academic workload, potentially prolonging the time necessary to fulfill all degree requirements.

The Process of Obtaining a Ph.D.

The process of obtaining a Ph.D. is a journey that involves passing through various milestones and academic achievements, each contributing to the culmination of advanced scholarly expertise. Let’s go through some of the steps below: 

Completing coursework

Coursework is a foundational step in the Ph.D. process, helping students cultivate profound subject-matter expertise and establish essential knowledge within the field. These courses equip students with the requisite theoretical framework and shape potential dissertation research topics.

Completing one or more doctoral residency experiences

Doctoral residencies provide a structured platform for refining research skills, receiving guidance, and engaging in scholarly discourse. Often conducted virtually, these experiences allow students to focus on specific study and dissertation preparation activities while fostering connections with faculty and peers for invaluable mentorship and collaboration.

Passing a comprehensive assessment or exam

The purpose of the comprehensive examination process is to comprehensively evaluate the student’s depth of knowledge in their area of specialization and their familiarity with the published research within the field. Additionally, the examination verifies whether the student possesses the critical thinking and analytical skills required for dissertation research.

Developing and completing an independent research project

The dissertation is a comprehensive written document that typically consists of five chapters and addresses a unique question or problem within the field. Faculty experts and the ethical review board play integral roles in assessing the rigor and ethical aspects of the research project, ensuring scholarly integrity and adherence to ethical guidelines.

Seeking approval of your completed dissertation manuscript

The approval process entails evaluation by a faculty committee and the school dean, culminating in a final defense where students defend their research, analysis, and conclusions. Meeting specific professional standards, as applicable to the field, is often a requirement before the publication of the approved dissertation, marking the culmination of the Ph.D. journey.

Career Opportunities for Ph.D. Holders

Ph.D. holders are equipped with a wealth of specialized knowledge and advanced skills, opening doors to many career opportunities that vary depending on their field of study. The roles they can pursue encompass a wide range of leadership, managerial, research, academic, and consulting positions, such as:

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5 Reasons to Get a Ph.D.

The decision to pursue a Ph.D. is a significant one that holds the potential to shape both your career trajectory and personal growth. Here are five compelling reasons why pursuing a Ph.D. may be worth considering:

Become an expert in the field

One of the primary motivations for pursuing a Ph.D. is the opportunity to become an expert in a specific field. Obtaining expert-level knowledge allows you to contribute significantly to your chosen field while providing you with a sense of fulfillment and accomplishment. 

You can make a difference through research

The true value of a Ph.D. lies in the potential to make a positive impact through research. Across various fields, impactful research has the power to drive innovation, solve pressing societal challenges, and advance human knowledge. Whether it’s discovering new treatments for diseases, developing sustainable technologies, or understanding complex social phenomena, Ph.D. research has the potential to change the world for the better.

Broaden your job opportunities

In today’s competitive job market, a Ph.D. can set you apart from the crowd. While it’s highly relevant for academic careers, a Ph.D. also opens doors to diverse opportunities in industries ranging from technology and healthcare to finance and government. Employers value the advanced research, analytical, and critical thinking skills that Ph.D. holders bring to the table, making them highly sought after in various professional settings.

Increase your salary potential

Earning a Ph.D. can lead to significant financial benefits in the long run. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , Ph.D. holders typically command higher salaries and have lower unemployment rates. While the journey toward a Ph.D. may require dedication and perseverance, the potential for increased earning potential is a compelling incentive for many aspiring scholars.

You can reach your full potential

Perhaps the most rewarding aspect of pursuing a Ph.D. is the opportunity for personal growth and development. Along the way, you’ll acquire valuable skills, including resilience, problem-solving, and effective communication, that will serve you well professionally and personally. By pushing yourself to tackle complex problems and overcome obstacles, you’ll reach your full potential not only as a scholar but also as an individual ready to leave their mark and make a meaningful difference in the world.

Final Thoughts

Ultimately, Ph.D. programs are indispensable components of the academic journey for individuals seeking to enhance their expertise, enrich scholarly knowledge, and pursue fulfilling careers in academia, industry, and beyond. 

As you reflect on your academic and professional aspirations, consider the transformative potential of pursuing a Ph.D. program tailored to your passions and ambitions. So, dare to delve deeper, embrace the challenge, and pursue this path of intellectual discovery and personal growth.

Frequently Asked Questions 

Is a ph.d. harder than a master’s degree.

While both degrees require significant dedication and effort, a Ph.D. typically involves more extensive research and independent study, making it a more demanding academic pursuit than a master’s degree.

Which is higher: Ph.D. or doctorate?

A Ph.D. lies within the category of doctorate degrees, so one is not inherently higher than the other.

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RIT graduate pursues Ph.D. across time zones

Nastaran Nagshineh, center, defended her Ph.D. thesis at RIT in April. Faculty from RIT’s Rochester and Dubai campuses served on her thesis committee and include, from left to right, Kathleen Lamkin-Kennard, Steven Weinstein, Nathaniel Barlow, and David Kofke (a professor at the University at Buffalo). Mohamed Samaha participated remotely and appears on the video screen behind the group and alongside Nagshineh’s picture.

Nastaran Nagshineh is one of the first Ph.D. candidates to bridge RIT’s Rochester and Dubai campuses. Her accomplishment creates a path for future students at the university’s international campuses.

Nagshineh completed her Ph.D. in mathematical modeling while working full time as a mathematics lecturer at RIT Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, teaching as many as five classes a semester. She described her Ph.D. journey as “an exercise in perseverance” due to competing demands and long days. Rochester is eight hours behind Dubai, and the time difference meant many late-night classes and meetings.

“I saw this collaboration as an opportunity, rather than as a challenge, because my primary adviser, Dr. Steven Weinstein (RIT professor of chemical engineering), and my co-adviser, Dr. Mohamed Samaha (RIT Dubai associate professor of mechanical engineering), both have the same area of research interest,” she said. “They both worked toward my success.”

