problem solving model in social case work

Models of Social Case Work

Models of Social Case Work are frameworks that guide social workers in their interactions with clients. They provide a way of understanding the client's problems and developing interventions to address them. Some of the most common models of social casework include the psychodynamic model, the behavioral model, the psychosocial model, and the general systems model.

The psychodynamic model focuses on the unconscious mind and how it affects behavior. The behavioral model focuses on observable behavior and how it can be changed. The psychosocial model combines the psychodynamic and behavioral models. The general systems model views the individual as part of a larger system, such as their family or community.

What is social work?

Social work is a theoretical practice based on scientific knowledge and humanitarianism to solve psycho-social problems using both internal and external factors. It is a professional service that provides knowledge, skills, methods, and techniques in the fields of social sciences, which occupies an important role.

Models of social casework

Models describe how social workers implement theories in the field.

(1) Psycho-analytical model

The psychoanalytical model was developed by Sigmund Freud. A social worker needs an understanding of the 229 personality. The contribution of a psychoanalytical model is an understanding of the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious, the id, ego, and superego. It helps the social worker understand the psychological motives of the client, including affects, anxieties, coping capacities, defenses, and conscious and unconscious forces of the personality.

(2) Psycho-social therapy

The psycho-social approach of Florence Rollis emphasizes that it is necessary to understand the inner 230 realities of the human being and the social context in which he or she lives. It focuses not only on the situational component of the client's stress but also on his personality, including his previous experiences and ego functioning.

(3) A problem -solving model

The hospital is viewed as a problem-solving organization. Illness is a real problem. The problem-solving phase, in casework, focuses on the identification of the problem to be worked on, breaking it down into manageable parts, and establishing or limiting goals. The emphasis is on the present problem. The problem-solving phase also emphasizes the partialization of problems. By partializing the problem,the social worker can help the clients gain confidence in solving their problems.

(4) Crisis intervention

Crisis intervention as a model in casework is an effective approach with reference to some situations. Crisis intervention helps the social worker examine the effect of stress and anxiety on individuals to assess their coping mechanisms and problem-solving abilities and help them mobilize their own resources and find solutions. It also emphasizes that during crises, people are more receptive to help and 'adaptable to change, and hence, quick and effective responses on the part of the caseworker can have a lasting effect on the individuals. Illness creates a crisis.

(5) Behavior  Modification Model:

Behavior modification focuses exclusively on the client's actions, utilizing such behavioral techniques as positive and negative reinforcement, and is now helping many social workers understand the behavioral pattern of the clients. It also helps to learn new adaptive ones by utilizing the behavioral modification approach.

(6) Use of a sociological model:

It is said that in developing countries, sociological theories are useful in the analysis of society, which facilitates social work intervention. Respondents were asked about the use of the theories of rational-emotional therapy.

7) Eclectic model:

Rational Emotive Therapy emphasizes that everything people do includes important learning elements. Everyone has strong innate or biological tendencies, yet one can learn through helpful teaching and one’s own self-practice.

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Home / Social Work Resources / Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work

Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work

Private practices. Mental health clinics. Child welfare service agencies.  Occupying a variety of professional settings, social workers are united by a shared mission: helping others live better lives.

In order to do that, they must first understand what makes their clients tick. As a social worker, studying different social work theories and social work practice models can help to bring you closer to your clients — equipping you with actionable insights that inform empathetic, evidence-based service.

Inspired by the scientific method, social work theories uncover the why of human behavior, while social work practice models reveal how you can effect change for individuals, couples, families, and communities at large.

If you’re looking for Social Work Practice Models, jump down here.

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List of Theories Used in Social Work

As a social worker, more knowledge can lead to a more informed approach, and more effective client interactions. Here, we’ll dig into decades of research to share a comprehensive set of social work theories and practice models, including:

Systems Theory

Behaviorism and social learning theory, psychodynamic theory, developmental perspective, rational choice perspective, conflict theory, ecological systems theory, family systems theory, contingency theory.

