essay about breakfast time

The Most Contentious Meal of the Day

The current debates about breakfast are nothing new; the morning meal has long been a source of medical confusion, moral frustration, and political anxiety.

It was the (up)shot heard ‘round the world. In May, The New York Times ’s data blog , having conducted a lengthy review of scholarly assessments of the meal that Americans have been told, time after time, is the day’s most important, declared what many had known, in their hearts as well as their stomachs, to be true: “Sorry, there’s nothing magical about breakfast.”

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The pre-emptive “sorry” was an appropriate way both to soften the announcement and to sharpen it: Breakfast—when to eat it, what to eat for it (cereal? smoothies? cage-free eggs fried in organic Irish butter?), whether to eat it at all—has long been a subject of intense debate, accompanied by intense confusion and intense feeling. “Breakfast nowadays is cool,” the writer Jen Doll noted in Extra Crispy , the new newsletter from Time magazine that is devoted to, yep, breakfast. She wrote that in an essay about her failed attempt to enjoy pre-noon eating.

But breakfast wasn’t always cool. People of the Middle Ages shunned it on roughly the same grounds—food’s intimate connection to moral ideals of self-regimentation—that people of the current age glorify it; later, those navigating the collision of industrialization and the needs of the human body came to blame hearty breakfasts for indigestion and other ailments. Breakfast has been subject to roughly the same influences that any other fickle food fashions will be: social virality, religious dogmas, economic cycles, new scientific discoveries about the truth or falsity of the old saying “you are what you eat.” And all that has meant that the meal associated with the various intimacies of the morning hours has transformed, fairly drastically, over the centuries. Our current confusion when it comes to breakfast is, for better or worse, nothing new: We in the West, when it comes to our eggs—and our pancakes, and our bacon, and our muffins, and our yogurt, and our coffee—have long been a little bit scrambled.

The Europeans of the Middle Ages largely eschewed breakfast. Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica , lists praepropere —eating too soon— as one of the ways to commit the deadly sin of gluttony ; the eating of a morning meal, following that logic, was generally considered to be an affront against God and the self. Fasting was seen as evidence of one’s ability to negate the desires of the flesh; the ideal eating schedule, from that perspective, was a light dinner (then consumed at midday) followed by heartier supper in the evening. People of the Middle Ages, the food writer Heather Arndt Anderson notes in her book Breakfast: A History , sometimes took another evening meal, an indulgent late-evening snack called the reresoper (“rear supper”). The fact that the reresoper was taken with ale and wine, Anderson writes, meant that it was “shunned by most decent folk”; that fact also might have contributed to breakfast’s own low status among medieval moralists, as “it was presumed that if one ate breakfast, it was because one had other lusty appetites as well.”

There were some exceptions to those prohibitions . Laborers were allowed a breakfast—they needed the calories for their morning exertions—as were the elderly, the infirm, and children. Still, the meal they took was generally small—a chunk of bread, a piece of cheese, perhaps some ale—and not treated as a “meal,” a social event, so much as a pragmatic necessity.

It was Europe’s introduction to chocolate, Anderson argues, that helped to change people’s perspective on the moral propriety of breaking fast in the morning hours. “Europe was delirious with joy” at the simultaneous arrival, via expeditions of the New World, of coffee, tea, and chocolate (which Europeans of the time often took as a beverage), she writes. Chocolate in particular “caused such an ecstatic uproar among Europe’s social elite that the Catholic Church began to feel the pressure to change the rules.” And so, in 1662, Cardinal Francis Maria Brancaccio declared that “ Liquidum non frangit jejunum ”: “Liquid doesn’t break the fast.”

That barrier to breakfast having been dismantled, people started to become breakfast enthusiasts. Thomas Cogan, a schoolmaster in Manchester, was soon claiming that breakfast, far from being merely acceptable, was in fact necessary to one’s health : “[to] suffer hunger long filleth the stomack with ill humors.” Queen Elizabeth was once recorded eating a hearty breakfast of bread, ale, wine, and “a good pottage [stew], like a farmer’s, made of mutton or beef with ‘real bones.’”

The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century—and the rise of factory work and office jobs that accompanied it—further normalized breakfast, transforming it, Abigail Carroll writes in Three Squares: The Invention of the American Meal , from an indulgence to an expectation. The later years of the 1800s, in particular, saw an expansion of the morning meal into a full-fledged social event. Wealthy Victorians in the U.S. and in England dedicated rooms in their homes to breakfasting, the BBC notes , considering the meal a time for the family to gather before they scattered for the day. Newspapers targeted themselves for at-the-table consumption by the men of the families. Morning meals of the wealthy often involved enormous, elaborate spreads: meats, stews, sweets.

With that, the Victorians met the Medieval edicts against breakfast by swinging to the other extreme: Breakfast became not a prohibition or a pragmatic acquiescence to the demands of the day, but rather a feast in its own right. And that soon led to another feature of industrialization, Carroll writes: the host of health problems , indigestion chief among them, that people of the 19th century and the early 20th came to know as “dyspepsia.” They weren’t sure exactly what caused those problems; they suspected, however, that the heavy meals of the morning hours were key contributors. (They were, of course, correct.)

Here were the roots of the current obesity epidemic—the culinary traditions of active lifestyles, imported to sedentary ones—and they led to another round of debates about what breakfast was and should be. Fighting against his era’s preference for heavy breakfasts, Pierre Blot, the French cookbook author and professor of gastronomy, stipulated that breakfast that be, ideally, as small as possible . He also argued that it should, when consumed at all, consist of meats (cold, leftover from the supper the night before) rather than cakes or sweets, which rotted the teeth. (Blot further advised against taking tea with breakfast—water, coffee, milk, and even cocoa were preferable—and prohibited liquor.)

Blot was echoed in his advice by the Clean Living Movement that arose during the Jacksonian era and that has remained as a feature of American culture, in some form, ever since. The movement, which emphasized vegetarianism and resisted industrialized food processes like the chemical leavening of bread, also recommended abstinence from stimulants like coffee and tea. It led to products like Sylvester Graham’s eponymous “crackers”—made of the whole grain that, Graham thought, would curb sexual appetites along with those of the stomach —and helped to make cereal a thus-far-enduring feature of the American breakfast table. (The irony that the “cereal” of today is laden with sugar and chemicals would surely not be lost on Graham or on his fellow Clean Living proponent, John Harvey Kellogg.)

The cereals invented by Graham and Kellogg and C.W. Post became popular in part because they could simply be poured into bowls, with no cooking required; soon, technological developments were doing their own part to turn the laborious breakfasts of the 19th century into briefer, simpler affairs. The advent of toasters meant that stale bread could be quickly converted, with the help of a little butter and maybe some jam, into satisfying meals. Waffle irons and electric griddles and the invention in Bisquik, in 1930, did the same. Those appliances and other cooking aids made breakfast more convenient to produce during a time that found more and more women leaving the home for the workplace—first in response to the labor shortages brought about by the World Wars, and then on their own accord.

But breakfast also became more fraught. During a time that found Betty Friedan equating cooking with the systemic oppression of women , the morning meal forced a question: Could women both win bread and toast it? Breakfast presented a similar challenge for men: In the 1940s and 1950s, Anderson notes , amid the anxieties about traditional gender roles that the post-war climate brought about, cookbooks aimed at men emerged in the marketplace. They suggested how to cook breakfasts, in particular, that would be composed of “manly” foods like steak and bacon. They proposed that eggs be fried not in pats of butter, but in “man-sized lumps” of it. Even baked goods got masculine-ized : Brick Gordon, in 1947, recommended that male cooks might, if baking biscuits, eschew ladylike rolling pins for … beer bottles.

Today, those anxieties live on, in their way: Breakfast remains fraught, politically and otherwise. (And that’s not even outside of the slow-poached minefield that is brunch .) The current debates, though, tend to address not gender roles, but rather considerations of health—for the individual consumer, for the culture in which they participate, and for the planet. The low-fat craze of the 1990s, the low-carb craze of the 2000s, today’s anxieties about animal cruelty and environmental sustainability and GMOs and gluten and longevity and, in general, the moral dimensions of a globalized food system—all of them are embodied in breakfast.

And so is another unique feature of contemporary life: the internet argument. The essay in which Jen Doll declared breakfast’s coolness was a confessional titled “I’m a Breakfast Hater.” The Times ’s article describing the non-magical nature of breakfast was preceded by “ Is Breakfast Overrated? ” and, elsewhere on the web, an article explaining breakfast’s importance from the blog Shake Up Your Wake Up. It was preceded by thousands of other pieces that are all, in some way, engaging with profound questions about the most basic meal of the day. One of them was from The Times itself. It was called “ Seize the Morning: The Case for Breakfast .”

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115 The Breakfast Club Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Breakfast is often considered the most important meal of the day, and writing an essay on the topic can be both fun and insightful. Whether you're a student looking for inspiration for your next assignment or just a breakfast enthusiast looking to delve deeper into the world of morning meals, we've got you covered with 115 breakfast club essay topic ideas and examples.

• The history of breakfast: How has the concept of breakfast evolved over time?
• The health benefits of eating breakfast every day.
• The cultural significance of breakfast in different countries.
• The impact of skipping breakfast on academic performance.
• The psychology of breakfast: How does eating breakfast affect our mood and productivity?
• The role of breakfast in weight management and overall health.
• The importance of a balanced breakfast: What should a healthy breakfast consist of?
• The rise of breakfast trends: From avocado toast to smoothie bowls, how has breakfast evolved in recent years?
• The social aspect of breakfast: How does sharing a meal in the morning bring people together?
• The breakfast club phenomenon: How do breakfast clubs in schools promote community and academic success?
• The history and impact of National Breakfast Week.
• The connection between breakfast and mental health.
• Breakfast and creativity: How does eating breakfast fuel our creative thinking?
• The environmental impact of our breakfast choices.
• The economics of breakfast: How does the breakfast industry contribute to the economy?
• The role of breakfast in promoting sustainable agriculture.
• The relationship between breakfast and sleep quality.
• The cultural significance of breakfast foods in literature and film.
• Breakfast and social justice: How can access to a healthy breakfast be a form of social activism?
• The benefits of intermittent fasting vs. eating breakfast every day.
• The connection between breakfast and exercise performance.
• The role of breakfast in promoting gender equality.
• Breakfast and mindfulness: How can eating breakfast mindfully improve our overall well-being?
• The impact of breakfast on children's behavior and academic performance.
• The benefits of a plant-based breakfast.
• The connection between breakfast and gut health.
• Breakfast and aging: How does our breakfast routine change as we get older?
• The science behind why breakfast is considered the most important meal of the day.
• The relationship between breakfast and our circadian rhythm.
• The connection between breakfast and stress management.
• Breakfast and addiction: How can we break our unhealthy breakfast habits?
• The impact of breakfast on our immune system.
• The benefits of meal prepping for breakfast.
• Breakfast and brain health: How does eating breakfast affect our cognitive function?
• The role of breakfast in promoting diversity and inclusivity.
• The connection between breakfast and food insecurity.
• Breakfast and the microbiome: How does our breakfast choices affect our gut health?
• The benefits of a Mediterranean-inspired breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our skin health.
• The connection between breakfast and emotional well-being.
• Breakfast and food waste: How can we reduce food waste in our breakfast routine?
• The benefits of a high-protein breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our metabolism.
• The connection between breakfast and heart health.
• Breakfast and chronic disease prevention.
• The benefits of a low-carb breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our energy levels throughout the day.
• The connection between breakfast and inflammation.
• Breakfast and food allergies: How can we accommodate different dietary needs in our breakfast routine?
• The benefits of a gluten-free breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our oral health.
• The connection between breakfast and hydration.
• Breakfast and food intolerances: How can we navigate our breakfast choices if we have food intolerances?
• The benefits of a high-fiber breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our cholesterol levels.
• The connection between breakfast and blood sugar regulation.
• Breakfast and mental clarity: How does eating breakfast affect our focus and concentration?
• The benefits of a low-sugar breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our hormonal balance.
• The connection between breakfast and our overall well-being.
• Breakfast and portion control: How can we practice mindful eating during breakfast?
• The benefits of a dairy-free breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our digestive health.
• The connection between breakfast and our emotional well-being.
• Breakfast and mindful eating: How can we cultivate a positive relationship with food during breakfast?
• The benefits of a grain-free breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our sleep quality.
• The connection between breakfast and our stress levels.
• Breakfast and intuitive eating: How can we listen to our body's hunger cues during breakfast?
• The benefits of a low-calorie breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our body composition.
• The connection between breakfast and our self-esteem.
• Breakfast and body image: How can we promote body positivity through our breakfast choices?
• The benefits of a high-fat breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our relationship with food.
• The connection between breakfast and our emotional resilience.
• Breakfast and self-care: How can we use breakfast as a form of self-love and self-care?
• The benefits of a nutrient-dense breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our relationship with our body.
• The connection between breakfast and our sense of self-worth.
• Breakfast and mindful movement: How can we incorporate movement into our morning routine before breakfast?
• The benefits of a whole foods breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our relationship with exercise.
• The connection between breakfast and our body awareness.
• Breakfast and body acceptance: How can we practice body acceptance through our breakfast routine?
• The benefits of a plant-powered breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our body confidence.
• The connection between breakfast and our inner wisdom.
• Breakfast and positive body image: How can we cultivate a positive body image through our breakfast choices?
• The benefits of an anti-inflammatory breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our self-compassion.
• The connection between breakfast and our intuition.
• Breakfast and self-empowerment: How can we empower ourselves through our breakfast routine?
• The benefits of a colorful breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our self-expression.
• The connection between breakfast and our sense of purpose.
• Breakfast and self-discovery: How can we discover more about ourselves through our breakfast choices?
• The benefits of a mindful morning routine.
• The impact of breakfast on our sense of belonging.
• The connection between breakfast and our sense of community.
• Breakfast and self-awareness: How can we cultivate self-awareness through our breakfast routine?
• The benefits of a gratitude-filled breakfast.
• The impact of breakfast on our sense of connection.
• The connection between breakfast and our sense of gratitude.
• Breakfast and self-reflection: How can we foster self-reflection through our breakfast choices?
• The benefits of a morning meditation practice.
• The impact of breakfast on our sense of presence.
• The connection between breakfast and our mindfulness.
• Breakfast and self-care rituals: How can we create self-care rituals around our breakfast routine?
• The benefits of a morning journaling practice.
• The impact of breakfast on our sense of peace.
• The connection between breakfast and our inner peace.
• Breakfast and self-love: How can we practice self-love through our breakfast choices?
• The benefits of a morning affirmations practice.
• The impact of breakfast on our sense of worthiness.