Nagshineh is one of 67 RIT Ph.D. students who defended their thesis this academic year and who will earn their doctorate. RIT awarded 63 Ph.D. degrees in 2023.

In 2020-2021, RIT’s Graduate School met and surpassed the university’s goal of conferring 50 Ph.D. degrees during an academic year. That number will continue to grow as students cycle through the seven new Ph.D. programs that RIT has added since 2017, said Diane Slusarski , dean of RIT’s Graduate School.

Meeting these goals puts RIT on a path toward achieving an “R1,” or research-intensive designation, from the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Learning. RIT is currently ranked as an R2 institution . Many factors go into changing a university’s status, including research investment and maintaining a three-year average of 70 Ph.D. degrees awarded per year, according to Slusarski.

“We have met the goals of the strategic plan, and now we look forward to contributing to the research innovation in the future,” Slusarski said. “We want to help the new programs thrive and win national research awards.”

RIT’s emphasis on high-level research is seen in Nagshineh’s Ph.D. work. She applies mathematical modeling to the field of fluid dynamics. Her research has been published in top-tier journals and has gained notice, said Weinstein, her thesis adviser.

Weinstein describes Nagshineh’s accomplishments as “a testament to a fantastic work ethic and commitment” and is inspirational to younger students at Rochester and Dubai.

“The collaboration between RIT Dubai/Rochester has continued,” he said. “Another paper was submitted a few weeks ago with Mohamed Samaha and Nate Barlow (RIT associate professor in the School of Mathematics and Statistics) as co-authors, as well as Cade Reinberger, a younger Ph.D. student in my research group.”

Mathematical modeling is one of RIT’s newer Ph.D. degree programs, and Nagshineh is among its earliest graduates. The program has doubled in size since it began accepting students in 2017, Slusarski said. This past fall, the mathematical modeling program had 35 students, with two graduating this year.

Altogether, RIT has 13 Ph.D. degree programs currently enrolling 438 students, with computing and information sciences accounting for the largest with 117 students. RIT’s other Ph.D. programs include astrophysical sciences and technology , biomedical and chemical engineering , business administration , color science , electrical and computer engineering, imaging science , mechanical and industrial engineering , microsystems engineering , and sustainability .

New programs in cognitive science and physics will launch in the fall.

The growth in RIT graduate education—with more than 3,000 master’s and doctoral students—reflects a demographic change in the student population, Slusarski said. “We have a higher percentage of women in the graduate programs than we have for RIT undergraduate programs.”

RIT’s graduate programs enroll 42 percent women, according to Christie Leone , assistant dean for the Graduate School.

Nagshineh, who also holds an MS in electrical engineering from RIT Dubai, welcomes her role as a mentor to other women students on both campuses.

“As a young woman in an Arabic country, the power of women is often underestimated and undervalued, and I hope to serve as a role model to female students, especially those that question their path,” Nagshineh said.

She plans to continue in her career as a professor and a researcher. “I would like to pursue a research program where I can advise my own students and teach them more deeply.”

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Ethics as a stand-alone course for ph.d. in public administration.

Daniel Scott , Liberty University Follow

Helms School of Government

Doctor of Philosophy

Eugene Belmain

public administration, experiential learning, Ph.D., ethics

Disciplines

Public Affairs, Public Policy and Public Administration

Recommended Citation

Scott, Daniel, "Ethics as a Stand-Alone Course for Ph.D. in Public Administration" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5589. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5589

Ethics is an essential aspect of society and public administration (PA). Despite being an essential aspect of PA, ethics courses are not universally integrated into higher education programs. Few higher education institutions have adopted a comprehensive approach to ethics, and ethics courses are not required for most doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) graduates in PA. The purpose of this qualitative case study is to understand the ramifications of not having a stand-alone ethics course in PA Ph.D. programs. The research questions that guided this study are: What are the ramifications of not having a stand-alone ethics course in PA Ph.D. programs? What are the perceived gaps in ethical knowledge among graduate students from PA Ph.D. programs without a stand-alone ethics course? What are the similarities and differences of the Ph.D. PA program ethics courses? Applying Kolb’s experiential learning (EL) theory provided this study with a theoretical underpinning. Data to answer the research questions were collected by 12 semi-structured interviews, two focus groups, and document analysis. Braun and Clarke’s six-step thematic data analysis process was applied, resulting in identifying the themes to answer the research questions. The six themes identified are: Limited ability to overcome complex ethical dilemmas, a deficit in ethical awareness and sensitivity, limited conceptual understanding, uncertainty balancing multiple ethical obligations, course structure, and integration with other courses. The findings in this study have empirical, theoretical, and practical implications.

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Spring 2024: More than 1,400 will earn degrees from UNI this weekend

CEDAR FALLS, Iowa –  The University of Northern Iowa celebrates the more than 1,400 students who will be earning degrees during commencement ceremonies this weekend. 

90% of graduating students are Iowa residents, representing 93 counties in the state. The spring 2024 graduating class proudly represents 27 states across the U.S. and 17 countries around the world. Nearly a third of this semester’s graduates identify as first generation college students.

Overall, four of five UNI graduates stay in Iowa to work after degree completion. 

UNI is excited to welcome friends and family to celebrate the graduates at three Commencement ceremonies in the McLeod Center. Each will be available via livestream:

Friday, May 10th at 7 p.m. College of Humanities, Arts & Sciences 

Saturday, May 11th at 10 a.m. College of Social & Behavioral Sciences  Division of Online Education & Individual Studies

Saturday, May 11th at 2 p.m. College of Education  Wilson College of Business

Graduation rates for UNI students stand at record levels for the third year in a row. The four-year graduation rate (51%) increased by four percentage points over last year and is more than 20 percentage points above UNI’s Carnegie peers across the country. One in 11 UNI students graduate in just three years, which is an increase from 1 in 12 last fall. 

This increase in timely graduation contributes to UNI graduates holding the lowest average student loan debt of all public universities in Iowa.

