case study of eco tourism

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• Published: 31 May 2023

Eco-tourism, climate change, and environmental policies: empirical evidence from developing economies

• Yunfeng Shang 1 ,
• Chunyu Bi 2 ,
• Xinyu Wei 2 ,
• Dayang Jiang 2 ,
• Farhad Taghizadeh-Hesary   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5446-7093 3 , 4 &
• Ehsan Rasoulinezhad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7726-1757 5  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  275 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental studies

Developing ecotourism services is a suitable solution to help developing countries improve the status of sustainable development indicators and protect their environment. The primary purpose of this paper is to find out the effects of green governance variables and carbon dioxide emissions on ecotourism for 40 developing economies from 2010 to 2021. The results confirmed a uni-directional causal relationship between the green governance indicator and the inflation rate of the ecotourism indicator. In addition, with a 1% improvement in the green governance index of developing countries, the ecotourism of these countries will increase by 0.43%. In comparison, with a 1% increase in the globalization index of these countries, ecotourism will increase by 0.32%. Moreover, ecotourism in developing countries is more sensitive to macroeconomic variables changes than in developed economies. Geopolitical risk is an influential factor in the developing process of ecotourism. The practical policies recommended by this research are developing the green financing market, establishing virtual tourism, granting green loans to small and medium enterprises, and government incentives to motivate active businesses.

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Introduction.

The challenge of climate change has become a primary threat to living on the Earth in the last centuries (Rasoulinzhad and Taghizadeh-Hesary, 2022 ). Many meetings of the countries at the regional and international level are held on the topics of environment and climate change. Regardless of environmental issues, population growth, and the lack of control of greenhouse gas emissions, industrialization has been the most crucial cause of the climate change crisis. Chao and Feng ( 2018 ) address human activity as the leading cause of climate change and express that this challenge is a potential threat to living on Earth. Woodward ( 2019 ) argued that climate change threats include the rise in global temperature, the melting of polar ice caps, and unprecedented disease outbreaks. Therefore, urgent policies and solutions are essential to control and lower the risk of global change. One of the signs of climate change is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface. Figure 1 shows the temperature data from 1910 to 2021 for the four continents of Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America.

Source: Authors from NOAA ( https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/climate-at-a-glance/global/time-series ).

The data in Fig. 1 shows that the air temperature has increased significantly over the past century, which has been more prominent in Asia and Europe. In 2021, we saw a decrease in temperature changes due to the spread of the Corona disease and a decrease in the rate of greenhouse gas emissions. However, the role of the Asian continent in increasing the global temperature has been more than other continents due to its large population and excessive consumption of fossil fuels.

During the past decades, the world’s countries have tried to formulate and implement various environmental policies collectively in the form of agreements or separately to fight environmental threats. Regarding international agreements, such things as the Paris Agreement of 2015, the Kyoto Protocol of 1997, the Montreal Protocol of 1987, and the Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1985 can be addressed whose primary purpose is to integrate the goals and motivation of the international community to the world’s environmental threats. However, a group of earlier studies, such as Zheng et al. ( 2017 ), Takashima ( 2018 ), and Roelfsema et al. ( 2022 ), emphasized the inefficiency of these global agreements, especially after the left the USA from the Paris Agreement on 1 June 2017. The most important cause of this inefficiency has been the need for more motivation of countries to fulfill their international obligations towards environmental issues. However, many governments consider the threat of climate change only within their geographical boundaries and have tried to formulate and implement green policies to advance their environmental protection goals. These policies include green financial policies (green taxes, green subsidies), monetary policies (such as green loans and green financing), and cultural and social policies in line with sustainable development. The ultimate goal of these green policies is a green economy, an environmentally friendly economy, a zero carbon economy, or a sustainable economy. Lee et al. ( 2022 ) define the green economy as a broad concept comprising green industry, agriculture, and services. Centobelli et al. ( 2022 ) express that environmental sustainability should be more attention in the service sector owing to its penetration into social life and interactions.

Tourism and travel-related services are among countries’ main parts of the service sector. By creating the flow of tourists, tourism services can lead to capital transfer, job creation, cultural exchange (globalization), and increasing welfare in the country hosting the tours. According to the Yearbook of Tourism Statistics published by the World Tourism Organization, international tourism has increased from 522.2 billion US dollars in 1995 to nearly 1.86 trillion US dollars in 2019. This increase shows the importance of tourism services in generating income for countries, especially in the era of Corona and post-corona. Casado-Aranda et al. ( 2021 ) express that tourism services can be a central driver of economic growth recovery in post COVID era. Jeyacheya and Hampton ( 2022 ) argue that tourism can make high incomes for host countries leading to job creation and economic flourishing in destination cities for tourists.

An important issue mentioned in the corona era and relies on the post-corona era is the revitalizing of green economic growth. An important issue mentioned in the corona era and relying on the post-corona era is the revitalizing green economic growth (Bai et al., 2022 ; Werikhe, 2022 ), an opportunity that countries should pay more attention to in order to rebuild their economic activities. In other words, countries should plan their return to economic prosperity with environmental issues in mind. To this end, the issue of tourism finds a branch called Ecotourism or sustainable tourism which has environmental concerns and tries to help countries to improve environmental protection policies. Ecotourism is an approach based on environmental criteria, which is opposed to over-tourism (a type of tourism that disrupts the protection of the environment and destroys natural resources). The International Ecotourism Society defines Ecotourism as an efficient way to conserve the environment and improve local people’s well-being. It can be said that Ecotourism, along with various economic advantages (income generation, job creation, globalization, poverty alleviation), will bring environmental protection to the world’s countries, achieving the goals of green economic growth recovery and sustainable development. Xu et al. ( 2022 ) consider Ecotourism as one of the essential components of achieving sustainable development in the post-corona era.

Ecotourism in developing countries has more priorities compared to developed economies. Firstly, developing countries are often countries with financial problems of the government, and the governments in these countries need more capital to advance sustainable development goals. Therefore, developing ecotourism services can be a suitable solution to help these countries improve the status of sustainable development indicators and protect their environment. Second, due to the spread of the Corona disease, developing countries have experienced numerous bankruptcy in the tourism services sector. Therefore, promoting ecotourism in these countries is of great importance in the post-corona era. Third, developing countries have a high share in the emission of greenhouse gases in the world due to their high dependence on fossil fuels and the lack of advanced green technologies. Fourth, due to bureaucratic processes, high cost, and lack of market transparency, greenwashing may happen in developing economies’ ecotourism industry, meaning that a company serving ecotourism services makes its activities seem more sustainable and ethical than they are. The term “greenwashing” can harshly impact the future development path of the ecotourism industry in developing economies. According to the reasons mentioned above, developing ecotourism in developing countries can be an essential factor in controlling and reducing greenhouse gas emissions in these countries.

This paper tries to contribute to the existing literature from the following aspects:

Calculating the ecotourism index for selected countries based on the criteria for measuring sustainable tourism stated by the World Tourism Organization in the United Nations. Considering that there is no specific index for ecotourism, the calculation of ecotourism in this article will be innovative.

Measuring the green governance index as a proxy for environmental policies for selected countries based on the Environment Social and Governance (ESG) data.

Selecting a sample of 40 developing countries from different geographical regions to calculate the interconnections between ecotourism, green governance, and climate change

Making a further discussion to address the role of uncertainty and the developing level of countries in the relationship between ecotourism and explanatory variables.

The main results confirm the existence of a uni-directional causal relationship running from the green governance indicator and inflation rate to the ecotourism indicator. In addition, with a 1% improvement in the green governance index of developing countries, the ecotourism of these countries will increase by 0.43%. A 1% increase in the globalization index of these countries accelerates ecotourism by 0.32%.

Moreover, ecotourism in developing countries is more sensitive to macroeconomic variables changes than in developed economies. Geopolitical risk is an influential factor in the developing process of ecotourism. The practical policies recommended by this research are developing the green financing market, establishing virtual tourism, granting green loans to small and medium enterprises, and government incentives to motivate active businesses.

The paper in continue is organized as follows: section “Literature review” provides a short literature review to determine the gaps this research seeks to fill. Section “Data and model specification” argues data and model specification. The following section represents empirical results. Section “Discussion” expresses discussion, whereas the last section provides conclusions, policy implications, research limitations, and recommendations to research further.

Literature review

This part of the article analyzes and classifies the previous literature on ecotourism and sustainable development in a rational and structured way. The importance of tourism in economic growth and development has been discussed in previous studies. However, the study of the effect of tourism on climate change has received little attention. Especially the relationship between sustainable tourism, climate change, and environmental policies is a problem that has yet to receive the attention of academic experts.

A group of previous studies has focused on the place of tourism in economic development and growth. Holzner ( 2011 ) focused on the consequences of tourism development on the economic performance of 134 countries from 1970 to 2007. They found out that excessive dependence on tourism income leads to Dutch disease in the economy, and other economic sectors need to develop to the extent of the tourism sector. In another study, Sokhanvar et al. ( 2018 ) investigated the causal link between tourism and economic growth in emerging economies from 1995 to 2014. The main results confirmed that the linkage is country-dependent. Brida et al. ( 2020 ) studied 80 economies from 1995 to 2016 to determine how tourism and economic development are related. The paper’s conclusions highlighted tourism’s-positive role in economic activities.

Another group of previous studies has linked tourism to sustainability targets. Sorensen and Grindsted ( 2021 ) expressed that nature tourism development has a positive and direct impact on achieving sustainable development goals of countries. In a new study, Li et al. ( 2022 ) studied the impacts of tourism development on life quality (as one of the sustainable development goals defined by the UN in 2015) in the case of Japan. They found that tourism development positively impacts the quality of life of age groups in the country. Ahmad et al. ( 2022 ) explored the role of tourism in the sustainability of G7 economies from 2000–2019. The primary findings revealed the positive impact of tourism arrivals on sustainable economic development. Zekan et al. ( 2022 ) investigated the impact of tourism on regional sustainability in Europe. They concluded that tourism development increases transport, leading to increased carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, tourism development causes environmental pollution.

Tourism that can pay attention to environmental issues is called “ecotourism.” Many new studies have studied different dimensions of ecotourism. Lu et al. ( 2021 ) expanded the concept of the ecotourism industry. The significant results expressed that smart tourist cities are essential for efficient ecotourism in countries. Thompson ( 2022 ) expressed the characteristics of ecotourism development through survey methodology. The results confirmed the importance of transparent regulations, government support, and social intention to promote ecotourism. In another study, Heshmati et al. ( 2022 ) employed the SWOT analysis method to explore the critical success factors of ecotourism development in Iran. They found that legal documentation and private participation are major influential factors in promoting ecotourism in Iran. In line with the previous research, Hosseini et al. ( 2021 ) tried to explore the influential factors in promoting ecotourism in Iran by employing a SWOT analysis. They depicted that attracting investors is essential to enhance ecotourism projects in Iran. Hasana et al. ( 2022 ) reviewed research to analyze the earlier studies about ecotourism. The conclusions expressed that ecotourism is necessary for environmental protection. However, it is a challenging plan for the government, and they should carry out various policies toward ecotourism development. Kunjuraman et al. ( 2022 ) studied the role of ecotourism on rural community development in Malaysia. The significant results confirmed that ecotourism could transfer-positive impacts.

Several earlier studies have concentrated on the characteristics of ecotourism in different developed and developing economies. For example, Ruhanen ( 2019 ) investigated the ecotourism status in Australia. The paper concluded that the country could potentially make a larger share of ecotourism to the entire local tourism industry. Jin et al. ( 2022 ) studied the role of local community power on green tourism in Japan. They concluded that the concept of agricultural village activity and regional support positively influences the development of green tourism in Japan as a developed economy. Choi et al. ( 2022 ) sought to find aspects of ecotourism development in South Korea. The preliminary results confirmed the importance of green governance and efficient regulation to promote a sustainable tourism industry. Baloch et al. ( 2022 ) explored the ecotourism specifications in the developing economy of Pakistan. They found that Pakistan’s ecotourism needs government support and the social well-being of the visited cities. Sun et al. ( 2022 ) studied ecotourism in China. They concluded that there is imbalanced development of ecotourism among Chinese provinces due to the need for more capital to invest in all ecotourism projects throughout the Chinese cities. Tajer and Demir ( 2022 ) analyzed the ecotourism strategy in Iran. They concluded that despite various potentials in the country, insufficient capital, lack of social awareness, and political tension are the major obstacles to promoting a sustainable tourism industry in Iran.

Another group of earlier studies has drawn attention to promoting eco-tourism in the post COVID era. They believe that the corona disease has created an excellent opportunity to pay more attention to environmental issues and that countries should move towards sustainable development concepts such as sustainable (eco) tourism in the post-corona era. Soliku et al. ( 2021 ) studied eco-tourism in Ghana during the pandemic. The findings depicted the vague impacts of a pandemic on eco-tourism. Despite the short-term negative consequence of the pandemic on eco-tourism, it provides various opportunities for developing this sector in Ghana. Hosseini et al. ( 2021 ) employed the Fuzzy Dematel technique to find solutions for promoting eco-tourism during COVID-19. They found out that planning to increase the capacity of eco-tourism and incentive policies by governments can help promote the eco-tourism aspect under the pandemic’s consequences. Abedin et al. ( 2022 ) studied the consequence of COVID-19 on coastal eco-tourism development. The primary findings confirmed the negative impacts of a pandemic on the development of eco-tourism.