The 1950s were a decade of global innovation. From barcodes to credit cards, commercial computers to video cassette records, cutting-edge inventions were taking the stage. Around the same time, a new social work development was making its debut: systems theory.

Inspired by major advancements in the fields of psychology, communication, and psychiatry,  systems theory is based on the belief that individuals don’t operate in isolation . Rather, the theory positions people as products of complex systems: influenced by a variety of external factors, including other individuals, families, communities, and organizations.

Learn more about System Theory in Social Work.

Developed by the  American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner , ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of observing people in multiple environments, or systems, to fully understand their behavior. In his theory, Bronfenbrenner outlines five distinct systems:

• The  microsystem  is someone’s small, immediate environment. For a child, this usually includes direct family, teachers, peers, and caregivers. Relationships in the microsystem are bi-directional—for instance, a parent treating a child with kindness will likely affect how the child treats the parent in return. For this reason, some consider the microsystem to be the most influential level of the ecological systems theory.
• The  mesosystem  consists of interactions between the different parts of a person’s microsystem. For instance, between a child’s parent and teacher. A social worker using this theory in everyday practice might ask themselves: “Are the different parts of my client’s microsystem working together towards a positive impact or working against each other?”
• The  exosystem  is an individual’s indirect environment. Consider a child whose father is an active duty soldier. Though the military isn’t a part of that child’s direct environment, it still influences them mentally and emotionally, and can impact their thoughts, relationships, and behavior.
• The  macrosystem  is a society’s overarching set of beliefs, values, and norms. This system often has a cascading effect on behavior in all the other systems, serving as a filter through which an individual interprets their experiences. For instance, a child might grow up thinking their socioeconomic status is a limiting factor in life. This macrosystem-level belief may cause them to behave differently in school — for positive or for negative, depending on the individual.
• The  chronosystem  includes major changes that influence an individual’s development overtime. This could include changes in family structure, employment status, or address, as well as large societal changes like wars, civil rights movements, or economic flux.

Family systems theory was developed in the mid-1950s, while  American psychiatrist Murray Bowen was working at the National Institute of Mental Health . Based on his knowledge of family patterns and systems theory, Bowen believed that the personalities, emotions, and behaviors of grown individuals could be traced back to their family interactions. The family, he suggested, is an emotional unit and can therefore play a formative role in development.

Within social work, professionals may enable families to try out different ways of doing things, such as teaching a parent on how to maintain appropriate boundaries with their child. The family is identified as a social system and therapy engages that concept to support the growth of clients.

Contingency theory explains that individual outcomes are contingent on a variety of specific situational factors. In the realm of social work, contingency theory can inspire you to seek understanding by considering all of the internal and external influences that are contributing to a client’s problem.

Systems Theory Related Resources

• American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) – Systems-Based Practice
• Bronfenbrenner Center for Translational Research
• The Bowen Center
• The Ecology of Human Development by Urie Bronfenbrenner
• Effective Social Work with Children, Young People and Families: Putting Systems Theory into Practice
• GoodTherapy – Systems Theory/Therapy
• New England Association for Family and Systemic Therapy (NEAFAST) – What is Systems Theory?
• Psychology Today – Family Systems Theory
• Systems Theory in Social Work

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• Behaviorism
• Cognitive Theory

What drives human behavior?  It’s a question that’s been asked for decades on end — and one that’s particularly relevant to the field of social work. Both behaviorism and social learning theory provide social workers with a useful framework for understanding clients.

By learning how past experiences influence present-day behavior, you can develop a research-backed approach to providing targeted care.

Social learning theory was developed by the influential Stanford University psychologist Albert Bandura. In 1961, Bandura conducted his most widely known experiment: the  Bobo doll study . In this experiment, children watched an adult shout at and beat a Bobo doll on television.

Later that same day, the children were left to play in a room containing a Bobo doll — and those who’d seen the film were more likely to torment the doll, imitating the behavior they’d been exposed to earlier. As a result, social learning theory posits that learning occurs through observation and imitation.

Learn more about  Social Learning Theory in Social Work.