Media Contact: Adam Amdor

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• Open access
• Published: 11 May 2024

Social accountability in a medical school: is it sufficient? A regional medical school curriculum and approaches to equip graduates for rural and remote medical services

• Farah Noya   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0103-0012 1 ,
• Sandra Carr   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0043-4362 2 &
• Sandra Thompson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0327-7155 3  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  526 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

234 Accesses

Metrics details

Social accountability is increasingly integral to medical education, aligning health systems with community needs. Universitas Pattimura’s Faculty of Medicine (FMUP) enhances this through a curriculum that prepares graduates for rural and remote (RR) medical practice, exceeding national standards. The impact of this curriculum on graduate readiness in actual work settings remains unassessed.

This study was conducted to capture the perspectives of FMUP medical graduates in a rural-centric curriculum, focusing on the teaching and learning opportunities afforded to them during their medical education. These insights are crucial for evaluating the accountability of regional medical schools in delivering quality service, particularly in underserved areas.

Semistructured interviews were conducted with nine FMUP graduates employed in the RR areas of Maluku Province. A qualitative analysis was employed to examine graduates’ views on the curriculum concerning medical school accountability.

The FMUP curriculum, informed by social accountability principles, partially prepares graduates to work under Maluku’s RR conditions. However, it was reported by participants that their skills and preparedness often fall short in the face of substandard working environments.

Conclusions

The FMUP curriculum supports the government’s aim to develop an RR medical workforce. However, the curriculum’s social accountability and rural emphasis fall short of addressing community health needs amid inadequate practice conditions. Political investment in standardizing medical facilities and equipment is essential for enhancing graduates’ effectiveness and health outcomes in RR communities.

Peer Review reports

Disparities in healthcare access in rural and remote (RR) regions are intensified by a global shortage in health personnel and uneven workforce distribution [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has directed medical schools to address these societal and health system inequities by aligning their educational, research, and service activities with priority health concerns [ 4 ]. Social accountability (SA) in medical education has been pivotal in harmonizing health systems with community needs [ 5 ], influencing the calibre and quantity of medical human resources to enhance RR community health [ 6 , 7 ].

Internationally, medical schools have embraced the responsibility of empowering graduates to address RR challenges and to foster a preference for rural practices. The Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) in Canada, established in 2005, stands as a paragon of SA, with community engagement at its core, benefiting both students and local populations [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. In Asia, the Philippines’ medical schools have integrated SA into their curricula, yielding benefits for students and communities alike [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Thailand’s government has launched a national initiative to increase the rural medical workforce, focusing on both quality and quantity [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. SA has also been embedded into the national education accreditation frameworks in Canada, Turkey, and Latin America [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], setting a precedent for medical schools to tailor their curricula toward enhancing population health.

In Indonesia, the Faculty of Medicine at Universitas Gajah Mada (UGM) has effectively incorporated SA into its curriculum [ 20 ], with community-based medical education (CBME) as a fundamental element [ 21 ]. However, there is a dearth of published evaluations on their SA initiatives. Universitas Hasanuddin (UNHAS) in Makassar has launched programs targeting early life stages to combat malnutrition and promote child growth [ 22 , 23 ]. Universitas Nusa Cendana (UNDANA) in Kupang has adopted rural retention strategies through its curriculum [ 24 ], while Universitas Brawijaya (UB) in Malang has showcased SA through social entrepreneurship, engaging students in innovative problem solving [ 25 ]. Most Indonesian medical schools have progressed toward SA by implementing CBME or rural-focused education [ 21 , 26 , 27 ]. Despite these strides, a national curriculum standard for SA is lacking, and few studies have been published on the SA efforts of Indonesian medical schools.

Established in 2008, the Faculty of Medicine at Universitas Pattimura (FMUP) in Maluku Province, Indonesia, was conceived with the mission of developing a medical workforce adept at rural and remote (RR) healthcare delivery [ 28 ]. Operating with a foundational philosophy of social accountability (SA), FMUP has oriented its educational, research, and service activities toward addressing societal health needs and fostering health improvements in RR conditions [ 28 ]. However, the extent to which the FMUP curriculum has influenced community health outcomes remains unmeasured.

The Network Toward Unity for Health (TUFH) endorses the use of tools such as the Indicators for Social Accountability Tool in Health Profession Education (ISAT) [ 29 , 30 ] to gauge a medical school’s curriculum impact on community needs. Additionally, Boelen’s Contextualization Population and Usability (CPU) framework is employed to assess the impact of SA, particularly under the ‘Usability’ parameter [ 31 ]. This study focuses on the ‘Impact’ indicator, aligning with the CPU framework’s usability indicator and the ISAT’s school outcomes and societal impact metrics. The evaluation of FMUP graduates and their contributions is framed within the Kirkpatrick model, specifically Level 3, which examines graduates’ skills, attitudes, and practices in actual work settings [ 32 ].

This research seeks to understand FMUP medical graduates’ perspectives on the rural-focused curriculum and the accountability measures provided during their education. Alumni, now independently serving in RR settings, offer lived experiences that shed light on effective practices, areas needing enhancement, and actionable recommendations—key elements of this evaluative study. The insights gleaned will be invaluable for regional medical schools striving to deliver quality healthcare services, particularly in areas where standards are yet to meet expectations. Such findings will contribute to ongoing efforts to uphold and amplify the impact of SA within medical education.

Aim, design and setting of the study

This study sought to understand the perspectives of medical graduates from the FMUP on the rural-focused curriculum and the accountability measures provided during their education. A qualitative evaluation approach utilizing semistructured interviews was employed in a postgraduate medical practice setting to assess the impact of the rural-focused curriculum of the FMUP.

Curriculum implementation showcasing social accountability

Macro curriculum.

The FMUP’s vision is to prepare graduates for rural and remote (RR) archipelagic conditions in Maluku Province [ 33 ]. The strategies align with WHO educational recommendations, including admitting students with rural backgrounds, rural immersion, and a rurally focused curriculum [ 4 ].