These essay topics and examples are just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to exploring the world of breakfast. Whether you're interested in the science behind breakfast, its cultural significance, or its impact on our overall well-being, there's a wealth of information to delve into. So grab a cup of coffee, a plate of your favorite breakfast foods, and start writing your next breakfast club essay!

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The effects of breakfast on behavior and academic performance in children and adolescents

Breakfast consumption is associated with positive outcomes for diet quality, micronutrient intake, weight status and lifestyle factors. Breakfast has been suggested to positively affect learning in children in terms of behavior, cognitive, and school performance. However, these assertions are largely based on evidence which demonstrates acute effects of breakfast on cognitive performance. Less research which examines the effects of breakfast on the ecologically valid outcomes of academic performance or in-class behavior is available. The literature was searched for articles published between 1950–2013 indexed in Ovid MEDLINE, Pubmed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE databases, and PsychINFO. Thirty-six articles examining the effects of breakfast on in-class behavior and academic performance in children and adolescents were included. The effects of breakfast in different populations were considered, including undernourished or well-nourished children and adolescents from differing socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds. The habitual and acute effects of breakfast and the effects of school breakfast programs (SBPs) were considered. The evidence indicated a mainly positive effect of breakfast on on-task behavior in the classroom. There was suggestive evidence that habitual breakfast (frequency and quality) and SBPs have a positive effect on children's academic performance with clearest effects on mathematic and arithmetic grades in undernourished children. Increased frequency of habitual breakfast was consistently positively associated with academic performance. Some evidence suggested that quality of habitual breakfast, in terms of providing a greater variety of food groups and adequate energy, was positively related to school performance. However, these associations can be attributed, in part, to confounders such as SES and to methodological weaknesses such as the subjective nature of the observations of behavior in class.

Introduction

Breakfast is widely acknowledged to be the most important meal of the day. Children who habitually consume breakfast are more likely to have favorable nutrient intakes including higher intake of dietary fiber, total carbohydrate and lower total fat and cholesterol (Deshmukh-Taskar et al., 2010 ). Breakfast also makes a large contribution to daily micronutrient intake (Balvin Frantzen et al., 2013 ). Iron, B vitamins (folate, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B 6 , and vitamin B 12 ) and Vitamin D are approximately 20–60% higher in children who regularly eat breakfast compared with breakfast skippers (Gibson, 2003 ). Consuming breakfast can also contribute to maintaining a body mass index (BMI) within the normal range. Two systematic reviews report that children and adolescents who habitually consume breakfast [including ready-to-eat-cereal (RTEC)] have reduced likelihood of being overweight (Szajewska and Ruszczynski, 2010 ; de la Hunty et al., 2013 ). Breakfast consumption is also associated with other healthy lifestyle factors. Children who do not consume breakfast are more likely to be less physically active and have a lower cardio respiratory fitness level (Sandercock et al., 2010 ). Moreover, there is evidence that breakfast positively affects learning in children in terms of behavior, cognitive, and school performance (Hoyland et al., 2009 ).

The assumptions about the benefit of breakfast for children's learning are largely based on evidence which demonstrates acute effects of breakfast on children's cognitive performance from laboratory based experimental studies. Although the evidence is quite mixed, studies generally demonstrate that eating breakfast has a positive effect on children's cognitive performance, particularly in the domains of memory and attention (Wesnes et al., 2003 , 2012 ; Widenhorn-Muller et al., 2008 ; Cooper et al., 2011 ; Pivik et al., 2012 ). Additionally, the positive effects of breakfast are more demonstrable in children who are considered undernourished, typically defined as one standard deviation below normal height or weight for age using the US National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) reference (Pollitt et al., 1996 ; Cueto et al., 1998 ). More recent evidence compares breakfast meals that differ in Glycaemic Load (GL), Glycaemic Index (GI) or both. This evidence generally suggests that a lower postprandial glycaemic response is beneficial to children's cognitive performance (Benton and Jarvis, 2007 ; Ingwersen et al., 2007 ; Micha et al., 2011 ; Cooper et al., 2012 ) however the evidence is equivocal (Brindal et al., 2012 ). Moreover, it remains unclear whether this effect is specifically due to GI or GL, or both, or to other effects unrelated to glycaemic response.

Studies rarely investigate the acute effects of breakfast on behavior in the classroom and there remains a lack of research in this area. This may be, in part, attributed to the complicated nature of the measures used to assess behavior in class and the need to develop standardized, validated, and comparable coding systems to measure behavior. Similarly, few studies examine the effects of breakfast on tangible academic outcomes such as school grades or standardized achievement tests relative to cognitive outcomes. Whilst crude measures of academic performance may not provide the most sensitive indicator of the effects of breakfast, direct measures of academic performance are ecologically valid, have most relevance to pupils, parents, teachers, and educational policy makers and as a result may produce most impact.

Cognitive, behavioral, and academic outcomes are not independent. Changes in cognitive performance are likely to be reflected by changes in behavior. An increase in attention following breakfast, compared with no breakfast, may be reflected by an increase in on-task behavior during lessons. Similarly, changes in cognitive performance may also impact school performance and academic outcomes in a cumulative manner. The beneficial effects of eating breakfast on cognitive performance are expected to be short term and specific to the morning on which breakfast is eaten and to selective cognitive functions. These immediate or acute effects might translate to benefits in academic performance with habitual or regular breakfast consumption, but this has not been evaluated in most studies. Short term changes in cognitive function during lessons (e.g., memory and attention) may therefore translate, with habitual breakfast consumption, to meaningful changes in school performance by an increased ability to attend to and remember information during lessons. In class behavior also has important implications for school performance. This is because a prerequisite for academic learning is the ability to stay on task and sustain attention in class. Greater attention in class and engagement in learning activities (referred to as on-task behavior) are likely to be associated with a more productive learning environment which may impact academic outcomes in the long term.

Children may be particularly vulnerable to the nutritional effects of breakfast on brain activity and associated cognitive, behavioral, and academic outcomes. Children have a higher brain glucose metabolism compared with adults. Positron Emission Tomography studies indicate that cerebral metabolic rate of glucose utilization is approximately twice as high in children aged 4–10 years compared with adults. This higher rate of glucose utilization gradually declines from age 10 and usually reaches adult levels by the age of 16–18 years (Chugani, 1998 ). Average cerebral blood flow and cerebral oxygen utilization is 1.8 and 1.3 times higher in children aged 3–11 years compared with adults, respectively (Kennedy and Sokoloff, 1957 ; Chiron et al., 1992 ). Moreover, the longer overnight fasting period, due to higher sleep demands during childhood and adolescence compared with adults, can deplete glycogen stores overnight (Thorleifsdottir et al., 2002 ). To maintain this higher metabolic rate, a continuous supply of energy derived from glucose is needed, hence breakfast consumption may be vital in providing adequate energy for the morning. Nevertheless, breakfast is the most frequently skipped meal. Between 20–30% of children and adolescents skip breakfast in the developed world (Deshmukh-Taskar et al., 2010 ; Corder et al., 2011 ).

Despite intense public and scientific interest and a widely promoted consensus that breakfast improves concentration and alertness, Hoyland et al. ( 2009 ) were only able to identify 45 studies on the effects of breakfast on objectively measured cognitive performance in the period of 1950–2008 in their systematic review. They concluded that breakfast consumption is more beneficial than skipping breakfast to cognitive outcomes, effects which were more apparent in children who are considered undernourished. They did not consider ecologically valid outcomes of behavior (in-class or at school) and academic performance. This article complements the Hoyland et al. ( 2009 ) review by considering the evidence on the effect of breakfast on behavior (in-class or at school) and academic performance in children and considers the methodological challenges in isolating the effects of breakfast from other factors. Findings will be discussed dependent on outcome measure and study design with effects evaluated based on breakfast manipulation where possible. The effects of breakfast in different populations will be considered, including children, adolescents who are undernourished or well-nourished and from differing socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds. The habitual and acute effects of breakfast will be considered along with the effects of school breakfast programs (SBPs).

The literature was searched for original articles and reviews published between 1950–2013 on databases: Ovid MEDLINE, Pubmed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, EMBASE databases and PsychINFO. The search was conducted using the key words “breakfast” or “school breakfast” combined with “children” or “adolescents” combined with “behavio$,” “on-task,” “off-task,” “concentration,” “attention,” “school performance,” “academic performance,” “scholastic performance,” “academic achievement,” “school grades,” “school achievement,” and “educational achievement” using the Boolean operator “and.” The $ symbol was used for truncation to ensure the search included all keywords associated with behavior (“behavior,” “behaviour,” “behavioural,” “behavioral”). Studies are limited to these outcomes in children and adolescents (<18 years). The reference lists of existing reviews and identified articles were examined individually to supplement the electronic search. The presentation of the results are organized by two main outcomes: In-class behavior/behavior at school and academic performance with corresponding summary tables which detail design, sample, breakfast intervention/dietary assessment, assessment of outcomes and reported results for each article. A total of 36 studies are included. Fourteen studies included behavior measures, seventeen studies included academic performance measures, and five studies examined both behavior and academic performance.

In-class behavior and behavior at school

Nineteen studies employed behavioral measures to examine the effects of breakfast on behavior at school, either by use of classroom observations or rating scales usually completed by teachers (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Four studies included both classroom observations and rating scales (Kaplan et al., 1986 ; Milich and Pelham, 1986 ; Rosen et al., 1988 ; Richter et al., 1997 ).

Tabulation of studies investigating the effects of breakfast on behavior at school in children and adolescents .

ADD-H, attention deficit disorder-hyperactivity; AGHE, australian guide to health eating; BMI, body mass index; BF, breakfast; CHO, carbohydrate; CT, cognitive testing; ECLS-K, early childhood longitudinal study kindergarten cohort; FSM, free school meals; GI, glycaemic index; GL, glycaemic load; IG, independent groups; Kcal, kilocalorie; NCHS, national center for health statistics; PA, physical activity; PISA, programme for international student assessment; RCT, randomized control trial; RDA, recommended daily allowance; RM, repeated measures; RTEC, ready to eat cereal; SBP, school breakfast program; SD, standard deviation; SES, socio-economic status .