Behaviorism and Behavioral Theory

According to behaviorism, all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. By adding in a conditioned stimulus before an unconditioned stimulus that leads to an unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus will lead to a new conditioned response. In his famous experiment,  Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov  conditioned dogs to produce saliva at the sound of a metronome. By consistently introducing the metronome before feeding time, he found that the sound alone would lead to salivation — in anticipation of feeding time.

Similarly, humans can be conditioned to respond to specific stimuli. For instance, a child may work harder in school if they are promised a reward for receiving good grades.

Cognitive Theory in Social Work

Cognitive theory  uncovers how a person’s thinking influences behavior. This theory places emphasis on dysfunctional thought patterns that influence problematic behaviors — what we tell ourselves after an event. Social works may utilize this approach in therapy sessions to link dysfunctional thoughts that occur after and before behaviors.

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Related Resources

• American Psychological Association (APA) – “Albert Bandura to receive National Medal of Science”
• Association for Psychological Science (APS) – What Happened to Behaviorism
• Berkeley Graduate Division: Graduate Student Instructor Teaching & Resource Center – Behaviorism
• BMC Medical Education – Using Social Learning Theory to Explore the Process of Learning from Role Models in Clinical Settings
• Psychology Today – Behaviorism
• Psychology Today – Social Learning Theory
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Behaviorism
• Social Learning Theory – By Albert Bandura
• Social Learning Theory in Social Work
• Youtube Video from The Curious Classroom – Bandura and Social Learning Theory

Drive Theory

Ego psychology, object relations theory, self psychology.

Originally introduced by Sigmund Freud,  psychodynamic theory  has a storied history within social work. This theory is based on Freud’s belief that humans are intra-psychologically driven to seek gratification and that these impulses largely influence our everyday behavior. Psychodynamic theory has four major schools of thought: drive theory, ego psychology, object relations theory and self-psychology.

This psychodynamic theory is based on Freud’s belief that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification of their endogenous drive — and that these impulses largely influence our everyday behavior. Per Freud, these primary drives include sex, self-preservation, and aggression. Impositions on these drives may be external or internal via superego and ego; psychic structures introduced by Freud. Social workers who approach clients with theoretical orientation on drive may posit that a client’s actions are based on an innate suppression of, otherwise, socially unacceptable actions.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA),  ego psychology  is an approach that emphasizes the functions of the ego in controlling impulses, planning, and dealing with the external environment. Freud believed that the ego is weak in relation to one’s id. Ego psychology combines biological and psychological views of development by understanding the influences of socio cultural impacts on function.

Object-relations theory is a branch of psychodynamic thought that suggests relationships are more critical to personality development than individual drives and abilities. Accordingly, social workers may want to study the interactions between a client and the people who played a significant role in their life in early childhood.

Self psychology was introduced by Austrian psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut in the early 1970s and has since become one of social work’s most significant analytic theories. According to self psychology, humans have a distinct set of development needs and transferences: mirroring, idealizing, and alter ego. If a parent fails to meet those needs in childhood, an individual may wind up unable to regulate self-esteem — and therefore, may be overly dependent on others to provide those functions. In the realm of social work, this calls for a careful understanding of early occurrences and shortcomings.

Psychodynamic Related Resources

• PsychCentral – Psychodynamic Therapy
• Psychodynamic Theory – By Kathleen Holtz Deal
• Psychology Today – Psychodynamic Therapy
• SAMSHA/CSAT Treatment Improvement Protocols – Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for Substance Abuse – Brief Psychodynamic Therapy
• Psychosocial Development Theory

Transpersonal Theory

Growth. Change. Consistency.  By adopting a developmental perspective, social workers can start uncovering the patterns of a person’s life. A large portion of developmental theories focus on childhood, since this is such a formative time.

Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Inspired by the earlier work of Sigmund Freud, German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson developed an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development. According to Erikson, everyone must pass through eight stages of development throughout their life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. As a social worker, you may find it useful to identify a client’s current stage to pinpoint what challenges they’re currently facing.

