essay about napoleon bonaparte

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Napoleon Bonaparte

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), also known as Napoleon I, was a French military leader and emperor who conquered much of Europe in the early 19th century. Born on the island of Corsica, Napoleon rapidly rose through the ranks of the military during the French Revolution (1789-1799). After seizing political power in France in a 1799 coup d’état, he crowned himself emperor in 1804. Shrewd, ambitious and a skilled military strategist, Napoleon successfully waged war against various coalitions of European nations and expanded his empire. However, after a disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon abdicated the throne two years later and was exiled to the island of Elba. In 1815, he briefly returned to power in his Hundred Days campaign. After a crushing defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, he abdicated once again and was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died at 51.

Napoleon’s Education and Early Military Career

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. He was the second of eight surviving children born to Carlo Buonaparte (1746-1785), a lawyer, and Letizia Romalino Buonaparte (1750-1836). Although his parents were members of the minor Corsican nobility, the family was not wealthy. The year before Napoleon’s birth, France acquired Corsica from the city-state of Genoa, Italy. Napoleon later adopted a French spelling of his last name.

As a boy, Napoleon attended school in mainland France, where he learned the French language, and went on to graduate from a French military academy in 1785. He then became a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment of the French army. The French Revolution began in 1789, and within three years revolutionaries had overthrown the monarchy and proclaimed a French republic. During the early years of the revolution, Napoleon was largely on leave from the military and home in Corsica, where he became affiliated with the Jacobins, a pro-democracy political group. In 1793, following a clash with the nationalist Corsican governor, Pasquale Paoli (1725-1807), the Bonaparte family fled their native island for mainland France, where Napoleon returned to military duty.

In France, Napoleon became associated with Augustin Robespierre (1763-1794), the brother of revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794), a Jacobin who was a key force behind the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a period of violence against enemies of the revolution. During this time, Napoleon was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the army. However, after Robespierre fell from power and was guillotined (along with Augustin) in July 1794, Napoleon was briefly put under house arrest for his ties to the brothers.

In 1795, Napoleon helped suppress a royalist insurrection against the revolutionary government in Paris and was promoted to major general.

Did you know? In 1799, during Napoleon’s military campaign in Egypt, a French soldier named Pierre Francois Bouchard (1772-1832) discovered the Rosetta Stone. This artifact provided the key to cracking the code of Egyptian hieroglyphics, a written language that had been dead for almost 2,000 years.

Napoleon’s Rise to Power

Since 1792, France’s revolutionary government had been engaged in military conflicts with various European nations. In 1796, Napoleon commanded a French army that defeated the larger armies of Austria, one of his country’s primary rivals, in a series of battles in Italy. In 1797, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, resulting in territorial gains for the French.

The following year, the Directory, the five-person group that had governed France since 1795, offered to let Napoleon lead an invasion of England. Napoleon determined that France’s naval forces were not yet ready to go up against the superior British Royal Navy. Instead, he proposed an invasion of Egypt in an effort to wipe out British trade routes with India. Napoleon’s troops scored a victory against Egypt’s military rulers, the Mamluks, at the Battle of the Pyramids in July 1798; soon, however, his forces were stranded after his naval fleet was nearly decimated by the British at the Battle of the Nile in August 1798. In early 1799, Napoleon’s army launched an invasion of Ottoman Empire -ruled Syria , which ended with a failed siege of Acre, located in modern-day Israel . That summer, with the political situation in France marked by uncertainty, the ever-ambitious and cunning Napoleon opted to abandon his army in Egypt and return to France.

The Coup of 18 Brumaire

In November 1799, in an event known as the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon was part of a group that successfully overthrew the French Directory.

The Directory was replaced with a three-member Consulate, and 5'7" Napoleon became first consul, making him France’s leading political figure. In June 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Napoleon’s forces defeated one of France’s perennial enemies, the Austrians, and drove them out of Italy. The victory helped cement Napoleon’s power as first consul. Additionally, with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802, the war-weary British agreed to peace with the French (although the peace would only last for a year).

Napoleon worked to restore stability to post-revolutionary France. He centralized the government; instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education; supported science and the arts; and sought to improve relations between his regime and the pope (who represented France’s main religion, Catholicism), which had suffered during the revolution. One of his most significant accomplishments was the Napoleonic Code , which streamlined the French legal system and continues to form the foundation of French civil law to this day.

In 1802, a constitutional amendment made Napoleon first consul for life. Two years later, in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a lavish ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris.

Napoleon’s Marriages and Children

In 1796, Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais (1763-1814), a stylish widow six years his senior who had two teenage children. More than a decade later, in 1809, after Napoleon had no offspring of his own with Empress Josephine, he had their marriage annulled so he could find a new wife and produce an heir. In 1810, he wed Marie Louise (1791-1847), the daughter of the emperor of Austria. The following year, she gave birth to their son, Napoleon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte (1811-1832), who became known as Napoleon II and was given the title king of Rome. In addition to his son with Marie Louise, Napoleon had several illegitimate children.

The Reign of Napoleon I

From 1803 to 1815, France was engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, a series of major conflicts with various coalitions of European nations. In 1803, partly as a means to raise funds for future wars, Napoleon sold France’s Louisiana Territory in North America to the newly independent United States for $15 million, a transaction that later became known as the Louisiana Purchase .

In October 1805, the British wiped out Napoleon’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar . However, in December of that same year, Napoleon achieved what is considered to be one of his greatest victories at the Battle of Austerlitz, in which his army defeated the Austrians and Russians. The victory resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine.

Beginning in 1806, Napoleon sought to wage large-scale economic warfare against Britain with the establishment of the so-called Continental System of European port blockades against British trade. In 1807, following Napoleon’s defeat of the Russians at Friedland in Prussia, Alexander I (1777-1825) was forced to sign a peace settlement, the Treaty of Tilsit. In 1809, the French defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram, resulting in further gains for Napoleon.

During these years, Napoleon reestablished a French aristocracy (eliminated in the French Revolution) and began handing out titles of nobility to his loyal friends and family as his empire continued to expand across much of western and central continental Europe.