A review of previous studies shows that tourism can positively impact green growth and sustainable development. Sustainable tourism can be used as a policy to deal with the threat of climate change. This issue needs more attention in the corona and post-corona eras. Because in the post-corona era, many countries have sought to revive green economic growth, and ecotourism can be one of the tools to achieve it. As observed, a detailed study of the relationship between climate change, ecotourism, and environmental policies has yet to be done. Therefore, this research will address and fill this literature gap.

Data and model specification

Data description.

The paper seeks to find the relationship between climate change, ecotourism, and environmental policy for the panel of 40 developing economies from different regions from 2010 to 2021 (480 observations). The sample size could have been more extensive due to the lack of information on some variables. However, there are 480 observations in the data analysis of the data panel; therefore, the number of samples selected is acceptable.

To determine the proxies for main variables, CO2 emissions per capita are selected as the proxy for climate change. Many earlier studies (e.g., Espoir et al., 2022 ) have employed this variable as an appropriate variable representing the status of climate change. Regarding ecotourism, the World Tourism Organization proposed some measurements of sustainable tourism, and also following Yusef et al. ( 2014 ), the entropy weight method is employed to calculate a multi-dimensional ecotourism indicator comprising per capita green park area (square meters), gross domestic tourism revenue (US dollars), the ratio of good air quality (%), green transport, renewable water resources (km3) and deforestation rate (%). It is a novel ecotourism indicator that can show the ecotourism status in countries.

In addition, the green governance index is calculated as a proxy for environmental policy. Principally, the Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG) data from World Bank are gathered to calculate this variable. With the improvement of the Green Governance Index, the quality of environmental policies will also increase, and vice versa. With the adverseness of the Green Governance Index, the efficiency of environmental policies will decrease.

Regarding control variables, the inflation rate as an influential factor in tourism flows is selected. The importance of this variable to promoting/declining tourism flows has been drawn to attention by some earlier studies, such as Liu et al. ( 2022 ). The inflation rate can raise the total cost of travel, causing a reduction in tourism flows, while any reduction in the inflation rate can increase the intention of tourists to travel. In addition, the KOF globalization index provided by the KOF Swiss Economic Institute is another control variable. A country with a higher degree of globalization means more readiness to accept tourists from countries with different cultures and religions.

Model specification

According to the variables mentioned above, 40 examined developing countries from 2010 to 2021, the panel co-integration model can be written as Eq. 1 :

ETOR indicates the ecotourism index, while CO2, GGI, INF, and GLOB denote Carbon dioxide emissions per capita, green governance index, inflation rate, and globalization index, respectively. i is 1,2,…,40 and shows examined developing economies, while t is time and contains 2010, 2011,..,2021.

Prior to the estimation of coefficients of Eq. 1 , the panel unit root tests are employed to find out whether the series is stationary. To this end, three tests of LLC (Levin et al., 2002 ), Breitung’s test ( 2000 ), and the PP-Fisher test (Philips and Perron, 1988 ). If all the variables are stationary at the first level of difference (I(1)), a panel co-integration test can be conducted to explore whether the model is spurious. To this end, Kao’s co-integration test ( 1999 ) and Pedroni’s residual co-integration test ( 2004 ) are conducted. If the co-integration relationship exists among variables, the panel causality test can be run to determine the causal linkages among variables. In this paper, the two steps of Engle and Granger (1987)‘s test, which is based on the error correction model (ECM) is used as Eqs. 2 – 6 :

In the above Equations, Δ is the first differences of variables, while θ and ECT represent the fixed country effect and error correction term.

The next step is the long-run panel co-integration estimations. To this end, Fully Modified OLS (FMOLS) and Dynamic OLS (DOLS) as robustness checks are conducted, which are two famous panel co-integration estimators (Rasoulinezhad, 2018 ). The FMOLS estimator has various advantages. It allows serial correlation, endogeneity, and cross-sectional heterogeneity (Erdal and Erdal, 2020 ).

Empirical results

In this section, we will implement the experimental research model. The purpose of implementing an econometric model based on panel data is to find the effects of green governance variables and carbon dioxide emissions on ecotourism. As the first step, the panel unit root tests are conducted. The results are reported in Table 1 as follows:

According to Table 1 , all three-panel unit root tests depict that all series are non-stationary at the level and become stationary after a first difference. Next, the panel co-integration tests are conducted, and their results are represented in Tables 2 and 3 :

The two-panel co-integration tests’ findings confirm the presence of co-integration linkages among variables.

The panel causality test studies the short-term and long-term causal relationship among variables. Table 4 reports the results of the panel causality check as follows:

According to Table 4 , there is a uni-directional causal relationship between the green governance indicator and the inflation rate of the ecotourism indicator. At the same time, there is a bi-directional causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions and ecotourism indicators, confirming the existence of the feedback effect. In addition, there is only short-term causality from the green governance indicator to carbon dioxide emissions. In contrast, ecotourism and the globalization index have a uni-directional causal linkage. In the short term, improving ecotourism can cause globalization and reduce carbon emissions in developing economies. Regarding the long-term causality, it can be concluded that the ECT of ecotourism, green governance index, and globalization index are statistically significant. These three variables are major adjustment variables when the system departs from equilibrium.

In the last stage, the long-run estimations are done through FMOLS and DOLS estimators. Table 5 lists the results of the estimations by these two-panel co-integration estimators:

Based on FMOLS estimation, it can be concluded that the Green Governance index has a positive and significant coefficient in such a way that with a 1% improvement in the green governance index of developing countries, the ecotourism of these countries will increase by 0.43%. By improving the state of green governance, the quality of formulated and implemented green policies in these countries will increase, improving the conditions of ecotourism development. This finding aligns with Agrawal et al. ( 2022 ) and Debbarma and Choi ( 2022 ), who believe that green governance is essential to sustainable development. In the case of carbon dioxide emissions, the coefficient of this variable is not statistically significant. In other words, the variable of carbon dioxide emissions per capita has no significant effect on ecotourism in developing countries. The inflation rate has a significant negative effect on ecotourism. With a 1% increase in the general prices of goods and services in developing countries, ecotourism will decrease by 0.34%. This finding aligns with Rahman ( 2022 ), who showed a negative relationship between inflation and sustainable development in their research. An increase in inflation means an increase in the total cost of a tourist’s trip to the destination country, inhibiting the growth of tourist services.

Regarding the globalization variable, this variable has a significant positive effect on the ecotourism of developing countries. With a 1% increase in the globalization index of these countries, ecotourism will increase by 0.32%. Globalization means more interaction with the world’s countries, acceptance of different cultures and customs, more language learning in society, more acceptance of tourism, and development of tourist services in the country. This finding is consistent with the results of Akadiri et al. ( 2019 ), who confirmed that globalization is one of the crucial components in tourism development.

The DOLS estimator was also used to ensure the obtained findings’ validity. The results of this method are shown in Table 5 . The signs of the coefficients are consistent with the results obtained by the FMOLS method. Therefore, the validity and reliability of the obtained coefficients are confirmed.

In this section, we will briefly discuss the relationship between ecotourism and climate change and the environmental policy considering the uncertainty and the relationship between variables in developed and developing countries.

Consideration of uncertainty

Uncertainty as a primary reason for risk has become a research issue in recent decades. Uncertainty can make the future unpredictable and uncontrollable, affecting economic decision-making. Regarding tourism, the impacts of uncertainty have been drawn to attention by several earlier studies (e.g., Dutta et al., 2020 ; Das et al., 2020 ; and Balli et al., 2019 ; Balli et al., 2018 ). In general, uncertainty in the tourism industry reflects tourists’ concerns and consumption habits in the way that by increasing uncertainty, it is expected that tourists make sense of risks and postpone their tourism activities, and vice versa; in the sphere of certainties, the various risks are clear, and tourists can make rational decisions for their tourism plans and activities. In order to explore the impacts of uncertainties on eco-tourism of the examined developing economies, the geopolitical risk index (GPR) as a proxy for economic policy uncertainty index is gathered and added as a control variable to Eq. 1 . The estimations results by FMOLS are reported in Table 6 as follows.

According to Table 6 , the uncertainty (geopolitical risk) has a negative coefficient meaning that with a 1% increase in geopolitical risk, the eco-tourism industry in the examined developing countries decreases by approximately 0.69%. The signs of coefficients of other variables align with the earlier findings, represented in Table 5 . In addition, the magnitude of the impact of geopolitical risk is larger than the impacts of other variables highlighting the importance of lower geopolitical risk in these economies to reach sustainable tourism targets.

Difference in developed and developing economies

Considering the different structures and financial power of these two groups of countries, the relationship between the variables mentioned in these two groups is expected to be different. In the previous section, the results for the group of developing countries showed that the Green Governance index has a positive and significant coefficient. In the case of carbon dioxide emissions, the coefficient of this variable is not statistically significant. The inflation rate has a significant negative effect on ecotourism. Regarding the globalization variable, it can be mentioned that this variable has a significant positive effect on the ecotourism of developing countries. In order to analyze the relationship between variables in the developed countries, the top 10 countries with the highest HDI in 2021 are selected (Switzerland (0.962), Norway (0.961), Iceland (0.959), Hong Kong (0.952), Australia (0.951), Denmark (0.948), Sweden (0.947) and Ireland (0.945)). The selected variables, explained in section “Data and model specification”, are collected from 2010 to 2021. The panel unit root tests confirmed that all series are non-stationary at the level and become stationary after a first difference. In addition, the presence of co-integration linkages among variables is revealed by the panel co-integration test. The panel co-integration estimator of FMOLS is employed to study the long-term relationship among variables. The findings are reported in Table 7 as follows:

According to the estimated coefficients, the green governance indicator positively and statistically significantly impacts ecotourism in the examined developed economies. However, the magnitude of the impact of this variable is more considerable for developing countries because these countries have more imbalances in markets and regulations. Therefore, the presence of good green tourism can have a more positive effect on advancing the goal of ecotourism. Contrary to the findings of developing countries, carbon dioxide emission in developed countries has a negative and significant effect, meaning that with an increase of 1% in carbon dioxide in developed countries, the level of ecotourism becomes more unfavorable by 0.034%. Moreover, inflation and globalization variables have significant negative and positive coefficients, respectively. However, the magnitudes of these two variables’ coefficients are also higher in developing countries. Ecotourism in developing countries is more sensitive to changes in macroeconomic variables such as green governance, globalization, and inflation.

Another difference between eco-tourism in developed and developing economies may be interpreted through the term “greenwashing,” introduced by Westerveld in 1986 (Maichum et al., 2016 ). In developing countries, due to the economic structure, limited knowledge, bureaucratic process, lack of legal eco-certification, and imperfect competition, a company involved in the eco-tourism industry makes an unsubstantiated claim to deceive consumers into accepting the company’s services are in line with environmental protection policies. Hence, green governance in developing countries should have another role in regulating the eco-tourism market to lower the threat of greenwashing in eco-tourism services.

Conclusions and policy recommendations

Concluding remarks.

The findings of econometric modeling revealed the relationship between environmental policies, climate change, and ecotourism. Based on the findings of the econometric model, the following conclusions can be presented:

A uni-directional causal relationship runs from the green governance indicator and inflation rate to the ecotourism indicator, which means that any changes in green governance and inflation rate cause changes in ecotourism, which is vital for developing economies where governance and inflation rate are two crucial issues.

There is a bi-directional causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions and ecotourism indicators, confirming the existence of the feedback hypothesis, expressing that in developing economies, any policies related to ecotourism cause changes in CO2 emissions and vice versa.

There is only short-term causality from the green governance indicator to carbon dioxide emissions, whereas there is a uni-directional causal linkage from ecotourism to the globalization index. In other words, in the short term, improving ecotourism can cause globalization and reduce carbon emissions in developing economies.

By improving green governance in developing economies, the quality of formulated and implemented green policies in these countries will increase, improving the conditions of ecotourism development.

An increase in the inflation rate raises the total cost of a tourist’s trip to developing economies, inhibiting the growth of eco-tourist services.

Globalization means more interaction with the world’s countries, acceptance of different cultures and customs, more language learning in society, more acceptance of tourism, and development of tourist services in developing countries.

