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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Professor of Business Administration, Distinguished University Service Professor, and former dean of Harvard Business School.

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What is the Case Study Method?

Overview Dropdown up

Overview dropdown down, celebrating 100 years of the case method at hbs.

The 2021-2022 academic year marks the 100-year anniversary of the introduction of the case method at Harvard Business School. Today, the HBS case method is employed in the HBS MBA program, in Executive Education programs, and in dozens of other business schools around the world. As Dean Srikant Datar's says, the case method has withstood the test of time.

Case Discussion Preparation Details Expand All Collapse All

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How Cases Unfold In the Classroom

How cases unfold in the classroom dropdown up, how cases unfold in the classroom dropdown down, preparation guidelines expand all collapse all, read the professor's assignment or discussion questions read the professor's assignment or discussion questions dropdown down, read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case dropdown down, reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes dropdown down, note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again dropdown down, how to prepare for case discussions dropdown up, how to prepare for case discussions dropdown down, read the professor's assignment or discussion questions, read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case, reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes, note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again, case study best practices expand all collapse all, prepare prepare dropdown down, discuss discuss dropdown down, participate participate dropdown down, relate relate dropdown down, apply apply dropdown down, note note dropdown down, understand understand dropdown down, case study best practices dropdown up, case study best practices dropdown down, participate, what can i expect on the first day dropdown down.

Most programs begin with registration, followed by an opening session and a dinner. If your travel plans necessitate late arrival, please be sure to notify us so that alternate registration arrangements can be made for you. Please note the following about registration:

HBS campus programs – Registration takes place in the Chao Center.

India programs – Registration takes place outside the classroom.

Other off-campus programs – Registration takes place in the designated facility.

What happens in class if nobody talks? Dropdown down

Professors are here to push everyone to learn, but not to embarrass anyone. If the class is quiet, they'll often ask a participant with experience in the industry in which the case is set to speak first. This is done well in advance so that person can come to class prepared to share. Trust the process. The more open you are, the more willing you’ll be to engage, and the more alive the classroom will become.

Does everyone take part in "role-playing"? Dropdown down

Professors often encourage participants to take opposing sides and then debate the issues, often taking the perspective of the case protagonists or key decision makers in the case.

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• 10 Jan 2018

8 Tips to Help You Prepare for the Case Method

Ninad Kulkarni just wrapped up the fall semester at HBS and wanted to share what he learned about the case method after his first few months in the classroom. 

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

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• Case Teaching
• Perspectives

D uring my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

Alumni responses varied but tended to follow a pattern. Almost no one referred to a specific business concept they learned. Many mentioned close friendships or the classmate who became a business or life partner. Most often, though, alumni highlighted a personal quality or skill such as “increased self-confidence” or “the ability to advocate for a point of view” or “knowing how to work closely with others to solve problems.” And when I asked how they developed these capabilities, they inevitably mentioned the magic of the case method.

Harvard Business School pioneered the use of case studies to teach management in 1921. As we commemorate 100 years of case teaching, much has been written about the effectiveness of this method. I agree with many of these observations. Cases expose students to real business dilemmas and decisions. Cases teach students to size up business problems quickly while considering the broader organizational, industry, and societal context. Students recall concepts better when they are set in a case, much as people remember words better when used in context. Cases teach students how to apply theory in practice and how to induce theory from practice. The case method cultivates the capacity for critical analysis, judgment, decision-making, and action.

“Cases teach students how to apply theory in practice and how to induce theory from practice. The case method cultivates the capacity for critical analysis, judgment, decision-making, and action.”

There is a word that aptly captures the broader set of capabilities our alumni reported they learned from the case method. That word is meta-skills, and these meta-skills are a benefit of case study instruction that those who’ve never been exposed to the method may undervalue.

Educators define meta-skills as a group of long-lasting abilities that allow someone to learn new things more quickly. When parents encourage a child to learn to play a musical instrument, for instance, beyond the hope of instilling musical skills (which some children will master and others may not), they may also appreciate the benefit the child derives from deliberate, consistent practice. This meta-skill is valuable for learning many other things beyond music.

In the same vein, let me suggest seven vital meta-skills students gain from the case method:

1. Preparation

There is no place for students to hide in the moments before the famed “ cold call ”—when the teacher can ask any student at random to open the case discussion. Decades after they graduate, students will vividly remember cold calls when they or someone else froze with fear, or when they rose to nail the case even in the face of a fierce grilling by the professor.

The case method creates high-powered incentives for students to prepare. Students typically spend several hours reading, highlighting, and debating cases before class, sometimes alone and sometimes in groups. The number of cases to be prepared can be overwhelming by design.

Learning to be prepared—to read materials in advance, prioritize, identify the key issues, and have an initial point of view—is a meta-skill that helps people succeed in a broad range of professions and work situations. We have all seen how the prepared person, who knows what they are talking about, can gain the trust and confidence of others in a business meeting. The habits of preparing for a case discussion can transform a student into that person.

2. Discernment

Many cases are long. A typical case may include history, industry background, a cast of characters, dialogue, financial statements, source documents, or other exhibits. Some material may be digressive or inessential. Cases often have holes—critical pieces of information that are missing.

The case method forces students to identify and focus on what’s essential, ignore the noise, skim when possible, and concentrate on what matters, meta-skills required for every busy executive confronted with the paradox of simultaneous information overload and information paucity. As one alumnus pithily put it, “The case method helped me learn how to separate the wheat from the chaff.”

“The case method forces students to identify and focus on what’s essential, ignore the noise, skim when possible, and concentrate on what matters.”

3. Bias Recognition

Students often have an initial reaction to a case stemming from their background or earlier work and life experiences. For instance, people who have worked in finance may be biased to view cases through a financial lens. However, effective general managers must understand and empathize with various stakeholders, and if someone has a natural tendency to favor one viewpoint over another, discussing dozens of cases will help reveal that bias. Armed with this self-understanding, students can correct that bias or learn to listen more carefully to classmates whose different viewpoints may help them see beyond their own biases.

Recognizing and correcting personal bias can be an invaluable meta-skill in business settings when leaders inevitably have to work with people from different functions, backgrounds, and perspectives.

4. Judgment

Cases put students into the role of the case protagonist and force them to make and defend a decision. The format leaves room for nuanced discussion, but not for waffling: Teachers push students to choose an option, knowing full well that there is rarely one correct answer.

Indeed, most cases are meant to stimulate a discussion rather than highlight effective or ineffective management practice. Across the cases they study, students get feedback from their classmates and their teachers about when their decisions are more or less compelling. It enables them to develop the judgment of making decisions under uncertainty, communicating that decision to others, and gaining their buy-in—all essential leadership skills. Leaders earn respect for their judgment. It is something students in the case method get lots of practice honing.

5. Collaboration

It is better to make business decisions after extended give-and-take, debate, and deliberation. As in any team sport, people get better at working collaboratively with practice. Discussing cases in small study groups, and then in the classroom, helps students practice the meta-skill of collaborating with others. Our alumni often say they came away from the case method with better skills to participate in meetings and lead them.

Orchestrating a good collaborative discussion in which everyone contributes, every viewpoint is carefully considered, and yet a thoughtful decision is made in the end is the arc of any good case discussion. Although teachers play the primary role in this collaborative process during their time at the school, it is an art that students of the case method internalize and get better at when they get to lead discussions.

6. Curiosity

Cases expose students to lots of different situations and roles. Across cases, they get to assume the role of entrepreneur, investor, functional leader, or CEO in a range of different industries and sectors. Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, and which roles they could imagine inhabiting in their careers.

Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders. This curiosity serves them well throughout their lives. It makes them more agile, more adaptive, and more open to doing a wider range of things in their careers.

“Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders.”

7. Self-Confidence

Students must inhabit roles during a case study that far outstrip their prior experience or capability, often as leaders of teams or entire organizations in unfamiliar settings. “What would you do if you were the case protagonist?” is the most common question in a case discussion. Even though they are imaginary and temporary, these “stretch” assignments increase students' self-confidence that they can rise to the challenge.

In our program, students can study 500 cases over two years, and the range of roles they are asked to assume increases the range of situations they believe they can tackle. Speaking up in front of 90 classmates feels risky at first, but students become more comfortable taking that risk over time. Knowing that they can hold their own in a highly curated group of competitive peers enhances student confidence. Often, alumni describe how discussing cases made them feel prepared for much bigger roles or challenges than they’d imagined they could handle before their MBA studies. Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people.

The Lifelong Benefits of Case Method Instruction

There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching. This quickly became apparent when case teaching was introduced in 1921—and it’s even truer today.

For educators and students, recognizing the value of these meta-skills can offer perspective on the broader goals of their work together. Returning to the example of music lessons, it may be natural for a music teacher or their students to judge success by a simple measure: Does the student learn to play the instrument well? But when everyone involved recognizes the broader meta-skills that instrumental instruction can instill—and that even those who bumble their way through Bach may still derive lifelong benefits from their instruction—it may lead to a deeper appreciation of this work.

For recruiters and employers, recognizing the long-lasting set of benefits that accrue from studying via the case method can be a valuable perspective in assessing candidates and plotting their potential career trajectories.

And while we must certainly use the case method’s centennial to imagine yet more powerful ways of educating students in the future, let us be sure to assess these innovations for the meta-skills they might instill as much as the subject matter mastery they might enable.

This article was originally posted by HBR.org .

Nitin Nohria is the former dean of Harvard Business School.

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The History of the Case Study at Harvard Business School

• 28 Feb 2017

Many first-time HBS Online participants are surprised to learn that, often, the professor is not at the center of their learning experience. Instead of long faculty lectures, the HBS Online learning model centers on smaller, more digestible pieces of content that require participants to interact with each other, test concepts, and learn from real-world examples.

Often, the professor fades into the background and lets the focus shift to interviews with executives, industry leaders, and small business owners. Some students might be left thinking, "Wait, where did that professor go? Why am I learning about a grocery store in Harvard Square?"

In the words of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy , “Don’t panic.” These interviews, or cases, feature leaders at companies of all sizes and provide valuable examples of business concepts in action. This case study method forms the backbone of the Harvard Business School curriculum.

Back in the 1920s, HBS professors decided to develop and experiment with innovative and unique business instruction methods. As the first school in the world to design a signature, distinctive program in business, later to be called the MBA, there was a need for a teaching method that would benefit this novel approach.

HBS professors selected and took a few pages to summarize recent events, momentous challenges, strategic planning, and important decisions undertaken by major companies and organizations. The idea was, and remains to this day, that through direct contact with a real-world case, students will think independently about those facts, discuss and compare their perspectives and findings with their peers, and eventually discover a new concept on their own.

Central to the case method is the idea that students are not provided the "answer" or resolution to the problem at hand. Instead, just like a board member, CEO, or manager, the student is forced to analyze a situation and find solutions without full knowledge of all methods and facts. Without excluding more traditional aspects, such as interaction with professors and textbooks, the case method provides the student with the opportunity to think and act like managers.

Since 1924, the case method has been the most widely applied and successful teaching instrument to come out of HBS, and it is used today in almost all MBA and Executive Education courses there, as well as in hundreds of other top business schools around the world. The application of the case method is so extensive that HBS students will often choose to rely on cases, instead of textbooks or other material, for their research. Large corporations use the case method as well to approach their own challenges, while competing universities create their own versions for their students.

This is what the case method does—it puts students straight into the game, and ensures they acquire not just skills and abstract knowledge, but also a solid understanding of the outside world.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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Case Study Method - Meaning & Definition

What is case study method.

The case study is a method used as a part of, off-the-job managerial training and development. It includes a detailed written description of a stimulated or real life decision making scenario. Trainees are expected to solve the problems stated in the case using their decision making ability complemented with teamwork skills.

The aim of the case study method is to develop managerial competency, problem solving and decision making skills. The trainer will only act as a facilitator to guide the discussion but will not provide any input in order to encourage the trainees to participate and master their KSAs.

An advantage of the case study method is that it exposes the trainees to a wide range of situations, which they otherwise may not have face and thereby allows them test their skills and develop their strengths. Furthermore this method provokes real life behaviour to help trainees understand and improve their behaviour in a crisis situation. Another advantage is that case studies stimulate innovation and ideas which can be further implemented on the job.

However, many times case studies are considered as unrealistic and therefore irrelevant by trainees. As a consequence trainees may not put enough effort to generate viable solutions. Furthermore, in real life the problems are not laid out in paper as it is in the case study, therefore it does not develop problem identification skills. Lastly, case studies have no right or wrong answer therefore validation of the solution is difficult.

Hence, this concludes the definition of Case Study Method along with its overview.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, the use of case studies in management training and development. part 1.

Industrial and Commercial Training

ISSN : 0019-7858

Article publication date: 1 February 2002

The authors draw on their considerable experience in writing and using case studies both in the UK and abroad to explain the potential benefits of using the case study method in management teaching. In this, the first of two articles on the subject, they elaborate on the potential benefits of using the case study method but also the ways in which the method can be misused. They go on to explain how case studies can be used effectively in developing management skills. In the second article they will deal with the topics of writing case studies, their use in assessment and cross‐cultural issues in using case studies. Details of the on‐line access to over 40 management case studies and exercises, with supporting teaching notes, are contained in the 5th edition of their book Skills of Management ( http://thomsonlearning. co.uk ).

• Case studies
• Management development
• Management skills

Rees, W.D. and Porter, C. (2002), "The use of case studies in management training and development. Part 1", Industrial and Commercial Training , Vol. 34 No. 1, pp. 5-8. https://doi.org/10.1108/00197850210414026

Copyright © 2002, MCB UP Limited

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Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies of 2021

Two cases about Hertz claimed top spots in 2021's Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies

Two cases on the uses of debt and equity at Hertz claimed top spots in the CRDT’s (Case Research and Development Team) 2021 top 40 review of cases.

Hertz (A) took the top spot. The case details the financial structure of the rental car company through the end of 2019. Hertz (B), which ranked third in CRDT’s list, describes the company’s struggles during the early part of the COVID pandemic and its eventual need to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy. 

The success of the Hertz cases was unprecedented for the top 40 list. Usually, cases take a number of years to gain popularity, but the Hertz cases claimed top spots in their first year of release. Hertz (A) also became the first ‘cooked’ case to top the annual review, as all of the other winners had been web-based ‘raw’ cases.

Besides introducing students to the complicated financing required to maintain an enormous fleet of cars, the Hertz cases also expanded the diversity of case protagonists. Kathyrn Marinello was the CEO of Hertz during this period and the CFO, Jamere Jackson is black.

Sandwiched between the two Hertz cases, Coffee 2016, a perennial best seller, finished second. “Glory, Glory, Man United!” a case about an English football team’s IPO made a surprise move to number four.  Cases on search fund boards, the future of malls,  Norway’s Sovereign Wealth fund, Prodigy Finance, the Mayo Clinic, and Cadbury rounded out the top ten.