Napoleon’s Downfall and First Abdication

In 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental System. In retaliation, Napoleon led a massive army into Russia in the summer of 1812. Rather than engaging the French in a full-scale battle, the Russians adopted a strategy of retreating whenever Napoleon’s forces attempted to attack. As a result, Napoleon’s troops trekked deeper into Russia despite being ill-prepared for an extended campaign.

In September, both sides suffered heavy casualties in the indecisive Battle of Borodino. Napoleon’s forces marched on to Moscow, only to discover almost the entire population evacuated. Retreating Russians set fires across the city in an effort to deprive enemy troops of supplies. After waiting a month for a surrender that never came, Napoleon, faced with the onset of the Russian winter, was forced to order his starving, exhausted army out of Moscow. During the disastrous retreat, his army suffered continual harassment from a suddenly aggressive and merciless Russian army. Of Napoleon’s 600,000 troops who began the campaign, only an estimated 100,000 made it out of Russia.

At the same time as the catastrophic Russian invasion, French forces were engaged in the Peninsular War (1808-1814), which resulted in the Spanish and Portuguese, with assistance from the British, driving the French from the Iberian Peninsula. This loss was followed in 1813 by the Battle of Leipzig , also known as the Battle of Nations, in which Napoleon’s forces were defeated by a coalition that included Austrian, Prussian, Russian and Swedish troops. Napoleon then retreated to France, and in March 1814 coalition forces captured Paris.

On April 6, 1814, Napoleon, then in his mid-40s, was forced to abdicate the throne. With the Treaty of Fontainebleau, he was exiled to Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. He was given sovereignty over the small island, while his wife and son went to Austria.

HISTORY Vault: Napoleon Bonaparte: The Glory of France

Explore the extraordinary life and times of Napoleon Bonaparte, the great military genius who took France to unprecedented heights of power, and then brought it to its knees when his ego spun out of control.

Hundred Days Campaign and Battle of Waterloo

On February 26, 1815, after less than a year in exile, Napoleon escaped Elba and sailed to the French mainland with a group of more than 1,000 supporters. On March 20, he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed by cheering crowds. The new king, Louis XVIII (1755-1824), fled, and Napoleon began what came to be known as his Hundred Days campaign.

Upon Napoleon’s return to France, a coalition of allies–the Austrians, British, Prussians and Russians–who considered the French emperor an enemy began to prepare for war. Napoleon raised a new army and planned to strike preemptively, defeating the allied forces one by one before they could launch a united attack against him.

In June 1815, his forces invaded Belgium, where British and Prussian troops were stationed. On June 16, Napoleon’s troops defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Ligny. However, two days later, on June 18, at the Battle of Waterloo near Brussels, the French were crushed by the British, with assistance from the Prussians.

On June 22, 1815, Napoleon was once again forced to abdicate.

Napoleon’s Final Years

In October 1815, Napoleon was exiled to the remote, British-held island of Saint Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. He died there on May 5, 1821, at age 51, most likely from stomach cancer. (During his time in power, Napoleon often posed for paintings with his hand in his vest, leading to some speculation after his death that he had been plagued by stomach pain for years.) Napoleon was buried on the island despite his request to be laid to rest “on the banks of the Seine, among the French people I have loved so much.” In 1840, his remains were returned to France and entombed in a crypt at Les Invalides in Paris, where other French military leaders are interred.

Napoleon Bonaparte Quotes

• “The only way to lead people is to show them a future: a leader is a dealer in hope.”
• “Never interrupt your enemy when he is making a mistake.”
• “Envy is a declaration of inferiority.”
• “The reason most people fail instead of succeed is they trade what they want most for what they want at the moment.”
• “If you wish to be a success in the world, promise everything, deliver nothing.”

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Biography of Napoleon Bonaparte, Great Military Commander

At its height, his empire covered much of Europe

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Napoleon Bonaparte (August 15, 1769–May 5, 1821), one of the greatest military commanders in history, was the twice- emperor of France whose military endeavors and sheer personality dominated Europe for a decade.

In military affairs, legal issues, economics, politics, technology, culture, and society in general, his actions influenced the course of European history for over a century, and some argue, to this very day.

Fast Facts: Napoleon Bonaparte

• Known For : Emperor of France, conqueror of much of Europe
• Also Known As : Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon 1st of France, The Little Corporal , The Corsican
• Born : August 15, 1769 in Ajaccio, Corsica
• Parents : Carlo Buonaparte, Letizia Ramolino
• Died : May 5, 1821 on Saint Helena, United Kingdom
• Published Works : Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at Beaucaire), a pro-republican pamphlet (1793); the Napoleonic Code , the French civil code (1804); authorized the publication of Description de l'Égypte , a multivolume work authored by dozens of scholars detailing Egypt's archeology, topography, and natural history (1809-1821)
• Awards and Honors : Founder and grand master of the Legion of Honor (1802), the Order of the Iron Crown (1805), the Order of the Reunion (1811)
• Spouse(s) : Josephine de Beauharnais (m. March 8, 1796–Jan. 10, 1810), Marie-Louise (m. April 2, 1810–May 5, 1821)
• Children : Napoleon II
• Notable Quote : "Great ambition is the passion of a great character. Those endowed with it may perform very good or very bad acts. All depends on the principles which direct them."

Napoleon was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15, 1769, to Carlo Buonaparte , a lawyer and political opportunist, and his wife Marie-Letizia . The Buonapartes were a wealthy family from the Corsican nobility, although when compared to the great aristocracies of France, Napoleon's kin were poor.

Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne in 1779. He moved to the Parisian École Royale Militaire in 1784 and graduated a year later as a second lieutenant in the artillery. Spurred on by his father's death in February 1785, the future emperor had completed in one year a course that often took three.

Early Career

Despite being posted on the French mainland, Napoleon was able to spend much of the next eight years in Corsica thanks to his ferocious letter writing and rule-bending, as well as the effects of the French Revolution (which led to the French Revolutionary Wars ) and sheer good luck. There he played an active part in political and military matters, initially supporting the Corsican rebel Pasquale Paoli, a former patron of Carlo Buonaparte.