Policy implications

In order to achieve the promotion of ecotourism in developing countries, the implementation of integrated and effective strategic and practical policies is of great importance. According to the concluding remarks mentioned, practical policies are presented as follows for enhancing ecotourism in developed countries. The development of ecotourism requires the improvement of various infrastructures and mechanisms, which depends on the implementation of projects related to ecotourism in developing countries. Because most countries do not have enough financial power to invest in such projects, developing the green financing market can be one of the critical practical solutions. The green financing tool can increase the investment risk and return on investment in such projects, and as a result, the participation of the private sector in these projects will increase. With information and communication technology development, virtual tourism can solve many environmental issues related to human physical presence. Virtual tourism is one of the branches of tourism services that provide people with destinations, places of interest, and tourist attractions with full quality but in virtual form. Another practical policy is granting green loans to small and medium enterprises active in ecotourism. Despite the organizational agility, these companies do not have the significant financial power to develop different sectors of ecotourism; therefore, the cooperation of the banking industry of developing countries by providing green loans (with low-interest rates) can motivate small and medium-sized companies in the field of activities related to ecotourism. Government incentives to motivate businesses active in ecotourism and government deterrent policies (green tax) from businesses active in the field of tourism to lead them to increase the share of ecotourism in their activities can be a proper operational strategy. In developing countries, the role of government and green governance is vital in advancing the goals of ecotourism. By improving the level of its green governance, the government can create efficient policies, regulations, and social tools to create motivation and desire to accept ecotourism, an essential and undeniable issue in developing societies. Creating a guarantee fund for ecotourism companies in developing countries is another practical policy to support these companies financially. Guarantee funds can be established with the participation of the people of ecotourism destinations in order to strengthen the financial strength of ecotourism companies in these destinations.

Limitations and recommendations to further research

This research had a practical and innovative contribution to the literature on ecotourism in developing countries. The findings obtained from the econometric model analysis provided appropriate practical and strategic policies to the policymakers of countries interested in the development of ecotourism. However, access to data related to the ecotourism index and sustainable development of developing countries due to the lack of community in a specific database is considered one of the critical limitations of this research. This limitation caused many developing countries to be excluded from the research sample, which may have created a deviation in the research. Adding more countries to the test sample in future research is suggested to obtain complete and accurate results. Also, due to the outbreak of the Corona pandemic at the end of 2019 and the Russia-Ukraine war since the beginning of 2022, it is suggested that these two variables be included in the econometric model as an illusion in order to analyze their effects on the ecotourism of the countries of the world. Using other econometric methods, such as artificial neural networks, is suggested to model ecotourism in different countries. Complex modeling by taking into account trends and trends to predict the relationship between variables in the future will be an essential step in formulating effective programs in ecotourism.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Shang, Y., Bi, C., Wei, X. et al. Eco-tourism, climate change, and environmental policies: empirical evidence from developing economies. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 275 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01777-w

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Past, current, and future perspectives on eco-tourism: a bibliometric review between 2001 and 2018

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A Correction to this article was published on 23 February 2022

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With increasing attentions on climate change, solid wastes, over-tourism, and improved environmental awareness worldwide, eco-tourism has been widely promoted worldwide. This requires that governmental agencies at different levels should prepare appropriate policies to facilitate eco-tourism and local communities should take necessary actions to preserve their natural resources, protect their environment, and support sustainable tourism. Academically, literatures on eco-tourism have increased faster with an annual growth rate of 10–30% during the recent years. Under such a circumstance, it is important to conduct a comprehensive review so that research progress on eco-tourism can be summarized and future research directions can be identified. Based on 1771 publications published during 2001–2018, a systematic method combining bibliometric analysis and network analysis is applied in this study to uncover the dynamic trends, academic collaboration, and research hotspots related with eco-tourism. Results show that the total number of relevant publications has gradually increased. Key journals include Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management , Annals of Tourism Research , Conservation Biology , and Biological Conservation . Authors from USA have the most publications and international co-authorships, while the most influential institution is the Chinese Academy of Science. Moreover, research keywords have been identified, including eco-tourism, management, biodiversity, national park, sustainability, and sustainable tourism. Research findings of this study provide valuable insights to further improve eco-tourism research so that this emerging research field can be proactively fostered.

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A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19404-7

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This study is financially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (71810107001; 71690241) and the big data project funded by Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU-2019UGBD-03).

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Shasha, Z.T., Geng, Y., Sun, Hp. et al. Past, current, and future perspectives on eco-tourism: a bibliometric review between 2001 and 2018. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27 , 23514–23528 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08584-9

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08584-9

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Eco Tourism Case Study – Analysing Key Trends, Destinations, Opportunities and Challenges

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Eco tourism report overview.

Eco tourism focuses on planning trips to beautiful destinations while minimizing environmental impact and promoting local economies. Eco Tourism is a sustainable travel experience that promotes responsible use of natural resources, reducing pollution and waste. It encourages responsible energy consumption, renewable energy sources, and single-use plastics.

The eco-tourism case study provides an overview of the eco tourism industry. The report determines the key market drivers, and emerging trends, as well as highlights the opportunities and major challenges faced by market participants.

Buy the Full Report for More Insights into the Eco Tourism Industry, Download a Free Sample Report

Eco Tourism Industry Dynamics

Eco Tourism offers a unique opportunity to explore natural landscapes, preserve ecosystems, and support local communities. It requires minimal environmental impact and stable economic growth to fully realize its potential. Eco-friendly destinations are becoming more popular, with more visitors prioritizing local culture over mass tourism, allowing tourists to learn about local culture while minimizing environmental impact, resulting in a sense of fulfilment and morality.

Eco Tourism Destinations by Types

The top eco-tourism types are agri-tourism, wildlife tourism, eco-lodging, soft-eco tourism, and adventure tourism .

Wildlife Tourism: Wildlife tourism involves visiting destinations to observe local fauna, including mammals and marine life, in their natural habitats. This industry has experienced rapid growth, contributing to local economies, and conservation efforts, and providing employment opportunities for indigenous communities.

Adventure Tourism: Adventure tourism involves people moving outside their comfort zone to explore remote, exotic, and potentially hostile areas. This type of tourism involves activities like trekking, climbing, rafting, and scuba diving.

Key Types of Eco Tourism

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Key Eco-Tourism Projects

The key popular eco-tourism projects are:

• Sun Group Corp – Sam Son Urban Eco Tourism and Luxury Resort Complex – Thanh Hoa- Vietnam
• Penang Dev – Eco Tourism Hub @ Batu Kawan – Penang- Malaysia
• Crystal Land/ Otorita Toba – Lake Toba Eco Tourism Complex Development – North Sumatra, Indonesia

Sun Group Corp – Sam Son Urban Eco Tourism and Luxury Resort Complex – Thanh Hoa- Vietnam: The Sam Son Beach Square Project is an Eco Tourism and luxury resort complex in Thanh Hoa City, Vietnam. The resort aims to enhance the lifestyle of people by providing end-to-end community living facilities and amenities. The project, also known as the Sea Square and high-class Eco Tourism, resort, and entertainment complex, is being implemented in phases on 550ha of land.

Buy the Full Report to Learn More About the Key Eco-Tourism Projects, Download A Free Report Sample

• This case study looks at the increasing interest in the niche tourism segment of eco-tourism. It discusses the concept of eco-tourism, the motivations behind eco-tourism, eco-tourism in the media, and the role of travel industry players and tourism bodies. The case study also discusses the negative side of eco-tourism and the impacts it may have as well as the potential benefits associated with eco-tourism. Finally, this case study looks at types of eco-destinations and explores key destinations around the world.

Key Highlights

Eco Tourism lowers carbon footprints by consuming less energy when traveling. By choosing Eco Tourism, travelers can contribute to environmental sustainability and sustainable travel practices. According to the GlobalData Q3 2021 consumer survey “In general, what type of holidays do you typically take?“ out of 22,499 global respondents, 19% of respondents (4,273 respondents) said that they prefer to choose Eco Tourism holiday types.

According to the GlobalData survey, “How often while traveling do you consider an “eco-friendly” destination?” Out of 50 respondents, 38% of respondents (19 respondents) said that they prefer to choose eco-friendly destinations, of which 14% said they always prefer eco-friendly destinations and 24% said they often choose eco-friendly destinations.

The emergence of social media as a method of communication has brought about a worldwide paradigm shift in how people observe, interact with, and exchange information. The evolution of social media as a new technology has changed the way in which the tourism industry works to some extent, which in turn has significantly influenced the Eco Tourism industry.

According to the GlobalData business commitment towards ESG poll, of 357 respondents, 50.1% said that they feel companies treat ESG as a marketing exercise, followed by 31.9% of respondents who said that some companies take ESG seriously. This skepticism shows the importance of transparency and showcasing clear results of sustainability efforts.

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• Gain an understanding of eco-tourism.
• Recognize the range of the potential negatives and associated benefits of eco-tourism.
• Learn about eco-tourism motivations.
• Find out the role of the media, travel industry players, and tourism bodies.

Frequently asked questions

The top eco-tourism types are agri-tourism, wildlife tourism, adventure tourism, and eco-lodging among others.

The key popular eco-tourism projects are Sun Group Corp – Sam Son Urban Eco Tourism and Luxury Resort Complex – Thanh Hoa- Vietnam, Penang Dev – Eco Tourism Hub @ Batu Kawan – Penang- Malaysia, and Crystal Land/ Otorita Toba – Lake Toba Eco Tourism Complex Development – North Sumatra, Indonesia.

Wildlife tourism refers to the observation and interaction with local animal and plant life in their natural habitats. It encompasses segments such as eco-tourism, safari tours, and mountain tourism, among others. Wildlife-watching tourism occurs mainly in protected areas.

Adventure tourism involves people moving outside their comfort zone to explore remote, exotic, and potentially hostile areas. This type of tourism involves activities like trekking, climbing, rafting, and scuba diving.

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20 examples of Sustainable EcoTourism architecture in the world

Hector Ceballos Lascurain, an environmentalist from Mexico was the first to coin the term Ecotourism to describe eco-friendly and responsible travel. Ecotourism has the potential to ensure sustainable use of the country’s resources and generate jobs for the local population. Architecture plays a vital role in ecotourism as it is an expression of natural surroundings through space. Eco lodges and sustainable resorts that are well integrated within the surrounding environment understand the local livelihood, art, and culture.

Here is a list of twenty sustainable ecotourism architecture destinations around the world.

1. Bosco Vertical

Bosco Verticale, Milan, Italy, also known as Vertical Forest wasbuilt by Stefano Boeri Architects. It is one of the most inspirational examples of the revolutionary green buildings movementowing to its seminal incorporation of over two thousand square meters of trees, shrubs, and bushes into forty-four stories across two residential towers.

2. Phipps Centre

Phipps Centre for sustainable landscapes, Pittsburgh is the world’s first building to meet four of the following green building certifications namely,the LEED Platinum, the Living Building Challenge, the Four-Stars Sustainable SITES, and the WELL Building Platinum. At the Phipps Centre, sunlight, soil, and wind are used to light, heat and cool the spaces, purify water for reuse and grow vegetation.

3. The Million Bottle Temple

The Wat Pa Maha Chedi Kaew temple or The Million Bottle Temple in Thailand’s Sisaket province is made up of millions of recycled glass bottles. Glass bottles are not only a sustainable alternative in construction, but they also allow the entry of natural light and do not require painting. Moreover, the glassbottle bricks are easy to clean and maintain.

4. The Bird’s Nest

The Beijing Olympic stadium’s roof is an incredible example of sustainability. While conventional roofing systems would have required artificial lighting, air conditioning and ventilation, the open and translucent roof design of The Bird’s Nest stadium significantly cuts the stadium’s energy consumption. The stadium allows the entry of natural air and light and employs geothermal techniques to trap hot and cold air from the stadium’s soil.

5. One Central Park

One Central Park, Sydney is Australia’s greenest urban village and an Ecotourism destination. It houses its on-site tri-generation plant which generates electricity, heat, and cooling using natural gas.

6. Shanghai Natural History Museum

The Shanghai Natural History Museum is a spiral shape shell building representing the plant and animal cells.Through its integration with nature, the building represents the harmony of humans and the ecosystem.

7. The Africa Centre

At the Africa Centre, rainwater is routed into the wetland, the greywater irrigates the vegetation and the blackwater or sewage is treated on site. Locally sourced eucalyptus poles, wood, and glass have been utilized for construction.

8. Makoko Floating School

Floating School, Makoko, Lagos, Nigeria uses over two hundred plastic drums to keep the structure floating in the water. The structure was constructed by the Makoka inhabitants using locally available timber. The school building is solar powered and has an in house rainwater harvesting system.

9. Eastgate Centre

Designed by architect Mick Pearce, the Eastgate Centre, Zimbabwe does not depend on any conventional ventilation systems for its temperature regulation, yet maintains air conditioning with dramatically large energy efficiencyrates. The building was designed using construction techniques derived from Zimbabwean masonry and the self-cooling African termites.

10. ElewanaTarangire Treetops

ElewanaTarangire Treetops, Tanzania is located in Randilen Wildlife Management Area with rich wildlife and stunning landscape. By staying at ElewanaTarangire Treetops, tourists contribute to the preservation of natural areas and promote the benefits of responsible tourism.

11. Zeitz MOCAA

Zeitz Museum of Contemporary Art, Africa is yet another example of sustainability. The museum building uses cool water from the sea to assist in temperature control.