Admissions involve a memorandum of understanding with district governments for financial support per student. The FMUP supports the Ministry of Health’s affirmation scholarship program, which awards full scholarships to medical students committed to rural service [ 28 ].

For rural immersion, FMUP partners with district health offices and community health centers (Puskesmas) were included. Collaborations extend to ‘Fostered Villages’ near the university, where students engage in community service and research, living and studying within these communities [ 28 ].

The FMUP mandates a compulsory service period, requiring alumni to serve at least one year in RR districts, facilitated through collaboration with the Provincial Health Office [ 28 ].

Micro curriculum

The curriculum incorporates archipelagic/rural-focused problem-based learning from the first to the fourth preclinical years, with scenarios reflecting clinical cases from Maluku’s RR areas. In years 1, 3, and 4, special local content modules aimed to equip students with the knowledge and skills to address challenges specific to Maluku’s islands and rural areas [ 28 , 34 ].

Community placements, coordinated through the public health and community medicine program, include visits to Puskesmas for observation and surveys. Integrated community service spans eight weeks across provincial islands. Clinical stage placements occur in partner Puskesmas on Seram Island, with rotations to local coastal guard and search and rescue (SAR) units for disaster management training, a vital skill for RR practice in Maluku [ 28 , 34 ].

Study population and sampling

The study targeted graduates of the FMUP who were practising in Maluku Province. Recruitment combined convenience [ 35 ], snowballing [ 36 ], and purposive [ 35 ] sampling strategies to encompass a representative group of participants. These methods were chosen based on the accessibility and availability of the alumni, many of whom were serving in rural districts with varying distances and transportation options from the provincial capital where the study was conducted. The initial respondents were alumni on duty in the provincial capital during the interviewer’s (FN) presence at the study location. Subsequent participants were identified through referrals from initial respondents, with their schedules in Ambon city confirmed during the data collection period. This approach enabled the recruitment of ten junior physicians, FMUP alumni, from various districts across Maluku Province, with less than five years of work experience in RR areas at district hospitals or Puskesmas in subdistricts.

Instruments

The Kirkpatrick Evaluation Model [ 32 ] served as the evaluation framework, assessing the education program’s effectiveness across four levels:

Graduates’ reactions to their training experience.

Learning outcomes, including knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained.

Behavioral changes and improvements in the workplace.

The ultimate impact of the training on practice.

Interview questions were crafted to evaluate the graduates’ behaviors in their workplace and reflect on the FMUP curriculum’s relevance to rural and remote conditions (Level 3 of the Kirkpatrick model) [ 32 ]. The following questions were asked:

To what extent has the FMUP curriculum prepared you for working in Maluku’s RR conditions?

What are the curriculum’s strengths in equipping you for RR practice?

What are the weaknesses of the curriculum?

What improvements could be made to the curriculum?

How could FMUP better prepare its graduates for RR conditions in Maluku?

Data collection

The data were collected from January-February 2020 through audio-recorded and transcribed interviews. After the interviews, the interviewer (FN) collaborated with the respondents to clarify and interpret the responses, particularly when the information deviated from the central topic.

Data analysis

Abductive coding was employed, merging a deductive framework from the literature review with open coding to incorporate fresh insights from respondents [ 37 , 38 ]. Themes were determined collaboratively by the research team, with FN leading the coding and quote selection for each subtheme. SC and ST reviewed the translated transcripts for coding accuracy and thematic relevance, ensuring grammatical precision. No coding discrepancies were reported, and data immersion facilitated the thorough exploration of themes.

Trustworthiness

The informants were guaranteed anonymity and the confidentiality of their contributions. They were permitted to discuss sensitive topics without audio recording. Verbatim transcriptions were initially conducted in Indonesia and subsequently translated into English. The data extraction, coding, and interpretation processes strictly followed the predefined themes of the analytical framework.

To ensure data trustworthiness, a rigorous method of immersion involving multiple readings and meticulous coding was employed [ 38 ]. Recognizing the potential for bias, the first author, who is affiliated with the medical school under study, took measures to mitigate any influence of personal perspectives on data interpretation and reporting. Validation and cross-verification were conducted by coresearchers (SC, ST), facilitated by translations from an independent, professional translator. This collaborative approach ensured methodological consistency across interview questions, data interpretations, and emergent themes [ 39 ]. The respondents were also debriefed on the analytical findings to confirm their concurrence with the results.

Overview of the respondents

Nine (90%) alumni of the FMUP agreed to participate in individual interviews. These respondents represented a broad spectrum of experience across eight of the eleven districts within Maluku Province. At the time of data collection, their tenure in Maluku ranged up to five years. The majority were female ( n  = 8, 89%), and their employment status varied between permanent and temporary positions, predominantly in the province’s remote areas. Only one participant had a rural upbringing, having been raised in a rural and remote (RR) area. To ensure confidentiality, each respondent was assigned an alphanumeric pseudonym reflecting their contribution method (I = Interview), as detailed in Table  1 .

Evaluation of the curriculum

Impact of curriculum on graduate preparedness.

Throughout the interviews, alumni of the FMUP consistently affirmed that the curriculum had equipped them for service in the rural and remote (RR) areas of Maluku. The majority of participants reflected on how their medical education, through various lessons and workshops, endowed them with the standard competencies outlined by the Medical Council. Beyond clinical skills, the curriculum was praised for instilling life and soft skills essential for navigating the challenges of working in suboptimal conditions. Commonly cited difficulties included inadequate medical facilities and equipment, subpar patient transportation, adverse weather, challenging access to health facilities, and serving communities with limited health knowledge and practices. Despite the overall positive feedback, some alumni felt that the training at FMUP fell short of fully preparing them for the realities of their workplace conditions. Nonetheless, most participants were able to identify and utilize specific qualities fostered by their education to overcome the obstacles they faced.