Other year-end data for 2021 showed:

• Online “raw” case usage remained steady as compared to 2020 with over 35K users from 170 countries and all 50 U.S. states interacting with 196 cases.
• Fifty four percent of raw case users came from outside the U.S..
• The Yale School of Management (SOM) case study directory pages received over 160K page views from 177 countries with approximately a third originating in India followed by the U.S. and the Philippines.
• Twenty-six of the cases in the list are raw cases.
• A third of the cases feature a woman protagonist.
• Orders for Yale SOM case studies increased by almost 50% compared to 2020.
• The top 40 cases were supervised by 19 different Yale SOM faculty members, several supervising multiple cases.

CRDT compiled the Top 40 list by combining data from its case store, Google Analytics, and other measures of interest and adoption.

All of this year’s Top 40 cases are available for purchase from the Yale Management Media store .

And the Top 40 cases studies of 2021 are:

1.   Hertz Global Holdings (A): Uses of Debt and Equity

2.   Coffee 2016

3.   Hertz Global Holdings (B): Uses of Debt and Equity 2020

4.   Glory, Glory Man United!

5.   Search Fund Company Boards: How CEOs Can Build Boards to Help Them Thrive

6.   The Future of Malls: Was Decline Inevitable?

7.   Strategy for Norway's Pension Fund Global

8.   Prodigy Finance

9.   Design at Mayo

10. Cadbury

11. City Hospital Emergency Room

13. Volkswagen

14. Marina Bay Sands

15. Shake Shack IPO

16. Mastercard

17. Netflix

18. Ant Financial

19. AXA: Creating the New CR Metrics

20. IBM Corporate Service Corps

21. Business Leadership in South Africa's 1994 Reforms

22. Alternative Meat Industry

23. Children's Premier

24. Khalil Tawil and Umi (A)

25. Palm Oil 2016

26. Teach For All: Designing a Global Network

27. What's Next? Search Fund Entrepreneurs Reflect on Life After Exit

28. Searching for a Search Fund Structure: A Student Takes a Tour of Various Options

30. Project Sammaan

31. Commonfund ESG

32. Polaroid

33. Connecticut Green Bank 2018: After the Raid

34. FieldFresh Foods

35. The Alibaba Group

36. 360 State Street: Real Options

37. Herman Miller

38. AgBiome

39. Nathan Cummings Foundation

40. Toyota 2010

Evaluation of online job portals for HR recruitment selection using AHP in two wheeler automotive industry: a case study

• ORIGINAL ARTICLE
• Published: 12 May 2024

Cite this article

• S. M. Vadivel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5287-3693 1 &
• Rohan Sunny   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0002-2347-3081 2  

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Automotive companies are booming worldwide in the economy. In order to sustain in the highly competitive world, every organization tries to create itself a trademark in the market. In our research, we looked at how two wheelers automotive company's selection enhances an organizational performance, which ensures the company's future growth. In today's fast-paced, globally integrated world, human resources are one of the most important production variables. It is critical to preserve and improve economic competitiveness by properly selecting and developing these resources. The main aim of this study is to identify the best online job portal website for recruitment at Two Wheeler Company and to suggest an HR strategy which resonates company’s values and culture. In this study, we have selected 6 criteria and 6 online popular job portals for recruitment with a sample of 15 candidates have been selected. Findings reveal that, AHP method has significant results on the selection of best employer, which helps HR Manager to finalize the decision making process/strategies. Towards the managerial implications section, the researcher aims to design an functional and effective HR strategy that can grasp, engage and retain the top talent in the organization.

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Reskilling and Upskilling the Future-ready Workforce for Industry 4.0 and Beyond

Exploring Human Resource Management Digital Transformation in the Digital Age

Work engagement and employee satisfaction in the practice of sustainable human resource management – based on the study of Polish employees

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Abbreviations

Analytic hierarchy process

Artificial intelligence

Analysis of variance

Chief Human Resources Officer

Consistency index

Curriculum vitae

Consistency ratio

Decision making

Faculty Development Programme

Hierarchical linear modelling

Human resources

Research and Development

Randomized index

Structural equation modelling

Search engine optimization

Triple bottom line

Technique for order preference by similarity

Maximum Eigen value

The normalized value of ith criterion for the jth alternative

The normalized value of jth criterion for the ith alternative

The number of alternatives for a certain MCDM problem

The number of criteria for a certain MCDM problem

Avinash Kapse S, Vishal Patil S, Nikhil PV (2021) E-Recruitment. Int J Eng Adv Technol (IJEAT) 1(4):82–86

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to two wheeler Automotive Industries in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, for their invaluable assistance and cooperation. We greatly acknowledge Ms. Ruchi Mishra, Research scholar from NIT Karnataka, for editing this manuscript in better form.

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Vadivel, S.M., Sunny, R. Evaluation of online job portals for HR recruitment selection using AHP in two wheeler automotive industry: a case study. Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13198-024-02358-z

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• Published: 06 May 2024

From isolation to revival: trade recovery amid global health crises

• Lijuan Yang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2042-6431 1  

Globalization and Health volume  20 , Article number:  38 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of designing effective trade recovery measures in response to global health events (GHEs). This study combines international trade risk management theory and multi-case comparative analysis of past GHEs to present a theoretical framework for designing national trade recovery measures for future events.

The research finds that during GHEs, trade risks shift to fundamental uncertainty, requiring spatial–temporal-subject dimension recovery measures. The study suggests changing the focus of trade recovery policy design from emergency-oriented and single-dimension measures to reserve-oriented and enduring-effect measures of comprehensive dimensions at micro- and macroeconomic levels.

The study contributes to the debate on managing trade risks in times of crisis, where there is a need to develop effective trade recovery measures that account for the complexities of global trade and the unique challenges of GHEs. The findings provide practical guidance for trade officials and policymakers to design measures in response to GHEs to improve a country’s overall trade recovery.

Global health events (GHEs), defined as pandemics or crises that widely influence people’s health, have major repercussions. Countries affected by GHEs Footnote 1 need to implement trade recovery measures to resume trade [ 1 ]. Footnote 2 These measures are crucial for mitigating the risks of capital, trade, and supply chain disruptions caused by disasters, reducing the burden of epidemics, and boosting national and global economies. Current research on GHEs is concentrated on medicine and public health issues, and only a few economic studies have been conducted [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Even this limited research has tended to peak alongside health events and bottom out when they end. The process of recovering from GHEs by taking comprehensive measures has rarely been discussed. Therefore, by applying international trade risk management theory and multi-case studies, this study examines the design of national trade recovery measures and offers countermeasures for GHEs.

Fifteen GHEs have occurred since the 1990s (Table  1 ), highlighting that their economic impact exceeds their immediate health consequences and regional spread [ 6 ]. Geographically distant health events can potentially reverberate to unaffected countries through international trade [ 7 ]. GHEs adversely affect the country of origin, trade partners, and the global economy [ 8 ]. Globalization has further exacerbated this negative impact. Footnote 3 GHEs affect foreign trade. Footnote 4 The transfer effects of trade bans can drastically harm welfare [ 9 , 10 ], leading to structural fractures in imports and exports [ 11 ]. Moreover, biosecurity measures during disease outbreaks [ 12 ] can indirectly influence technical trade measures that affect emerging countries’ exports to developed countries.