12. Australian Islamic Centre

This Melbourne mosque features ninety-six golden lanterns facing all four directions. The north lanterns are green representing nature. The east lanterns are yellow for paradise. The west lanterns are red symbolizing blood, which gives strength. Blue represents the sky and this is to the south. During the day, sunlight channels through the coloured glass into the building.

13. Oregon Zoo Education Centre

Designed by Portland-based OpsisArchitecture, the Oregon Zoo Education Centreserves as a regional hub for conservation excellence is known for its contribution towards reducing hazardous emissions and sustainable design excellence.

14. Feynan Ecolodge

The Feynan Ecolodge, Jordan supports the local tribal communities, villages, and wildlife of the Dana Biosphere Reserve. At Feynan Ecolodge, tourists enjoythe legacy, art, and life of the Bedouin. The lodge is powered by hundred percent sustainable sources and most of its resources used are purchased from within a fifty-kilometre radius.

15. Biohotel Colombia

Biohotel Colombia is powered by solar energy, engineered with water-saving systems and built with organic kitchen gardens and vertical agriculture. The hotel offers environmentally responsible luxury and comfort to its customers.

16. FuerteHoteles

The Hotel’s ecological awareness and conscience have reaped several recognitions from global environmental agencies.

17. The Dixon Water Foundation

The Dixon Water Foundation Texas was started by late Roger Dixon, a conservationist. The Dixon Water The Foundation’s strategy is to heal the balding land using livestock.

18. Hanover Olympic Building

Hanover Olympic is the first solar-powered, net-zero building in Los Angeles. Powered by Ten photovoltaic panels provide energy for over twentyeco apartments, dramatically cutting down energy expenses.

19. Oasia Downtown Hotel

In contrast to the conventional high-rise developments, the Oasis Downtown Hotel, Singapore, designed by WOHA and Patricia Urquiola, integrates architecture and environment. It merges indoor and outdoor spaces with its ground-breaking design.

20. Nanjing Green Lighthouse

Designed with soft light interiors, free flow of natural air, indoor vegetation, the Nanjing GreenLighthouse’s architecture aimed at creating a space for visitors celebrating the daylight. The Light House is one of the first of zero-carbon buildings to be designed in China.

Sowmya is an architectural journalist and writer. In this column, Sowmya takes you through stories on eco-architecture, biophilic design, and green buildings from across the globe.

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Ecotourism Costa Rica Case Study: Who Benefits?

Published: November 14, 2023

Modified: December 28, 2023

by Jyoti Vanness

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Introduction

Ecotourism has become a buzzword in the travel industry, with travelers increasingly seeking out destinations that prioritize sustainability and environmental conservation. One country that has made significant strides in developing and promoting ecotourism is Costa Rica.

Renowned for its breathtaking biodiversity and commitment to environmental protection, Costa Rica has positioned itself as a leading destination for eco-conscious travelers. From lush rainforests and diverse wildlife to immaculate beaches and stunning volcanoes, the country offers a plethora of natural wonders for visitors to explore.

In this article, we will delve into the concept of ecotourism and discuss why Costa Rica serves as an excellent case study for examining the benefits and challenges associated with this form of sustainable travel.

At its core, ecotourism involves responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environment, sustain the well-being of local communities, and provide educational and enjoyable experiences for visitors. It goes beyond traditional tourism by incorporating principles of conservation, community empowerment, and environmental stewardship.

Costa Rica, with its commitment to environmental protection and sustainable development, has emerged as a prime example of how ecotourism can positively impact a country’s economy, society, and natural resources.

Throughout this article, we will explore the economic, social, and environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica. We will also discuss the challenges and criticisms that this form of tourism faces in the country, shedding light on the complexities of balancing tourism growth with environmental preservation.

Join us on this journey as we uncover the fascinating world of ecotourism in Costa Rica and examine the question: Who truly benefits from this unique approach to travel and conservation?

Definition of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is a form of tourism that focuses on sustainable travel experiences, promoting the conservation of natural resources and the well-being of local communities. It encompasses responsible travel practices that minimize negative impacts on the environment while providing educational and enriching experiences for visitors.

Ecotourism goes beyond traditional tourism by emphasizing the importance of environmental conservation, cultural preservation, and community empowerment. It aims to create a positive and symbiotic relationship between tourists, local communities, and the natural environment.

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines ecotourism as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local people, and involves interpretation and education.” This definition highlights the three pillars of ecotourism: environmental sustainability, community development, and visitor education.

The environmental sustainability aspect of ecotourism involves minimizing the ecological impacts of tourism activities. This can be achieved through practices such as reducing water and energy consumption, managing waste effectively, and protecting fragile ecosystems and wildlife habitats. Ecotourism encourages tourists to appreciate and respect the natural beauty and biodiversity of the destinations they visit.

Community development is another essential component of ecotourism. It focuses on empowering local communities by involving them in decision-making processes, providing economic opportunities, and preserving their cultural heritage. Ecotourism initiatives often collaborate with local communities to ensure that they directly benefit from tourism-related activities, such as hospitality, guiding, and the sale of local products.

Visitor education plays a crucial role in promoting ecological awareness and sustainability. Ecotourism seeks to educate tourists about the natural and cultural significance of the destinations they visit, as well as the importance of responsible travel practices. By providing educational experiences, ecotourism encourages tourists to become ambassadors for conservation and advocates for sustainable tourism.

Overall, the concept of ecotourism is centered around the idea of promoting a harmonious and mutually beneficial relationship between tourists, host communities, and the environment. It seeks to create a positive impact on local economies, empower communities, and protect natural habitats for future generations.

Overview of Costa Rica

Costa Rica, a small country located in Central America, is often referred to as a “natural paradise” due to its incredible biodiversity and stunning landscapes. Situated between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, Costa Rica is home to a wide array of ecosystems, including rainforests, cloud forests, mangroves, beaches, and volcanoes.

Despite its size, Costa Rica boasts an astounding 5% of the world’s biodiversity, making it one of the most biodiverse countries on the planet. It is estimated that the country is home to around 500,000 species, including over 12,000 different plant species, 850 bird species, 250 mammal species, and countless reptiles, amphibians, and insects.

The country’s commitment to environmental conservation is evident through its extensive system of national parks, reserves, and protected areas, which cover around 25% of its land. Costa Rica was one of the first countries to recognize the value of its natural resources and has been at the forefront of sustainable development for several decades.

Costa Rica’s emphasis on sustainability has garnered international recognition. It has been named the “Greenest Country in the World” by the Happy Planet Index and consistently ranks highly on the Environmental Performance Index.

In addition to its natural beauty, Costa Rica also offers a rich cultural heritage. The country is home to various indigenous communities, each with its own traditions, languages, and customs. Visitors have the opportunity to learn about and engage with these vibrant cultures through community-based tourism initiatives.

Costa Rica’s tourism industry has experienced significant growth in recent years. It has become a popular destination for eco-conscious travelers seeking immersive experiences in nature and opportunities for adventure activities like hiking, zip-lining, and wildlife observation.

With its commitment to sustainability, Costa Rica has taken the lead in promoting and developing ecotourism. The government has implemented policies and initiatives to encourage the growth of sustainable tourism practices, including the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) program, which recognizes and rewards businesses that operate in an environmentally and socially responsible manner.

Overall, Costa Rica’s remarkable natural beauty, dedication to environmental conservation, and thriving ecotourism industry make it an ideal case study for examining the benefits and challenges associated with sustainable travel. As we delve deeper into the topic, we will explore how ecotourism has positively impacted the country’s economy, society, and environment.

Ecotourism Development in Costa Rica

Costa Rica has been at the forefront of ecotourism development, setting an example for the world with its commitment to environmental stewardship and sustainable tourism practices. The country’s journey towards becoming an ecotourism hotspot can be traced back to the 1970s when it made a conscious decision to prioritize the conservation of its natural resources.

Recognizing the potential of its rich biodiversity and pristine environments, Costa Rica began investing in the creation of national parks and protected areas. Today, the country boasts an impressive network of over 30 national parks, wildlife refuges, and biological reserves, which offer visitors unparalleled opportunities to experience and appreciate its natural wonders.

The ecotourism industry in Costa Rica has grown exponentially over the years, with a significant increase in the number of eco-lodges, nature-based tour operators, and community-based tourism initiatives. These businesses strive to provide authentic and sustainable experiences that showcase the country’s unique ecosystems while promoting conservation and benefiting local communities.

The government of Costa Rica has played a crucial role in promoting and regulating ecotourism development. It has implemented policies and initiatives that incentivize businesses to adopt sustainable practices, such as the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) program mentioned earlier. This certification program assesses the sustainability performance of tourism businesses, recognizing those that meet specific criteria related to environmental, social, and cultural sustainability.

In addition to government efforts, Costa Rican communities have been actively involved in the development of ecotourism. Many local communities have started their own initiatives, offering visitors the chance to experience their culture, traditions, and way of life. This community-based approach ensures that the benefits of tourism are distributed more equitably and help empower local populations.

Ecotourism in Costa Rica not only focuses on land-based activities but also encourages responsible marine tourism. The country’s extensive coastline is home to vibrant coral reefs, marine biodiversity, and numerous protected marine areas. Visitors can engage in activities such as snorkeling, scuba diving, and sea turtle conservation projects, all while respecting the fragile marine ecosystems.

Overall, the development of ecotourism in Costa Rica has not only enhanced the country’s reputation as a nature lover’s paradise but has also provided numerous economic and social benefits. Through sustainable tourism practices, Costa Rica has successfully demonstrated that it is possible to generate revenue from tourism while preserving the environment and supporting local communities.

Economic Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism has brought significant economic benefits to Costa Rica, contributing to the country’s overall growth and development. The sustainable tourism practices and emphasis on conservation have created a strong and thriving ecotourism industry, which has become a major source of revenue for the country.

One of the key economic benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica is job creation. The growth of the tourism industry has led to the creation of employment opportunities in various sectors, from hospitality and tour guiding to ecotourism management and conservation efforts. Local communities have been able to capitalize on the demand for eco-friendly accommodations, eco-tours, and other nature-based experiences, providing livelihoods for many individuals and supporting small businesses.

Furthermore, ecotourism has stimulated entrepreneurship and the development of local businesses. Many small-scale eco-lodges, restaurants, and tour operators have emerged, often owned and operated by members of the local communities. These enterprises not only contribute to the diversification of the tourism industry but also help to retain economic benefits within the communities themselves.

The revenue generated from ecotourism activities also has a trickle-down effect on the economy. Money spent by visitors on accommodations, meals, transportation, and souvenirs circulates within the local economy, supporting local suppliers and service providers. This multiplier effect creates additional economic opportunities and helps to stimulate the growth of other sectors, such as agriculture and handicrafts.

In addition to direct economic benefits, ecotourism generates revenue for environmental conservation. The funds collected from entrance fees to national parks and protected areas, as well as through conservation initiatives, contribute to the preservation of Costa Rica’s natural habitats and the protection of its biodiversity. These resources are then reinvested in maintaining the integrity of these ecosystems, improving visitor infrastructure, and supporting research and educational programs.

Moreover, the success of ecotourism has positioned Costa Rica as a top travel destination for nature enthusiasts, attracting a steady stream of international visitors. This has resulted in increased tourism revenues, as travelers are willing to pay a premium for authentic and sustainable experiences. The monetary value placed on Costa Rica’s natural beauty and eco-conscious approach has created a competitive advantage and captured the attention of discerning travelers.

Overall, the economic benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica have been significant, creating jobs, fostering entrepreneurship, and stimulating economic growth. By incorporating sustainability into its tourism practices, Costa Rica has transformed its natural resources into a valuable economic asset, ensuring a prosperous future for both the tourism industry and the local communities it supports.

Social Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism in Costa Rica has not only brought economic prosperity but has also had a profound impact on the social well-being of local communities. It has fostered community empowerment, cultural preservation, and improved quality of life for many individuals.

One of the key social benefits of ecotourism is the empowerment of local communities. Through community-based tourism initiatives, local residents have been given the opportunity to actively participate in the tourism industry. They have become guides, hosts, and entrepreneurs, showcasing their culture, traditions, and way of life to visitors. This active involvement not only generates income but also helps to preserve and celebrate the unique cultural heritage of the communities.

Ecotourism has also provided educational opportunities for residents of these communities. As tourists seek immersive and educational experiences, local community members have the chance to share their knowledge and expertise, serving as interpreters and educators. This exchange of knowledge enhances cultural understanding and promotes respect for diverse cultures and traditions.

Furthermore, ecotourism has played a vital role in raising awareness about environmental conservation among both locals and visitors. Through guided tours and interpretive programs, visitors learn about the importance of protecting the environment and the actions they can take to minimize their impact. Local communities, in turn, develop a sense of environmental stewardship, as they witness firsthand the benefits of preserving their natural resources for future generations.

Another significant social benefit of ecotourism is the fostering of a sense of pride and identity within local communities. By showcasing their natural and cultural heritage, communities are able to reinforce their own worth and uniqueness. This recognition and appreciation from visitors bolsters community pride and self-esteem, strengthening social cohesion.