Military promotion also followed, but Napoleon became opposed to Paoli and when civil war erupted in 1793 the Buonapartes fled to France, where they adopted the French version of their name: Bonaparte.

The French Revolution had decimated the republic's officer class and favored individuals could achieve swift promotion, but Napoleon's fortunes rose and fell as one set of patrons came and went. By December 1793, Napoleon was the hero of Toulon , a general and favorite of Augustin Robespierre; shortly after the wheel of revolution turned and Napoleon was arrested for treason. Tremendous political flexibility saved him and the patronage of Vicomte Paul de Barras, soon to be one of France's three "Directors," followed.

Napoleon became a hero again in 1795, defending the government from angry counter-revolutionary forces; Baras rewarded Napoleon by promoting him to high military office, a position with access to the political spine of France. Napoleon swiftly grew into one of the country's most respected military authorities, largely by never keeping his opinions to himself, and he married Josephine de Beauharnais in 1796.

Rise to Power

In 1796, France attacked Austria. Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy , whereupon he welded a young, starving and disgruntled army into a force which won victory after victory against theoretically stronger Austrian opponents.

Napoleon returned to France in 1797 as the nation's brightest star, having fully emerged from the need for a patron. Ever a great self-publicist, he maintained the profile of a political independent, thanks partly to the newspapers he now ran.

In May 1798, Napoleon left for a campaign in Egypt and Syria, prompted by his desire for fresh victories, the French need to threaten Britain's empire in India and the Directory's concerns that their famous general might seize power.

The Egyptian campaign was a military failure (although it had a great cultural impact) and a change of government in France caused Bonaparte to leave—some might say abandon—his army and return in the August 1799. Shortly after he took part in the Brumaire coup of November 1799, finishing as a member of the Consulate, France's new ruling triumvirate.

First Consul

The transfer of power might not have been smooth, owing much to luck and apathy, but Napoleon's great political skill was clear; by February 1800, he was established as the First Consul, a practical dictatorship with a constitution wrapped firmly around him. However, France was still at war with her fellows in Europe and Napoleon set out to beat them. He did so within a year, although the key triumph, the Battle of Marengo, fought in June 1800, was won by the French General Desaix.

From Reformer to Emperor

Having concluded treaties that left Europe at peace, Bonaparte began working on France, reforming the economy, legal system (the famous and enduring Code Napoleon), church, military, education, and government. He studied and commented on minute details, often while traveling with the army, and the reforms continued for most of his rule. Bonaparte exhibited skill as both legislator and statesmen.

Napoleon's popularity remained high, helped by his mastery of propaganda but also genuine national support, and he was elected Consulate for life by the French people in 1802 and Emperor of France in 1804, a title which he worked hard to maintain and glorify. Initiatives like the Concordat with the Church and the Code helped secure his status.

Return to War

Europe was not at peace for long. Napoleon's fame, ambitions, and character were based on conquest, making it almost inevitable that his reorganized Grande Armée would fight further wars. However, other European countries also sought conflict, for not only did they distrust and fear Napoleon, but they also retained their hostility toward revolutionary France.

For the next eight years, Napoleon dominated Europe, fighting and defeating a range of alliances involving combinations of Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia. Sometimes his victories were crushing—such as Austerlitz in 1805, often cited as the greatest military victory ever—and at other times, he was either very lucky, fought almost to a standstill, or both.

Napoleon forged new states in Europe, including the German Confederation—built from the ruins of the Holy Roman Empire —and the Duchy of Warsaw, while also installing his family and favorites in positions of great power. The reforms continued and Napoleon had an ever-increasing effect on culture and technology, becoming a patron of both the arts and sciences while stimulating creative responses across Europe.

Disaster in Russia

The Napoleonic Empire may have shown signs of decline by 1811, including a downturn in diplomatic fortunes and continuing failure in Spain, but such matters were overshadowed by what happened next. In  1812 Napoleon went to war with Russia , assembling a force of over 400,000 soldiers, accompanied by the same number of followers and support. Such an army was almost impossible to feed or adequately control and the Russians repeatedly retreated, destroying the local resources and separating Napoleon's army from its supplies.

Napoleon continually dithered, eventually reaching Moscow on Sept. 8, 1812, after the Battle of Borodino, a bludgeoning conflict where over 80,000 soldiers died. However, the Russians refused to surrender, instead torching Moscow and forcing Napoleon into a long retreat back to friendly territory. The Grande Armée was assailed by starvation, extremes of weather and terrifying Russian partisans throughout, and by the end of 1812 only 10,000 soldiers were able to fight. Many of the rest had died in horrible conditions, with the camp's followers faring even worse.

A coup had been attempted in Napoleon's absence from France and his enemies in Europe were reinvigorated, forming a grand alliance intent on removing him. Vast numbers of enemy soldiers advanced across Europe toward France, overturning the states Bonaparte had created. The combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and others just used a simple plan, retreating from the emperor himself and advancing again when he moved to face the next threat.

Throughout 1813 and into 1814 the pressure grew on Napoleon; not only were his enemies grinding his forces down and approaching Paris, but the British had fought out of Spain and into France, the Grande Armée's Marshalls were underperforming and Bonaparte had lost the French public's support.

Nevertheless, for the first half of 1814 Napoleon exhibited the military genius of his youth, but it was a war he couldn't win alone. On March 30, 1814, Paris surrendered to allied forces without a fight and, facing massive betrayal and impossible military odds, Napoleon abdicated as Emperor of France; he was exiled to the Island of Elba.

Second Exile and Death

Napoleon made a sensational  return to power in 1815 . Traveling to France in secret, he attracted vast support and reclaimed his imperial throne, as well as reorganizing the army and government. After a series of initial engagements, Napoleon was narrowly defeated in one of history's greatest battles: Waterloo.

This final adventure had occurred in less than 100 days, closing with Napoleon's second abdication on June 25, 1815, whereupon British forces forced him into further exile. Housed on St. Helena, a small rocky island well away from Europe in the South Atlantic Ocean, Napoleon's health and character fluctuated; he died within six years, on May 5, 1821, at age 51.