Observations of behavior in the classroom

Direct measures of classroom behavior were utilized in 11 studies. Although there are inconsistent findings, the evidence indicated a mainly positive effect of breakfast on on-task behavior in the classroom in children. Seven of the eleven studies demonstrated a positive effect of breakfast on on-task behavior. This was apparent in children who were either well-nourished, undernourished and/or from low SES or deprived backgrounds. Two studies carried out in undernourished samples (Chang et al., 1996 ; Richter et al., 1997 ) and three studies in children from low SES backgrounds (Bro et al., 1994 , 1996 ; Benton et al., 2007 ) demonstrated positive effects on on-task behavior following breakfast. One study reported a negative effect of a SBP on behavior in undernourished children (Cueto and Chinen, 2008 ) and three studies in children with behavioral problems demonstrated no effect of breakfast composition on behavior (Kaplan et al., 1986 ; Milich and Pelham, 1986 ; Wender and Solanto, 1991 ). Most studies included small samples of the order of 10–30 children which, although limited in terms of power and generalizability to the larger population, are more feasible and appropriate given the nature of the data and extensive coding methods required.

Intervention studies . Four intervention studies demonstrated a positive effect of SBPs on on-task behavior in undernourished and low SES children. Richter et al. ( 1997 ) reported a significant positive change in behavior from pre to post intervention in undernourished children aged 8 years. Following a 6-week SBP providing approximately 267 Kcal per day at breakfast, children in the intervention group displayed significantly less off-task and out of seat behavior and significantly more class participation (Richter et al., 1997 ). Concomitant teacher ratings of hyperactivity also declined significantly in the intervention group, however teachers reported no change in attention. This effect has also been demonstrated in adolescents. Two studies in small samples of adolescents aged 14–19 years showed an increase in on-task behavior in the classroom following an unstandardized teacher led SBP in vocational schools in USA (Bro et al., 1994 , 1996 ). More recent evidence failed to show the same benefit in undernourished children (≤ −2 SD height-for-age of the NCHS reference) aged 11 years. Cueto and Chinen ( 2008 ) observed a reduction in on-task behavior following a 3-year SBP measured using time per day spent in the classroom as an indirect proxy measure. The design of the intervention required teachers to dedicate time to providing the breakfast mid-morning. This unexpected negative impact on on-task behavior is unlikely to occur when breakfast is delivered before school by non-teaching staff and when direct measures of classroom behavior are employed.

Acute experimental studies . Seven studies employed a within-subjects acute experimental design to examine the effects of breakfast on classroom behavior across the morning. The findings were inconsistent, with three of the seven studies showing an advantage of breakfast on on-task behavior (Chang et al., 1996 ; Benton and Jarvis, 2007 ; Benton et al., 2007 ).

Benton et al. ( 2007 ) observed classroom behavior and reaction to frustration following three isocaloric breakfast meals of high, medium or low GL in a sample of young children (mean age: 6 years 10 months) from a school in an economically disadvantaged area. Children spent significantly more time on-task following a low GL breakfast meal compared with medium and high GL breakfast meals. This effect was specific to the first 10 min of the observation. Children also displayed fewer signs of frustration during a video game observation, but again, effects were short lived and specific to the initial observation period. No significant effects were found for distracted behavior. Although meals aimed to be isocaloric, actual intake across conditions was variable and the macronutrient content differed between conditions. Consequently, the difference in classroom behavior may be due to differences in macronutrient content rather than GL. Four studies failed to find a similar advantage for on-task behavior in children with Attention Deficit Disorder with hyperactivity (ADD-H) or behavioral problems (Kaplan et al., 1986 ; Milich and Pelham, 1986 ; Wender and Solanto, 1991 ) or in primary school children without behavioral problems (Rosen et al., 1988 ) following breakfast meals that differed in sugar content.

Mixed results were reported when comparing the effects of breakfast vs. no breakfast in undernourished children. Chang et al. ( 1996 ) examined the effects of breakfast on classroom behavior in 57 undernourished (< −1 SD weight-for-age of the NCHS reference) and 56 adequately nourished children in Jamaican rural schools. A significant increase in on-task behavior was observed following a 520 Kcal breakfast, which was seen only in the well-equipped school. In the three less well-equipped schools, behavior deteriorated following breakfast with an observed increase in off-task behavior (talking, movement). The well-equipped school had separate classrooms for each class and each child had their own desk, an environment probably more conducive to positive in-class behavior. The deterioration of behavior following breakfast in the less well-equipped schools could reflect greater difficulties in accurately observing whether children are on-task or off-task when they do not have their own desk or are in overcrowded classrooms. In developed high income countries where school infrastructure is more standardized and where classrooms are not overcrowded, this possibly spurious effect is less likely to occur (Murphy et al., 2011 ; Ni Mhurchu et al., 2013 ). However, negative effects on behavior have also been reported in UK primary and secondary school children within deprived areas following a SBP (Shemilt et al., 2004 ). Therefore, other factors, including the breakfast club environment, delivery, and staff engagement with the SBP may have also influenced the impact of breakfast on behavior, as well as school structure. For example, activities during the breakfast club and general atmosphere may promote negative and excitable behavior. Nutritional status did not influence the results of Chang et al's study, however, the degree of undernourishment was mild. It is possible that positive effects may be more demonstrable in children who are more severely undernourished. In addition, an appropriate environment in terms of classroom structure and equipment is needed to accurately observe the effects of breakfast.

One study examined the effects of breakfast size with or without a mid-morning snack (Benton and Jarvis, 2007 ). The results indicated that children who consumed a small breakfast (<150 Kcal) spent significantly more time on-task when a mid-morning snack was also eaten. This effect was not evident in children who consumed more energy at breakfast (151–230 Kcal and >230 Kcal). Correspondingly, children who consumed <150 Kcal at breakfast spent significantly more time off-task when no snack was eaten compared with children who consumed more energy at breakfast. This suggests a mid-morning snack is only beneficial for children who have skipped or eaten very little for breakfast and corrects the energy deficiency.

Rating scales and questionnaires

Twelve studies utilized teacher completed rating scales to assess children's behavior at school following breakfast. These studies usually employed global scales to assess a range of behavioral domains including: attention, disruptive behavior, hyperactivity, pro-social behavior, and aggression. The majority used standardized, established measures of behavior comparable across studies. Measures included the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), Social Skills Rating System (SSRS), Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS), and The Attention Deficit Disorder—Hyperactivity Comprehensive Teacher's Rating Scale (ACTeRS). Of the 12 studies that utilized rating scales and questionnaires, only two studies used unstandardized questionnaires and interviews with teachers to measure behavior (Wahlstrom and Begalle, 1999 ; Overby and Hoigaard, 2012 ). Six of the twelve studies demonstrated a positive effect of breakfast on behavior at school, which was mainly hyperactivity and disruptive behavior.

Intervention studies . Six intervention studies reported mixed evidence for the effects of SBPs on behavior at school. Two studies in low SES and undernourished children aged 8–10 years reported beneficial effects on hyperactivity (Richter et al., 1997 ; Murphy et al., 1998 ). In a longitudinal analysis of a 4-month SBP, Murphy et al. ( 1998 ) found significantly greater decreases in CTRS hyperactivity scores in children who increased participation in the SBP compared with children whose participation was unchanged. Similarly, results from a 6-week SBP in undernourished children indicated a significant decline in ACTeRS hyperactivity scores following the SBP, but no change in attention, social skills and oppositional behavior during lessons (Richter et al., 1997 ). Wahlstrom and Begalle ( 1999 ) reported an increase in social behavior and readiness to learn from interviews with teachers following a 3-year SBP. Their results also indicated a decrease in overall discipline referrals following the SBP. Whilst this evidence indicates an apparent benefit of SBPs on school behavior, methodological shortcomings, including a lack of randomization and the inclusion of an appropriate control group, cannot preclude the effects of confounding factors.

Three recent robust randomized control trials (RCT) that address the above inadequacies failed to find a similar benefit for school behavior measured by the SDQ following a 1 year intervention. Both Ni Mhurchu et al. ( 2013 ) and Murphy et al. ( 2011 ) reported no significant effects of a 1 year SBP on hyperactivity, inattention, emotional symptoms, conduct and peer relationship problems, and pro-social behavior in children. However, in both trials, SBP attendance was low and variable, limiting the potential impact on behavior. The barriers to participation in SBPs include a lack of parental support, a lack of teaching support, social stigma, busy morning schedules, transport issues preventing children from getting to school early and breakfast clubs causing children to arrive late to the first lesson (Reddan et al., 2002 ; McDonnell et al., 2004 ; Greves et al., 2007 ; Lambert et al., 2007 ). Furthermore, the proportion of children eating breakfast everyday remained unchanged whilst the proportion of children eating breakfast at home decreased, suggestive of a shift in consumption from at-home to at-school, rather than a change/increase in consumption. This may account for the lack of observed effects on behavior. Shemilt et al. ( 2004 ) indicated a negative impact of a SBP on behavior in both primary and secondary school children within deprived areas. Although this study aimed to employ a RCT design, contamination between treatment arms necessitated a longitudinal observational analysis of behavioral outcomes and SBP attendance, rather than the planned intention to treat analysis. Results at 1 year follow up indicated that children who attended the breakfast club had a higher incidence of borderline or abnormal conduct, pro-social, and total difficulties compared to children who did not attend the breakfast club (Shemilt et al., 2004 ). Teachers also indicated that children were more energetic, less well-behaved and were difficult to control in the classroom as a result of attending the breakfast club. Parallel qualitative data from teachers, breakfast club staff and researchers who observed the breakfast club suggested that children's behavior deteriorated during the breakfast club as a result of inadequate supervision and training, and a lack of teaching staff who seemed to be regarded with more authority by children. Observations of the breakfast club indicated behavior was often boisterous or disruptive and there was a general lively atmosphere. This suggests that factors associated with the delivery of the SBP had more impact on behavioral outcomes than the subtle nutritional effects of breakfast in this study. In addition, this study epitomizes the difficulties in isolating the independent effects of breakfast.

Acute experimental studies . Three acute experimental studies examined the effects of breakfast meals that differed in sugar content on CTRS hyperactivity, inattention/over-activity and aggression subscales. Both Milich and Pelham ( 1986 ) and Kaplan et al. ( 1986 ) showed no effect of the sugar content of breakfast and behavior in children with ADD-H or behavioral problems. However, Rosen et al. ( 1988 ) observed a small significant increase in hyperactivity scores following a breakfast with high sugar content compared with low sugar in children without behavior problems (Rosen et al., 1988 ).

Cross-sectional studies . Two cross-sectional studies in well-nourished adolescent populations reported a significant association between habitual breakfast consumption and behavior. Overby and Hoigaard ( 2012 ) found that frequency of breakfast was significantly associated with less self-reported disruptive behavior during lessons in adolescents (mean age 14.6 years). Adolescents who habitually consumed breakfast (>5 days/per week) had significantly reduced likelihood of disruptive behavior [Odds Ratio (OR): 0.29, 95% CI: 0.15–0.55] compared with those who ate breakfast less frequently (≤5 times per week). A similar association was also evident between breakfast quality based on the number of food groups within the breakfast meal and CBCL scores (higher score indicates poor behavior) in adolescents (O'Sullivan et al., 2009 ). Higher breakfast quality scores were most strongly associated with lower CBLC externalizing behavior scores (which indicates aggression and delinquency). The results indicated a stepwise decrease in total scores on the CBCL with increasing breakfast quality, indicative of a possible dose-response relationship.

Prospective cohort studies . Although there is some associative evidence of a relationship between habitual breakfast consumption and behavior in adolescents, the same relationship was not apparent in a well-controlled prospective cohort study. Miller et al. ( 2012 ) reported no association between frequency of breakfast and negative behavior (e.g., arguing, fighting, angry, and disruptive) in 21,400 school children aged 5–15 years following a 10 years follow up and adjustment for extensive confounders.

Academic performance

Twenty-two studies employed academic performance measures to investigate the effects of breakfast on academic outcomes (Table ​ (Table2). 2 ). The academic performance outcomes employed by studies included either school grades or standardized achievement tests. Twenty-one studies demonstrated that habitual breakfast (frequency and quality) and SBPs have a positive effect on children and adolescents' academic performance.

Tabulation of studies investigating the effects of breakfast on academic performance in children and adolescents .