Additionally, the interaction between visitors and local communities can promote cross-cultural exchange and understanding. Tourists have the opportunity to engage with locals, learn about their way of life, and gain a deeper appreciation for different cultures. This cultural exchange encourages tolerance, empathy, and a sense of global citizenship.

Moreover, ecotourism has provided opportunities for the preservation of traditional practices and crafts. Many local artisans have been able to revive and sustain traditional handicrafts, such as weaving, pottery, and woodworking, which are then showcased and sold to tourists. This preservation of cultural heritage helps to maintain traditions, generate income, and provide a sense of pride and continuity within the community.

Overall, the social benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica extend beyond economic gains. Through community empowerment, cultural preservation, and educational opportunities, ecotourism has positively impacted the social fabric of local communities, fostering a sense of pride, preserving traditions, and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

Environmental Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism in Costa Rica has had profound environmental benefits, playing a significant role in the conservation and protection of the country’s rich natural resources. By promoting sustainable practices and raising awareness about environmental issues, ecotourism has contributed to the preservation of Costa Rica’s unique ecosystems.

One of the key environmental benefits of ecotourism is the conservation of biodiversity. Costa Rica is home to an astounding array of plant and animal species, many of which are endangered or threatened. Ecotourism prioritizes the protection of these species and their habitats, ensuring that visitors have minimal impact on delicate ecosystems. By adopting responsible travel practices, such as staying on designated trails, minimizing waste, and respecting wildlife, visitors can experience the natural wonders of Costa Rica without causing harm to the environment.

Another important environmental benefit of ecotourism is the preservation and restoration of natural areas. Many ecotourism initiatives invest in the restoration and rehabilitation of degraded environments, such as reforesting areas that have been deforested or rehabilitating coastal habitats. These efforts not only enhance the beauty and integrity of the landscapes but also provide essential habitats for wildlife and contribute to the overall health of ecosystems.

Ecotourism also supports and funds the establishment and management of protected areas. The revenue generated from entrance fees and tourist activities in national parks and reserves helps to maintain and protect these areas. These funds are used for conservation efforts, such as patrolling against illegal activities, conducting research, and implementing sustainable management practices. They also support educational programs and infrastructure development, providing visitors with an informative and enjoyable experience while minimizing negative impacts on the environment.

Furthermore, ecotourism encourages sustainable resource management. By showcasing the value of intact ecosystems, it promotes the sustainable use of natural resources, such as water, energy, and land. Eco-lodges and other nature-based accommodations often employ environmentally friendly practices, such as water and energy conservation measures, waste management strategies, and the use of renewable energy sources. These initiatives minimize the ecological footprint of tourism and serve as examples of sustainable practices that can be replicated in other areas.

Ecotourism also plays a role in raising awareness about environmental issues and promoting environmental education. Through guided tours, educational programs, and interpretive materials, visitors gain a deeper understanding of the importance of environmental conservation. This education fosters a sense of responsibility and empowers tourists to make informed choices that minimize their impact on the environment, both during their visit and in their everyday lives.

Overall, the environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica are far-reaching. By prioritizing the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, ecotourism has helped to safeguard Costa Rica’s rich biodiversity, support the establishment of protected areas, promote sustainable resource management, and raise environmental awareness among visitors and local communities.

Challenges and Criticisms of Ecotourism in Costa Rica

While ecotourism has brought numerous benefits to Costa Rica, it is not without its challenges and criticisms. It is important to recognize and address these issues to ensure the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of ecotourism practices in the country.

One of the main challenges of ecotourism in Costa Rica is the potential for negative environmental impacts. Despite efforts to promote responsible travel practices, some tourists may engage in activities that harm the environment, such as improper disposal of waste, disturbance of wildlife, or damage to fragile ecosystems. Balancing the desire to attract tourists with the need for environmental protection requires continued education and enforcement of sustainable practices.

Another challenge is the potential for the commodification of culture and the loss of authenticity. Commercialization and the demand for cultural experiences can sometimes lead to the exploitation of local traditions and customs, turning them into commodified spectacles for tourist consumption. It is crucial to strike a balance that respects and celebrates local cultures while preserving their integrity and authenticity.

Infrastructure development can also pose challenges to ecotourism in Costa Rica. As tourism grows, there is a need for increased infrastructure, such as accommodations, transportation, and recreational facilities. However, poorly planned or excessive infrastructure development can result in the degradation of natural habitats, increased pollution, and loss of biodiversity. Careful management and sustainable infrastructure planning are necessary to minimize these negative impacts.

Furthermore, the economic benefits of ecotourism may not always reach the local communities who bear the burden of hosting tourists. There is a need to ensure that the revenue generated from ecotourism is distributed equitably and contributes to the overall well-being of the local population. This can be achieved through community empowerment, providing opportunities for local businesses, and supporting initiatives that preserve and celebrate local cultures.

There are also concerns about the risk of over-tourism in popular ecotourism destinations in Costa Rica. Increased visitor numbers can place stress on fragile ecosystems and disrupt the natural balance of these areas. Proper management strategies, including visitor limits, trail restrictions, and seasonality control, are necessary to mitigate the potential negative effects of over-tourism.

Critics argue that ecotourism in Costa Rica has become commercialized and focused more on profit than conservation. Some businesses may use the label of “ecotourism” as a marketing tool without genuinely prioritizing sustainable practices. Greenwashing, where businesses falsely claim to be environmentally friendly, can mislead tourists and undermine the credibility of genuine ecotourism efforts.

Finally, climate change poses a significant challenge to the sustainability of ecotourism in Costa Rica. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events can threaten ecosystems and impact wildlife habitats. Adaptation and mitigation strategies are necessary to ensure the long-term viability of ecotourism in the face of these environmental challenges.

Awareness and active management of these challenges and criticisms are vital for the continued success of ecotourism in Costa Rica. Through collaboration and commitment, stakeholders can address these issues and work towards a more sustainable and responsible approach to ecotourism in the country.

Costa Rica serves as an exemplary case study for the positive impacts and challenges of ecotourism. Over the years, the country has successfully harnessed the power of sustainable tourism to conserve its natural resources, empower local communities, and boost its economy.

Through the development of eco-friendly accommodations, nature-based tourism initiatives, and community-based tourism projects, Costa Rica has created numerous job opportunities and entrepreneurial ventures for its residents. Local communities have been able to showcase their cultural heritage and benefit from the revenue generated by ecotourism activities.

The environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica are undeniable. The preservation of biodiversity, restoration of natural areas, and funds allocated for the management of protected areas have contributed to the conservation of the country’s fragile ecosystems. Additionally, by promoting sustainable practices and environmental education, ecotourism has raised awareness about the importance of environmental stewardship among both tourists and locals.

However, the challenges and criticisms associated with ecotourism in Costa Rica should not be overlooked. Environmental impacts, cultural commodification, infrastructure development, equitable distribution of benefits, over-tourism, greenwashing, and the impacts of climate change all pose challenges that require ongoing attention and management.

Despite these challenges, it is clear that ecotourism has had a transformative impact on Costa Rica, positioning it as a global leader in sustainable travel. By tackling these challenges head-on and continuously improving sustainable practices, Costa Rica can continue to reap the benefits of ecotourism while mitigating its negative impacts.

In conclusion, the success of ecotourism in Costa Rica demonstrates that by prioritizing environmental conservation, promoting community empowerment, and fostering educational experiences, sustainable tourism can be a powerful catalyst for positive change. Costa Rica serves as an inspiration and a model for other countries, showing that it is possible to create a thriving tourism industry while protecting the natural beauty and cultural heritage that make our world truly special. As travelers and stakeholders, it is our responsibility to support and promote sustainable tourism practices, ensuring that ecotourism continues to be a force for environmental preservation and social progress.

1. The International Ecotourism Society. (2021). What is ecotourism? Retrieved from https://ecotourism.org/what-is-ecotourism/

2. World Travel & Tourism Council. (2021). Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2021: Costa Rica. Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/economic-impact/country-analysis/country-profiles-2021/#C

3. Castillo, R. R. (2019). Ecotourism in Costa Rica: A review of its economic, environmental, and social impacts. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 27(3), 940-950.

4. Honey, M. (2008). Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? Island Press.

5. Lindberg, K., & Hawkins, D. (Eds.). (1993). Ecotourism: A Guide for Planners and Managers (Vol. 1). The Ecotourism Society.

6. McNamara, K., & Honey, M. (2020). Costa Rica and ecotourism development: A critical analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(4), 519-535.

7. Spenceley, A. (Ed.). (2012). Responsible Tourism: Critical Issues for Conservation and Development. Earthscan.

8. Weaver, D. B. (2008). Ecotourism (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

9. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2021). Tourism Highlights 2021 Edition. Retrieved from https://www.unwto.org/publication/tourism-highlights-2021-edition

10. World Travel & Tourism Council. (2021). Costa Rica: The Greenest Country in the World. Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/content/files/2021/reports/Country%20Profiles%202021/CostaRica2020.pdf

Note: The above references are for informative purposes only. It is recommended to consult additional sources for comprehensive research on the topic.

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Case: Ecotourism

This case explores a variety of ethical issues concerning ecotourism. The setting is a fictitious lodge in Botswana's Okavango Delta, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Mini-vignettes offer three perspectives. Nuru is a poor Botswanan who lives near the lodge and would like to be involved in its activities. Rachel, the lodge's new manager, has just come to the position from working as a field biologist specializing in African elephants with Conservation International (CI), a non-profit dedicated to worldwide conservation of ecosystems.

This biodiversity case is part of a larger collection of Life and Environmental Science ethics education resource sets on ethics of emerging biotechnologies, big data in the life sciences, human enhancement, and biodiversity. Doctoral students from Arizona State University’s Center for Biology and Society developed the resources under the direction of Karin Ellison and Joseph Herkert between 2014 and 2019.

Okavango Game Lodge lies on the outskirts of the world-famous Okavango Delta in Botswana, Africa. A UNESCO World Heritage site, this delta is unique because it floods during the dry season in what would be an otherwise arid landscape. Thus, the flooded delta draws a remarkable number of wildlife from all over southern Africa, including cheetahs, rhinoceros, lions, zebras, giraffes, and elephants.

When the lodge was built in 1980, environmental impact was a minor concern. In recent years, however, the lodge has shifted its focus to eco-tourism, or tourism that is directed toward enjoying the natural environment while supporting conservation efforts. The redirection came in part from the realization that the lodge depends on the delta’s wildlife as a draw for tourists. In addition, lodge managers were intrigued by a national certification program that provides incentives and guidelines for the development of eco-tourism lodges (Botswana Tourism Organisation 2013).

Nuru lives in a small village near the Okavango Game Lodge. Her people, the Hambukushu, are one of the many groups indigenous to the area, each with a distinct culture and language. The Hambukushu are known for their mixed economy of agriculture, fishing, hunting, and pastoralism (Bock 1998).  Nuru is an accomplished blanket weaver, and she also works with her husband and their four children on their small sorghum farm. Despite these means of income, Nuru and her family are living below the poverty line in Botswana, like most of their neighbors. Nuru, her family, and the community are excited by the expansion of ecotourism in the area because of the potential for increased job opportunities and development.

As required by Botswana’s government for any ecotourism venture, the village must elect a Community Trust, a board of trustees who mediate between the village and the lodge to ensure equitable distribution of benefits. Several large-share landowners step up to the plate; they are well-known in the community, all older men, long-time residents, and among the most affluent. Many of them own larger parcels of land closer to the center of town or near new roads and see the potential to develop shops, restaurants, and services that benefit from the influx of tourists.

Nuru’s small farm lies several kilometers from the lodge, the town, and the newest roads, and thus does not benefit from such development. But the Community Trust notifies her that as part of the Okavango Game Lodge’s ecotourism initiative, Nuru and other community members are invited to sell their handmade crafts in the Craft Market during the high visitation season, May through December. Nuru also notices that members of her own community who already have lucrative jobs as shop owners, small-hoteliers, or safari-managers (most often men) are securing jobs at the Okavango Game Lodge in the kitchens, as waiters, and as cleaners.

One day, Nuru sees a job posting for safari guides and wildlife educators at the lodge. Although she has no formal training, Nuru has been living and farming in the delta region her whole life, so she decides she has the know-how to perform the job duties. This could be her first chance at a steady income to support her family.

The lodge’s manager, Rachel Jacobs, is a South African biologist with a lifelong passion for wildlife. She completed her bachelor’s degree in Conservation Biology and her master’s degree in Wildlife Ecology and became a field biologist with a focus on African elephants with Conservation International (CI), a non-profit dedicated to worldwide conservation of ecosystems. After 5 years working throughout many southern African countries with CI, she learned that Okavango Game Lodge was seeking a new manager to direct an eco-tourism overhaul of their safari and educational programs, as well as their facilities.

She applied for and accepted the job, seeing it as the perfect opportunity to apply her passion for wildlife and conservation in the hotel and game-lodge industry that she believes is too often at the heart of many human-wildlife conflicts. In her work with CI, she often confronted lodges and hotels over issues with over-exposed wildlife, development, and pollution. Safari and trophy hunting programs would sometimes allow guests to come too close, too often to wildlife. And lodge facilities come with a host of infrastructure projects that increase the flow of visitors, and thus also increase amounts of waste and pollution, further development, and wildlife exposure.