Napoleon helped perpetuate a state of European-wide warfare that lasted for 20 years. Few individuals have ever had such a huge effect on the world, on economics, politics, technology, culture, and society.

Napoleon may not have been a general of utter genius, but he was very good; he may not have been the best politician of his age, but he was often superb; he may not have been a perfect legislator, but his contributions were hugely important. Napoleon used his talents—through luck, talent, or force of will—to rise from chaos and then build, lead, and spectacularly destroy an empire before doing it all again in a tiny microcosm one year later. Whether a hero or tyrant, the reverberations were felt across Europe for a century.

• I, Napoleon. “ Description of Egypt. Second Edition. Antiquities, Volume One (Plates). ”  WDL RSS , Detroit Publishing Company, 1 Jan. 1970.
• “ 16 Most Remarkable Napoleon Bonaparte Quotes. ”  Goalcast , Goalcast, 6 Dec. 2018.
• Editors, History.com. “ Napoleon Bonaparte. ”  History.com , A&E Television Networks, 9 Nov. 2009.
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April 22, 1796 (to the army.) Soldiers! In fifteen days you have won six victories, captured twenty-one flags, fifty-five guns, several fortresses, conquered the richest part of Piedmont; you have made 15,000 prisoners; you have killed or wounded nearly 10,000 men. Until now you have fought for barren rocks. Lacking everything, you have accomplished everything. You have won battles without cannon, crossed rivers without bridges, made forced marches without boots, bivouacked without brandy, and often without bread. Only the phalanx of the Republic, only the soldiers of Liberty, could endure the things that you have suffered. But, soldiers, you have really done nothing, if there still lies a task before you. As yet, neither Milan nor Turin is yours. Our country has the right to expect great things of you; will you be worthy of that trust? There are more battles before you, more cities to capture, more rivers to cross. You all burn to carry forward the glory of the French people; to dictate a glorious peace; and to be able, when you return to your villages, to exclaim with pride: "I belonged to the conquering army of Italy!" Friends, that conquest, I promise, shall be yours; but there is a condition you must swear to observe: to respect the people you are liberating; to repress horrible pillage. All plunderers will be shot without mercy. People of Italy, the French army is here to break your chains; you may greet it with confidence. June 17, 1800 (on observing prisoners of war who recognized him) Many began to shout, with apparent enthusiasm: "Vive Bonaparte!" What a thing is imagination! Here are men who don't know me, who have never seen me, but who only knew of me, and they are moved by my presence, they would do anything for me! And this same incident arises in all centuries and in all countries! Such is fanaticism! Yes, imagination rules the world. The defect of our modern institutions is that they do not speak to the imagination. By that alone can man be governed; without it he is but a brute. July 4, 1800 I! a royal maggot! I am a soldier, I come from the people, I have made myself! Am I to be compared with Louis XVI? I listen to everybody, but my own mind is my only counsellor. There are some men who have done France more harm than the wildest revolutionaries, - - the talkers, and the rationalists. Vague and false thinkers, a few lessons of geometry would do them good! My policy is to govern men as the great number wish to be governed. That, I think, is the way to recognise the sovereignty of the people. March 21, 1804 (on the execution of the Duke d'Enghien for treason) I will respect the judgment of public opinion when it is well founded; but when capricious it must be met with contempt. I have behind me the will of the nation and an army of 500,000 men. With that I can command respect for the Republic. I could have had the Duke d'Enghien shot publicly; and if I have not done so, I held back not from fear, but to prevent the secret adherents of his House from breaking out and ruining themselves. They have kept quiet; it is all I ask of them. March 22, 1804 These people wanted an upheaval in France, and by killing me to kill the Revolution; it has been for me to defend and to avenge it. I have shown what it can do. The Duke d'Enghien was a conspirator just like any other, and it was necessary to treat him as any other might be treated. May 14, 1804 (a month before he made himself Emperor) The General Councils of Departments, the Electoral Colleges, and all the great Bodies of the State, demand that an end should be made of the hopes of the Bourbons by securing the Republic from the upheavals of elections and the uncertainty attending the life of an individual. May 15, 1804 It is not as a general that I rule, but because the nation believes I have the civilian qualifications for governing. My system is quite simple. It has seemed to me that under the circumstances the thing to do was to centralize power and increase the authority of the Government, so as to constitute the Nation. I am the constituent power. I can best compare a constitution to a ship; if you allow the wind to fill your sails, you go you know not whither, according to the wind that drives you; but if you make use of the rudder, you can go to Martinique with a wind that is driving you to San Domingo. No constitution has remained fixed. Change is governed by men and by circumstances. If an overstrong government is undesirable, a weak one is much worse. November 4, 1804 To reign in France, one must be born great, have been seen in childhood in a palace, surrounded with guards, or else be a man capable of raising himself above all others. My mistress is power; I have done too much to conquer her to let her be snatched away from me. Although it may be said that power came to me of its own accord, yet I know what labour, what sleepless nights, what scheming, it has involved. December 27, 1804 Deputies of the Departments to the Legislative Body, Tribunes, and Members of the Council of State, I have come among you to preside over your opening session. I have sought to lend a more imposing dignity to your labours. Prince, magistrates, soldiers, citizens, each in his own sphere, will have but one aim, the interests of the country. If this throne, to which Providence and the will of the people have called me, is precious in my eyes, it is for the sole reason that by it alone can the most precious rights of the French nation be preserved. Without a strong and paternal government, France would have to fear a return of the evils from which she once suffered. Weakness in the executive power is the greatest calamity of nations. As soldier, or First Consul, I had but one purpose; as Emperor, I have none other: the prosperity of France. May 22, 1805 (to Count Fouché, Minister of Police) Have some articles written against Princess Dolgorouki, who is spreading scandalous and ridiculous reports in Rome. You probably know that she long lived with an actor, and that the diamonds she displays so ostentatiously were given her by Potemkin and are the price of her dishonour. You can get information about her, and make her a laughingstock. She poses for a clever woman; she is on friendly terms with the Queen of Naples, and, which is equally surprising, with Mme. de Sta�l. May 30, 1805 (to Count Fouché, Minister of Police) Have some caricatures made: an Englishman, his purse in his hand, begging the various Powers to accept his money, etc. That is the note to strike. Have printed in Holland that advices from Madeira state that Villeneuve met a convoy of 100 English merchantmen bound for India, and captured it. June 1, 1805 (to Count Fouché, Minister of Police) I read in a paper that a tragedy on Henry IV is to be played. The epoch is recent enough to excite political passions. The theatre must dip more into antiquity. Why not commission Raynouard to write a tragedy on the transition from primitive to less primitive man? A tyrant would be followed by the saviour of his country. The oratorio "Saul" is on precisely that text, - - a great man succeeding a degenerate king. March 3, 1817 (during his final years as an exile on the island of St. Helena) In spite of all the libels, I have no fear whatever about my fame. Posterity will do me justice. The truth will be known; and the good I have done will be compared with the faults I have committed. I am not uneasy as to the result. Had I succeeded, I would have died with the reputation of the greatest man that ever existed. As it is, although I have failed, I shall be considered as an extraordinary man: my elevation was unparalleled, because unaccompanied by crime. I have fought fifty pitched battles, almost all of which I have won. I have framed and carried into effect a code of laws that will bear my name to the most distant posterity. I raised myself from nothing to be the most powerful monarch in the world. Europe was at my feet. I have always been of opinion that the sovereignty lay in the people. In fact, the imperial government was a kind of republic. Called to the head of it by the voice of the nation, my maxim was, la carrière est ouverte aux talens without distinction of birth or fortune.