AD, adequate breakfast; AOR, adjusted odds ratio; BF, breakfast; BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence intervals; CT, cognitive testing; ECLS-K, early childhood longitudinal study–kindergarten cohort; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; FSM, free school meals; GI, glycaemic index; GL, glycaemic load; IB, inadequate breakfast; IG, independent groups; IQ, intelligence quotient; Kcal, kilocalorie; KJ, kilo joules; MAP, measure of academic progress; NAPLAN, the national assessment program literacy and numeracy; NCHS, national center for health statistics; OR, odds ratios; PRO, protein; PA, physical activity; RCT, randomized control trial; RDA, recommended daily allowance; RM, repeated measures; RTEC, ready to eat cereal; SAT, scholastic aptitude test; SBP, school breakfast program; SD, standard deviation; SES, socio-economic status .

Average school grades

Ten studies examined the effects of breakfast on average school grades. The majority produced a composite score from school reported grades across a range of subjects, usually considered “core” subjects. Two studies relied on self-reported school grades (Lien, 2007 ) or self-reported subjective ratings of school performance (So, 2013 ). Seven of the ten studies were in 12–18 year olds, reflecting the schooling system in which grading is more common in older pupils. Only three studies were carried out in primary school children aged 7–11 years (Murphy et al., 1998 ; Kleinman et al., 2002 ; Rahmani et al., 2011 ). One study included children of low SES (Murphy et al., 1998 ) and two studies included undernourished children (Kleinman et al., 2002 ; Gajre et al., 2008 ). All 10 studies identified demonstrated that habitual breakfast (frequency and quality) and SBPs have a positive effect on children and adolescents' school performance, with three studies observing clearest effects on mathematics grades (Murphy et al., 1998 ; Kleinman et al., 2002 ; Morales et al., 2008 ).

Intervention studies . Three intervention studies demonstrated positive effects of SBPs on school grades, particularly mathematics grades in both well-nourished, undernourished and low SES children aged 7–10 years. Effects were demonstrable after an intervention period of 3–6 months. A significant increase in school grades was apparent following an intervention providing 250 ml 2.5% fat milk at breakfast, which was apparent in girls only (Rahmani et al., 2011 ). Although it was not clear if the sample included undernourished children, the effect coincided with a significant increase in weight of the girls following the intervention in schools which received the intervention compared to control schools. Supportive evidence from Kleinman et al. ( 2002 ) found that following a 6-month SBP, children who had improved their nutritional status from at risk (energy and/or >2 nutrients <50% RDA) to adequate significantly increased their mathematics grades. Murphy et al. ( 1998 ) reported that following a 4-month SBP, children who increased participation were significantly more likely to increase their mathematics grades compared to those who had decreased or maintained participation.

Cross-sectional studies . Seven cross-sectional studies demonstrated a consistent positive association between habitual breakfast and school grades in adolescents.

Frequency of breakfast consumption was associated with school performance in five studies. Breakfast skipping (eating breakfast <5 days/week) was associated with lower average annual school grades in a sample of 605 Dutch adolescents aged 11–18 years who were in higher educational streams (Boschloo et al., 2012 ). This association was evident in both sexes and independent of age. Additionally, breakfast skipping was associated with more self-reported attention problems, which partially mediated this relationship. A larger cohort of nearly 6500 Korean adolescents of similar age range (10–17 years) demonstrated a similar association across all ages. However, the association was stronger in younger children (10–11 and 13–14 years) than older children (16–17 years) (Kim et al., 2003 ). Effects were seen in both genders, except for in 10–11 year olds, where the significant association between regular breakfast intake and school performance was only apparent in boys.

This association is also evident in undernourished adolescents (Gajre et al., 2008 ). Gajre et al. ( 2008 ) demonstrated that eating breakfast >4 days/week significantly predicted total average grades in a sample of children aged 11–13 years, a third of whom were undernourished. Analysis of individual subject domains indicated that regular breakfast eaters had significantly higher grades for science and English, but not mathematics compared to children who never ate breakfast (Gajre et al., 2008 ).

Lien ( 2007 ) demonstrated, in a large sample of adolescents aged 15–16 years, that those who never ate breakfast were twice as likely to have lower self-reported school grades compared with those who consumed breakfast every day (7 days/week). This finding was consistent in boys and girls. Moreover, the odds of having lower self-reported school grades decreased with successive quintiles of breakfast eating frequency suggestive of a dose-response relationship. Recent evidence from an internet based study demonstrated a similar relationship between habitual breakfast and self-rated academic performance in over 75,500 adolescents aged 12–18 years (So, 2013 ). Regular breakfast eaters (7 days/week) had increased likelihood of rating their school performance as higher compared with breakfast skippers (0 day/week).

Two studies demonstrated a consistent association between breakfast composition derived from energy and food groups provided and school grades in adolescents aged 12–17 years. Morales et al. ( 2008 ) found that adolescents who habitually ate breakfast that provided >25% of total estimated energy needs and included four or more foods groups from dairy, cereals, fruit, and fat were more likely to achieve higher grades than those consuming no breakfast or breakfast lacking the specified food groups. Analysis of individual subject domains indicated that mathematics, chemistry and social science grades were highest in full (>25% of total energy needs and ≥4 food groups) and good (<25% energy and three food groups) quality breakfast groups compared with no breakfast. Physical education, biology and languages grades were highest in the no breakfast group compared with full and good quality breakfast groups. Supportive findings from Herrero Lozano and Fillat Ballesteros ( 2006 ) indicated that higher average grades were obtained in adolescents who habitually consumed a breakfast containing three food groups from dairy, cereals and fruit compared with those consuming no breakfast or breakfast providing one of the specified food groups. The contribution of a mid-morning snack to breakfast quality was also considered in the analysis, which indicated a positive association between a mid-morning snack and school grades specific to children who had consumed no breakfast.

Standardized achievement tests

Age specific standardized achievement tests are routinely administered by schools in developed countries for monitoring and provide an overall indication of intellectual level. Various sub-tests are included, usually literacy/reading, numeracy/arithmetic and reasoning. Standardized achievement tests employed by studies include the Wide Range Achievement test (WRAT), the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN), Measure of Academic Progress (MAP), Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), and Assessment Tool for Teaching and Learning (asTTle). Twelve studies used standardized achievement tests to measure school performance. Two studies conducted in developing countries used unstandardized achievement tests developed for the purpose of the research to account for variability in curriculum and school environment (Cueto and Chinen, 2008 ; Acham et al., 2012 ). Studies were generally conducted in children aged 6–13 years with 10 of the 12 studies in children younger than 13 years. Evidence indicated a positive effect of SBPs on test scores, with clearest effects on arithmetic scores in both well-nourished and undernourished samples. Evidence also indicated a positive association between habitual breakfast frequency and quality, and test scores.

Intervention studies . Six of the seven intervention studies demonstrated positive effects of SBPs on standardized achievement tests in children aged 4–14 years, with clearest effects on arithmetic scores in undernourished children. Four of the seven studies demonstrated a benefit of breakfast on arithmetic scores (Powell et al., 1998 ; Simeon, 1998 ; Wahlstrom and Begalle, 1999 ; Cueto and Chinen, 2008 ). Four of the studies were carried out in samples which included undernourished children (Jacoby et al., 1996 ; Powell et al., 1998 ; Simeon, 1998 ; Cueto and Chinen, 2008 ) and two studies included low SES samples (Meyers et al., 1989 ; Ni Mhurchu et al., 2013 ). Effects were demonstrable after an intervention period of at least 1 month and up to 3 years.

Two studies found positive effects on arithmetic test scores from the WRAT following a relatively large breakfast meal (>500 Kcal) compared with a low energy control in undernourished and well-nourished children (Powell et al., 1998 ; Simeon, 1998 ). Cueto and Chinen ( 2008 ) examined the effects of a mid-morning SBP providing 600 Kcal and 60% of the daily requirements for several vitamins and minerals and 100% of the daily requirement for iron in a large sample of children, two thirds of whom were undernourished (≤ −2 SD height-for-age of the NCHS reference). Higher arithmetic and reading scores were demonstrated following the SBP in intervention schools compared to control schools, particularly in schools which tended to have higher levels of poverty, undernourished children and lower achievement. Comparable results were reported by Jacoby et al. ( 1996 ) following the same breakfast intervention for 1 month in children where the majority were below height-for-age but relatively overweight (due to increased body water and weight-for-height classification). Children in intervention schools of higher weight (and therefore likely to be undernourished) increased vocabulary scores post intervention. No effects were observed in normal weight children who were therefore likely to be well nourished.

In children aged 8–12 years from low SES backgrounds, Meyers et al. ( 1989 ) reported greater increases in language and total test scores in SBP attendees compared with non-attendees. Wahlstrom and Begalle ( 1999 ) also demonstrated an increase in scores for reading and mathematics from pre to post intervention. However, both studies were not well-controlled. A recent large RCT in pupils from low SES schools in New Zealand failed to show any benefit of a 1 year SBP on school achievement tests for literacy and numeracy and self-reported reading ability (Ni Mhurchu et al., 2013 ).

Cross-sectional studies . Four cross-sectional studies demonstrated a consistent positive association between habitual breakfast consumption and achievement test scores in children, including undernourished children.

Frequency of breakfast consumption was associated with achievement scores in two studies. Acham et al. ( 2012 ) demonstrated in well-nourished and undernourished 9–15 year olds predominantly considered low ability, that those who had consumed breakfast and a mid-day meal were almost twice as likely to score highly on achievement tests compared to those who only had one meal. This association was specific to boys, and consuming breakfast alone was not associated with school performance (Acham et al., 2012 ). This gender difference is not consistent across studies with evidence demonstrating increased odds of having lower self-reported school grades when skipping breakfast compared with habitually consuming breakfast in both genders (Lien, 2007 ). Edwards et al. ( 2011 ) indicated that higher mean mathematics MAP scores were associated with habitually eating breakfast (≥5 days/week) compared with less frequent consumption (<5 days/week). No association was found between breakfast frequency and reading MAP scores.

Two studies demonstrated an association between breakfast composition (energy, food group, and micronutrient content) and achievement scores in children aged 8–13 years. Habitually consuming a breakfast providing ≤20% of total energy needs was associated with poorer total SAT performance, particularly logical reasoning in 9–11 year olds (Lopez-Sobaler et al., 2003 ). However, SES was not controlled. O'Dea and Mugridge ( 2012 ) demonstrated a significant association between habitual breakfast quality according to food groups (carbohydrate and protein) and micronutrients (vitamin C and calcium) and NAPLAN literacy scores in children aged 8–13 years. No significant association was found between breakfast quality and numeracy scores.

Prospective cohort studies . Miller et al. ( 2012 ) demonstrated, in a large cohort of 21,400 school children aged 5–15 years, a non-significant association between breakfast eating frequency and scores on standardized achievement tests for reading, mathematics and science following adjustment for an extensive set of confounders. This was specific to breakfast that was eaten with the family rather than total breakfast intake.

The effects of breakfast on behavior

Overview of findings.

This review identified 19 studies that examined the effects of breakfast on behavior in children and adolescents of which 11 studies demonstrated a positive effect of breakfast on behavior. The evidence suggests a mainly positive effect of breakfast on on-task behavior in the classroom. This effect was apparent in children irrespective of whether they were well-nourished and undernourished or from low SES or deprived backgrounds. However, most of the research on the impact of breakfast on behavior has taken the form of SBP evaluations, which lack scientific rigor. Three RCTs have not found similar benefits for behavior using standardized measures following a 1 year SBP, although, participation in the SBP was consistently low in some trials, which is likely to account for the lack of effects. In order for SBPs to impact on behavioral outcomes, the barriers to participation need to be addressed. Studies in children with pre-existing behavior problems (e.g., ADD-H) demonstrated no benefit of breakfast of differing sugar content. Findings for other behavioral outcomes including off-task behavior, distractibility, hyperactivity, and disruptive behavior are inconsistent. The frequent null findings reported suggest the effects of breakfast may be specific to selective behavioral domains.

The increase in on-task behavior following breakfast may indicate that children who eat breakfast are more able to concentrate, pay attention and are more alert at school. This is supported by evidence that demonstrates positive effects of breakfast on cognitive performance including attention and memory (Hoyland et al., 2009 ). Similarly, more on-task behavior in the classroom may be associated with improvements in academic performance supported by the positive association between habitual breakfast intake and academic performance (Boschloo et al., 2012 ; So, 2013 ). Moreover, an improvement in classroom behavior has the potential to reduce disruption and produce a more productive learning environment.