Upon arriving to the lodge, Rachel immediately went to work on initiatives to help the lodge reach their new environmental and sustainability goals. However, she was presented with two concerns.

First, to initiate and sustain improvements, Rachel would like to secure investments from American developers. With such investments, the lodge could employ electric vehicles and solar-powered boats, build the infrastructure to recycle grey-water, and manage their own waste recycling plant. Through these efforts, they could cut their waste footprint by as much as 85%. But to recruit top investors, Rachel would need to agree to share a margin of the lodge’s profits with the investors, cutting from the revenue that could otherwise enter the local economy.

In addition, Rachel faces a hiring conundrum. To improve the lodge’s wildlife conservation and educational programming, Rachel would like to hire more safari guides and wildlife educators. As she pages through applications, she recognizes some old friends. A handful of her colleagues from university and CI have applied to be safari guides and wildlife educators, and Rachel believes their world-class expertise could inspire and impress guests of the lodge. But she also notes a dozen applications from members of the nearby Hambukushu village. One application, Nuru’s, catches Rachel’s eye as the only woman from the village who has applied to a be a safari guide. Nuru could be the first woman villager employed in such a position. This excites Rachel, but still, can Nuru’s application compete with an expert hire from Conservation International? In general, she wonders, would village members know enough to lead safaris? The lodge already hosts a twice weekly fair for village members to sell crafts to tourists, and several village members work in the kitchens and in housekeeping. Perhaps that is enough.

Mahendra, an animal behavior specialist who studies elephants, hails from Massachusetts, United States. In addition to being a well-known expert in elephant behavior and social structures, he is an avid traveler and photographer. Mahendra is planning a trip to one of his regular field sites, the Okavango Delta. In fact, the largest population of elephants in the world (~130,000) migrate to the flooded plains each year (UNESCO 2017). This July, he will be bringing his wife and teenage daughter for the first time so he will be staying in a hotel or lodge rather than his usual “roughin’ it” conditions. As Mahendra begins to plan his trip, he reviews his accommodation options.

First, there is an affordable option. Sanctuary Inn is in the town of Maun, the closest city to the delta. The Inn is staffed and owned by long-time residents of Maun. They provide breakfast and modest amenities at a rate less than half what the large game lodges charge. Mahendra would need to take a daily car or jumper-plane to field sites, but he could probably afford more days in the field staying at a cheaper inn.

Dreaming, Mahendra also looks up rates at the Royal Safari Camp. This one is located right in the heart of the delta. As with any lodge in such a location, you can see wildlife up-close-and-personal, sometimes daily! Work would be right on his doorstep. The price is steep, but the amenities are similar to a four- or five-star hotel in Boston. That would be the best of both worlds, and his family prefers this option.

Finally, Mahendra views the Okavango Game Lodge. Mahendra notices that the lodge is Green and Green+ certified by the Botswanan government, indicating that conservation and sustainability are priorities for the lodge. They also host a “Craft Market.” Local men and women line the road leading up to the lodge, selling baskets, bracelets, woven clothing, and other local goods and souvenirs. The lodge is located on the delta, so the prices are high. But the lodge has more rustic accommodations, so rates are not so steep as at the Royal Safari Camp. In any case, Mahendra would have easy access to field sites as well as the opportunity to cross paths with fellow elephant expert turned eco-lodge manager, Rachel Jacobs.

Discussion Questions:

• How are benefits to the community distributed among different households, including Nuru’s? Is that distribution equitable?
• How can the village achieve more equitable distribution of benefits of ecotourism? Can the lodge help? How?
• Summarize the competing interests Rachel must consider in her management of the lodge. Which should she prioritize? How does her background potentially influence her priorities? Might Rachel be problematically biased against “experiential knowledge” ( vs. knowledge that accompanies advanced degrees)?
• Should Rachel accept the money from foreign investors to achieve her sustainability and conservation goals? Why or why not?
• Should Rachel hire Nuru as a safari guide and wildlife educator? Why or why not?
• Where should Mahendra stay for his trip to the Okavango Delta, and why?
• What ethical, logistical, and other concerns are relevant to his decision?
• In an ecotourism project, how should environmental and social-developmental goals be combined? Are there trade-offs between affording new sustainability measures vs. development goals? Justify your position drawing on the experiences of each character above.
• When involving the community, should the lodge accept existing local gender and wealth hierarchies or should they address the inequities they perceive? Explain your response by citing examples from the case. 

Bibliography:

Aciksoz, S., P. Bollukcu, and D. Celik. 2016. “Ecotourism and Ethics in Protected Areas: Bartin-Sogutlu Village.” Oxidation Communications 39: 3621-3636.

Acott, T. G., H. L. La Trobe, and S. H. Howard. 1998. “An Evaluation of Deep Ecotourism and Shallow Ecotourism.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 2: 238-253.

Bock, J. 1998. “Economic Development and Cultural Change among the Okavango Delta Peoples of Botswana” Botswana Notes and Records 30: 27-44.

Botswana Tourism Organisation. 2013. “Eco Certification System.” Accessed June 24, 2017.  http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/eco-certification-system  

Botswana Tourism Organisation. 2013b. “Eco Certification Criteria.” Accessed June 24, 2017 http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/eco-certification-criteria  

Ceballos-Lascuráin, H. 1996. Tourism, ecotourism, and protected areas: The state of nature-based tourism around the world and guidelines for its development . Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). 2017. “Africa: Botswana.” World Fact Book. Accessed July 8, 2017. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html

Clifton, J., and A. Benson. 2006. “Planning for sustainable ecotourism: the case for Research Ecotourism in Developing Country Destinations.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 14: 238-254.

Gilbert, N. 2010. “c.” Nature News , May 6. http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100506/full/news.2010.222.html

He, G., X. Chen, W. Liu, S. Bearer, S. Zhou, L. Y. Cheng, H. Zhang, Z. Ouyang, and J. Liu. 2008. “Distribution of Economic Benefits from Ecotourism: A Case Study of Wolong Nature Reserve for Giant Pandas in China.” Environmental Management 42: 1017-1025.

Holden, A. 2003. “In need of a new environmental ethics for tourism?” Annals of Tourism Research 30: 94-108.

Jones, S. 2005. “Community-based ecotourism: The significance of social capital.” Annals of Tourism Research 32: 303-324.

Lenao, M., and B. Basupi. 2016. “Ecotourism development and female empowerment in Botswana: A review.” Tourism Management Perspectives 18: 51-58.

Mbaiwa, J. E. 2015. “Ecotourism in Botswana: 30 years later.” Journal of Ecotourism 14: 204-222.

Scheyvens, R. 1999. “Ecotourism and the empowerment of local communities.” Tourism Management 20: 245-249.

Stark, J. C. 2002. “Ethics and ecotourism: connections and conflicts.” Philosophy and Geography 5: 101-113.

Stem, C. J., J. P. Lassoie, D. R. Lee, D. D. Deshler, and J. W. Schelhas. 2003. “Community Participation in Ecotourism Benefits: The Link to Conservation Practices and Perspectives.” Society and Natural Resources 16: 387-413.

Stevens, P. W., and R. Jansen. 2002. Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy. Gaborone: Government of Botswana.

The Nature Conservancy. 2017. “Eco-Trips and Travel.” Accessed June 30. https://www.nature.org/greenliving/what-is-ecotourism.xml

TIES (The International Ecotourism Society). 2017. “What is Ecotourism?” Accessed June 25. http://www.ecotourism.org/what-is-ecotourism

TIES. 2015. “TIES Announces Ecotourism Principles Revision.” The International Ecotourism Society. Accessed July 5. http://www.ecotourism.org/news/ties-announces-ecotourism-principles-revision

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). 2017. “Okavango Delta.” Accessed July 6. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1432

Vanhove, M.P.M., A-J. Rochette, and L. J. de Bisthoven. 2017. “Joining science and policy in capacity development for monitoring progress toward the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in the global South.” Ecological Indicators 73: 694-697.

Wilson, J. 2014. “The first all-female guiding team in Africa – Our Chobe Angels.” Out and About, Chobe Game Lodge . April 24. Accessed July 1. http://www.chobegamelodge.co.bw/blog/first-female-guiding-team-africa-chobe-angels/

World Travel and Tourism Council. 2015. Travel and Tourism, Economic Impact 2015: Botswana. Available at: https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/countries%202015/botswana2015.pdf London, UK

The International Ecotourism Society:  http://www.ecotourism.org

The Nature Conservancy: https://www.nature.org/greenliving/what-is-ecotourism.xml

Botswana Ecotourism Certification System: http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/eco-certification-system

The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of Karin Ellison, OEC - Life and Environmental Sciences Editor, and Joseph Herkert, OEC Engineering Editor. They provided valuable input in selecting the topic and crafting the resource.

Ecotourism There is no one definition of "ecotourism," but the common thread through most definitions is that ecotourism should be nature-based tourism that has both environmental and socio-economic benefits. The International Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as: "...responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education" (TIES 2015; TIES 2017). With a focus on conservation of the environment, empowerment of the local communities, and interpretation for a greater understanding of nature, TIES paints ecotourism as a win-win-win. Similarly, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) defines ecotourism as: "Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact, and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples" (Ceballos-Lascuráin 1996, 20). The Nature Conservancy argues that ecotourism should be sensitive to biodiversity as well as appreciating the local cultures. They also highlight that there should be "local participation in decision-making." (The Nature Conservancy 2017).

Although ecotourism, in theory, is a win-win-win for the environment, the local community, and the tourism industry (hoteliers and tourists), there can be situations in which one or more parties are unduly burdened. For example, any kind of tourism to environmentally and culturally sensitive areas can be detrimental when visitors come in large numbers (Stem et al. 2003), leading to increased waste and habitat disturbance. Any benefits (e.g., revenue for protected areas and local communities, education for travelers and locals, etc.) must be weighed against potential negative impacts.

Ecotourism and Ethics Environmental ethics asks us to reflect on humanity's responsibility toward the environment. What are those responsibilities? How ought we behave toward nature? (Holden 2003). It is appropriate to evaluate ecotourism practices in these terms to see if promises of environmental stewardship and motivations are true in practice. Just as there are competing definitions of ecotourism, there are also competing claims as to what constitutes the most ethical motivations and practices. For example, some environmental ethicists argue that true ecotourism is non-consumptive, and thus non-utilitarian, and eco-centric (nature-centered); they view all organisms as having intrinsic value (Reviewed in Aciksoz et al. 2016; TIES 2015). Others argue that all ecotourism is inherently utilitarian, viewing nature as a commodity to sell accommodations (Stark 2002; Holden 2003). Holden claims that transitions toward ecotourism (such as in the hypothetical Okavango Game Lodge case) are often anthropocentric (human-centered); lodges transition only when they notice that other modes of tourism destroy the environment that draws human visitors in the first place (2003). In Holden's view, a lodge manager is concerned with environmental well-being only so far as it contributes to the health of their eco-tourism business. Finally, what are an eco-lodge's responsibilities to the local community? There are experts who believe that eco-tourism practices must be in harmony with not only the natural environment, but also the human environment (Aciksoz et al. 2016; Mbaiwa 2015; Stark 2002).

Some find it is helpful to frame ecotourism practices as "deep" or "shallow," with the acknowledgement that such classifications are fluid and gradated (Acott et al. 1998). Deep-ecotourism practitioners are guided by a deeply intrinsic value of the natural world. They are ecocentric, and encourage first-hand experiences with nature and culture. Shallow-ecotourism is more utilitarian; a healthy environment is valued as a driver of visitation. Such a framework acknowledges the array of motivations and practices you might find among eco-tourism projects, but the terms "deep" and "shallow" are normative, and thus it would be more neutral so simply use the labels "ecocentric" and "anthropocentric" ecotourism, again with the understanding that the classifications are fluid and gradated.

Ecotourism in the Delta The Okavango Delta, one of the largest inland deltas in Africa, lies in northwest Botswana, a sparsely populated country in southern Africa with just over 2.2 million residents across a territory the size of France (CIA 2017). This UNESCO World Heritage Site floods during the dry season, transforming the brown, arid landscape into a lush, nutrient-rich oasis, providing water for countless animals and plants during the arid winters (UNESCO 2017). This wetland system is largely untouched by human development, with restrictions on permanent settlements.

In the last two decades, the national government in Botswana has become dedicated to ensuring that the massive tourism industry has a small footprint on the delta it depends on (Botswana Tourism Organisation 2013). Note that such motivations for a national ecotourism program are indicative of anthropocentric ecotourism; the government has a utilitarian value of nature as being crucial to maintaining levels of tourism. (This makes sense, as travel and tourism contributed to 8.5% of the nation's GDP in 2014 with projected increases around 5% per year through 2025 (World Travel and Tourism Council 2015).) However, such values and motivations may not be replicated on the local scale.