Question : What are the duties of Christians toward those who govern them, and what in particular are our duties towards Napoleon I, our emperor? Answer: Christians owe to the princes who govern them, and we in particular owe to Napoleon I, our emperor, love, respect, obedience, fidelity, military service, and the taxes levied for the preservation and defense of the empire and of his throne. We also owe him fervent prayers for his safety and for the spiritual and temporal prosperity of the state. Question: Why are we subject to all these duties toward our emperor? Answer: First, because God, who has created empires and distributes them according to his will, has, by loading our emperor with gifts both in peace and in war, established him as our sovereign and made him the agent of his power and his image upon earth. To honor and serve our emperor is therefore to honor and serve God himself. Secondly, because our Lord Jesus Christ himself, both by his teaching and his example, has taught us what we owe to our sovereign. Even at his very birth he obeyed the edict of Caesar Augustus; he paid the established tax; and while he commanded us to render to God those things which belong to God, he also commanded us to render unto Caesar those things which are Caesar's. Question: Are there not special motives which should attach us more closely to Napoleon I, our emperor? Answer: Yes, for it is he whom God has raised up in trying times to re-establish the public worship of the holy religion of our fathers and to be its protector; he has re-established and preserved public order by his profound and active wisdom; he defends the state by his mighty arm; he has become the anointed of the Lord by the consecration which he has received from the sovereign pontiff, head of the Church universal. Question: What must we think of those who are wanting in their duties toward our emperor? Answer: According to the apostle Paul, they are resisting the order established by God himself and render themselves worthy of eternal damnation.

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Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte, also known as Napoleon I, was a French general and emperor who conquered large parts of Europe in the 19th century. 

Famed for his tactical brilliance and quick thinking in desperate situations, he went down in European history as one of the foremost military strategists of the time.

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Early Life of Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica, an island located on the Mediterranean Coast, on August 15, 1768,  to Carlo Bonaparte and Letizia Romalino Bonaparte. Despite being part of the Corsican nobility, Napoleon’s family were of modest means. 

Napoleon did his schooling in mainland France, graduating from the military academy in 1785. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant of an artillery detachment in the French Army. He was on leave when the French Revolution broke out in 1789, during which he became involved with the Corsican branch  of the Jacobins , one of many pro-democratic parties in France at the time. At the time, the Bonaparte family had gotten into a dispute for their pro-democratic leanings with the monarchy supporting the governor of Corsica. The result was them fleeing Corsica for mainland France in 1793, where Napoleon returned to active military duty

Napoleon came into contact with Augustine Robespierre, the brother of the infamous Maximilien Robespierre. Maximilien Robespierre would herald the Reign of Terror, a period of anarchy marked by violence against and execution of those considered the enemies of the French revolution .

But when the Robespierre brothers fell from power and were guillotined in July 1794, Napoleon was placed under house arrest for a brief period of time due to his association with them. In 1795, he suppressed a monarchy-backed uprising against the revolutionary government, being promoted to a major general as a result.

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

The French government was fighting against other European monarchies since 1792. In a series of battles taking place in Italy during 1796, Napoleon led a French army to victory over the much better equipped and larger armies of Austria. The Treaty of Campo Formio signed between France and Austria led to territorial gains for France.

The Directory, a five-member group that governed France since the Reign of Terror ended in 1795, directed Napoleon to lead an invasion of Great Britain. Knowing the French Navy was inadequate to deal with the far more superior British Royal Navy, Napoleon instead proposed an expedition to Egypt, then a British Protectorate. Taking Egypt from the British would effectively cut them off from their vital trade with India, causing widespread economic hardship on the British Isle. Landing in Egypt in 1798, the French army won the Battle of the Pyramids in June of that year.

But during the Battle of the Nile in August, the French Navy was nearly wiped out following the engagement with the British Navy. Later, Napoleon would launch an invasion of Syria in 1798. Syria was then a province of the Ottoman Empire. This campaign would be a failure as well.

With the political situation in France deteriorating, Napoleon decided to return to France. He then became part of the group that overthrew the Directory in 1799.

Now a three-member group called the Consulate ruled France with Napoleon becoming first consul, a position consolidated by his victory over Austria at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800.

To know what are the important events in world history from 3000 BC to 1950 AD , visit the linked article.

Napoleon I, Emperor of France

A constitutional amendment made in 1802 made Napoleon first consul for life. In 1804, he crowned himself, emperor of France, during a lavish ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame

Seeking to restore stability in post-revolutionary France, he centralized the government by introducing reforms in banking and education, supporting science and art. His most significant accomplishment was the creation of the Napoleonic Code, which transformed the French legal system and continues to be the be basis of the legal system in France and most of Western Europe to this day.