Methodological issues

Behavioral measures . Classroom behavior was typically measured by coding observed behavior into predefined domains. Most of the studies focus primarily on on-task and off-task behavior within the classroom. Other behavioral domains measured less frequently include: being distracted, disruptive behavior, positively, or negatively interacting with peers, interacting with teacher, and reaction to frustration. One study did not directly observe classroom behavior and measured overall time spent in the classroom as a proxy measure for on-task behavior, which is an inadequate assessment of behavior (Cueto and Chinen, 2008 ). The measures used to code classroom behavior are often non-validated, unstandardized coding methods developed for the purpose of the research, and often inter-rater reliability is unspecified or merely recorded as acceptable. Overall, the general theme is the subjective nature of these studies and reliance on interpretation of behavior. There is a lack of studies that use systematic, validated, and reliable coding systems to measure classroom behavior. Two recent studies have demonstrated effects on on-task behavior following school lunch manipulations using a validated observation protocol (Golley et al., 2010 ; Storey et al., 2011 ). Future studies investigating the effects of breakfast on behavior should adopt validated and reliable, focused coding schemes to measure classroom behavior. Given the subjective nature of the methods to assess behavior, observers should also be blind to treatment condition.

Observational methods: Real-time vs. Recorded observations . Several issues concern the observational methods used to assess behavior. Real-time classroom observations carried out by teachers or researchers were common. Only four studies utilized video recorded classroom observations likely to produce more accurate and ecologically valid behavioral measures and offer the possibility of post hoc verification by independent observers (Milich and Pelham, 1986 ; Wender and Solanto, 1991 ; Richter et al., 1997 ; Benton et al., 2007 ). Video recorded classroom observations are therefore a more accurate and reliable behavioral measure. During real-time classroom observations, the researcher is required to observe multiple pupils within the lesson. The dual processing of watching and recording in the classroom is a complex task. The use of a video recorded classroom observation may have the advantage of increased accuracy via the ability to replay, review, and control observer fatigue (Haidet et al., 2009 ). Secondly, due to the reactive nature of the observation process, the Hawthorne effect may be present, such that children and teachers change their behavior because they are under observation (Roethlisberger and Lombard, 1977 ). Not having observers present during the observation or utilizing video recorded observation methods may limit this anticipated behavior change. Finally, the habituation period, where cameras/observers are introduced, is often not reported. This habituation period may allow children to become familiar to the presence of observers/cameras in order to reduce reactive behavior change. Future studies should consider, when possible, a video recorded observation to yield a more accurate, reliable observation whilst maintaining ethical safeguards.

Design . Various breakfast manipulations are employed. There are few direct comparisons of breakfasts varying in composition precluding conclusions about the effects of breakfast composition on behavior. Additionally, many studies lack randomization and the inclusion of an appropriate comparable control group. Most studies are based on small samples and limited to children aged <13 years, with fewer studies in adolescents. Metabolic and behavioral effects of breakfast may be different in older children aged >13 years. Classroom behavior is dynamic and can be different across year groups and ages. Previous research has found differences in behavior between older and younger children in the classroom following school lunch manipulations, where younger children tend to be more distracted when working alone with the reverse true for older children and adolescents (Golley et al., 2010 ; Storey et al., 2011 ). The influence of gender on behavior is also not considered by most studies. For example, Chang et al. ( 1996 ) demonstrated that girls talked and displayed more movement compared with boys in a set task classroom situation. Further research in this field should include larger samples providing sufficient power and also include older children >13 years and consider the effects of gender on behavior.

The effect of breakfast on academic performance

This review identified 21 studies that demonstrated suggestive evidence that habitual breakfast (frequency and quality) and SBPs are associated with children and adolescents' academic performance. This effect was apparent in both well-nourished or undernourished samples and/or children from low SES backgrounds. Increased frequency of habitual breakfast was consistently positively associated with improved school performance. Some evidence suggested that increased quality of habitual breakfast in terms of providing a greater variety of food groups (3–4) and adequate energy (>20–25% of total estimated energy needs) is positively related to school performance.

Evidence suggested a positive effect of SBPs on arithmetic test scores and mathematic grades. Three studies demonstrated clearest effects on mathematic grades (Murphy et al., 1998 ; Kleinman et al., 2002 ; Morales et al., 2008 ) and four studies demonstrated a benefit of breakfast on arithmetic scores (Powell et al., 1998 ; Simeon, 1998 ; Wahlstrom and Begalle, 1999 ; Cueto and Chinen, 2008 ; Edwards et al., 2011 ). However, some of the evidence was inconsistent (Gajre et al., 2008 ; O'Dea and Mugridge, 2012 ). Gajre et al. ( 2008 ) found that regular breakfast eaters (>4 days per week) had significantly higher marks for science and English compared to those who never eat breakfast, but there was no difference in mathematics marks. However, total marks, which included mathematics, were significantly higher in the regular breakfast group compared with the no breakfast group. Similarly, the majority of studies employing composite measures of school grades across subject domains show a positive association which, may be related to increased power afforded by composite measures.

Some evidence suggested that effects may be more apparent in undernourished children who improved their nutritional status from at risk to adequate following a SBP (Kleinman et al., 2002 ). Cueto and Chinen ( 2008 ) reported that positive effects on achievement test scores following a SBP, particularly in schools which tended to have more undernourished children and lower achievement. In support, studies that were carried out in samples including undernourished children demonstrated consistent positive effects of breakfast on school performance (Jacoby et al., 1996 ; Powell et al., 1998 ; Simeon, 1998 ; Cueto and Chinen, 2008 ). This is suggestive of a possible mechanism by which breakfast may improve school performance. The observed increase in school performance may be facilitated by correction of nutritional deficiencies due to the fortification of many breakfast products, particularly with iron and iodine which have largely been implicated in improving cognitive function which may influence school performance (Tiwari et al., 1996 ; Grantham-McGregor and Ani, 2001 ; Falkingham et al., 2010 ). Whilst nutritional influences may have contributed toward the improved school performance, school attendance also increased in many studies following which may account for most of the improvement in school grades (Hoyland et al., 2009 ; Defeyter et al., 2010 ).

Influence of confounders . Research on breakfast and educational outcomes is a particularly difficult area given the potential for confounding. The majority of studies that employ academic outcomes are cross-sectional, so adjustment of potential confounders is critical. Adequate control for confounders varied within the studies identified. An important potential confound is SES. It is likely that children and adolescents who eat breakfast differ from those who do not eat breakfast in ways that also influence educational outcomes. There is a consistent evidence that SES is associated with breakfast eating, with children from higher SES backgrounds more likely to regularly eat breakfast than children from lower SES backgrounds, an effect which is consistent across gender and age (Delva et al., 2006 ; Moore et al., 2007 ; Doku et al., 2011 ; Hallström et al., 2011 , 2012 ; Overby et al., 2011 ). Similarly, there is well established consistent evidence that SES is a central determinant of academic performance and cognitive ability (Brooks-Gunn and Duncan, 1997 ; McLoyd, 1998 ; McCulloch and Joshi, 2001 ; Machin and Vignoles, 2004 ). However, some studies failed to adequately adjust for SES in their analysis or used various proxy measures of SES which may be inadequate. If SES is not accounted for in the analysis, it is likely associations observed are because children select into both high breakfast consumption frequency and higher school grades as a result of SES. Further work investigating the effects of breakfast on school performance should carefully consider the role of confounding, and apply adequate controls in the analysis, particularly for SES.

Academic performance measures . Studies employed a wide range of outcomes as academic performance indicators, either by use of average school grades or standardized achievement tests. Two studies relied on self-reported school grades (Lien, 2007 ) or self-reported subjective ratings of school performance (So, 2013 ) which are open to socially desirable and inaccurate reporting. Moreover, direct measures of academic performance, although ecologically valid are however, crude measures that may be insensitive to the effects of breakfast. Although many confounders are controlled for in the studies reviewed, it may be inappropriate to use broad measures of scholastic achievement such as end of year grades since many other factors interplay to determine grades. There are multiple, modifiable, and unmodifiable, determinants of academic performance that may act over and above the subtle nutritional effects of breakfast.

Design . The evidence is based on studies investigating the effects of either habitual breakfast consumption or SBPs on academic performance. The majority of studies on habitual breakfast intake are cross-sectional. The dominance of cross-sectional evidence, although offering a unique opportunity to establish the effects of habitual breakfast on academic performance, provides no indication of causality or temporality. Only one well controlled prospective cohort study has been published to date (Miller et al., 2012 ). This study focused on breakfast that was eaten with the family rather than total breakfast intake, however this may still be reflective of habitual breakfast consumption particularly in younger children who are more likely to have family meals (Fulkerson et al., 2006 ) and since most regular breakfast eaters have breakfast at home (Hoyland et al., 2012 ).

SBP intervention studies also present difficulties in attributing the direct effects of the breakfast meal or the regime of providing a free school breakfast in a breakfast club environment to academic outcomes (Defeyter et al., 2010 ). Many studies lack details of the composition and amount of food provided and consumed, precluding conclusions regarding breakfast type. SBPs are often associated with increased attendance (Jacoby et al., 1996 ; Simeon, 1998 ; Kleinman et al., 2002 ) punctuality (Murphy et al., 1998 ), readiness to learn (Wahlstrom and Begalle, 1999 ), decreased dropout rates (Cueto and Chinen, 2008 ) better behavior in the classroom (Bro et al., 1994 ; Richter et al., 1997 ) and increased pro-social behavior (Shemilt et al., 2004 ), all of which are likely to impact school performance concurrently. The positive effects of SBPs on other outcomes that will also influence academic performance make it difficult to attribute the effects either to the breakfast meal or as an artifact of increased attendance and punctuality. Furthermore, the intervention duration is particularly important in relation to academic performance because it is likely that a stable period of operation is needed to impact both breakfast eating behavior and academic outcomes. Two studies following a 1 year SBP reported no increase in the total number of children eating breakfast (Murphy et al., 2011 ; Ni Mhurchu et al., 2013 ). Clearly, the increase in school performance reported in studies that do not impact breakfast eating behavior is likely to be an artifact of other outcomes.

Dietary assessment . Studies that examine the effects of habitual breakfast consumption on scholastic outcomes also have limitations in terms of how breakfast is measured and defined. Varying definitions of breakfast and classifications of habitual consumption are used. Often dichotomous classifications using different cut-offs (e.g., ≥5 days/week, <5 days/week) to define habitual breakfast consumption are employed precluding comparisons between these categories. This crude indication of habitual consumption is unlikely to reflect true intake of breakfast.

Measurements of habitual breakfast intake are normally brief dietary assessments, given their use in situations for to measure specific aspects of diet. One item questionnaires (e.g., breakfast yes/no) are often used which may yield an inadequate assessment of habitual intake. Additionally there is a lack of validation studies examining the accuracy of brief dietary assessment or measures of specific meals compared with other methods which tend to examine total diet. Different measurement periods are used to define habitual breakfast and studies do not differentiate between weekday and weekend breakfast consumption, despite the importance for school performance where weekday (school-days) breakfast meals may be more important. Measures focus on either frequency or composition and it is rare both to be considered. Self-report measures also have limitations because breakfast is often subjectively defined and interpreted by the respondent, allowing for bias, inaccurate recall, and misreporting. Furthermore, all food and drink consumed as part of breakfast may not be considered. For example, food consumed on the way to school or food that is not traditionally consumed for breakfast may be excluded.

The majority of studies on habitual breakfast intake are based on adolescent samples aged 12–18 years. Accurate nutritional assessment in adolescents is problematic and challenging compared with younger children, who are more likely to eat breakfast at home (Hoyland et al., 2012 ). There is an overall trend of increased inaccuracy and underreporting of food intake with age (Livingstone et al., 2004 ). Validation studies show dietary records provide unbiased and accurate estimates of diet in normal weight children up until the age of 9 years whereas adolescents and older children are more likely to underreport dietary energy intake by approximately 20% (Livingstone et al., 1992 ; Bandini et al., 1997 ). Adolescence is a period of rapid growth, increasing body image concerns, changing eating habits, increased independence over diet, greater peer influence and decreased cooperation with authority, all of which may decrease compliance and reporting accuracy in this population (Livingstone et al., 2004 ).

Further work should consider, both frequency and composition of breakfast as well as differentiating between weekday and weekend breakfast when measuring habitual breakfast intake. A longer measurement period to define habitual breakfast (e.g., at least 7 days) is needed to adequately measure breakfast intake and a dichotomous classification system to define habitual breakfast is insufficient.