The interviews highlighted the curriculum’s focus on RR areas as a significant confidence booster, particularly in situations characterized by scarce resources. Alumni expressed that the curriculum fostered their readiness for nonideal clinical situations in Maluku’s rural and remote (RR) areas, although they were trained within an ideal medical environment. One graduate shared,

I felt prepared, especially with skills to deal with a situation beyond ideal. I was taught to practice creatively, without adequate facilities and medical equipment. I was confident handling emergency cases in our Puskesmas. (I1)

This sentiment was echoed by others who appreciated the curriculum’s emphasis on independence , which is crucial for areas where support is scarce. The ability to act autonomously was a recurrent theme, with one alum stating,

It’s hard to depend on the unreliable telecommunications in our district. The curriculum allowed us to act independently where no support could be found on site. During the clerkship, we were under the direct supervision of specialists; no resident physician in training meant that we could solve the case independently and report it directly to the specialist. This gets us used to acting independently. (I5)

Graduates also felt that the FMUP curriculum cultivated discipline and prompted responses to emergencies, traits that set them apart from peers from other universities.

In evaluating our performance against graduates from other institutions, it’s evident that we excel in time management and rapid emergency response. Our commitment was such that our phones were never silenced during night shifts, ensuring we were alert and responsive to emergencies, even at 2 am or 3 am, a dedication recognized and appreciated by paramedics and other healthcare professionals. (I2)

However, some graduates noted a gap between the controlled learning environment and the realities of their workplace. This indicates the need for curriculum adjustments to better simulate real-world conditions.

The curriculum, while foundational, did not entirely prepare us for the practicalities of the workplace; there’s a shortfall. Our education was rooted in standard practical skills provided by comprehensive resources on campus and in the hospital environment. We had the advantage of readily available equipment and medications. However, the reality of the workplace is a stark contrast, demanding that we adapt, innovate, and compel ourselves to work with what is at hand. Frequently, I find myself having to improvise and coerce my training to fit the actual conditions of the job. (I3)

Curriculum strengths: relevance and adaptability

The curriculum’s relevance was highlighted as a key strength. Graduates found that the lessons and workshops were pertinent to their daily cases, preparing them with skills and exposure to the Maluku RR environment.

During our preclinical years, we were trained in speedboat navigation, a skill that unexpectedly became practical when I had to pilot our sea ambulance. The curriculum also covered extensive maritime safety, which proved essential given the unpredictability of sea transportation in Maluku. (I2) Our two-month community service program during the preclinical stage placed us 14 km from the district capital, in an area with challenging access. Here, electricity outages could last a week, and telecommunication was unreliable. Currently working in a remote setting, these conditions no longer catch me off guard; the experience during medical school was stressful, but it instilled in us a readiness for even tougher situations. (I8)

The curriculum also encouraged ‘out-of-the-box’ thinking. Life skills and soft skills such as problem solving were crucial for adapting to resource limitations, showcasing the innovative spirit instilled by FMUP.

Our medical instructors equipped us with the ingenuity to practice using the most basic equipment available. For instance, I recall fashioning a nasogastric tube from an IV fluid tube due to its unavailability at our Puskesmas. (I1)

Curriculum weaknesses: gaps in cultural competency and rural training

The FMUP curriculum’s shortfall in cultural communication and awareness was evident, as it did not equip alumni with the necessary cultural sensitivity to navigating the diverse cultures and traditions of Maluku’s RR communities.

Initially, I couldn’t communicate with the community without a translator. Now, I’m still learning medical terms in their language. Understanding local health-related terms should be a part of our medical education (I2)

The lack of familiarity with local customs was also a concern.

There are many traditions and local rules that we don’t understand. It’s crucial for us to be knowledgeable, or at least aware, to avoid being perceived as disrespectful or ignorant (I1)

The disparity between training and practice environments was another piece of evidence. The training locations provided by FMUP were less remote than the actual practice settings, which impacted the preparedness of graduates.

The most remote community placement was in Seram Barat, near Ambon. Now, working in a remote district, I see many differences. The faculty’s reluctance to use substandard facilities for training deprived us of the opportunity to recognize and experience the real challenges of RR workplaces. (I3)

There were also challenges in fostering rural commitment, as the curriculum struggled to inspire graduates to commit to rural service.

The vision and mission of FMUP are clear, but motivation is individual. Some peers lacked the drive to work on an island, preferring suburban or urban settings, unaccustomed to the lack of amenities and separation from family. (I1)

This issue was compounded by the urban and privileged backgrounds of some students.

Our batch was prepared and driven to serve rural areas. However, subsequent batches, including children of high-ranking officials accustomed to comfort, require more motivation and exposure to rural realities. (I5)

Alum recommendations to enhance preparedness: cultural awareness and continuing medical education

In addition to more direct exposure to the RR communities/conditions in Maluku, the graduates also proposed FMUP to expose the conditions that existed in the working locations where there was compulsory assignment after graduation.

This will prepare our mentality for the actual conditions in the district, do not cover up. At least, we can imagine how bad the workplace is. (I6)

Furthermore, alumni propose that FMUP should advocate for standardized working conditions by engaging with district governments. They believe that the university should ensure that graduates are effectively allocated to RR areas and that local governments maintain a standard working environment.

Support from the university is crucial. We’re assigned mandatory service, yet the conditions hinder our effectiveness, particularly concerning facilities and incentives. The university should reassess the MOU with the districts to ensure they uphold standards for facilities and remuneration. (I6)

Participants suggested that the FMUP curriculum should include cultural awareness and an appreciation for local wisdom.

Hospital admissions are often avoided due to cultural beliefs equating illness with sin. It’s important to understand such perspectives to educate effectively, one participant explained (I1) An introduction to the local wisdom and medical terminology in Maluku’s dialect is essential, not in-depth but enough to ensure clear communication with patients, another participant added (I2)

Moreover, there is a call for continuous support for alumni. Participants proposed that FMUP organize continuing medical education (CME) to keep remote practitioners updated, which should include peer networking and not require leaving their posts.