Transpersonal theory  suggests the existence of stages beyond the adult ego. These stages contribute to creativity, wisdom, and altruism in healthy individuals—but can lead to psychosis in those lacking healthy ego development. In social work, transpersonal theory may be used to treat anxiety, depression, addiction and other mental health concerns. Typically spiritual approaches as used such as meditation, guided visualization, hypnotherapy and more.

Developmental Perspective Related Resources

• A Lifespan Developmental Perspective on Psychosocial Development in Midlife – By Tara L. Kuther and Kaitlyn Burnell
• Liberty University – Theories of Psychosocial Development
• Midlife Eriksonian Psychosocial Development: Setting the Stage for Cognitive and Emotional Health in Late Life – By Johanna C. Malone, Sabrina R. Liu, George E. Vaillant, Dorene M. Rentz, and Robert J. Waldinger
• Psychosocial Theory: Erikson – By Doug Davis and Alan Clifton
• Psychology Today – Our Hierarchy of Needs
• Psychology Today – Transpersonal Therapy
• A Review of Transpersonal Theory and Its Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy – By Mark C. Kasprow, M.D. and Bryce W. Scotton, M.D.
• Social Work and Social Development – Edited By James Midgley and Amy Conley

Social Exchange Theory

Social constructionism, symbolic interactionism.

Rational choice perspective is based on the idea that people calculate risks and benefits before making any decision, since all actions are fundamentally rational in character. Studying this theory can help social workers better understand client behavior. For instance, an action that seems objectively irrational to some, may make more sense upon closer examination of the individual’s context.

Social exchange theory  dates back to 1958, when American sociologist George Homans published the paper “Social Behavior as Exchange.” According to Homans, any two-person relationship can be viewed in terms of cost-benefit analysis— what am I giving, and what am I getting in return?  The  APA defines social exchange theory  as a concern of social interactions in exchanges where all participants seek to maximize their benefits. Within social work, professionals may utilize their theory to better understand interactions with their client and others around them — diving into the intrinsic rewards they may receive.

True. False. Good. Bad. Right. Wrong.  In social constructionism, these are all relative concepts, entirely dependent on the person who is interpreting them. This concept abandons the idea that one’s mind represents a mirror of reality—rather, it suggests that each of us creates our own world from our individual perceptions and interactions with others in the community.

Symbolic interactionism positions communication as the central way in which people make sense of their social worlds. American psychologist Herbert Blumer introduced three premises of symbolic interactionism:

• Humans interact with objects, institutions, and other individuals based on ascribed meanings.
• These ascribed meanings are inspired by our interactions with others and society.
• The meanings are interpreted by individuals in specific circumstances.

Imagine, for example, that your client professes a love for baking. Adopting a lens of symbolic interactionism, you may dig deeper into the ascribed meaning behind this act. Perhaps your client makes meringues because they used to help their mother do so in childhood — and for them, escaping to the kitchen is an act of comfort and safety.

Rational Choice Perspective Related Resources

• Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) – Behavior Analysis and Social Constructionism: Some Points of Contact and Departure by Bryan Roche and Dermot Barnes-Holmes
• Cornell University ILR School – Social Exchange Theory of Emotions by Edward J. Lawler and Shane R. Thye
• Iowa State University – Social Exchange Theory by Mark V. Redmond
• Ontario Ministry of Children, Community and Social Services – Rational Choice and Routine Activities Theory
• Rational Choice Theory: Advocacy and Critique – Edited by James S. Coleman and Thomas J. Fararo
• What is Social Constructionism? – By Tom Andrews

Conflict theory explains how different power structures impact people’s lives. In this theory, life is characterized by conflict—whether that’s oppression, discrimination, power struggles, or structural inequality. In addressing these asymmetrical power relationships, social workers can strive to reduce tensions between different groups.

Practice Models Used in Social Work

Problem solving model.

• Task Centered Practice
• Solution Focused Therapy

Narrative Therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy, crisis intervention model.

Read on to discover how these practice models are used by social workers in a variety of settings.