The Napoleonic Wars broke out in 1803, lasting until 1815. It was a series of conflicts between the French Empire and a coalition of European nations.

On October 1805, the French fleet was annihilated during the battle of Trafalgar, nullifying the threat of invasion of the British Isles. The Battle of Austerlitz in December of that year, however, solidified his reputation as one of the greatest generals in European History.  A combined army of Austrians and Russians was defeated by the French and the termination of the Holy  Roman Empire that resulted would be a catalyst for the unification of Germany in 1871

Seeking to defeat his British rivals through economic means, Napoleon devised the Continental System in 1806, which blockaded Europeans ports from British Trade. Subsequent victories in 1807 and 1809 against the Russians and Austrians resulted in French territorial gains in central and Eastern Europe

Visit the linked article to get tips on how to study world history for UPSC Mains

Fall of Napoleon Bonaparte

The Russian withdrawal from the continental system gave Napoleon  casus belli for Napoleon to launch an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. It proved to be a costly mistake as the Russians switched to scorched-earth tactics to deny the French army any hope of preparing for the brutal winter that would follow. By September of that year, both sides had suffered enormous casualties.

The French Army did eventually take Moscow but all they found was an empty city, with its population having evacuated further east. Seeing little point in residing in Moscow, Napoleon retreated back towards the west under constant attack by the Russians. Only 100,000 of the original 600,000 managed to reach the safety of the empire.

Solve previous years history questions for UPSC Mains , visit the linked article.

Further setbacks for Napoleon awaited him with the defeat of his armies in Spain. Napoleon’s forces were again defeated in 1813 during the Battle of Leipzig by a coalition force of Austrian, Prussian, Russian and Swedish troops. He was forced to abdicate his throne when the coalition forces captured Paris. He was exiled to the island of Elba off the coast of Italy while his wife and son were sent to Austria

On February 26, 1815, Napoleon escaped to mainland France, where he was welcomed to Paris by cheering crowds. He began a campaign to reconquer lost French possessions in Europe shortly after. 

The French Army invaded Belgium in 1815 in order to defeat a combined British and Prussian army. In the engagement that followed the Prussians were defeated at Ligny but on June 18, at the Battle of Waterloo, the  French were crushed by the British through Prussian support. The battle permanently ended Napoleon’s threat to Europe.

In June 1815, Napoleon was dethroned once again.

Napoleon Bonaparte: UPSC Notes – Download PDF Here

Final years of Napoleon Bonaparte

In October 1815, Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic Ocean. He passed away while there on May 5, 1821. He was 51 at the time. The likely cause of his demise is said to be stomach cancer, although it was speculated with no sufficient evidence that he was poisoned. Although his last wish was to be buried on the banks of the Seine, he was buried on the island. In 1840 his remains were returned to France and given a state funeral. 

Frequently Asked Questions  about Napoleon Bonaparte

Why is napoleon famous, who defeated napoleon.

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Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour: Image, Rhetoric and Behaviour in the Construction of a Legend

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Philip G. Dwyer, Napoleon Bonaparte as Hero and Saviour: Image, Rhetoric and Behaviour in the Construction of a Legend, French History , Volume 18, Issue 4, December 2004, Pages 379–403, https://doi.org/10.1093/fh/18.4.379

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The media of the day represented three predominant models around Napoleon: the all-conquering victorious general, the virtuous republican who stood above factions, and the man who brought peace to the Continent. These images became the foundation of a ‘hero-saviour’ myth that helped Napoleon take power on his return from Egypt at the end of 1799. However, they sit uncomfortably with the manner in which he represented power in public that, outside France, took on quasi-monarchical trappings. This article attempts to explain not only the origins and evolution of Napoleonic propaganda in the early years of his career, but also the ambiguity between the political imagery and rhetoric used to promote Napoleon in France on the one hand, and the manner in which he behaved in public outside France on the other. The hero-saviour myth was further developed and exploited during the Consulate and the Empire as a means of legitimating Napoleon's accession to power.

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1University of Newcastle, Australia.

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World History Project - Origins to the Present

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Appraising Napoleon

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Napoleon Bonaparte: Hero Or Tyrant?

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Rise to power, military campaigns.

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The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte

This essay will illustrate why Napoleon Bonaparte is regarded as one of the greatest military masterminds in the history of mankind. It will show the life of Napoleon from when he was a young boy, till he died in 1821. It will show how he deceived the French into giving him power, and how he used this power for his own interests. It will also reveal how he almost killed of an entire generation of French people, and once again prove that all good things must come to an end. Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769 in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica.

This was only a few months after France had annexed the island. He had 7 brothers and sisters , and his father was a lawyer whose family stemmed from the Florentine nobility. His original nationality was Cursican-Italian. In 1779 Napoleon went to school at Brienne in France. There he took a great interest in in history, especially in the lives of great ancient generals. Napoleon was often badly treated at Brienne because he was not as wealthy as his fellow classmates, and very short. He also did not speak French well, because Italian was spoken on Corsica where he grew up.

He studied very hard so that he could do better then those who snubbed him. Napoleon attended the Ecole Military School in Paris in 1784 after receiving a scholarship. This is were he received his military training . He studied to be an artillery man and an officer. Napoleon finished his training and joined the French army when he was 16 years old. He was appointed to an artillery regiment , and commissioned as a lieutenant. Once again he was not well liked by his fellow officers because he was short, spoke with an Italian accent, and had little money. Napoleon spent little time with his regiment.

He was more concerned with trying to free his home land of Corsica, witch had been taken with force by France. Soon after being commissioned his father died, and he was forced to provide for his family. Napoleon spent the next seven years reading the works of the philosophers, and educating himself in military matters by studying the campaigns of the great military leaders of the past. The French Revolution and the European war that followed broadened his sights and presented him with new opportunities. Napoleon was a supporter of the French Revolution .