Summary of the effect of breakfast on behavior and academic performance

Overall, the evidence suggests beneficial effects of breakfast for on-task behavior in the classroom, mainly in younger children <13 years. This effect was apparent in children who were well-nourished, undernourished and/or from deprived or low SES backgrounds. For school performance outcomes, evidence suggests a positive association between habitual breakfast frequency and quality on school grades or achievement test scores. Similarly, evidence from SBPs suggest a positive effect on school performance, particularly mathematics grades and arithmetic scores and in undernourished children and/or children from deprived or low SES backgrounds. The positive effects of breakfast on academic performance appear clearer than those on behavior, probably due to the difficulties surrounding accurate measures of behavior which are inherently subjective in nature. These outcomes are ecologically valid, have more relevance to pupils, parents, teachers, and educational policy makers and as a result may produce most impact.

Conflict of interest statement

Katie Adolphus declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Louise Dye and Clare L. Lawton have received funding from the food industry to examine the effects of food and food components including breakfast on cognitive function, satiety, glycaemic response, and wellbeing but did not receive any support for this review.

Acknowledgments

Katie Adolphus was supported by an Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) research studentship and funding from The Schools Partnership Trust Academies (SPTA).

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Breakfast — Benefits of Breakfast

Benefits of Breakfast

• Categories: Breakfast

About this sample

Words: 2156 |

11 min read

Published: Oct 22, 2018

Words: 2156 | Pages: 5 | 11 min read

Table of contents

The benefits of breakfast, healthy and unhealthy breakfast foods.

• breakfast should be eaten within two hours of waking
• a healthy breakfast should provide calories in the range of 20-35% of your guideline daily allowance (GDA).
• A more nutritionally complete diet, higher in nutrients, vitamins, and minerals such as calcium, iron and B vitamins as well as protein and fiber
• Improved concentration, memory, mood and performance in studies or work by restoring glucose levels, an essential carbohydrate that is needed for the brain to function.
• More strength and endurance to engage in physical activity
• Improve long-term health by reducing cholesterol levels, obesity, high blood pressure, heart diseases, and diabetes
• Breakfast eaters tend to weigh less than breakfast skippers, whether it's children or adults
• Eggs - a smart choice of food for people who go for those who believe in consuming fewer carbohydrates to get rid of excess fat. It is loaded with high-quality protein 6.5 g that constitutes to about 13 percent of your daily requirement. They also contain vitamin D that can support the overall health of overweight individuals. Several studies have revealed that people who had an egg every morning for their breakfast lost a good amount of weight. They can help you maintain your energy levels and keep you satisfied for a long time.
• Fresh Fruits - an excellent option to ward off fats and cholesterol from the body therefore beneficial for weight loss It is full of antioxidants, natural sugars, and fiber for instant energy. Many fruits are rich in potassium and low in sodium and are packed with a lot of vitamins and are low in calories. It is better to opt for raw fruits rather than fruit juices since it has got high fiber as well as some important vitamins.
• Oatmeal - serve as a filling and healthy breakfast which has numerous health benefits. It is loaded with fiber and can give you a feeling of fullness since it takes a long time to get digested in the body so it can quickly help you lose weight. The fiber in oatmeal contributes to preventing hunger and promotes satiety for a longer period. Since it has slow release carbohydrates, it does not spike your blood sugar level.
• Cottage Cheese - help to increase satiety or give you a feeling of fullness Cottage cheese is a healthy item for your breakfast since it is high in proteins which help to maintain your lean muscle mass. It has an average of about 14 g proteins and is an excellent source of calcium and is low in fat.
• Greek Yogurt - promotes the healthy immune system and digestive system. Greek yogurt is a creamier and thicker version of yogurt that is loaded with high amount of proteins as well as some appreciable amount of sugar and carbohydrates and almost contains twice the protein as that of a regular plain yogurt. It has low sodium content which is ideal for those suffering from high blood pressure and heart problems and is packed with some healthy probiotics that can help promote your immune system and digestive system.
• Energy Bars - healthy option for those deprived of time Energy bars can make a perfect choice for breakfast since they are loaded with nutrition. You can choose energy bars that contain 10 g protein that can satisfy your appetite. They feature delicious seeds and nuts. It is important to choose energy bars that contain whole grains that can give you the desired amount of energy-producing carbohydrates.
• Peanut Butter - healthy in moderation Peanut Butter has a high fiber and protein content and is very filling. It is also packed with healthy fats and potassium as well as antioxidants. The fiber present in it can help in regulating your digestive system. The mono-saturated and poly-saturated fats found in the peanut butter can prevent you from developing heart disease. It can also help you fight cravings, provide energy and stay on your weight loss track.
• Brown Rice - fulfilling and best choice for people with diabetes Brown rice is a healthy option for breakfast since it is full of B vitamins and fiber. It is unrefined, unlike white rice that is refined. The fiber content of brown rice can improve your bowel function. It is low on glycemic index that can help to reduce the insulin spikes. It can help in the stabilization of your blood sugar level and serves to be the best food for those who have diabetes. The manganese present in the brown rice can help your body to synthesize fats. It also contains some naturally occurring oils that are beneficial in normalizing the cholesterol levels.
• Whole- Grain Cereal Eating whole- grain cereal for breakfast is a good idea since they are rich in nutrients, low in fat and high in fiber. It provides a feeling of satiety and helps in weight loss. The vitamins, antioxidants, and minerals found in the whole grain cereals can protect you from free radical damages, cancers and heart diseases. The fiber in whole-grain cereal helps to maintain a good digestive health.
• Tea and Coffee Rich sources of antioxidants and has caffeine and lowers risk of several diseases such as diabetes and prostate cancer. It may help you live longer and helps to increase your body’s metabolism and help lose more weight around the middle.
• Fatty Meats Sausages, hams, and bacon is a common choice for a big breakfast. Even if bacon is high in protein, it is not a healthy option for breakfast since it is loaded with fats. They increase the risk of heart disease, strokes, and HDL cholesterol. They should be completely avoided first thing in the morning.
• Donuts are delicious but one of the worst food items to indulge in for breakfast. They raise your blood sugar and many of them contain trans-fat. They are made from refined white flour which is unhealthy. They can lead to obesity, heart attack and several other serious conditions. There is little or no nutritional value in donuts.
• Fruit Juice Fruit juice can prove to be unhealthy since they come with added sugar which makes them as bad as having soda or other sugary drinks for breakfast. If you need a boost of Vitamin C, then you might just grab a whole fruit that will give you fiber as well.
• Pastries are high in fats and calories. They contain excessive carbohydrates that can make you hungry sooner. The high sugar in them can lead to a greater risk of obesity and diabetes. You can substitute it with a muffin as it is known to lower the risk of diabetes.
• White Bread White bread is one of the worst food that you can have for your breakfast. It had less nutrition value and packed with yeast that can leave you feeling bloated. It is high on GI that can cause insulin spikes. A whole grain bread is a better choice since it is rich in fiber and causes a slow rise in your blood sugar level.
• French Fries French fries contain unhealthy trans fats that can increase your bad cholesterol and increase your chances of heart disease. They can pose several serious health risks since it has saturated and trans fats. Since they are high glycemic, there are rapid fluctuations in your blood sugar levels that can easily increase your risk of type 2 diabetes and weight gain. They contain a lot of calories since they are completely soaked in oils.
• Rice Many people consume rice along with dals and curries for breakfast. But rice contains a high amount of starch that can make you sleepy and sluggish in the morning. Rice can get quickly converted into sugar that can easily spike your blood sugar in a matter of few minutes. Since it is tasteless, you are forced to consume extra salt that can cause a problem for people with high blood pressure.
• Instant Noodles It is not good to have instant noodles in the morning for breakfast as it has a high sodium content and filled with empty calories. They are also high in saturated fats that can surely increase your chances of heart diseases. The high sodium content in the noodles can increase the risk of kidney problems. It can also reduce the ability of the body to absorb other nutrients that are obtained from various vegetables and fruits. They do not contain any minerals or vitamins and can cause various physical problems like scurvy and night blindness. They contain preservatives and several other ingredients that can lead to cancer.
• Burgers are extremely fattening food items with little nutrition value. They are a highly processed item and have excessive sodium content that can lead to several serious health issues such as kidney disease and high blood pressure. It is best to go for veggie burgers than hamburgers since they contain less saturated fats.
• French Toast French toast is made with white bread that is loaded with yeast and contains unnecessary calories. It has high saturated fats that might result in clogged arteries. You can minimize the amount of these fats by using nonfat milk rather than using whole milk.

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Essay Samples on Breakfast

An american teen movie "the breakfast club".

The BreakFast club is an American teen movie, written and produced by John Hughes in 1985, who later went on to make Home Alone. The movie starts at Shermer High School, as they are reported for Saturday's detention on march 24, 1984 at 7 a.m....

Breakfast Catering Service In Brunswick

Eat breakfast sort of a king, lunch sort of a prince, and dinner sort of a beggar. This old-age adage just shows how important it's to possess an enormous and hearty breakfast. It is your first meal for the day, and it'll provide you with...

• Eating Habits

My Experience Of Savoring Traditional Guatemalan Breakfast During The Family Visit

The last Sunday morning before I came to MSU my family and I decided to get together for breakfast. Since it was one of the last days that I was going to be in Guatemala we decided to make the traditional Guatemalan breakfast, the “Desayuno...

• Cultural Identity

Formulation Development And Nutritional Analysis Of Breakfast Cereals

The usual breakfast meal of every household worldwide mainly consists of traditional cereals and millets. Both of these two are chief carbohydrate sources and hence are the main calorie provider. They also provide substantial amount of protein, minerals and vitamins (FAO 2002). Traditional cereals such...

• Healthy Food

The Nutritious and Diet-Friendly Formulation of Breakfast Cereals

Yeu et.al. (2008) studies shown the beneficial effects of soy and high-protein diets on weight loss and also claim dipping the risk of cardiovascular diseases. 4 formulations with soy meal content of 41, 47, 54 and 60% (w/w) were processed by extrusion and flavored with...

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Why Eating Breakfast Everyday Is Important

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The Benefits Healthy Breakfast Has on Body

Introduction Breakfast is mostly considered as an important meal of the day because it provides the basic energy which helps to perform all the activities ahead in the best possible way. Not having a healthy breakfast, or simply skipping a breakfast, may reduce the brain...

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6. Why Eating Breakfast Everyday Is Important

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‘The Breakfast Club’ (Brian): “Sincerely yours, the Breakfast Club”

THE BREAKFAST CLUB by John Hughes

From : Movie

Type : Dramatic

Character : Brian Johnson is funny, smart and "sort of a nerd"

Gender : Male

Age Range : Late Teens

Summary : Brian writes a letter to Mr. Vernon in the closing monologue of the film.

More: Watch the Movie

Click Here to Download the Monologue

Brian: Dear Mr. Vernon, we accept the fact that we had to sacrifice a whole Saturday in detention for whatever it was we did wrong. But we think you’re crazy for making us write an essay telling you who we think we are. You see us as you want to see us… In the simplest terms, in the most convenient definitions. But what we found out is that each one of us is a brain, and an athlete, and a basket case, a princess, and a criminal… Does that answer your question? Sincerely yours, the Breakfast Club.

More Monologues from ‘The Breakfast Club’

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Why you should Eat Breakfast

How it works

Breakfast is an unquestionable requirement for us all. It is the main feast of the day. A nutritious breakfast is vital for our wellbeing and weight the executives, yet not having it at all is the most noticeably terrible alternative. 5 Reasons why you ought to have breakfast: consumes fat, keeps glucose even as the day progressed, assists with battling daytime longings, lower occurrence of coronary illness, keeps our cerebrums sharp, assists with fixation and efficiency.

Our life has become faster in many situations.

Stress and high pressure to perform is a constant companion. This applies to professional life as well as in the private sector. Precisely for this reason, one should attach particular importance to certain rituals and not neglect them. This also includes the morning breakfast. Who does not know that, the alarm clock rings early in the morning, but you just do not want to get up. Getting up is delayed as long as possible. However, then the actual stress begins. The morning shower is completed in no time and the styling is carried out in through traffic.

There is hardly any time for a hearty breakfast. Is there perhaps a way to combine a healthy breakfast without much effort? Tips or recipe ideas that can be prepared in minutes?