We wish for seminars or workshops in our regions, fostering a strong community among FMUP physicians, expressed a participant (I6)

A recent study [ 40 ] revealed a significant correlation between FMUP graduates and their commitment to rural healthcare in Maluku. Notably, physicians who intend to serve in Maluku are predominantly FMUP alumni. A university’s rural-centric curriculum is likely a contributing factor to the increased retention of physicians in these areas. This qualitative assessment of FMUP graduates verified that the curriculum provides them with a solid foundation for rural medical practice.

The impact of the FMUP curriculum is comparable to that of other medical schools with a social orientation focus, such as NOSM in Canada [ 8 ], Ateneo de Zamboanga University School of Medicine (AdZU-SOM) in the Philippines [ 12 ] and James Cook University in Australia [ 41 ]. These institutions aim their curricula at retaining healthcare workers and enhancing the health status of communities. Evidence of their success is documented in both qualitative and quantitative research, highlighting their societal contributions [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 41 ]. The FMUP could enhance its curriculum by incorporating more pronounced social accountability elements and by evaluating its effectiveness through comprehensive studies. Such studies might include tracking the career paths of graduates, examining changes in community health metrics, and assessing the socioeconomic impact of rural clinical placements, research, and service initiatives.

This study underscores the inadequate professional environment prevalent in Indonesian rural and remote (RR) areas, which poses a significant challenge for graduates who are preparing for practice in those areas. The respondents recognized that the inferior quality of equipment and facilities impedes the provision of high-quality health and medical services to RR communities. The Medical Education Law in Indonesia mandates the standardization of graduates through national exit exams, which also permits customization to incorporate local content and potential [ 42 , 43 ]. This requirement has compelled regional medical schools to focus on ensuring a high pass rate for their students in these exams. While it is reassuring that all medical graduates meet a consistent national standard, the quality of healthcare facilities where they practice remains unregulated and varies widely, often falling short of these standards. Particularly in the eastern regions of Indonesia, healthcare facilities in rural and remote areas are substandard and do not facilitate the delivery of high-quality care [ 40 , 44 , 45 ]. The findings of this study advocate for the faculty of FMUP and other medical schools in underserved provinces to initiate strategic advocacy within the Indonesian Medical Education Community. The goal is to promote postgraduate support and to establish accreditation standards that reflect the actual conditions of medical practice. This initiative would ensure that the conditions for practice are adequate and conducive to providing high-quality healthcare.

Upon reflection on alumni feedback, it is evident that the FMUP curriculum, with its emphasis on rural Maluku, falls short in addressing workforce deficits and inadequate professional facilities in these regions. There is a noticeable mismatch between graduates’ skills and their working conditions, and the competencies mandated by the Council do not fully align with the needs of the rural context. To rectify these issues, FMUP must focus on three key areas: ensuring that graduates meet national standards, equipping them to serve effectively in rural settings, and preparing them for practice under less-than-ideal conditions.

Research indicates a connection between governance corruption and the aforementioned challenges. Studies on service delivery in developing countries, particularly in the Asia Pacific lower middle-income countries (LMICs), highlight the critical role of accountability in ensuring effective service delivery, robust governance, and the empowerment of citizens [ 46 ]. In Indonesia, health policies that support or promote social accountability activities are seldom formalized, resulting in minimal impact [ 47 ].

Prihatiningsih [ 5 ] noted that a contributing factor to these challenges is the disjointed coordination and collaboration between the education and health ministries. Medical schools fall under the purview of the Ministry of Higher Education, while the health system is managed by the Ministries of Health. As recommended by graduates, the FMUP could take a different approach by advocating with local governments to improve working conditions. Within the broader network of community-based and socially accountable medical schools in Indonesia, particularly those with a rural and remote (RR) focus, the governance indicators of social accountability [ 31 ] could be expanded and clarified. This would foster a shared understanding and promote collaborative efforts toward social accountability.

Socially accountable medical schools, exemplified by AdZU-SOM in the Philippines and the Chulalongkorn Faculty of Medicine in Thailand, demonstrate that engaging stakeholders at every stage of a physician’s lifecycle is integral to their mission [ 11 , 48 ]. This engagement underscores the feasibility of collective social accountability in rural and remote (RR) lower middle-income countries (LMICs) within the Asia Pacific region. In Indonesia, medical schools such as FMUP, UGM, UNHAS, and UNDANA are pivotal in fostering social accountability and collective social responsibility. These institutions are positioned to advocate for improved working conditions and possess the influence necessary to urge the government to commit to collective social accountability, ensuring high standards of personal support and professional requirements. UGM has paved the way for social accountability (SA) within medical education in Indonesia [ 20 ]. In collaboration with other Indonesian medical faculties, UGM can play an advocative role in compelling the health system’s governing bodies—the Indonesian Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, and Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment and Bureaucratic Reform—to take responsibility for the entire physician lifecycle, including production, recruitment, and retention of the workforce.

Furthermore, this study emphasizes the need for medical graduates to be equipped with advocacy skills to influence systemic change. Traditionally, medical doctors are educated to be ‘five-star doctors,’ adept at addressing a spectrum of problems that extend beyond clinical cases through community leadership and management [ 49 ]. These competencies, coupled with advocacy, are essential to ensure that local governments meet the fundamental health needs and quality of care expectations within the RR community. The AdZU-SOM encourages students to master multisectoral collaboration and participatory methods to bolster community healthcare capacity [ 12 ]. Despite political and governance challenges, the FMUP has the opportunity to take a proactive stance, engaging all pertinent stakeholders and leading advocacy efforts through multilevel partnerships while also imparting to students the importance of advocacy and collaboration in challenging circumstances.