He went back and forth between Paris and Ajaccio, working for the Republic. Napoleon rose quickly through the ranks and became a captain in 1792. In 793, Corsica revolted against the Republic, and Napoleon’s family had to Flee to France. The Republic was in danger. France was at war with Austria, Prussia, England, Holland, and Spain. There was a revolt in western France, and there was a great need for good officers. At the age of 25, only one year after becoming captain, Napoleon performed so well that he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.

He was given command of the artillery at Toulon, and in December of that same year, the French forced the English out of Toulon. ” The commander in chief wrote: “I Have no words to describe the merit of Bonaparte. Much science, as much intelligence, and too much bravery. ” “(pg. 7 Britannica Junior Encyclopedia #11 N-O). In August of 1794 Napoleon was arrested because he had been a supporter of Maximilien Rosbespierre. He was accused of treason. Although he was released his career seemed to be over. Then in October of 1795, the government was threatened with a revolt in Paris.

Paul Barras, commander of the home forces, appointed Napoleon to defend the capital. “With amazing swiftness Napoleon massed men and artillery at important places in Paris The attack of 30,000 national guards was driven back by his men. About 200 men were killed on each side, but he had saved France from civil war . ” (pg. 7 Britannica Junior Encyclopedia #11 N-O). Napoleon saved the national convention from the Parisian mob and one year later at the age of 26, was rewarded with the position of commander in chief of the interior French army in Italy.

When Napoleon accepted the position as the commander of the French Army he received a chilly reception by his generals. They thought Napoleon was no better than intriguer who owed everything to Barras’s favour. None of these men were to be easily cowed by a “wild haired ittle runt “of only twenty six. Yet, as Augereau one of the generals admitted , something about this Bonaparte frightened them. That day Napoleon issued the following order, “Soldiers! You are badly fed, almost naked. The government owes you a great deal, but it can do nothing for you.

Your patience and courage do you honor, but give you neither worldly goods nor glory. I shall lead you into the most fertile plains in the world where you will find big cities and wealthy provinces. You will win honor, fame and riches. Soldiers of the Army of Italy! Could courage and constancy possibly fail you? Once Napoleon took over it didn’t take long for him to turn the group of ill disciplined soldiers into an effective fighting force. In a series of stunning victories, Napoleon defeated four Austrian generals in succession, each army he fought got bigger and bigger. This forced Austria and its allies to make peace with France.

Throughout his Italian campaigns, Napoleon won the confidence of his men by his energy, charm, and ability to comprehend complex issues quickly and make decisions rapidly. These qualities, combined with his keen intelligence, ease with words, and upreme confidence in himself, enabled him throughout the rest of his life to influence people and win their firm support” (pg. 697 – 698 Western Civilization volume II). “No longer was Napoleon a poor Corsican with shabby clothes and cheap boots. He dressed well, took part in the gay life of Paris, and often visited the grand house of Barras.

There he met Josephine de Beauharnais, the widow of a French nobleman. ” (pg. 7 Britannica Junior Encyclopedia #11 N-O). On March 9, 1796, Napoleon married Josephine and two days later left to command the army that was fighting the Austrians in Italy. On April 10 he started a new campaign, and with a series of clever movements he split the opposing Austrian army into three separate groups. Napoleon then defeated each one of them. This was first example of his rules of war, “Always be superior to the enemy at the point of attack. ” Three weeks later he crossed the Po River.

Napoleon lead an attack and attempted to storm the bridge over the Adda River. “He charged right into the blast of the Austrian guns. The army went wild with enthusiasm and nicknamed him the “Little Corporal. ” ” (pg. 7 Britannica Junior Encyclopedia #11 N-O). Napoleon formed three republics in northern Italy , and made peace with Naples without even telling the government in Pairs. In July the Austrians sent three powerful waves of men through the Alps. In only six days, Napoleon and his men attacked each wave of soldiers, and defeated each one separately.

When the third was defeated in a two days’ battle at Rivoli on January 14th and 15th, 1797, he invaded Austria. In October of 1797, he signed a treaty of Campo-Formio. With this treaty France was given Belgium and lands along the Rhine River. Napoleon’s speed and his cleverness baffled his enemies. Besides the fighting, this 28-year-old general made his own treaties, and conducted his own diplomacy, He kept the Directory ( The French executive body ) happy by sending home all the money and works of art which he could seize. ” (pg. 7 Britannica Junior Encyclopedia #11 N-O).

In December, 1797, Napoleon returned to Paris as a conquering hero. When he returned he received a huge welcome. At this time he began thinking of pursuing more political power and military power. He wanted to become the next Alexander the Great. The Director wanted to get rid of Napoleon as soon as possible. He felt that Napoleon was getting too popular and too powerful in Paris. He was given command of an army in training to invade England, but believing that the French were unready for such an invasion, Napoleon instead asked the Director if he could take a large army to Egypt.

He proposed that by attacking Egypt, it would threaten England hold on India, a major source of British wealth. The Director gladly let him go. In May, 1798, Napoleon sailed to Egypt, and won the Battle of the Pyramids. On July 23 he entered the city of Cairo. But the British controlled the sea, and on August 1 Horatio Nelson, a English admiral, lead an attack that destroyed the French Navy in Aboukir Bay. Napoleon could no longer keep in touch with France. The British had successfully cut off supplies from Napoleon’s men in Egypt.

Napoleon then advanced in to Syria, but was stopped by the British defense of Acre. With no way of getting supplies from France, Napoleon’s men started dying from disease and heat. With his dreams of the Asiatic empire ended he retreated to Egypt. On his way back to Egypt he came across the first French papers he had seen in ten months. He learned that Italy had been lost to the Austrians, and the Directory was unpopular. Seeing no future and certain defeat, Napoleon did not hesitate to abandon his army and return to Pairs. He left his army in the hands of General Jean Kleber.

Napoleon sailed home along with three other ships, and on October 16, 1799 he arrived in Paris. Napoleon then participated in the coup d’etat that ultimately led to his virtual dictatorship of France. Barley thirty years old, he became First Consul of France. As First Consul, Napoleon directly controlled the entire executive authority of the government. Napoleon had overwhelming influence over the legislature. He appointed members of the bureaucrach, controlled the army, and conducted foreign affairs . In may 1800 Napoleon invaded Italy. He crossed the path known as “Great Saint Bernard” , and occupied Milan.