In 2002, as part of the Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy, the national government launched an Ecotourism Certification System, "designed to encourage and support responsible environmental, social, and cultural behavior by tourism businesses and make sure they provide a quality, eco-friendly product to consumers." According to this certification system, ecotourism must be sensitive to natural and cultural heritage with opportunities for biodiversity conservation and economic development. Thus, development initiatives for local communities are required to be integrated at the outset of all certified ecotourism projects (Stevens and Jansen 2002). Through this program, lodges and hotels are expected to minimize negative impacts on their social, cultural, and environmental surroundings, ensure equitable distribution of benefits to their host communities, invest part of their revenue in conservation, provide educational programming for guests and locals, and provide a "quality" experience to guests.

Case Overview In this case, each character experiences some of the benefits; we will explore later whether those benefits are distributed fairly. In short, we see that Nuru and the Hambukushu community are benefitting from an influx of revenue that contribute to new infrastructure, job opportunities, and tourist patrons of shops and restaurants. Nuru is employed by the craft market and has also applied for a position as a safari guide and wildlife educator. Rachel feels fulfilled in carrying out her personal conservation mission by changing practices and programming at the lodge. She also knows that certification with the national government will bring more guests and more revenue to support her initiatives. Mahendra has options; if he values cultural, social, and environmental sustainability he can choose an eco-lodge that fits that ethic. And he may also benefit through enhanced research opportunities with the lodge due to proximity to his field sites. Finally, the delta environment is likely to benefit from more sustainable tourism practices that can protect the area from waste, pollution, and unsustainable uses of resources. While each character and the environment derive some benefit, there are also tradeoffs and tensions.

Nuru According to the definitions of ecotourism above, one component of a successful ecotourism venture is that it is economically beneficial (such as providing income and employment opportunities) to the local community. And more broadly, biodiversity is often defended as a resource of food and income for the world's poorest people (Gilbert et al. 2010). However, a review of several studies presented at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London in 2010, found that evidence linking conservation projects (including ecotourism ventures) with poverty alleviation is only anecdotal. Those locals who do benefit are most often the affluent members of the community (Gilbert et al. 2010).

For example, in a case study in Wolong Nature Reserve, China, He et al. (2008) found there was significant inequality among rural stakeholders; those who were closer to roads and further from the reservation reaped the benefits both of direct tourism and indirect infrastructure improvements. Also, He et al. found that the nonpermanent souvenir shops are run by the less affluent locals, while the year-round permanent shops were run by community elites. And when rural residents are employed, it is often in low-skill, low-wage jobs (cleaners, waiters, cooks) (He et al. 2008; Lenao and Basupi 2016).

J. E. Mbaiwa, an expert on and scholar of ecotourism in Botswana, found that across the last 30 years, ecotourism ventures in Botswana have often been successful, but only when certain socio-economic and political dynamics are at play (Mbaiwa 2015). Specifically, villages tend to benefit most when an active and fair Community Trust implements ecotourism projects in the community (Mbaiwa 2015). Community Trusts are government prerequisites for any ecotourism projects in Botswana; they are registered legal entities comprised of adults who have lived in the village for more than five years.

In Nuru's village the Board of Trustees are affluent, male members of the society. Many of them own large parcels of land close to main roads and the village center. Thus, the distribution of revenue and other indirect benefits like infrastructure improvements may be skewed toward such members of society. In addition, jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities are most available to those members of Nuru's village who are already trained to take such positions or who have the land and facilities necessary to start a restaurant or shop. While a job at the Craft Market provides nice supplemental income, Nuru will find that her business is sensitive to seasonality (the delta is most popular May through December). A job at the lodge could provide better security and income, as well as opportunities for upward mobility into management positions.

To improve the distribution of benefits to rural, less affluent members of her village, perhaps Nuru should run to be elected to the trust. Her voice could represent those with similar struggles. In addition, the lodge could help by initiating a training program to build foreign language, hospitality, and entrepreneurial skills. A real-life example, the Chobe Game Lodge located in Botswana's Chobe National Park implemented the first female safari guide training program in an effort to provide more equitable job opportunities (Wilson 2014). It is worth noting that in Botswana, societies are traditionally patriarchal, and women tend to be excluded from some opportunities (Lenao and Basupi 2016; Jones 2005). However, the country has started to pass legislation aimed toward removing or counteracting prior discrimination (Lenau and Basupi 2016). Still, initiatives to improve opportunities for women should be done in a way that will not be construed as imposing western gender norms.

Rachel Given Rachel's background as a biologist, CI employee, and her new focus on making Okavankgo Game Lodge a sustainable eco-lodge, it is highly possible that she holds an ecocentric ethic. She accepted the manager position to reduce the negative impacts of the lodge on the environment, not because the lodge depends on the environment for business (though it does), but because she has seen in her prior career the damage lodges' can cause to the environment and animals she has harbored a life-long passion for. This ethic stands in contrast to the utilitarian view of ecotourism held by the national government and certification program.

Rachel's passion for the environment drives her to seek foreign investments that will initiate and maintain several sustainability measures at the lodge, but such investors will request that revenue be shared. Her ethical viewpoint and passion may lead her to accept the compromise, meaning she may be blind to the potential damage such agreements could do to the local economy. Thus, in one sense, accepting foreign investments could suit her ecocentric ethic, but to others with a more anthropocentric leaning worldview, Rachel could be entering an unethical deal. For example, according to our definitions of ecotourism above, "ecotourism ventures should only be considered 'successful' if local communities have some measure of control over them and if they share equitably in the benefits emerging from ecotourism activities" (Scheyvens 1999). But it is also possible that Rachel could justify her foreign investments in terms of benefits to the local community. Increased investments could lead to better facilities that attract more guests and thus more revenue. Rachel could grant control over revenue, and related investments, to the local Community Trust.

In addition, Rachel's focus on western standards of scientific expertise may make her more likely to hire her CI colleagues as opposed to Nuru, because she knows she can trust her old friends to espouse and practice her same ecocentric worldview. And logistically, her CI colleagues would require less training; most speak many foreign languages, are experienced in education, and all have expertise in ecology and conservation. She might also realize, however, that she could balance the hiring process by hiring one or two of her CI colleagues to then train several local hires, including Nuru.

Is it possible to be ecocentric and still be concerned about the local community? Ethical worldviews come in gradients. Rachel may realize that she can still achieve her goals without foreign investments, albeit more slowly. First, in a conversation with the Community Trust, she might find that many of her raw materials and food can be sourced locally, meaning lower costs, a boost to the local economy, and a more authentic culinary experience for guests. She could also take advantage of the tax incentives for sourcing and employing locally -- a budget saver.

And perhaps her ecocentric ethic means she hopes the she can inspire both guests and locals to have a better appreciation for nature. One way to get the local community excited about her projects, is to involve them. She could have them arrange a cultural education program to supplement environmental education (Stem et al. 2003). She might also initiate a training program to build entrepreneurial skills in the community, because although direct employment with ecotourism has been found unlikely to influence conservation perspectives, indirect benefits such as education opportunities and infrastructural improvements can have a positive influence on conservation perspectives (Stem et al 2003). Plus, Rachel would be building the capacity of the local community to participate in the educational and tourism market. In other words, she would be contributing to their economic empowerment (venues for regular income), psychological well-being (potential for building optimistic futures), social empowerment (keeping revenue local to contribute to community groups, health clinics, etc.) and political empowerment (allowing community voices to guide development) (Scheyvens 1999).

Mahendra Where Mahendra decides to stay will depend on his world view, as well as how he weighs that against logistical concerns. If Mahendra is a strong ecocentric, he will certainly want to support the Okavango Game Lodge as the only ecotourism option. However, if he does not have a strong ecocentric ethic he may be more concerned with either (a) saving money or (b) keeping his family comfortable, in which case we would stay at the Sanctuary Inn or the Royal Safari Camp respectively. The Okavango Game Lodge does get logistical bonus points for being conveniently close to his field site. Also, depending on Mahendra's awareness of and concern for local and indigenous communities, he might be either pleased that the lodge sponsors a Craft Market or disappointed by the Craft Market as the lodge's only (current) meager attempt at community engagement and support.

Considering that Mahendra knows of Rachel's background as a fellow elephant biologist, Mahendra might consider reaching out to her to initiate a community science program. Perhaps he could become a regular patron of the Okavango Game Lodge, implementing a training and employment program for locals and lodge guests who are interested in partaking in elephant research. This would be considered "research ecotourism," providing research opportunities for visitors and locals that focus on the delta region's biology (in this case, specific to elephant biology) (Clifton and Benson 2006). Additionally, employing community members to help with "mapping, measuring, and monitoring" could increase local capacity to self-employ or seek employment as safari guides, wildlife educators, or ecologists. This could also be seen as part of a broader call to increase biodiversity knowledge and knowledge acquisition skills in developing countries (Vanhove et al. 2017).

Conclusion The Botswana government's "Ecotourism" certification level is defined as follows:

Ecotourism: This level upholds the principles of ecotourism, as stated in the Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy (2002) and defines those facilities that have met all the principles of ecotourism. The level reflects the facilities' commitment to and involvement with local communities in tourism development, nature conservation, environmental management and interpretation of the surrounding environment to the guests. (Botswana Tourism Organisation 2013b)

In this case, there are trade-offs between affording new sustainability measures vs. achieving developmental goals, particularly if Rachel's ecocentric ethic drives her to compromise with foreign investors and leads her to hire only her CI colleagues. However, if Rachel wishes to achieve the final "Ecotourism" certification level, she will need to balance her goals with community engagement and development. So "success" in this case is a balancing act for the lodge and the community.

It is worth noting that "success" depends on your environmental ethic. Those who tend toward anthropocentric will want to see environmental goals balanced with developmental goals. Someone who is strongly ecocentric, like Rachel, might be willing to compromise developmental goals in order to move more quickly with sustainability and environmental initiatives. It's also worth noting that community involvement with ecotourism doesn't necessarily change the terms in which locals see the forest so much as it keeps them too busy with new jobs to conduct old, potentially "harmful" activities, such as converting protected land to agriculture (e.g., Stem et al. 2003). Should ecotourism project managers like Rachel be satisfied to simply keep people preoccupied? Then, questions remain: If people had time, would they hunt? It tourism levels dropped, would the forest lose its value? So perhaps Rachel should push for "loftier goals," such as a greater respect for nature or a shared ecocentric ethic. But how could she go about achieving that? And what does it mean to respect nature? There are different interpretations, and utilitarian values don't necessarily equate with "disrespect."

Rachel needs to develop a greater understanding of the community's own environmental ethic before she decides to impose her own. A good practice would be to offer involvement and training with the eco-lodge wherever she can, especially to underrepresented members of the local community. Most importantly, balancing community development needs, local traditions and values, and sustainable development, is not amenable to one-off solutions; rather it requires careful and continuous attention.

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This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Award No. 2055332. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Ecotourism – Case Study

Case Study of Ecotourism in Kenya – The Kimana Project Three-quarters of wildlife in Kenya can be found outside of the National Parks. A large amount of the land outside of Kenya’s National Parks is owned by the Masai Mara. Three tented camps have been set up on Masai land in Kimana, located between the migration route from the Amboseli and Tsavo National Parks and is run by local people. They pay the Masai rent for the use of their land.

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Costa Rica: A case study of ecotourism

Sam McManus

With Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south in Central America, Costa Rica is a thin green strip of tropical rainforest and volcanoes that rise up between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Its human population is a little over five million, and it is one of the most biologically diverse places in the world due to its unique geography and the many resulting microclimates, which allow for a vast array of ecosystems.

It has become the poster child for sustainable ecotourism throughout the world. With a quarter of its land under the protection of national parks or reserves, the country has become a world-leading example of how linking tourism with a growing protected area network can lead to the simultaneous growth of both its socioeconomic and environmental sectors. The country’s journey to this point is a fascinating one:

José Figueres Ferrer, the son of Spanish parents settled in Costa Rica, was a well-educated, prosperous coffee grower and rope manufacturer, but his criticism of the government of Rafael Angel Calderón Guardia in July 1942 forced him into exile in Mexico for two years. He then embarked on a political career, founding the Social Democratic Party upon his return, which eventually led to him becoming a revolutionary leader, culminating in the overthrow of Costa Rica’s government via civil war. When he became provisional president of Costa Rica in 1948, he abolished the national army, nationalised its banking sector, granted women and Afro-Costa Ricans the right to vote, guaranteed public education and a host of other decrees which set the country on a path to prosperous stability, subsequently making it an increasingly popular tourist destination in the region.

By sheer dumb luck I was staying in the surf town of Santa Teresa, which happens to be located right next to Cabo Blanco Absolute Natural Reserve on the southern tip of the Nicoya Peninsula. This unbelievably beautiful and wild reserve was the first nationally protected area in Costa Rica, established in 1963 by Karen Mogensen from Denmark and her Swedish husband Nicolas (Olaf) Wessberg, both examples of the steadily increasing influx of international tourists. With the aid of an international agency, they bought 1,250 hectares of land on the peninsula to protect it against the local farmers who were deforesting huge swathes of rainforest to feed the international demand for beef, causing soil erosion, loss of soil fertility and decimating wildlife populations, including many rare and endemic species.