Proposed by Helen Harris Perlman in her book Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process, the problem solving model. Ms. Perlman posited that “success could be achieved by partializing – or separating into manageable segments – a client’s intertwined problems and focusing on one specific issue the client and social worker agreed needed to be resolved at a given time”, according to  The University of Chicago School of Social Service Administration . Utilizing this model, social workers are employed to address one concern of a client as to be resolved, at any given time. This allows for therapy for clients to be more manageable.

Task-Centered Practice

Beginning at the University of Chicago’s School of Social Service Administration,  task-centered practice (TCP)  is a four step process that trains social workers to work with clients in establishing specific and achievable goals based upon their concern for therapy. Through this model, social workers empower clients to drive their therapy by asking what they most want to work on to address their problems.

Solution-Focused Therapy

Solution-focused therapy  was developed out of necessity, as a brief theory, in an inner city outpatient mental health setting bySteve de Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg and their colleagues. This approach focuses on finding solutions in the from the past, for the present — in hopes of achieving quicker problem resolution. Social workers may use this theory when focusing more on the present and future, asking questions like “What would you be doing this weekend that supports your therapy goals?”.

Narrative therapy can be an effective way of separating a client from their problems. By examining a person’s life story, this social work practice model externalizes struggles, allowing individuals to adopt a new perspective and see the bigger picture. From a distance, they may be able to reframe their situation—recognizing that their self-worth and purpose are separate from their problems. When told from a third-person perspective, a story of hardship may transform into a story of resilience.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is one of the leading treatments for many mental health conditions. This social work practice model focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—encouraging clients to identify patterns of irrational and self-destructive thoughts and behaviors that impact emotions.

Crisis intervention includes seven stages: assess safety and lethality, rapport building, problem identification, address feelings, generate alternatives, develop a plan of action, and follow up. This social work practice model is used when someone is experiencing an acute crisis — and is commonly used with clients who are expressing suicidal intent.

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Theories Used in Social Work Practice & Practice Models

Social work theories are general explanations that are supported by evidence obtained through the scientific method. A theory may explain human behavior, for example, by describing how humans interact or how humans react to certain stimuli.

Social work practice models describe how social workers can implement theories. Practice models provide social workers with a blueprint of how to help others based on the underlying social work theory. While a theory explains why something happens, a practice model shows how to use a theory to create change.

Social Work Theories

There are many social work theories that guide social work practice. Here are some of the major theories that are generally accepted in the field of social work:

Systems theory  describes human behavior in terms of complex systems. It is premised on the idea that an effective system is based on individual needs, rewards, expectations, and attributes of the people living in the system. According to this theory, families, couples, and organization members are directly involved in resolving a problem even if it is an individual issue.

Social learning theory is based on Albert Bandura’s idea that learning occurs through observation and imitation. New behavior will continue if it is reinforced. According to this theory, rather than simply hearing a new concept and applying it, the learning process is made more efficient if the new behavior is modeled as well.

Psychosocial development theory  is an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development articulated by Erik Erikson. Erikson believed everyone must pass through eight stages of development over the life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. Each stage is divided into age ranges from infancy to older adults.

Psychodynamic theory  was developed by Freud, and it explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious forces. This social work theory describes the personality as consisting of the id (responsible for following basic instincts), the superego (attempts to follow rules and behave morally), and the ego (mediates between the id and the ego).

Transpersonal theory  proposes additional stages beyond the adult ego. In healthy individuals, these stages contribute to creativity, wisdom, and altruism. In people lacking healthy ego development, experiences can lead to psychosis.

Rational choice theory  is based on the idea that all action is fundamentally rational in character, and people calculate the risks and benefits of any action before making decisions.

Social Work Practice Models

There are many different practice models that influence the way social workers choose to help people meet their goals. Here are some of the major social work practice models used in various roles, such as case managers and therapists:

Problem solving  assists people with the problem solving process. Rather than tell clients what to do, social workers teach clients how to apply a problem solving method so they can develop their own solutions.

Task-centered practice  is a short-term treatment where clients establish specific, measurable goals. Social workers and clients collaborate together and create specific strategies and steps to begin reaching those goals.