Scholars advocate the following strategies to respond to GHEs. (1) Conducting response measures. Once a global health emergency is under control, it enters the international trade recovery stage. The countries involved in the event must renegotiate trade agreements with their trading partners, strengthen consumer expectations and confidence, and evaluate response measures [ 13 , 14 ]. (2) Planning and sequencing measures. The international trade recovery must transcend the risk model to plan and prioritize trade recovery measures based on the interdependence between public health and trade [ 15 , 16 ]. The affected areas must take pre- and post-prevention and mitigation measures after the disaster outbreak [ 17 ]. (3) Implementing regional measures. The United States (US) adopted regional measures to manage the highly pathogenic avian influenza pandemic and to resume and maintain trade. Trading partner countries accepted the regional recommendations and allowed poultry and poultry product imports from US regions without the disease [ 18 ].

Furthermore, countries must address factors influencing trade recovery, as various factors determine the extent of adverse effects on trade and the duration of recovery. Emerging countries need to follow and strictly enforce the standards of the World Health Organization (WHO) [ 19 ] and deal with dynamic changes in trade and supply chain nodes during GHEs [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. These efforts should include modeling and scenario simulation based on epidemiology and economic theory [ 25 , 26 ], risk rating of GHEs [ 27 ], and artificial intelligence modeling for potential risks [ 28 ]. The models under continuous development must reflect the dynamic landscape of emergent situations [ 29 ].

Although the WHO and multilateral institutions do not recommend interrupting international trade following a GHE, limited research has provided targeted suggestions for countries to adopt an appropriate course of action [ 30 , 31 ]. The interconnectedness of global health and the global economy highlights the need for such a policy and the relevance of health security efforts [ 7 ] to mitigate immediate health risks and long-term economic disruption. Including economic policies as part of GHE policies leads to collaboration between epidemiologists and economists in an economy-wide pandemic or public health crisis modeling, thereby demonstrating potential benefits [ 32 , 33 ].

This study posits that trade recovery is a dynamic process; hence, designing appropriate trade recovery measures should consider spatiotemporal dimensions and specific stakeholders at various subject levels. Research on developing trade recovery measures covers the spatial dimension but overlooks the time dimension. Lee et al. [ 34 ] established spatiotemporal modeling but did not distinguish different subject levels. Combining the spatiotemporal dimension and specific subject levels in trade recovery measures is essential for their success, ensuring adaptability and coverage across diverse economies. Additionally, comparative studies on countries’ trade recovery after different GHEs are limited, and research on trade recovery measures remains restricted to a single dimension. A clear framework for countermeasures is yet to be developed.

This study investigates trade recovery measures in countries affected by GHEs. The method includes a theoretical analysis based on international trade risk management with comparative multi-case studies. This methodology was developed by scholars such as Stake [ 35 ] and Yin [ 36 ], who formalized the approach as a tool for conducting in-depth explorations within real-life contexts. This qualitative research method enables the examination of complex phenomena within their specific settings, making it particularly suitable for understanding the nuanced implications of trade recovery measures across different geopolitical and socio-economic landscapes.

We construct a time–space-subject recovery measure framework, combining cases from the trade recovery measures adopted by Mexico, the US following the outbreak of influenza A H1N1, Japan following nuclear leakage triggered by a tsunami, three West African countries (Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone) following the outbreak of Ebola, and South Korea following the outbreak of the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). The framework is to design trade recovery measures for possible future events and for countries that are yet to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Historically, the case method has been leveraged in public health and international policy research [ 6 , 12 , 37 ], offering insights into policy development and implementation. Its adoption in this study, rather than more quantitative methods, allows for a deep, contextual analysis of policy effectiveness and adaptability in diverse scenarios, thereby enhancing our understanding of trade recovery strategies. The application of this framework also supports the synthesis of cross-sector policies, combining health imperatives with economic resilience to devise trade recovery roadmaps for both immediate and long-term strategic planning.

This study’s theoretical and practical contributions are as follows. (1) Exploration of spatiotemporal dimensions and subject-specific levels enriches the design of trade recovery measures, expanding extant research in international trade risk management theory by integrating contextual analysis into risk assessment and mitigation strategies. (2) A comparative analysis of consistency and heterogeneity in trade recovery measures across developed and emerging countries reveals gaps in public health emergency response mechanisms related to international trade, deepening the need for tailored strategies targeting specific economic vulnerabilities. (3) Insights obtained offer references for shaping national trade recovery policies in response to GHEs. Given the post-disaster recovery’s uncertainty, governments must enforce transformative measures [ 37 ], which are both adaptive and robust, to ensure economic stability and resilience.

Theoretical framework for designing trade recovery measures in GHE-affected countries

According to the international trade risk management theory [ 14 , 38 ], the health event emergency management system includes four stages: early warning, preventing spread, controlling or eliminating the event’s impact, and recovery. The emergency’s containment initiates the recovery phase. Countries and regions have a low proportion of recovery work in the health emergency management system, which must be fully developed for trade recovery from GHEs [ 14 ]. During the international trade recovery stage, the affected country must renegotiate trade agreements with its partners, enhance expectations, disseminate information to consumers, and evaluate the implementation effect of the trade recovery measures. Promptly identifying international trade risks and employing risk management measures can prevent and mitigate risks and ensure the smooth progression of trade.

During GHEs, trade policy, market demand, and competition vary; exchange rates between a country and its main trading partners fluctuate; or fixed rates are maintained at a significant cost, leading to objective risks. Although trade subjects cannot eliminate objective risks, they can actively prevent them. GHEs expand the scope of restrictions on the movement of people and goods, with continuously increasing uncertainty within the affected country’s trade environment. The subjective risk of decision-making errors and improper measures increases sharply as governments, organizations, and people face multiple pressures [ 39 ] and emergent behaviors.

GHE-initiated international trade risks are multidimensional, featuring a spatiotemporal evolution. Measured in time, an epidemic’s early, middle, and late stages face short- and medium-term risks. The risk extends from the epidemic’s origin to neighboring countries and major trading partners. With aggravating uncertainties and risk factors, the potential impact of GHEs on trade expands beyond short-term scales and localities, further increasing the complexity of trade recovery.

Subject levels, including international, national, industrial, enterprise, and consumer, simultaneously face systematic risks caused by GHEs. The cognitive prediction of events leads to pressure superposition, unbalanced considerations, and decision-making errors, thereby increasing the risk of improper measures. These risks are intertwined throughout GHEs, making it more difficult for affected countries to recover their normal trade levels [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Recovering from health events through only one type of measure is infeasible.

To address the international trade risks triggered by GHEs, the trade recovery countermeasures of affected countries must be strengthened in their spatiotemporal dimensions and include international, national, industrial, enterprise, and consumer groups for different subject levels. Efforts should include tracking the epidemic’s evolutionary stage and identifying its regional characteristics, as shown in [ 18 , 40 ], which highlighted the effectiveness of region-specific trade policies during the Ebola outbreak. Moreover, it is necessary establish a national trade recovery countermeasure repository featuring adequacy, flexibility, and completeness. These measures are essential to shift from an emergency single-trade recovery measure design to a comprehensive, long-term trade recovery measure design (Fig.  1 ).

Trend of goods exports in countries with GHEs, 1995–2018 (current price, USD 10 billion) . Source: Author’s analysis based on data from the World Bank Database

Comparative case study on trade recovery measures after GHEs

This study comparatively analyzed the trade recovery measures of relevant countries in the aftermath of four GHEs: the H1N1 influenza that developed in Mexico in 2009 and spread to the US, affecting both countries and their major trading partners; the 2011 Fukushima nuclear leak; the 2014 Ebola virus outbreak that spread rapidly in West Africa; and the 2015 MERS outbreak introduced to South Korea by international travelers. Despite their sudden onset, these GHEs triggered various national trade recovery measures because of differences in their nature.