The challenges faced by FMUPs in encouraging graduates to serve in rural areas (RRs) stem from a variety of factors, including inadequate facilities, geographic isolation, and students’ nonrural backgrounds. Despite efforts to expose students to rural settings during their medical education, approximately 80% of FMUP’s intake comprises students from nonrural backgrounds [ 40 ]. The limited duration—less than a year—spent in RR areas often results in a significant cultural and mental adjustment for graduates when they begin working. The FMUP curriculum documentation acknowledges that the rural areas encountered during medical training are not as remote as the locations where graduates are ultimately employed. To enhance the FMUP curriculum and boost graduates’ willingness to work in rural settings, this study recommends increasing the intake of students from rural backgrounds, extending and intensifying rural exposure during both the preclinical and clinical phases, and aligning educational sites more closely with actual RR workplaces. Evidence from other socially accountable medical schools supports the efficacy of admitting students with rural backgrounds and extended rural clerkships (lasting 1–2 years) and integrating these approaches into a rural-focused curriculum [ 1 , 8 , 12 , 50 ]. Such measures could help students mentally prepare for RR work environments and mitigate the impact of cultural shock. Moreover, ongoing engagement with the RR community could enhance cultural sensitivity and be further supported by incorporating cultural studies into the curriculum.

Strengths and limitations

This qualitative study provides a comprehensive examination of recent graduates’ perspectives on their readiness for rural medical practice following education at a rurally oriented medical school. Although the participant pool is small, their candid reflections offer valuable insights into their training and subsequent experiences in remote work settings, with notable consistency in the issues identified. While the depth of the interviews yields a profound understanding, the findings may not be broadly representative but may resonate with reported experiences from other RR regions in Indonesia, particularly concerning suboptimal working conditions. Potential author bias in interpreting and analyzing the data is acknowledged; however, this bias were mitigated through cross-verification and validation among researchers.

Our research indicates that regional medical schools with a commitment to social accountability have been instrumental in facilitating the government’s efforts to prepare a medical workforce for rural and remote (RR) areas. Nevertheless, despite the advantages of a curriculum tailored to rural needs and a focus on social accountability, medical graduates have expressed concerns that community health needs remain unmet due to suboptimal conditions for professional practice. These conditions significantly undermine the initiatives aimed at enhancing the RR medical workforce. To truly address the challenges faced in RR areas, concerted political action is necessary to fund and establish standardized medical facilities and equipment. Such improvements would empower medical graduates to more effectively meet the healthcare needs of the RR communities they serve.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Faculty of Medicine Universitas Pattimura

• Rural and remote

World Health Organization

North Ontario School of Medicine

Ateneo de Zamboanga University School of Medicine

Community-based Medical Education

Universitas Hasanuddin

Universitas Gajah Mada

Universitas Brawijaya

Universitas Nusa Cendana

The Network Toward Unity for Health

Indicators for Social Accountability Tool in Health Professions Education

Contextualization Population and Usability

Social Accountability

Continuing Medical Education

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Funding for the design of the study; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data; and the writing of the manuscript was provided by The University of Western Australia School of Allied Health, Division of Health Professions Education. FN was an Australian award scholar supported by the Australian Government. The Australian Awards Scholarship from the Australian Government supported parts of the fieldwork in Maluku, Indonesia. The open-access publication of this manuscript was supported by Faculty of Medicine Universitas Pattimura. ST is employed under funding from the Australian Rural Health Multidisciplinary Training Programme and funding from the Department of Health to develop rural health workforces. The views and opinions expressed in the manuscript are from the authors and do not represent the views of the Australian Government.

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FN led the design and conceptualisation of this work, drafted the protocol, developed the instrument, collected data, and conducted the analysis and data interpretation. SC and ST guided the study’s conceptualisation and design, conducted further analysis and data interpretation, and revised all drafts of this manuscript for important intellectual content and clarity. All authors read and approve the final manuscript and the publishing.

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Noya, F., Carr, S. & Thompson, S. Social accountability in a medical school: is it sufficient? A regional medical school curriculum and approaches to equip graduates for rural and remote medical services. BMC Med Educ 24 , 526 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05522-y

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This story originally appeared in Yale Engineering magazine .

The law can be a complicated thing, even for seemingly simple matters. Wondering if the oak tree in your front yard is in violation of local zoning ordinances? Figuring that out could mean wading through a tall pile of regulations, all written up in confounding legalese.

A city zoning code can contain tens of thousands of meticulously detailed rules, regulations, and guidelines. Even if the 60-megabytes-plus size of the documents doesn’t crash your computer, you still have to try to understand it all. This is a daunting task even for legal experts. For laypeople, deciphering such a Byzantine set of rules borders on the impossible.

To that end, professors Ruzica Piskac and Scott Shapiro — from Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science and the Yale Law School, respectively — ​are putting artificial intelligence (AI) to work on your behalf. With advanced AI-powered tools, they are developing a system — known as a “lawbot” — that can review and parse zoning laws, tax provisions, and other intricate legal codes much faster than human lawyers. They named their related start-up Leibniz AI, after the 17th century polymath who dreamed of an automated knowledge generator.

To the user, the concept behind the lawbot is fairly simple: ask it a legal question, and it provides you with an understandable and accurate answer.

More than just offering helpful advice, the two professors see their system as helping to democratize the legal system. Getting reliable information that isn’t cost- or time-prohibitive empowers the average person to understand their rights and make more informed decisions.

The system harnesses the power of large language models, which can understand and generate human language — essentially, they streamline legal analysis and allow users to ask questions and get answers in plain language. Crucially, the system also applies automated reasoning, a form of AI that uses logic and formal methods to reliably solve complex problems. Today’s popular chatbots have shown a tendency toward “hallucinating” — that is, asserting false statements as true. Obviously, this isn’t something you’re looking for in a lawyer. But thanks to automated reasoning, the Leibniz AI lawbot offers only clear-headed responses. By systematically verifying and validating each step of the reasoning process, it significantly reduces the potential for errors.

“ We want to use those insights that we already learned about reasoning in the legal setting,” said Piskac, associate professor of computer science. “Then we can apply them to real-world settings so that regular users like me or someone else can ask their questions. For instance, if I have an extra room, am I allowed to rent it on Airbnb?”