Narrative therapy  externalizes a person’s problem by examining the story of the person’s life. In the story, the client is not defined by the problem, and the problem exists as a separate entity. Instead of focusing on a client’s depression, in this social work practice model, a client would be encouraged to fight against the depression by looking at the skills and abilities that may have previously been taken for granted.

Cognitive behavioral therapy  focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Social workers assist clients in identifying patterns of irrational and self-destructive thoughts and behaviors that influence emotions.

Crisis intervention model  is used when someone is dealing with an acute crisis. The model includes seven stages: assess safety and lethality, rapport building, problem identification, address feelings, generate alternatives, develop an action plan, and follow up. This social work practice model is commonly used with clients who are expressing suicidal ideation.

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3.2: Problem Solving Approaches and Interventions

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• Vera Kennedy
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There are six problem solving approaches and interventions most commonly used among practitioners. Each approach examines a different aspect of a social problem. The nature of the problem and people involved determines the most appropriate intervention to apply.

A social systems approach examines the social structure surrounding the problem or issue. This approach requires macro, meso, and micro levels of analysis (see pages 12-13) to help understand the structure of the problem and the arrangement of individuals and social groups involved. Analysis requires comprehension of the entire issue and parts associated, as well as, which components and protocols of the structure are independent or dependent of each other. Application of this approach requires grasp of the complete problem including the hierarchy, order, patterns, and boundaries of individuals and social groups including their interactions, relationships, and processes as a body or structure surrounding the issue (Bruhn and Rebach 2007).

The interventions deployed using a social systems approach focus on establishing and maintaining stability for all parties even while change is occurring. Social system interventions require change agents or leaders such as sociological practitioners to help control and guide inputs (what is put in or taken into the problem) and outputs (what is produced, delivered, or supplied resulting from change) used in problem solving (Bruhn and Rebach 2007). This approach requires the involvement of everyone in the social structure to design or re-design the system and processes around the issue.

The human ecology approach examines the “web of life” or the ecosystem of a social problem or issue. This approach is often visually represented by a spider web to demonstrate how lives are interlinked and interdependent. A human ecology approach focuses on macro and meso levels of analysis to develop knowledge about the social bonds, personal needs, and environmental conditions that impede or support life challenges and opportunities for individuals. Practitioners evaluate and analyze where individuals and groups fit in the social structure or ecosystem and their roles. The purpose of this approach is to identify cognitive and emotional boundaries people experience living in social systems to help confront and remove the obstacles they face.

Interventions applied in a human ecological approach target changes in families, institutions, and small communities. The goal is to confront the stressors and strain created by social situations and settings. Interventions from a human ecology approach help people determine acceptable behaviors within different social environments (Bruhn and Rebach 2007). Practitioners work with social groups to remove collaborative challenges between groups in a social ecosystem and the individuals working and living within them. Change is concentrated on developing a new system and process to support and remove obstacles for individuals effected by a social problem.

• Describe the social systems approach and explain what type of social problems or issues this approach is the most valid method to use.
• Describe the human ecology approach and explain what type of social problem or issues this approach is the most valid method to use.
• A county mental health court
• Gender neutral bathrooms on a college campus
• Anti-bullying campaign in local K-12 schools

A life cycle approach examines the developmental stages and experiences of individuals facing issues or various life crises. Meso and micro levels of analysis are required with this method. Data gathered assists practitioners in understanding the adaption of individuals or groups to change, challenges, and demands at each developmental stage of life (Bruhn and Rebach 2007). Analysis incorporates evaluation of interpersonal connections between a person and the environment, life transitions, and patterns. This approach if applicable when working with individuals, groups, and organizations, which all have and go through a life cycle and stages of development.

Interventions using this approach target changes in social norms and expectations of individuals or groups facing difficulties. Practitioners help identify the context and issues creating anxiety among individuals or groups and facilitate coping strategies to attack their issues. This approach builds on positive personal and social resources and networks to mend, retrain, or enable development and growth.