A comparative case study methodology, conducive to exploring the characteristics of national trade recovery measures and the specifics of the events [ 41 ], supported by Yin [ 36 ] for its effective analysis of complex phenomena within realities, was applied. This method involves a systematic collection, comparison, and analysis of case data to identify patterns, test theories, and derive insights that are not apparent through singular case analyses. In implementing this methodology, this study meticulously documented the sequence of trade policy adjustments, timing (spatiotemporal dimensions), and targeted entities (subject dimensions) for each GHE case. This approach enabled the identification of overarching strategies that successfully mitigated trade disruptions, as well as frequent challenges across varied geopolitical and economic contexts. The analytical process involved detailed case descriptions to highlight similarities and differences in GHE impacts and trade response effectiveness. This structured analysis underscored the necessity of incorporating spatiotemporal and subject-specific considerations in formulating trade policies in response to GHEs. This leads to the argument for a nuanced, multidimensional approach to trade recovery policy-making.

Four GHEs this century

The 2009 h1n1 influenza pandemic.

The H1N1 influenza emerged in March 2009 in Mexico and the US. On June 11, 2009, the WHO declared it a global public health emergency of international concern [ 42 ], with the pandemic alert level peaking on this date [ 43 ]. The WHO declared the end of the pandemic in August 2010. In 18 months, it caused more than 18,000 deaths and affected more than 200 countries [ 44 ].

The 2011 Fukushima nuclear leak

On March 11, 2011, an earthquake struck the Pacific Ocean, causing a tsunami that triggered a nuclear leak [ 45 ]. The US announced an import ban on Japanese food from radiation-affected areas. Additionally, South Korea and the European Union issued trade bans, while China, Thailand, and Vietnam required radiation inspection certificates for food produced in Japan.

The 2014 Ebola epidemic

In March 2014, the Ebola epidemic broke out in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia in West Africa. In August 2014, the WHO declared it a GHE. The official report on October 15 revealed 8,997 cases and 4,493 deaths [ 46 ]. The WHO announced the end of the epidemic in Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia in November 2015, December 2015, and January 2016, respectively.

The 2015 MERS epidemic

In May 2015, the first MERS case was diagnosed in South Korea, with the disease spreading in medical institutions. Thirty-six patients died, and 186 were infected [ 47 ]. As the disease did not exhibit sustained human-to-human transmission, it was not classified as an international public health emergency. In December 2015, the WHO declared the end of the outbreak.

Comparison of the four GHEs with national trade recovery

Similarities.

The H1N1 flu occurred in the wake of the 2008 global financial crisis, further slowing the recovery of the affected countries. Owing to travel restrictions and trade embargoes, the tourism industry lost USD 2.8 billion, with the trade deficit in pork and pork products’ reaching USD 27 million. Mexico’s exports fell by 26% in the first quarter of 2009 [ 48 ]. The US economy was struggling and reached a nadir after the subprime crisis. The Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at 6763.29 on March 2, 2009, the lowest since April 1997 [ 49 ]. The H1N1 outbreak in April 2009 significantly decreased US GDP, retail sales, and exports of pork and pork products.

As the Japanese government could not provide on-time tests for all trade partners, Japan’s agricultural products and food exports to these countries stagnated. In the first quarter of 2011, Japan’s economy contracted at an annual rate of 3.7% [ 50 ]. In the aftermath of the earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear leakage, the economy continued to shrink over the next 6 months (GDP fell 0.9% from January to March), and private consumption fell by 0.6%. In September 2012, the government announced that the country was entering a recession [ 50 ].

The Ebola epidemic affected transportation, tourism, agriculture, and mining. Trading countries and airlines issued travel restrictions to affected areas [ 46 ]. Agricultural production was affected, with the epidemic limiting the transport of agricultural products to consumer areas, raising product prices. Conakry’s governor banned Eid celebrations on October 2, 2014 [ 51 ]. Travel bans implemented by national authorities and airline flight suspensions [ 46 ] cut off trade among West African countries and their partners for about 6 months until August 31, 2014. The loss of workers and travel restrictions reduced mining activity. The US government sent USD 2.89 billion in foreign aid to West Africa, focusing its efforts on Liberia [ 51 ].

The MERS outbreak reduced the number of tourists visiting South Korea by 2.1 million, resulting in a loss of USD 2.6 billion in tourism revenue. Additionally, the accommodation, catering service, and transportation sectors suffered losses of USD 542 million, USD 359 million, and USD 106 million, respectively [ 52 ]. This pushed the transportation sector’s service index below the expected levels in June 2015 and the accommodation and catering industries’ service indexes below the expected levels in June and July 2015.

Heterogeneities

H1N1 flu was a pandemic caused by viral variants. The Fukushima event was a technological disaster triggered by a strong earthquake but mainly caused by industrialization [ 53 ]. The Ebola virus was a highly infectious and destructive disease; the widespread nature of the West African outbreak relates to the highly mobile communities and densely populated regions affected in the early stages [ 51 ]. South Korean cases of the MERS virus, which originated in Saudi Arabia, were introduced through international travel.

Duration and influence areas

The H1N1 flu lasted approximately 1 year, affecting Mexico and the US. Following the nuclear accident, some countries prohibited agri-food product imports from Japan’s irradiated areas from 2011 to the present (e.g., the US and China). Footnote 5 The Ebola epidemic lasted 2 years, primarily affecting African countries. More than 13,000 confirmed cases were reported globally, with 4,951 deaths and a 36% mortality rate by October 2014. Although the outbreak involved only three countries, there was widespread and intense transmission in the West African region, and four nations (Nigeria, Senegal, Spain, and the US) reported initial cases or localized transmission. The MERS epidemic was challenging for South Korea’s medical system for more than 7 months.

Event outcomes

After the H1N1 outbreak, countries restricted travel and banned the imports of pork products, which affected their trade with Mexico, the US, and the rest of the global economy. Unwarranted concerns based on inappropriate designations also led to official and unofficial bans by 17 countries on US pork and pork product imports, with China maintaining its ban until mid-December 2009 [ 54 ]. The Fukushima nuclear accident primarily affected Japan’s agricultural product exports because its trade partners were concerned about radioactive contamination [ 55 ], while the Ebola epidemic endangered Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia’s economic growth, leading to trade stagnation, foreign investment withdrawal, and a food crisis. MERS negatively affected South Korea’s tourism industry.

Evidence for these event outcomes is as follows.

Impact of GHEs on export volumes

In 2009, Mexico and US export volumes decreased by 21.13% and 17.97%, respectively, over the previous year (Fig.  2 ). Japan’s commodity export volume increased by 6.94% in 2011 over 2010, with a limited share of the Fukushima agricultural food export in Japan’s total foreign trade. Guinea’s commodity exports increased by 10% in 2014 over 2013 but decreased by 13.79% in 2015 over 2014, indicating the Ebola epidemic’s lagging effect on Guinea’s exports. In 2014, Liberia’s and Sierra Leone’s merchandise exports decreased by 54.7% and 19.04%, respectively, over 2013. South Korea’s merchandise exports decreased by 8.02% in 2015 over 2014.