There are currently AI-based startups focused on providing legal services. Unlike Piskac and Shapiro’s system, though, none use automated reasoning or any other sorts of formal validation of their results. Instead, they tend to rely mainly on unreliable large language models.

Shapiro, the Charles F. Southmayd Professor of Law and professor of philosophy in Yale’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences, said developing a lawbot seemed like a great opportunity to show the promise of AI technology. But increasing access to legal information through large language models brings the obligation to ensure that the information is accurate — the stakes are high when it comes to the law.

That’s where the system’s techniques of automated reasoning, verification, and logic solvers come into play, he said. The result is nuanced legal information delivered quickly and accurately at the user’s fingertips.

A ‘deeply interdisciplinary’ collaboration

Piskac and Shapiro began working together after Samuel Judson, Piskac’s Ph.D. student, proposed applying for a research grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF). The proposal called for developing accountable software systems, a project that required legal expertise. Piskac emailed Shapiro, whom she’d never spoken with before.

“ I’m like, ‘Hey, I’m a person who likes logic. Would you like to work with me on a project involving logic and the law?’” Piskac said. “And Scott answered within a couple of minutes: ‘Yes. I like logic, too.’” Soon after, together with Timos Antonopoulos, a research scientist in Piskac’s group, they applied and were awarded an NSF research grant for their project on accountability.

The work they’ve accomplished wouldn’t have been possible without both researchers participating, Shapiro said.

“ One of the things that I really love about this project is how deeply interdisciplinary it is,” he said. “I had to learn about program verification and symbolic execution, and Ruzica and her team had to learn about legal accountability and the nature of intentions. And in this situation, we went from a very high level, philosophical, jurisprudential idea all the way down to developing a tool. And that’s a very rare thing.”

Each field of study comes with its own terminology and ways of thinking. It can make things tricky at first, Piskac said, but having a common interest helped overcome those obstacles.

“ Scott would say something, and I would say, ‘No, this is not correct from the computer science perspective.’ Then I would say something and he would say, ‘No, this is not right from the legal perspective,’” she said. “And just this immediate feedback would really help us. When you’re sitting close to each other and comparing and discussing things, you realize that your goals and ideas are the same. You just need to adapt your language.”

Yale Engineering Dean Jeffrey Brock said the collaboration is a great example of how the school can direct the conversation around AI and make impactful contributions to the rapidly evolving field. In addition to AI-related projects with Yale Law School and Yale School of Medicine, he noted that Engineering has been working with the Jackson School of Global Affairs on cybersecurity, and more collaborations are in the works.

“ Engineering is lifting Yale by helping other schools and disciplines on campus to thrive,” Brock said. “In the era of generative AI, fields like law and medicine will become inextricably intertwined with technology development and advanced algorithms. For these schools at Yale to maintain their preeminence, they are increasingly engaged with our mission, and we want to help make their work even better. That’s happening now, and we expect it to continue to an even greater degree in the future.”

He also noted that the cross-disciplinary approach is reflected in the school’s curriculum. Piskac and Shapiro, for instance, co-teach “Law, Security and Logic,” a course that explores how computer-automated reasoning can advance cybersecurity and legal reasoning. And “AI for Future Presidents,” a newly offered course taught by Professor Brian Scassellati, is designed for all students and takes a general approach to the technology and its societal impacts.

Putting the car on the stand

Our lives are increasingly entwined with the automated decision making of AI. Autonomous vehicles use AI to share our roads, health care providers use it to make certain diagnoses and treatment plans, and judges can use it to decide sentencing. But what happens when — even with the best intentions — things go wrong? Who’s accountable, and to what degree? Algorithms can fail — they can cause fatal accidents, or perpetuate race- and gender-based biases in court decisions.

In a project that combines computer science, legal rules, and philosophy, Piskac and Shapiro have developed a tool they call “soid,” which uses formal methods to “put the algorithm on the stand.”

To better understand how to hold an algorithm accountable, Piskac and Shapiro consider a case in which one autonomous car hits another. With human drivers, lawyers can ask direct and indirect questions to get to the matter of who’s at fault, and what the drivers’ intentions were. For example, if a human driver can testify convincingly that the crash was unforeseeable and unintentional, the jury might go easier on them.

Just as human drivers do, automated decision-making systems make unsupervised decisions in complex environments — and in both cases, accidents can happen. As the researchers note, though, automated systems can’t just walk into a courtroom and swear to tell the whole truth. Their programs, though, can be translated into logic and subjected to reasoning.

Piskac and Shapiro and their team developed a system that uses automated reasoning, which can rigorously “interrogate” algorithmic behaviors in a way that mirrors the adversarial approach a lawyer might take to a witness in court. This method is a provable approach, they say, that guarantees accurate and comprehensive answers from the decision algorithm.

“ The basic idea is that we developed a tool that can almost mimic a trial, but for an autonomous system,” Piskac said. “We use a car because it’s something that people can easily understand, but you can apply it to any AI-based system.”

In some ways, an automated decision-​making system is the ideal witness.

“ You can ask a human all of these questions, but a human can lie,” she said. “But this software cannot lie to you. There are logs, so you can actually see — ‘Did you see this car?’ If it’s not registered in the log, they didn’t see the car. Or if it is registered, you have your answer.”

Using soid, built by Judson in Piskac’s lab, an investigator can pose factual and counterfactual queries to better understand the functional intention of the decision algorithm. That can help distinguish accidents caused by honest design failures versus those by malicious design practices — for instance, was a system designed to facilitate insurance fraud? Factual questions are straightforward (“Did the car veer to the right?”). Counterfactuals are a little more abstract, asking hypothetical questions that explore what an automated system might or would have done in certain situations.

“ Then, when you ask all these counterfactual questions, you don’t even need to guess if the AI program is lying or not,” Piskac said. “Because you can just execute the code, and then you will see.”

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