The clinical approach evaluates disease, illness, and distress. Both meso and micro levels of analysis are required for this method. Practitioners assess biological, personal, and environmental connections by surveying the patient or client’s background, and current and recent conditions (Bruhn and Rebach 2007). A Patient Evaluation Grid (PEG) is the most commonly used tool for data collection. This approach requires in-depth interactions with the patient or client to identify themes associated with their condition and the structure of the social system related to their illness and support. When applying this approach in medical practice, the evaluation and analysis leads to a diagnosis.

• Describe the life cycle approach and explain what type of social problems or issues this approach is the most valid method to use.
• Describe the clinical approach and explain what type of social problem or issues this approach is the most valid method to use.
• Policing strategies to reduce crime and improve community relationships
• Reductions in self-injury or cutting among teens
• A community college social work education degree program

Intervention in a clinical approach concentrates on removal of symptoms, condition, or changes in the individual to solve the problem. The overarching goal of this method is to prevent the problem from reoccurring and the solution from interfering with the individual’s functioning. Problem management must minimally disrupt the social system of the patient or client.

A social norms approach focuses on peer influences to provide individuals with accurate information and role models to induce change (Bruhn and Rebach 2007). This approach observes macro, meso, and micro levels of analysis. Intervention centers on providing correct perceptions about thinking and behavior to induce change in one’s thoughts and actions. This technique is a proactive prevention model aimed at addressing something from happening or arising.

There are three levels of intervention when applying a social norms approach (Bruhn and Rebach 2007). Practitioners use interventions independently or together for a comprehensive solution. At the universal level of intervention , all members of a population receive the intervention without identifying which individuals are at risk. A selective level of intervention directs assistance or services to an entire group of at risk individuals. When specific individuals are beyond risk and already show signs of the problem, they receive an indicated level of intervention . A comprehensive intervention requires an integration of all three levels.

Practitioners assist communities in problem solving by applying a community based approach . All three levels of analysis (macro, meso, and micro) are required for this method. The aim of this approach is to plan, develop, and implement community based interventions whereby local institutions and residents participate in problem solving and work towards preventing future issues. Practitioners work with communities on three outcomes, individual empowerment, connecting people, and improving social interactions and cooperation (Bruhn and Rebach 2007). Concentrating on these outcomes builds on community assets while tailoring solutions to local political, economic, and social conditions. By building bridges among individuals and groups in the community, practitioners facilitate connections between services, programs, and policies while attacking the problem from multiple vantage points.

A community based approach helps ensure problem analysis, evaluation, and interventions are culturally and geographically appropriate for local residents, groups, and organizations. To operate effectively, this intervention requires practitioners to help facilitate face-to-face interactions among community members and develop a communication pattern for solving community problems. To build an appropriate intervention, practitioners must develop knowledge and understanding about the purpose, structure, and process of each group, organization, and collaboration within the community (Bruhn and Rebach 2007). Upon implementation, a community based approach endows local residents and organizations to observe and monitor their own progress and solutions directly.

• Describe the social norms approach and explain what type of social problems or issues this approach is the most valid method to use.
• Describe the community based approach and explain what type of social problem or issues this approach is the most valid method to use.
• Human trafficking prevention program
• Reductions in electronic cigarette, vaping, and new tobacco product usage

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Helen Harris Perlman

Samuel Deutsch Distinguished Service Professor

Lingering prejudice and discrimination set Helen Harris Perlman on a course to become one of the most influential people in social services in her era. Ms. Perlman graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1926 with high honors and an A.B. in English literature. Advised that, as a Jew, she would never find an appointment as a professor in the humanities, she took a job as a summer caseworker for the Chicago Jewish Social Service Bureau.

“A whole world opened up to me,” she recalled. “I had no idea of the kinds of trouble people had. I got a great deal of satisfaction from being able to help people. I found that in many cases, families faced the same kinds of problems and conflicts that one encountered in the great works of literature.”

She began her career in social work at a particularly advantageous time. There was, she said, “a sudden flood of psychological knowledge.” In 1933, she received one of four Commonwealth Fund scholarships for students at the New York School of Social Work, now a part of Columbia University.