Tip 1: Find out the type of breakfast

Everyone has their own preferences, that’s the same with breakfast. Therefore, you have to decide for yourself which type of breakfast you are. Do you have a craving in the morning? Would you rather sweets for breakfast or you could already devour hearty and hearty meals? Do you force yourself to breakfast or do it because you really feel like it? Is the table sparsely set or really full? There are people who do not have to eat food in the morning and feel good about it. For those, lunch or dinner is the main meal. You have to decide for yourself how best to make ends meet.

You wake up and your stomach signals that you are starving. Where does that always come from? Very easily. You had a big and spicy meal the night before? Maybe even at a late hour and with a flavor enhancer? This leads to the particularly hungry feeling in the morning. If you ignore the first feeling of hunger and drink instead only something, then the hunger would soon disappear. What remains is the appetite. However, if your physical expenditure is considered to be particularly high, then you can assume that it is real hunger. This is the case if you work on the construction site, work out in the gym or do a full-day hike. Even the right time is important.

Tip 3: The soup for breakfast

With us in Germany, soups are usually intended as a starter at lunch and dinner table or as a dish for the little hungry. In Asia, however, soups are traditionally prepared for breakfast. Even here one should consider whether soups could not also be a good start into the day. Right now in the cool season. They have excellent basic and mineral-containing substances. In addition, you can prepare this dish the evening before and just need to warm up the soup in the morning. In addition, the database can be seen by the recipes. Here you can try one or the other delicacy.

Tip4: Delicious cereal

The selection of cereals is to be estimated as extensive. Furthermore, no great effort has to be made for the preparation here. The 3-grain and 4-grain cereals from Werz consist of almonds and raisins as well as coconut flakes and a little rice syrup. It is a simple gluten-free and unsweetened blend. Basenmueslis are also produced on a natural basis and contain other important foods such as oats, millet, buckwheat or apple. In addition, you can complement oats with various additives such as yogurt or cottage cheese and fruits wonderfully.

Tip 5: Variants of jam and bread

If you prefer to eat bread for breakfast, you will be offered a varied assortment. You will find the oat, spelled wholemeal or amaranth bread. Even the bread covering does not always have to be decorated with sausage and cheese. Instead, you can top up the slice with fresh tomatoes or radishes and sprinkle with chopped herbs. Different vegetable spreads will also provide the desired variety. These can be created to your heart’s content and refined with refined ingredients. Jam is and remains with most people the favorite at the breakfast table. In addition, you can also prepare these yourself. Berries, apricots and plums are ideal for this. With a blender you can puree the desired raw fruits.

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Why Eating Eggs For Breakfast Really Is The Best Way To Start The Day

By Ana Morales

Eating eggs for breakfast isn’t a groundbreaking idea. Not only are eggs high in protein and low in calories, they’re also easy to prepare, widely available, and immensely satisfying. But for some reason, including eggs in my usual morning meal hasn’t been so obvious; mostly because time isn’t always (okay, never) on my side first thing in the morning. But after enjoying several yummy egg dishes over some leisurely weekend breakfasts (okay, late brunches) lately—and feeling way less hungry all day afterwards, I realized that maybe I should make a bigger effort to include them in weekday diet, too.

The benefits of eating eggs for breakfast

While it isn’t always easy to whip up an omelet when you’re rushing to be in the office at 8 am, the benefits of eating eggs in the morning really do last well into the afternoon. When I make breakfasts with eggs, I immediately notice the benefits—and I'm not just talking about the feeling of satiety in the moment, but also the sustained feeling of satiety throughout the morning. In other words, when I eat eggs for breakfast, I don’t end up eating unhealthy snacks—or any snacks at all!—between meals.

I also experience mental clarity and energy that gets me through busy days. These are sensations that experts endorse. As nutritionist Leticia Carrera points out, “eggs reduce fatigue and improve physical and mental productivity.” Nutritionist Paula Martín Clares agrees. “They keep us healthy at any age, active and energetic throughout the day. In addition, they improve memory and help us take care of our eyesight,” she writes in her book The Health of Your Skin Is In What You Eat.

But among all the positive statements about eggs, perhaps the one made by nutritionist Boticaria García in her bestselling book Your Brain is Hungry , is my favorite. “Eggs provide the highest quality protein while being cheap and very versatile, with the advantage that they are also delicious and always crave-able. Let’s forget the old beliefs that you should not eat more than three eggs a week. If the technique is appropriate–and we do not accompany them with foods high in trans fats such as bacon–there is no problem in consuming them even daily,” she writes.

Is it true that egg yolk is not good for you?

Although some experts advise making quiche with egg whites only, the reality is that the nutritional benefits of an egg are greater if you eat the whole thing. For example, an egg yolk has proteins, choline (which is closely linked to emotional well-being), iron, and zinc. And the white, according to Martín Clares, provides between 10 and 20% of the recommended daily amount of vitamins A, D, E and K. In addition, they have phosphorus, vitamin B12 and promote muscle and immune health. The sum truly is greater than the parts.

Does eating eggs benefit hair and skin?

In this list of benefits that this food counts, less has been said about the presence of biotin . According to Steven Walker , a specialist at Hospital Capilar, eggs help you have silkier hair thanks to their high content of biotin, also recognized as vitamin B7 or B8, which is essential for various metabolic processes closely related to hair health. Biotin improves hair structure and promotes healthy growth.

You just have to cook them—which, duh, because who wants to eat raw eggs anyway? But the ick-factor of raw eggs is not the only reason to break out the skillet: “It must be taken into account that the egg must be cooked since raw eggs contain avidin, which inhibits the absorption of biotin in the intestine,” Walker explains.

Is it better to eat organic eggs?

Eggs can be eaten almost anywhere in the world, but when it comes to including them on the shopping list, Carrera advises that you buy organic. It is also important, she points out, to look at the label to ensure your eggs come from healthy, free-range chickens. In Spain , for example “more than 40 million chickens never see sunlight, and live in overcrowded conditions, subject to all kinds of ailments and diseases.” And the life of your average chicken is pretty bad in the United States, too. So yes, buying free-rage, cage-free, organic eggs is definitely a good idea.

What’s the healthiest way to eat eggs for breakfast?

The general recommendation is to avoid fried eggs since they have a higher calorie content, and instead priortize cooked, poached, or scrambled versions. Omelets are also fine—as long as they aren’t filled with cheese and excess butter. All that said, here are a few experts suggestion for the most balanced and health ways to include eggs in your breakfast today.

• Grilled on toasted bread with cottage cheese, salmon, or avocado.
• Scrambled and served with rye or spelt bread, avocado, and crushed tomato .
• Cooked, scrambled, or in an omelet accompanied by serrano ham, salmon, or turkey.
• In an omelet with spinach, tomato, onion, and goat cheese or feta.
• In the form of a “muffin” made by mixing 4 tablespoons of oats, 2 egg whites and one yolk, a small apple, and cinnamon. Just put the mixture in the microwave for 4 minutes and you have a sweet, protein-packed treat.
• Grilled in a whole wheat tortilla wrap with hummus and oregano.

By Christian Allaire

By Madeline Fass

By Freya Drohan

Article originally published in Vogue Spain, vogue.es.

Transphobia Makes Chest Binding More Dangerous

C hest binding, or wearing anything to flatten the chest in order to appear masculine or androgynous, is one of many ways that transmasculine and nonbinary people can affirm their gender identity and harmonize their physical presentation with their sense of self. Some people bind in order to “pass” as male at times when being visibly transgender could be dangerous. Others bind for the mental health benefits, documented across multiple studies , of being able to move through the world feeling at home in an authentic identity. But despite these life-changing benefits, anti-trans activists focus on the risks of binding, such as shortness of breath, skin abrasions, or shoulder pain, and seek to restrict the practice.

Binding scares anti-trans activists because of its accessibility. Unlike hormones, binding requires no prescription; unlike state-ID changes, it requires no paperwork. Binding is often one of the first ways that trans and nonbinary youth who are assigned female at birth can flexibly, reversibly—sometimes quietly under their clothes and unbeknownst to anyone else—“try on” a new gender identity to see how it feels. This accessibility makes binding terrifying to those who want to eradicate trans people from public life. Their usual tricks are powerless to stop binding: there is no teacher they can gag, no librarian they can defund, no doctor they can criminalize to stop people from binding. Unless anti-trans zealots are willing to ban sports bras, bandages, tape, shapewear, or even swimsuits and tight shirts, there is no way to render binding completely inaccessible.

It is no surprise then that anti-trans activists hyperfocus on the health risks of binding, often misrepresenting studies on binding to inflate the physical risks of binding and ignoring the sometimes life-saving mental health benefits. We know because one of us (Sarah Peitzmeier) conducted most of those studies. Tired of seeing statistics from these research studies ripped out of context and weaponized against the very communities who participated in and supported the research, we began to discuss turning the findings from these studies into a book. Breathe: Journeys To Healthy Binding , is a resource for those who have questions and concerns about binding, and for those who already bind and want to do so in ways that maximize the mental health benefits and minimize the physical risk. We want to help people bind in ways that are affirming, yet gentle on the body.

Read More: Elliot Page: Embracing My Trans Identity Saved Me

Anti-trans activists who claim to be “protecting” people from the harms of binding by trying to restrict binding specifically and trans people more generally are in fact making binding more dangerous. In our research and lived experience, here are six ways we have seen transphobia make binding far more dangerous than it should be for trans and gender diverse people.

Legislative attacks on medically necessary healthcare

Binding is the only option left to mitigate chest dysphoria in states where best-practice medical care has been banned. Anti-trans bills blocking medical or surgical affirming care for trans youth have been passed in 24 states , with politicians inserting themselves between patients, families, and their doctors. Trans youth who go through puberty early without access to puberty blockers may have to manage severe chest dysphoria for a decade before they are even legally allowed to pursue top surgery, assuming they have the financial resources to access it. We know that receiving puberty blockers, compared to wanting puberty blockers but being unable to access them, is associated with 70% lower lifetime odds of suicidal ideation – so this is lifesaving care. It seems particularly cruel, then, for the same people who advocated for these laws denying healthcare to also attack binding. If anti-trans activists truly cared about the potential risks of binding for trans youth, they would not simultaneously advocate for bans on medically necessary care.

Marginalization in healthcare

Trans patients who do experience injuries or health issues from binding often don’t have access to knowledgeable and compassionate treatment. Even trans-affirming providers generally receive no training in how to counsel patients to reduce their risk around binding, as medical and nursing schools typically see trans-specific topics like binding as “specialty” topics. At worst, providers may be actively prejudiced against trans people. Laws against providing gender-affirming care in 24 states can be interpreted broadly and scare providers from offering any kind of care to trans adolescents or even adults. Binding-related medical issues are thus left to worsen without quality clinical care.

Binding can be necessary to navigate transphobic spaces

Being visibly trans can expose people to discrimination, and binding is sometimes the only way to safely move through a hostile world. It is still legal to discriminate against trans people in employment or housing in 30 states, and trans people are banned from using the restroom that matches their gender in 10 states. Some trans people may present as otherwise masculine but for the appearance of their unbound chest, which would “out” them as transgender. Until we live in a world where people can safely express a range of gender presentations without living in fear of assault or discrimination, binding is essentially the only option for many transmasculine people who need to “pass” for their own safety. These people may also have to keep binding for safety reasons regardless of any symptoms they may develop.

Concealing binding due to stigma increases the risks

The health risks from binding are increased by the need to conceal it. For instance, teens who are trying to conceal their binder from their parents often have trouble washing their binder regularly without their parents seeing it in the laundry. As a result, the dirt and sweat buildup on their unwashed binder predisposes them to skin complications. Without parental support, many teens cannot purchase a binder, which is typically ordered online with a credit card. Some of these teens resort to using ACE bandages, which are more readily available but far more dangerous because they are designed to compress inflammation. One 2020 study by researchers and clinicians at the Children’s Hospital of Los Angeles found that teens with parents who opposed binding were almost twice as likely to have used ACE bandages to bind their chests. Teens with supportive parents had access to safer options.

Restricted access to information on safer binding that does exist

Because discussing gender identity is banned or restricted in schools in 14 states, trans and nonbinary people often struggle to access information about trans-specific issues such as binding. We have a growing evidence base and clinical expertise around how to reduce risk associated with binding—including taking one day off from binding each week, avoiding use of ACE bandages, and stretching muscles and ligaments that may be constricted by binding—but in an era of book bans and gag rules, many trans people have no way to learn these important tips. Instead, they may assume that binding is inherently painful and this is just the price they have to pay, which is unequivocally not true. We now know there are so many ways to make binding safer.