Trends in international tourism revenue changes in GHEs-affected countries, 1995–2018 (current price, USD 10 billion). Data for Guinea and Liberia are missing from the World Bank Database. Source: Author’s analysis based on data from the World Bank Database

International tourism income changes in countries affected by GHEs

Mexican and US revenues decreased by 14.83% and 11.36%, respectively, in 2009 over 2008, and Japan’s revenues decreased by 18.38% in 2012 over 2011. In Sierra Leone, revenues decreased by 46.97% in 2014 over 2013, and in South Korea, by 16.43% in 2015 over 2014 (Fig.  3 ). Income from trade and transport fell because of the closure policy adopted during the Ebola outbreak, which also disrupted other business activities [ 56 ].

Theoretical framework for the design of trade recovery measures for GHE-affected countries. Source: Author’s analysis

Trade recovery

Developed countries (i.e., the US, Canada, and South Korea) have relatively robust health systems, sound economic foundations, and short trade recovery periods. The H1N1 epidemic lasted a year, after which exports from Mexico and the US returned to pre-pandemic levels. As an emerging economy, Mexico maintained its trade with the US during the outbreak; thus, trade recovered rapidly. In 2010, Mexico and US tourism revenues exceeded the level achieved in the 2009 pandemic year.

The impact of the Fukushima nuclear leakage on Japan’s export trade and tourism industry was limited, especially within Fukushima prefecture. Although Japan’s international tourism revenue declined in early 2011, the number of foreign tourists to Japan returned to 70% of that year by September 2012. By contrast, it took more than a decade to eliminate the consequences of the Fukushima disaster on the agricultural product trade. Agriculture production and trade resumed when decontamination was confirmed, which took a long time. In 2017, trade levels improved, and international tourism numbers recovered, exceeding pre-GHE levels [ 57 ].

Even before the Ebola outbreak, West African countries were impoverished and pursuing economic development. Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia recovered their export levels within 2 years of the outbreak, but the economic recovery time was long. Guinea’s export recovery was notable; its export trade increased in 2015 over 2014 before decreasing in 2016, although it remained above the pre-outbreak level. In 2015, Liberia’s export volume decreased by 20.57% and did not return to its pre-epidemic level until 2018. Sierra Leone’s exports declined slowly from 2015 until they increased in 2018; however, these are yet to achieve their pre-epidemic level. International tourism income increased by USD 2 million in 2015 over 2014 before fluctuating upward (Figs.  1 and 2 ).

Comparison of trade recovery measures in GHE-affected countries

The common points of the affected countries’ trade recovery measures include countries that chose active fiscal and monetary policies to achieve trade recovery. Consumers, enterprises, and significantly damaged industries were crucial areas for trade recovery.

Mexico and the US

In May 2009, Mexico implemented a tax rate reduction and funding aimed at small and midsize enterprises in the tourism and transportation industries. Furthermore, it reduced its interbank interest rate and announced a financing plan to inject funds into the economy through institutions (i.e., the National Financial Development Bank) to support small and medium enterprises. The Mexican government revived its economy by introducing rules/regulations to facilitate mergers and acquisitions that promoted the development of the southeast economy within Mexico.

During the H1N1 outbreak, the US economy faced a slowdown in an unstable policy environment following the 2008 financial crisis. The country passed a law to support economic recovery and encourage reinvestment. The Federal Reserve cut interest rates to save financial institutions and enterprises on the brink of bankruptcy and help families with excessive debt. On July 12, 2009, the U.S. Department of Health announced the allocation of an additional USD 1 billion to fight A H1N1 influenza. Footnote 6 Despite reductions in US–Mexico air routes, trade between the two countries continued.

In March 2011, Japan launched a post-disaster recovery and reconstruction program, and the Reconstruction Agency was established in 2012. The timeframe included the Intensive Reconstruction Period (2011–2015), with USD 250 billion allocated, and the Reconstruction and Revitalization Period (2016–2020), with USD 65 billion. Japan also established a comprehensive environmental monitoring system. Footnote 7 To accelerate the resumption of normal business operations, the government supported the establishment of temporary stores, increased investment in support funds, and repaired damaged buildings.

Special financial support to reduce enterprises’ burden included establishing a Japanese financial company specialized in recovery and loans intended for reconstruction after the earthquake. The interest rate was slashed, and separate loan limits, extended loans, and repayment terms were established. The interest rate was reduced to almost zero for small and midsize enterprises whose office facilities were destroyed during the earthquake, and the government improved its management and financing. Tourism and other affected industries were supported, and entertainment and consumer destinations, such as Tokyo Disneyland, reopened to revitalize the local economy and restore international confidence after the disaster.

West Africa

Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone introduced short-term response policies to ensure the health systems and economic sectors’ timely recovery. The Guinean government formulated a USD 2-billion post-Ebola recovery plan, with 63% allocated to improving nutrition, health, education, and children’s services and promoting socioeconomic recovery [ 43 ]. It emphasized that the disease’s spread was enhanced by poverty and illiteracy, while noting that the epidemic presented an opportunity to strengthen the country’s economic, social, and institutional resilience. Sierra Leone prioritized the implementation of universal health insurance, whereas Liberia focused on improving post-outbreak areas such as health staffing, infrastructure, monitoring, and response.

The outbreak of a large-scale epidemic in Africa attracted attention from the international community. The United Nations, World Bank, IMF, and US launched a series of epidemic prevention and financial support policies to assist the West African countries in combatting the outbreak. These policies included initial funding of USD 200 million from the US National Institutes of Health to foster cooperation between academic institutions in the US, Liberia, and Sierra Leone on virus research, including vaccine development and new testing and treatment methods. The World Bank approved a USD 110 million IDA assistance to help West Africa establish and expand disease surveillance systems [ 43 ].

South Korea

In June 2015, the central bank of South Korea cut its interest rate to 1.5% [ 58 ], issued special financing support, and promoted structural reforms in public utilities, finance, education, and labor sectors. The Korean government provided special insurance for visitors to Korea, covering all medical and MERS-related expenses. The government concurrently introduced supportive policies to reduce consumption taxes on automobiles and large household appliances, offering discounts and organizing shopping festivals. Commercial enterprises offered discounts on commodities and services to stimulate domestic demand and launched the Black Friday Shopping Festival. To accommodate the peak summer vacation from late July to early August and absorb the demand for popular products flowing overseas during the epidemic, Korean enterprises actively supported tourism recovery and extended the discount season from winter until August to attract consumers.

The main measures of trade recovery

After the GHEs, the affected governments implemented internal countermeasures to recover. Korean commercial enterprises also participated in the recovery process through marketing measures. Conversely, although the three West African countries implemented internal trade recovery measures, given their economic development and medical infrastructure level, they required additional support from the international community to recover.

Emphasis on trade recovery

Most countries strengthened entry-exit control and ensured strict isolation to prevent an epidemic. International flights were reduced, with some countries isolated. Mexico and the US, however, maintained trade ties during the H1N1 influenza pandemic. After controlling the pandemic, the countries used fiscal and monetary policies to manage the affected tourism and agricultural trade. The Japanese government’s trade recovery was based on environmental monitoring measures. When the affected region’s government officials pushed for and promoted marketing measures, it mitigated the nuclear accident’s adverse psychological effects on foreign consumers, thereby advancing the recovery of agricultural exports. The three West African countries’ trade recovery measures are nested in a broader socioeconomic promotion plan. Countries with adequate trade recovery considered the epidemic would opportunistically promote domestic economic development and improve medical facilities with the international community’s support. South Korean commercial enterprises focused on stimulating local demand.

Trade recovery measures differ between developed and emerging economies

During the MERS outbreak, South Korea implemented an economic stimulus plan to assist domestic enterprises. Developed economies, such as the US and Japan, also developed support measures for small and midsize enterprises. During the Ebola epidemic, however, West African countries could not provide such resources, and international organizations, such as the World Bank, United Nations Children’s Fund, and WHO, came to their rescue (Table  2 ).