As she finished her studies in New York, she worked as a caseworker, lecturer, and clinical instructor at the New York School of Social Work, Columbia University, and the Bureau of Child Guidance. It was through this range of experience that she began to develop the conceptual framework for direct-work practice. She earned her master’s degree in social work from Columbia University in 1943.

Shortly after joining the SSA faculty in 1945, she began working on Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process . The book, originally published in 1957, has sold nearly 200,000 copies and has been translated into more than ten languages. Ms. Perlman’s work, together with later work by her colleagues, established the “Chicago School” approach to problem-solving, which is still applied in practice today.

Ms. Perlman’s theories stood apart from the leading theories of the day, which typically focused on long-term psychotherapy. She argued that in-depth study wasn’t always necessary and could even impede progress.

The core idea of her approach was that success could be achieved by partializing – or separating into manageable segments - a client’s intertwined problems and focusing on one specific issue the client and social worker agreed needed to be resolved at a given time. “An important feature of partialization,” Ms. Perlman said, “is the fact that the problem-solving process was transferable to other areas of life’s difficulties.”

Ms. Perlman continued to break new ground in social work, writing more than 75 articles and seven other books, including So You Want to Be a Social Worker , Persona: Social Role and Personality and Relationship: The Heart of Helping People , and a memoir entitled Dancing Clock & Other Childhood Memories . She also edited the book Helping: Charlotte Towle on Social Casework . She also kept up with her love of writing fiction, publishing poetry and stories in newspapers and magazines, including the short story “Twelfth Summer,” published in the 1950s in the New Yorker.

Ms. Perlman was active in many professional and educational circles throughout her career, serving for many years on the editorial board of the Journal of American Orthopsychiatry. The society recognized her service with a life membership. She also served on the editorial board of Social Work, the major publication of the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) and on the curriculum development committee of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). CSWE named her a Pioneer of Social Work Education. She received honorary degrees from Boston University, the University of Central Florida, and her alma mater, the University of Minnesota.

Many of her highest accolades came from the University of Chicago. She was the first woman and the first SSA faculty member to be named a Distinguished Service Professor by the University in 1969. In 1996, SSA established the Helen Harris Perlman Visiting Professorship in the School of Social Service Administration in honor of her numerous scholarly contributions.

Ms. Perlman was also the first woman elected to the Quadrangle Club Board, the first woman appointed to the Library Board, and, in January, 1970, the first woman to address the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees and faculty.

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Casework Theory

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• James G. Barber  

Part of the book series: Practical Social Work ((PSWS))

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The following brief history of social casework theory is intended to introduce some of the more influential ideas that have informed social work practice over the years. More than this, it seeks to clarify the reasons why social work should have attracted so much criticism from radical writers and to identify the problems in previous theorising that our model seeks to address. The list of theoretical approaches is not exhaustive, nor is it strictly chronological. No discipline proceeds in an orderly fashion from one paradigm to the next. Indeed, it could be argued that the divisions between approaches are somewhat artificial; as we shall see, the social work literature displays a penchant for incorporating ideas from multiple sources, making it difficult to assign some authors to one camp or the other. The review has been divided into ‘pre-generalist’ and ‘generalist’ eras because it is fair to say that a discontinuous shift in theorising occurred in the 1970s when caseworkers began searching for common ground with their social work colleagues from other fields. However, even a cursory glance at the dates of the publications cited will demonstrate that pre-generalist approaches continue to attract adherents today.

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© 1991 British Association of Social Workers

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Barber, J.G. (1991). Casework Theory. In: Beyond Casework. Practical Social Work. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-21569-0_2

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Social Casework: A Problem-Solving Process . By Helen Harris Perlman. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957. 292 pp. $5.00

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Dorothy M. McKay, Social Casework: A Problem-Solving Process . By Helen Harris Perlman. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957. 292 pp. $5.00, Social Work , Volume 2, Issue 4, October 1957, Page 75, https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/2.4.75

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