Nicolas was later tragically murdered in 1975 whilst spearheading the conservation of the now established and equally beautiful Corcovado National Park on the more southerly Osa Peninsula, and Karen died in 1996. Yet their legacy remains to this day. Both witnessed the first national park of Santa Rosa, established in 1972 in the northwest of the country – the first of now 28 national parks. As with much of human history, Costa Rica’s progress towards developing a national system for ecotourism was long and complex, combining many factors, successes and setbacks. Yet the overarching principle was that as more tourists visited, more wilderness was set aside for protection, as the government could clearly see this is where the long-term economic benefit lay.

Costa Rica’s National Park Services was created, and by 1998, all the natural reservations were organised under a national system. Costa Rica was popularly deemed as the leading ecotourism country in the world, which attracted more tourists in a positive feedback loop model; whereby conservation efforts protect the natural environment whilst also generating healthy economic results, creating in turn both direct and indirect employment, contributing to a reduction of poverty. Tourist numbers steadily increased from 329,000 in 1987, to 1.03 million in 1999, over 2 million in 2008, and 3.14 million tourists in 2019.

A number of systems have been put in place help manage the impact of this increasing footfall including the Bandera Azul (blue flag) programme which promotes development while curbing the negative impacts of mass tourism. It assists local communities to work against pollution and protect the environment by evaluating the environmental quality of coastal areas, and awarding them a number of stars. The voluntary Certification for Sustainable Tourism Programme (CST) encourages businesses to become sustainable in a variety of ways, including using recycled products, implementing water and energy saving devices, properly disposing and treating waste, conserving and expanding Costa Rica’s forests, in a way that can be measured and publicised. Millions of trees are planted every year as a result, and the tree coverage of the forests across the country have literally doubled in the last 30 years.

The model also has a positive effect on the lives of the local people. The country continues to face some challenges such as income inequality and some of the darker sides of the tourism industry such as sex tourism, but as models go it is pretty fantastic. Costa Rica again came first in the Happy Planet Index rankings in 2020 which measures how well nations are doing at achieving wellbeing and long, happy, sustainable lives of its populations, having previously come top in the 2009 and 2012 rankings also. By 2015, the country was also able to produce 99% of its electricity from renewable sources, and the government continues to invest in renewable energy generation in an effort to meet its goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2021. According to the non-profit Borgen Project, the majority of this energy, 67.5%, comes from hydropower, with wind power generating 17%, geothermal sources 13.5% and biomass and solar panels comprising 0.84%. The remaining 1.16% is from backup plants.

Costa Rica’s eco-tourism experiment offers a path to recovery for the rest of the world.

Over the past years nearly every single local guide we’ve used to lead groups through mountains, forests and deserts has commented to me on the changing and increasing unpredictability of weather patterns, and I can see the effects of global warming for myself, increasingly both in person and via the global media. I am not ahead of the curve, but I am on the curve, and am doing what I can to help protect what Carl Sagan called our ‘Pale Blue Dot’. Christiana Figueres, daughter of the previously mentioned three-time president José Figueres Ferrer, was the former Executive Secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

She was a key architect of the 2015 Paris Agreement. This is a legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted by 196 Parties at the 21st session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 21) in Paris, on 12 December 2015. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius. To achieve this long-term temperature goal, countries aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-century. The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilateral climate change process because, for the first time, a binding agreement brings all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.

This historic agreement also coincided with the establishment of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the COP 21 in Paris, to end poverty, protect the planet and enable a path to prosperity for all. The SDGs are increasingly becoming integrated as a global language that institutions can agree upon, and work towards. Christina Figueres published a book in 2020 with co-author Tom Rivett-Carnac entitled:

Th e Future We Choose: Surviving the Climate Crisis

I would encourage you to read this or listen to it as an audiobook, as it lays out the steps we can each take in our daily lives to help achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.

For my part, I wish to continue to use adventure travel as a medium to help promote sustainable practices in countries across the world, and to educate our clients on their importance. Adventure travel is still faced with the ‘elephant in the room’ conundrum of the international flights clients and guides need to take to reach some destinations, and the resulting carbon emissions these produce. While we may indeed have green hydrogen-powered planes in 30 years’ time, in the meantime we will continue compensating for these carbon emissions by planting trees via our partner charity WeForest, in Ethiopia, Brazil, and other countries.

More than just aiming for carbon-neutrality, however, we can do far better by actively contributing to the regeneration and rewilding of the environments we visit, by partnering with local conservation organisations that use versions of the model laid out by Costa Rica in other countries around the world. For our adventure itineraries we partner with conservation charities in the countries we travel in, and are seeing this as a welcome growing trend across fellow travel companies. This is an opportunity for the adventure travel industry to financially support conservation in destinations around the world, reduce its overall carbon footprint, and engage travellers in the world’s climate issues. If our itineraries are more culturally focused, we partner with philanthropic charities, to help the vulnerable in the communities we meet, such as the Fistula Clinic in Ethiopia, for example. By using local suppliers for accommodation, meals, transport and guides, funds will also always find their way into the local economies.

Taken from:

' Wax & Gold: Journeys in Ethiopia & other roads less travelled '

by Sam McManus.

UK: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1838493700

 USA:   https://www.amazon.com/dp/1838493700

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To help you choose the right adventure for you, we have given each itinerary a grading that relates to the level of Walking / Trekking you will experience during the trip. This grading can be found on the Yellow map on the adventure page of the website.

All of our trips involve a level of general activity so are designed for people who are in good health, enjoy the outdoors, and have a taste for adventure and some level of fitness. As will be clear from our destinations, the climate (and altitude) may be different to that which you are used to, so please take this into consideration when choosing the most suitable holiday.

Please read our Adventure Itinerary & Essential Information for more information and don't hesitate to contact us if you would like to chat through whether you have found a suitable adventure for you.

Grade 1-3: Entry Level

You need to be in good physical health to enjoy your active holiday, but you don’t need to be an experienced hiker. These itineraries offer a mix of sightseeing and easier walking for around 2-4hrs a day, with the emphasis on sights and cultural experiences. 

Walks will be well marked or on defined pathways, and often around sites of interest. The expected amount of descent/ascent will depend on the landscapes of the destination, but will not exceed 400m/day, and will often be much less. Walks are at low altitude (below 3000m). 

You will not be required to carry more than a day sack with water and essentials. Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have a pair of comfortable and worn in walking shoes/boots.

Grades 4-6: Intermediate

You need to have a good level of fitness and be a regular walker for these adventures, with ideally some trekking experience. You can expect to be walking for 3-6 hours per day, not including rest stops, normally on good trail paths but with some uneven surfaces at times. 

You will not be required to carry more than a day sack. You may be walking in more challenging temperatures. You will generally be walking at low altitude (below 3000m) but may walk at altitudes up to 4000m. The amount of ascent could be up to 800m in a day but will frequently be less. You may walk on consecutive days.

Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have suitable clothing for this adventure.

Grades 7-9: Challenging

You need to have a good level of fitness with previous experience of trekking. Extra training before your trip will ensure that you get the most out of your adventure. Areas will be remote and terrain uneven. 

Expect to walk for 5 – 8 hours a day, not including breaks, with some very steep ascents and descents. You will be walking at altitude (over 3000m but not higher than 5000m).

Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have suitable equipment/clothing for this adventure (see the packing list for your adventure).

Please check individual itineraries for details of what you will need to be carrying with you.

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American company tells Mexico president that his $385m offer to buy its Caribbean property for ecotourism ‘substantially undervalues’ its crocodile-filled quarries

An American quarry company on Monday rejected the Mexican president’s  campaign of criticisms and closures,  as well as his offer to buy its property on the Caribbean coast.

In July, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador offered to buy the American company’s  Caribbean coast property  for about $385 million amid a bitter, years-long dispute.

Alabama-based Vulcan Materials said in a statement Monday that offer “substantially undervalues our assets.”

In papers filed on the case in an international arbitration panel, Vulcan Materials valued the almost 6,000-acre (2,400 hectare) property, located just south of the resort town of Playa del Carmen, at $1.9 billion.

The Mexican president has in the past threatened to expropriate the extensive property, claiming the pits it has dug to extract crushed limestone have damaged the fragile system of underground rivers and caves in the area.

But Vulcan Materials rejected the charge. “Our operations have not adversely affected underground caves, cenotes or archaeological sites. In fact, we have mapped, protected and preserved these valuable resources,” the company said in a statement.

Instead, the company alleged that some other quarries in the area have been operating unlawfully. “Unlike other quarrying sites that have been operating unlawfully to supply the Mayan Train, our operations were duly permitted,” the company said.

The Mayan Train is a pet project of López Obrador to build a tourist train around the Yucatan peninsula. Activists, cave divers and archeologist say  the project has damaged the caves , which hold  some of the oldest human remains in North America.

The president’s office had no immediate reaction to Vulcan’s allegations.

López Obrador has said in the past that the most attractive part of the property was the company’s freight shipping dock — the only deep port on the coast’s mainland — which he plans to turn into a dock for cruise ships. He says he wants to turn the rest of the property into a natural reserve.

“The Mexican government is using these political threats and false allegations to try to justify converting our property into a “naturally protected area,” which could — ironically — be used not to protect the environment but for commercial tourism purposes and naval operations, including cruise ship activity”, the company said.

López Obrador said he also wants to use the flooded pits that the company dug out of hundreds of acres of the limestone soil as “swimming pools” or an “ecotourism” area that would be operated as a concession by a private operator.

The huge pits are inhabited by crocodiles, which are a protected species in Mexico.

The company’s dock at Punta Venado is the only one in the area that can handle cement, crushed stone and other shipments for the Maya Train. The 950-mile (1,500-kilometer) Maya Train line is meant to run in a rough loop around the Yucatan Peninsula, connecting beach resorts and archaeological sites.

López Obrador touts the train as a way to bring some of Cancun’s tourism income to inland communities that haven’t shared in the wealth. But there are no credible feasibility studies showing tourists would want to use the train.

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US company rejects Mexico’s criticism, buy-out offer, says president’s projects hurt the environment

FILE - Mexican President Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador gives his regularly scheduled morning press conference at the National Palace in Mexico City, April 16, 2024. The American quarry company, Alabama-based Vulcan Materials, rejected on Monday, May 27, 2024 the Mexican president’s offer to buy its property on the Caribbean coast, amid a years-long dispute. (AP Photo/Marco Ugarte, File)

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MEXICO CITY (AP) — An American quarry company on Monday rejected the Mexican president’s campaign of criticisms and closures, as well as his offer to buy its property on the Caribbean coast.

In July, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador offered to buy the American company’s Caribbean coast property for about $385 million amid a bitter, years-long dispute.

Alabama-based Vulcan Materials said in a statement Monday that offer “substantially undervalues our assets.”

In papers filed on the case in an international arbitration panel, Vulcan Materials valued the almost 6,000-acre (2,400 hectare) property, located just south of the resort town of Playa del Carmen, at $1.9 billion.

The Mexican president has in the past threatened to expropriate the extensive property, claiming the pits it has dug to extract crushed limestone have damaged the fragile system of underground rivers and caves in the area.

But Vulcan Materials rejected the charge. “Our operations have not adversely affected underground caves, cenotes or archaeological sites. In fact, we have mapped, protected and preserved these valuable resources,” the company said in a statement.

Instead, the company alleged that some other quarries in the area have been operating unlawfully. “Unlike other quarrying sites that have been operating unlawfully to supply the Mayan Train, our operations were duly permitted,” the company said.

The Mayan Train is a pet project of López Obrador to build a tourist train around the Yucatan peninsula. Activists, cave divers and archeologist say the project has damaged the caves , which hold some of the oldest human remains in North America.

The president’s office had no immediate reaction to Vulcan’s allegations.

López Obrador has said in the past that the most attractive part of the property was the company’s freight shipping dock — the only deep port on the coast’s mainland — which he plans to turn into a dock for cruise ships. He says he wants to turn the rest of the property into a natural reserve.

“The Mexican government is using these political threats and false allegations to try to justify converting our property into a “naturally protected area,” which could — ironically — be used not to protect the environment but for commercial tourism purposes and naval operations, including cruise ship activity”, the company said.

López Obrador said he also wants to use the flooded pits that the company dug out of hundreds of acres of the limestone soil as “swimming pools” or an “ecotourism” area that would be operated as a concession by a private operator.

The huge pits are inhabited by crocodiles, which are a protected species in Mexico.

The company’s dock at Punta Venado is the only one in the area that can handle cement, crushed stone and other shipments for the Maya Train. The 950-mile (1,500-kilometer) Maya Train line is meant to run in a rough loop around the Yucatan Peninsula, connecting beach resorts and archaeological sites.

López Obrador touts the train as a way to bring some of Cancun’s tourism income to inland communities that haven’t shared in the wealth. But there are no credible feasibility studies showing tourists would want to use the train.