Comparing the cases with the theoretical framework

This study enhances the theoretical framework using case study evidence. Combining the theoretical framework in " Results " section , trade recovery measures in the time dimension of these countries require further clarification, especially when the event was under control and during the trade recovery stage. In the time dimension (Fig.  3 ), after the GHE was under control (especially after the warning and outbreak), the countries embarked on the process of trade recovery (including early, middle, and late stages).

Implementing the foundations of trade recovery can enhance governments’ timely responses to GHEs. Robust trade recovery infrastructures significantly improve response times during health crises [ 13 , 37 , 50 ]. Trade recovery measures differ based on cities, regions, and domestic countries, with urban centers often rebounding more rapidly owing to better resource allocation [ 59 , 60 ]. International cooperation is critical for trade recovery, especially for emerging countries, as exemplified by the joint efforts during the 2014 Ebola crisis that facilitated regional trade resumption [ 61 ]. The trade recovery measures of developed countries are more comprehensive than those of emerging countries, helping to shorten their recovery time, with the OECD highlighting the correlation between recovery measures and reduced economic downtime [ 62 ]. Countries can classify and enrich trade recovery measures by applying the time–space-subject three-dimensional framework analyzed earlier and establishing a countermeasure repository (see Table 3  in " Comparative case study on trade recovery measures after GHEs " section) to recover from GHEs

Each GHE revealed areas for improvement in trade recovery measures. The responses to the nuclear leakage accident and the H1N1 influenza epidemic suffered from a lack of timely action and resource allocation [ 53 , 59 ]. Management of the MERS and Ebola outbreaks has been criticized for insufficient coordination and resource deployment [ 34 ]. The outbreak of GHEs has exposed the weaknesses in global governance, manifesting in uncoordinated public health and economic systems, and the failure to manage these events to achieve a better balance among health, economic, and trade shocks. This lack of synergy exacerbates the severity of health, economic, and trade shocks during these crises. Establishing joint committees of the WHO, WTO, and potentially other international organizations, such as the International Monetary Fund and United Nations, could provide a comprehensive approach to managing these conflicts. The effectiveness of such collaborative efforts has been documented in the joint WHO–WTO response to the SARS and H1N1 outbreak, which enhanced global preparedness and response capabilities [ 63 ]. Such joint committees could create a real-time data repository for cross-border information sharing, outline a tiered protocol for trade actions, manage a dedicated emergency fund, and conduct bi-annual stress tests. This would not only inform member nations’ preparedness for future GHEs as recommended by the WHO, WIPO, and WTO but also renew their commitment to supporting integrated solutions for global health challenges [ 64 ].

Moreover, implementing trade recovery measures in countries affected by GHEs will generate short-term impacts on trade and investment with a delayed effect. According to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities [ 65 ], recovery measures typically result in initial disruptions that are offset by longer-term gains in efficiency and market access. During GHEs, the successive implementation of trade recovery measures influences current economic activities; however, these measures have a delayed and long-term impact. UNCTAD [ 66 ] revealed that the full benefits of the trade recovery measures from the pandemic were not realized until several years post-crisis, underscoring the need for patient capital and sustained policy support. Improving the effects of trade recovery measures requires evaluating the implementation effects of the affected country’s measures in response to GHEs, as demonstrated by the World Bank’s analysis of response strategies during the 2014–2015 Ebola outbreak. This provides crucial insights into the effectiveness of regional trade policies [ 61 ].

The following countermeasure repository clarifying the time–space-subject dimensions is chosen for countries experiencing GHEs (Table 3 ). Measures in the time dimension are differentiated in the short, medium, and long terms. Measures in the space dimension strengthen the choices of different geographic areas in the various affected levels (the degree to which an area has been affected by GHEs). The subject dimension highlights the heterogeneity of measures at the international, regional, national, industrial, and consumer levels. Countries experiencing a GHE can choose measures from this repository to address their specific needs.

Early stage of trade recovery

Countries should implement short-term policies with an open, transparent, and timely response. These policies should include the following.

Adopting short-term fiscal and monetary policies

Short-term policies were the primary measures employed by all four countries during the early stages of trade recovery. The availability of open and transparent information helps the government evaluate and control the situation. Timely isolation is significant in controlling an epidemic’s spread, thereby reducing infection and mortality rates. Short-term fiscal spending, income reduction, and credit policies (e.g., tax and reduction of property and insurance fees) can target the most impacted industries. The business cycle prefers a moderately loose monetary policy. Short-term policies should minimize the socioeconomic burden of people affected [ 67 ]. For emerging countries, countermeasures to reduce the economic burden are essential for mitigating the adverse effects rather than increasing employment and economic output [ 33 ].

Implementing trade policies to maintain open trade

During a GHE, neighboring countries and major trading partners fear the epidemic spread through trade channels, triggering trade bans and interruptions. Flight controls and border closures affect countries beyond those implementing the measures [ 46 ]. During the Ebola outbreak, West African countries closed their borders, disrupting regional trade and threatening the essential supply and livelihood of the host countries [ 30 , 31 ]. The affected countries and trading partners should keep trade as open as possible to secure an adequate supply of necessities. During the early stages of trade recovery, reducing trade costs (government-imposed trade costs such as tariffs and quotas) can help protect trade and economic openness. At the international, national, and industrial levels, timely trade policies should be implemented to avoid trade bans and actively respond to technical barriers to trade (TBTs) imposed by other countries. At the national level, affected countries must promptly reduce their short-term trade barriers. Footnote 8 The increased trade barriers during the COVID-19 pandemic further destroyed trade (i.e., the global food system) [ 68 ].

Middle and later stages of trade recovery

Rapid control of spreading diseases or radioactive substances poses challenges and leads to long-term lag effect on national trade recovery. While quantifying total trade losses from epidemics and nuclear radiation remains difficult, prioritizing national trade recovery is essential for normalizing trade. Measures taken during GHEs should be adjusted based on the overall trade recovery progress to prevent trade friction and expedite the normalization of trade and economic policies. The policy package aimed at ensuring timely trade normalization should incorporate the following three elements.

Highlighting macroeconomy-tolerant fiscal and monetary policies

The GHEs significantly disrupted total consumer spending during the middle and later periods of trade recovery. Policy interventions to maintain economic growth are therefore preferable. During GHEs, governments must coordinate their efforts to manage working time arrangements and determine the optimal level of public debt based on production technology and disease characteristics to effectively implement fiscal policy [ 69 ]. Simultaneously, medium- and long-term structural policies must be launched while establishing epidemic risk assessment tools. Measures include improving monitoring systems and raising public awareness of prevention and control measures. Pharmaceutical companies should be incentivized to develop new antiviral drugs and vaccines and enhance their production capacity. Footnote 9 Measures to increase medical reserves, such as adopting advanced technologies and medical infrastructure, should be pursued.

Supporting key industries and enterprises at medium and micro levels

Efforts include implementing targeted policies for industries significantly affected by the GHE to protect the interests of small and midsize enterprises, particularly those engaged in import and export businesses directly affected. Measures should target preferential policies and subsidies for small and midsize enterprises and prevent unemployment. Enterprises should continue to pay wages and facilitate employee benefit claims despite economic uncertainty. Global manufacturers and retailers can improve e-commerce for shopping channels, develop trust and confidence among e-commerce participants, and promote compatibility with international norms [ 70 ].