Unmet need for gender affirmation

When there is a gap between how people fundamentally see themselves and how the world sees them, they are more likely to engage in risky (but identity-affirming) behaviors to help close that gap. When trans people are chronically misgendered at work or school and are banned from medically affirming their gender, binding may be one of the only tools they have to affirm their gender. They will be more likely to ignore signs that their body is struggling with the side effects of binding, as they have nothing else to affirm them. Combine this with lack of information about how to bind more safely and lack of healthcare to address problems that emerge, and people can end up with serious binding-related symptoms.

Forty percent of trans adults in the U.S. have attempted suicide at some point in their lives. Binding can help people imagine a future for themselves that feels worth living. As one of our research participants said, “Binding gave me the freedom to exist.”

Many people successfully bind with minimal physical side effects even in today’s world. If every trans person who wanted to bind could do so with a properly fitting binder, while living day to day without fear violence for being visibly trans, all while having access to knowledgeable and affirming medical care (including puberty blockers or top surgery as desired and appropriate), binding could become safer for everyone.

It’s on all of us to create that world. We call on everyone to fight back against anti-trans legislation, disrupt anti-trans hostility, and to support the trans youth and adults in our communities as they become their most authentic selves.

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I made Ina Garten's easy breakfast cake for Mother's Day. My mom gives it a 10/10 — and so will yours.

• I made Ina Garten's blueberry-ricotta breakfast cake, which she said is perfect for Mother's Day. 
• The cake is super moist, light, and delicious — and so easy to make before a big brunch.

"This was superb," my mom declared. "I give it a 10/10." 

I've been whipping up Ina Garten's dishes for years and always love trying her breakfast and dessert recipes.

Whether it's her delicious cacio e pepe scrambled eggs or her famous mocha icebox cake , the "Barefoot Contessa" star is always creating fun new twists on classic dishes. 

So, I decided to try Garten's blueberry-ricotta breakfast cake, which she said is perfect for Mother's Day. 

Ina Garten's breakfast cake features ricotta, lemon zest, and plenty of blueberries.

To make Garten's blueberry-ricotta breakfast cake, which serves eight, you'll need: 

• 2 cups (12 ounces) fresh blueberries 
• 1 ¼ cups all-purpose flour
• 1 cup whole-milk ricotta 
• 1 cup granulated sugar 
• 10 tablespoons (1 ¼ sticks) unsalted butter, at room temperature 
• 3 extra-large eggs, at room temperature 
• 2 tablespoons sour cream 
• 1 tablespoon baking powder 
• 1 teaspoon pure vanilla extract 
• 1 teaspoon grated lemon zest
• Sifted powdered sugar, for dusting

Before I began making Garten's breakfast cake, I needed to do a little prep.

I grated the lemon zest so it would be ready to go once I was mixing the batter. 

I also greased and floured my 9-inch round springform pan.

I made sure to shake out any excess flour, per Garten's instructions. I also preheated the oven, setting it to 350 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Then, it was time to make the batter!

First I added the butter and sugar into the bowl of my electric mixture, which was fitted with the paddle attachment. 

I beat the butter and sugar together on medium speed for three minutes, until the mixture was light and fluffy.

I made sure to scrape down the sides of the bowl with a rubber spatula as needed.  

Next, I added the eggs, then threw in the ricotta, sour cream, vanilla, and lemon zest and mixed everything together.

I turned the mixer to low and added each egg one at a time, mixing well after each addition, then dumped everything else into the mixture.

Garten notes that your batter will look curdled at this stage, so don't worry if it appears that way!

In a separate bowl, I mixed my dry ingredients together.

I added the flour, baking powder, and one teaspoon of salt and gave everything a quick stir. 

Then I added the dry ingredients to the batter.

With the mixer still on low I slowly added the dry ingredients, mixing just until they were incorporated.

Once my batter was ready, I began adding the blueberries.

I folded two-thirds of my two cups of blueberries into the batter, using a rubber spatula. 

Then I transferred the batter into my springform pan.

I made sure to smooth the top of the batter. 

I added the remaining blueberries on top of the cake.

I lightly pressed each blueberry into the surface. 

Then it was time to get baking!

I threw my blueberry-ricotta breakfast cake into the preheated oven. Garten recommends baking for 45 to 55 minutes, until a toothpick inserted in the center comes out clean. 

It took about 50 minutes for my cake to bake, but every oven is different so keep checking every couple minutes after you hit the 45-minute mark.

Once my breakfast cake was ready, I transferred it to a wire rack.

Garten says the cake needs to cool in the pan for an additional 15 minutes.

Then I removed the sides of my springform pan and lightly dusted the top with powdered sugar. The cake looked beautiful!

Garten's blueberry-ricotta breakfast cake definitely makes for an impressive centerpiece. Its warm golden hue looked so sweet and comforting in my kitchen, and the bright bursts of blueberry added some fun color and joyfulness. 

It was clear when I cut a slice that the cake was going to be delightfully fluffy.

I could see a generous amount of blueberries in each slice, and the cake smelled incredible. 

My parents and I loved Garten's blueberry-ricotta breakfast cake.

Garten's breakfast cake tastes as light and fluffy as it looks. The ricotta and sour cream keep every bite super moist, just as Garten promised, and the sweet blueberries pair well with the zingy and bright lemon zest, which really shines through.

The cake also had a nice crust on the outside, which added some contrasting texture to the super soft and luscious middle. 

Garten's blueberry-ricotta breakfast cake should be on everyone's brunch menu.

Garten's cake was super easy to make, and it tasted just as good the next day. If you want to save yourself some time before hosting a big brunch, you could easily make this ahead the night before. 

Whether you're looking for a special dish to celebrate Mother's Day, or just want a fun new dessert, Garten's blueberry-ricotta breakfast cake is sure to be a crowd-pleaser.

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Guest Essay

It’s Time to End the Quiet Cruelty of Property Taxes

By Andrew W. Kahrl

Dr. Kahrl is a professor of history and African American studies at the University of Virginia and the author of “The Black Tax: 150 Years of Theft, Exploitation, and Dispossession in America.”

Property taxes, the lifeblood of local governments and school districts, are among the most powerful and stealthy engines of racism and wealth inequality our nation has ever produced. And while the Biden administration has offered many solutions for making the tax code fairer, it has yet to effectively tackle a problem that has resulted not only in the extraordinary overtaxation of Black and Latino homeowners but also in the worsening of disparities between wealthy and poorer communities. Fixing these problems requires nothing short of a fundamental re-examination of how taxes are distributed.

In theory, the property tax would seem to be an eminently fair one: The higher the value of your property, the more you pay. The problem with this system is that the tax is administered by local officials who enjoy a remarkable degree of autonomy and that tax rates are typically based on the collective wealth of a given community. This results in wealthy communities enjoying lower effective tax rates while generating more tax revenues; at the same time, poorer ones are forced to tax property at higher effective rates while generating less in return. As such, property assessments have been manipulated throughout our nation’s history to ensure that valuable property is taxed the least relative to its worth and that the wealthiest places will always have more resources than poorer ones.

Black people have paid the heaviest cost. Since they began acquiring property after emancipation, African Americans have been overtaxed by local governments. By the early 1900s, an acre of Black-owned land was valued, for tax purposes, higher than an acre of white-owned land in most of Virginia’s counties, according to my calculations, despite being worth about half as much. And for all the taxes Black people paid, they got little to nothing in return. Where Black neighborhoods began, paved streets, sidewalks and water and sewer lines often ended. Black taxpayers helped to pay for the better-resourced schools white children attended. Even as white supremacists treated “colored” schools as another of the white man’s burdens, the truth was that throughout the Jim Crow era, Black taxpayers subsidized white education.

Freedom from these kleptocratic regimes drove millions of African Americans to move to Northern and Midwestern states in the Great Migration from 1915 to 1970, but they were unable to escape racist assessments, which encompassed both the undervaluation of their property for sales purposes and the overvaluation of their property for taxation purposes. During those years, the nation’s real estate industry made white-owned property in white neighborhoods worth more because it was white. Since local tax revenue was tied to local real estate markets, newly formed suburbs had a fiscal incentive to exclude Black people, and cities had even more reason to keep Black people confined to urban ghettos.

As the postwar metropolis became a patchwork of local governments, each with its own tax base, the fiscal rationale for segregation intensified. Cities were fiscally incentivized to cater to the interests of white homeowners and provide better services for white neighborhoods, especially as middle-class white people began streaming into the suburbs, taking their tax dollars with them.

One way to cater to wealthy and white homeowners’ interests is to intentionally conduct property assessments less often. The city of Boston did not conduct a citywide property reassessment between 1946 and 1977. Over that time, the values of properties in Black neighborhoods increased slowly when compared with the values in white neighborhoods or even fell, which led to property owners’ paying relatively more in taxes than their homes were worth. At the same time, owners of properties in white neighborhoods got an increasingly good tax deal as their neighborhoods increased in value.

As was the case in other American cities, Boston’s decision most likely derived from the fear that any updates would hasten the exodus of white homeowners and businesses to the suburbs. By the 1960s, assessments on residential properties in Boston’s poor neighborhoods were up to one and a half times as great as their actual values, while assessments in the city’s more affluent neighborhoods were, on average, 40 percent of market value.

Jersey City, N.J., did not conduct a citywide real estate reassessment between 1988 and 2018 as part of a larger strategy for promoting high-end real estate development. During that time, real estate prices along the city’s waterfront soared but their owners’ tax bills remained relatively steady. By 2015, a home in one of the city’s Black and Latino neighborhoods worth $175,000 received the same tax bill as a home in the city’s downtown worth $530,000.

These are hardly exceptions. Numerous studies conducted during those years found that assessments in predominantly Black neighborhoods of U.S. cities were grossly higher relative to value than those in white areas.

These problems persist. A recent report by the University of Chicago’s Harris School of Public Policy found that property assessments were regressive (meaning lower-valued properties were assessed higher relative to value than higher-valued ones) in 97.7 percent of U.S. counties. Black-owned homes and properties in Black neighborhoods continue to be devalued on the open market, making this regressive tax, in effect, a racist tax.

The overtaxation of Black homes and neighborhoods is also a symptom of a much larger problem in America’s federated fiscal structure. By design, this system produces winners and losers: localities with ample resources to provide the goods and services that we as a nation have entrusted to local governments and others that struggle to keep the lights on, the streets paved, the schools open and drinking water safe . Worse yet, it compels any fiscally disadvantaged locality seeking to improve its fortunes to do so by showering businesses and corporations with tax breaks and subsidies while cutting services and shifting tax burdens onto the poor and disadvantaged. A local tax on local real estate places Black people and cities with large Black populations at a permanent disadvantage. More than that, it gives middle-class white people strong incentives to preserve their relative advantages, fueling the zero-sum politics that keep Americans divided, accelerates the upward redistribution of wealth and impoverishes us all.

There are technical solutions. One, which requires local governments to adopt more accurate assessment models and regularly update assessment rolls, can help make property taxes fairer. But none of the proposed reforms being discussed can be applied nationally because local tax policies are the prerogative of the states and, often, local governments themselves. Given the variety and complexity of state and local property tax laws and procedures and how much local governments continue to rely on tax reductions and tax shifting to attract and retain certain people and businesses, we cannot expect them to fix these problems on their own.

The best way to make local property taxes fairer and more equitable is to make them less important. The federal government can do this by reinvesting in our cities, counties and school districts through a federal fiscal equity program, like those found in other advanced federated nations. Canada, Germany and Australia, among others, direct federal funds to lower units of government with lower capacities to raise revenue.

And what better way to pay for the program than to tap our wealthiest, who have benefited from our unjust taxation scheme for so long? President Biden is calling for a 25 percent tax on the incomes and annual increases in the values of the holdings of people claiming more than $100 million in assets, but we could accomplish far more by enacting a wealth tax on the 1 percent. Even a modest 4 percent wealth tax on people whose total assets exceed $50 million could generate upward of $400 billion in additional annual revenue, which should be more than enough to ensure that the needs of every city, county and public school system in America are met. By ensuring that localities have the resources they need, we can counteract the unequal outcomes and rank injustices that our current system generates.

Andrew W. Kahrl is a professor of history and African American studies at the University of Virginia and the author of “ The Black Tax : 150 Years of Theft, Exploitation, and Dispossession in America.”

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