Attracting investment

GHEs can reduce or cause a withdrawal of foreign direct investment from affected countries. When the health event is controlled, implementing tax relief can help reduce losses promptly and promote major investing countries’ and trading partners’ investment plans. For example, foreign investment was withdrawn or withheld during West Africa’s Ebola outbreak. Even after the epidemic was under control, the withdrawn foreign capital slowed the economic recovery of the most affected countries. Weak investment was the primary restraint on trade recovery, accounting for approximately 80% of the decline in goods trade between 2012 and 2016 and between 2003 and 2007 [ 71 ]. Countries should actively maintain a stable financial system and encourage foreign direct investment inflows during the middle and later recovery periods.

Conclusions

This study investigated the impact of GHEs and designed countermeasures to address trade recovery based on theoretical and case analysis. The following conclusions are drawn. First, the unexpected and unique nature of GHEs complicates trade recovery. There were differences in the types of GHEs, their transmission times, and diffusion regions across the four health events. Regardless of the home country’s coping strategy or the experience gained from these events, the trade recovery capability of these countries warrants improvement. Second, the trade recovery measures for the four GHEs were heterogeneous in their focus and effectiveness among developed and emerging economies. Fiscal and monetary policies were more commonly used, followed by recovery measures for specific regions and industries. Enterprises must actively stimulate demand (i.e., marketing, e-commerce). Third, trade recovery measures should be implemented from a spatiotemporal perspective, considering specific subject levels. Short-term policies were the primary focus for affected countries during the early stages of trade recovery. Medium- and long-term policies were crucial for ensuring open trade and trade normalization in the middle and late stages.

The results indicate that trade recovery measures should operate in the space–time-subject dimension. Expedient short-term policies should be adopted during the early stages of recovery (i.e., tax relief and trade subsidies) to stabilize the affected economies rapidly. As recovery progresses, medium- and long-term financial, monetary, and trade policies (i.e., bilateral trade agreements and currency stabilization) should be preferred in the middle and later stages to sustain and bolster economic recovery. Designing trade recovery policies at the international, national, industrial, enterprise, and consumer levels should shift from emergency actions to comprehensive, reserve-oriented, and enduring-effects measures. These policies should address needs at different levels, such as permanent trade corridors to facilitate uninterrupted trade flows and consumer loyalty programs in sustaining market demands.

Our study acknowledges the comprehensive WTO trade measures during the COVID-19 pandemic, which documented diverse practices of trade facilitation and restriction across member states. According to the WTO’s report [ 72 ] and further detailed trade policy discussions [ 73 ], these measures significantly influenced the economic landscape globally, highlighting the need for adaptable tailor-made trade policies to specific country contexts. Building on these findings, we suggest that future trade recovery strategies should leverage both the resilience measures and lessons learned during the pandemic. Specifically, effective temporary trade measures identified by the WTO can serve as models for swift deployment in future global health emergencies, aiming to minimize disruptions to trade flows.

Limitations and future research

This study proposed that trade recovery countermeasures designed for countries with GHEs should distinguish between spatiotemporal dimensions and specific subject levels. Different trade recovery countermeasures inevitably produce overlapping effects (i.e., fiscal and easy monetary policies can promote trade recovery). However, this study did not fully explore the interactive or cumulative impacts of these overlapping countermeasures, leaving room for determining the most effective policy combinations. Further research is needed on the superimposed effects of trade promotion and combined policies. For example, clarifying these mechanisms requires analyzing the channels and results of various trade recovery countermeasures affecting trade recovery, collecting quarterly, monthly, even daily, and real-time data from countries with GHEs, and applying difference-in-difference, breakpoint regression models, as well as propensity score matching to identify the mechanism and countermeasures’ effects. This approach can provide insight into the overlapping effects of multiple trade recovery policies.

Availability of data and materials

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

GHEs affect the long-run evolution of the economy. This study assumes that countries experiencing GHEs will enter a new stage of development and show a long-run economic evolution.

The economy evolves endogenously. A GHE always affects/changes the economy, altering its evolutionary path. Therefore, countries affected by GHEs try to resume or recover trade by implementing trade recovery measures.

This causation runs both ways.

This research focuses on the impact of GHEs on trade; however, since forever, the relationship has run both ways.

The US Food and Drug Administration response to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power facility incident (May 14, 2023). https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-response-fukushima-daiichi-nuclear-power-facility-incident Scholars also focus on the motivations/interests of the US agricultural community before and after the event—for example, the nuclear event was just an excuse to prohibit imports. This is also an interesting future topic.

US $1 billion to fight against influenza A (H1N1), China News Report , October 10, 2022. https://news.ifeng.com/c/7fYidCErT3J

Efforts toward reconstruction of Tohoku, Reconstruction Agency of Japan, May 14, 2023. https://www.reconstruction.go.jp/english/index.html

Facing COVID-19, the affected countries did the opposite. These activities clearly exposed the weakness of the current recovery measures taken by the countries. Enhancing trade barriers are emergency-oriented measures taken by countries facing multiple uncertainties, while reducing trade barriers are reserve-oriented and enduring-effect measures that benefit countries affected by GHEs.

Incentivizing pharmaceutical companies is challenging while recognizing their right to make a profit and the public’s opposing rights and interests. Governments need to play a role in avoiding their monopoly on meeting private interests while encouraging their progress, innovation, and social responsibility.

Abbreviations

• Global health events

Middle East respiratory syndrome

World Health Organization

World Trade Organization

United States

Artificial intelligence

Technical barriers to trade

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Post-funded project of the National Social Science Fund of China, “Research on academic frontier theory and policy of the economics of standards” [Grant No. 21FJLB039]; Soft Science Special Project of Gansu Basic Research Plan, “Research on promoting trade development between Gansu and countries along the Silk Road through harmonization of standards” [Grant No. 23JRZA385]; The China Association of Trade in Services project, “Research on the Impact of Digital Trade on Manufacturing Production Efficiency”[Grant No. FWMYKT-202429].

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Yang, L. From isolation to revival: trade recovery amid global health crises. Global Health 20 , 38 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-024-01048-6

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Information literacy skills training model for clinicians based on a case study of their information experiences and practices in south-east, nigeria, samuel k. ibenne.

This paper is the outcome of an exploratory case study of Paediatricians in a tertiary hospital in Southeast, Nigeria, which aimed at providing understanding of the relationship between their information experiences, practices and their decisions in patient care. It was conducted using the qualitative method, with data obtained through interviews, diaries and observation. Paediatricians in the cadres of: Consultants, Senior Registrars, Registrars and Residents provided data which was coded thematically with the Nvivo software and analysed using the interpretative method. The findings are that in general: i) there was haphazard approach to information literacy training for the clinicians during professional education resulting in varied information capabilities, and inadequacy of knowledge and skills for good information practice; ii) obtaining medical information from colleagues was the predominant feature of paediatricians' information practices; iii)printed textbooks were the paediatricians preferred source for obtaining medical evidence, however, there was a growing popularity in the use of electronic medical information sources, including at the point of care; iv) there was general perception by the paediatricians that access to, and use of medical information supports patient care and achievement of better treatment outcomes. This perception instilled a sense of value for information use, demonstrated through the clinicians' dedication to the self-provision of information resources; vi) a dearth of medical resources germane to the contextual management of illnesses led to inadequate clinician knowledge in a good number of cases. The study recommends among others that the information literacy skills training (ILST) model developed from the findings, be used as a practical training tool for information literacy for the paediatricians' at the level of residency training to enhance their skills in medical information sourcing and use in patient care.

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