The Austrians had guarded every Pass in to Italy but this one. It was said to be impossible far an arm to cross this pass, but Napoleon proved this theory wrong. On June 14 the Austrians attacked him in the plains of Marengo where he only had a portion of his army. At four in the afternoon the French had seemed to have been beaten, but Napoleon emained perfectly calm. Then his reinforcements came, and he lead a final charge to win the Battle of Marengo. Napoleon them reorganized almost everything- roads, factories, harbors- that had been destroyed by the Revolution.

He now controlled every part of the French life. He invited the Nobles back who had fled abroad. He wrote laws that are still in use today. He reorganized the treasury department, forming the Bank of France, and regulating taxation. He also setup an education system with secondary and technical schools. A Council of State was set up to give him advise, and help him write laws. France became one of the first efficiently organized modern states.

In 1801, Napoleon made an agreement with the pope that made Catholicism the state religion, but all religions were tolerated . My policy is to govern men as the greatest number wish to be governed,” said Napoleon. “I established myself in Egypt by becoming a Mussulman; I won over the priests in Italy by becoming ultramontane (a supporter of the authority of the Pope). If I governed the Jews I should have reestablished the temple of Solomon. ” (pg. 8 Britannica Junior Encyclopedia #11 N-O). In 1802, Napoleon was made First Council for life. Two years later, Napoleon not content with being First Council, crowned him self Emperor of France. At this time France was no longer a republic.

Napoleon invited the Pope Pius VII to crown him Emperor, but when it came time to be crowned Napoleon took the crown from the Pope and placed it upon is own head. Meanwhile in 1812 war had broken out with England once again. Napoleon organized a huge army at Boulogne for the invasion of England. When Russia and Austria joined England Napoleon decided not to invade England. Instead he marched his army in to Germany. They surrounded the Austrian army at Ulm, and forced them to surrender. Two days later Admiral Nelson, the same man to defeat the French navy in Egypt, once again destroyed the French navy at the battle of Trafalgar.

This forever ended Napoleon’s hopes of invading England. Napoleon’s armies kept fighting, capturing Vienna, the Austrian capital. On December 2 1805, Napoleon met the Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz. This was one of his best planed battles. When the morning light came he saw that the enemy had lined up in the exact order he had said they would. The victory was decisive, Napoleon made himself king of Italy, his brother Joseph, king of Naples, and another brother Louis king of Holland. In October of 1806 Napoleon when to war again. He defeated the Prussians in the battle of Jena, and captured , Berlin.

The Prussian king fled to Russia and Napoleon advanced through Poland. While away he was in constant communications with Paris. He received word every day of its internal affairs even though he was 1500 miles away. On February 8, 1997, Napoleon fought an even battle with the Russians at Eylan, Germany, and on June 14 he destroyed the Russian army at Friedland, Germany. After this battle Napoleon and Alexander I, the Czar of Russia meet at Tilsit. Together they divided Europe, all except for Austria and Prussia. The whole of western Europe was now ruled by the Bonaparte family.

Napoleon told them who to marry and what they were to do. The Bonapartes made many improvements to the laws of the countries the governed. However, Napoleon was not a nice man. In fact he was a tyrant, he charged high taxes and refused to allow freedom of speech and press. He also drafted many men from all over Europe. Most of these men did not want to serve in his armies, but the had no choice. With all this power, Napoleon’s most hated enemy was still untouchable. At Austerlitz he said to his men: “Remember tomorrow that you are fighting against the allies of England! By the Berlin Decree of November 1806, Napoleon had closed all the ports of the continent against English trade.

This became known as the Continental System. Napoleon figured that if he could not beat England in a battle, he would just cut off there supplies and force them to make a treaty with France. This strategy did not goes as planed. In Spain, Napoleon forced king Charles IV to abdicate and set up his brother Joseph as king. The Spanish people rebelled , and an English army landed in Portugal. Napoleon himself took command, but early in 1809 the Austrians again declared war.

Napoleon rushed back to France, and in May he went to Vienna and on July 5-6 fought at the Battle of Wagram. It was a hard fight, but he won it and peace was once again made. Napoleon wanted a son. Not having produced one, Napoleon divorced Josephine. On March 11, 1810, Napoleon married Marie Louise, daughter of the emperor of Austria. But this did not get peace. The constitutional system was hurting Russia and Sweden. Finally, Russia started trading with England again. Napoleon gathered the ” Grand Army” of about 500,000 men. In June 1812, Napoleon endeavored on a new campaign. This was one of the worst mistakes he ever made.

This would ultimately lead to the death of an entire generation of French men. Napoleon and his 500,000 men marched into Russia. Napoleon believed that after a few quick victorious battles, he would be able to convince Alexander to return to the Continental System. He also decided that if he could take Moscow, the Russian government would crumble and ask for peace. Napoleon was quoted as saying, “A single blow to the heart of the Russian Empire , at Moscow the Great, at Moscow the Holly, will nstantly put this whole blind, apathetic mass at my mercy”, (pg6, 1812 Napoleon’s Defeat in Russia).

Napoleon would soon learn how wrong he was. At the beginning of Napoleon’s campaign he was fabulously victorious, but when he reached Moscow he found the city in ruins. Instead of giving in to Napoleon, Alexander had burned Moscow to the ground. Alexander knew that the winter was coming , and with no refuge Napoleon and his troops would be in grave danger. Alexander was right, Napoleon’s lost many men to frost bite and other such related winter ailments. This single trategy killed almost half a million men. This was the beginning of the end for Napoleon.

Out of the 500,000 troops that he brought, only 40,000 of his men managed to straggle back to Poland. This became known as the “Great Retreat”. The campaigns of 1813 were hopeless from the start. Prussia and Austria joined Russia. Napoleon started by winning the Battle of Leipzig in May, but could not follow it up. No longer being the super power, some of his German allies joined the Russians, and Napoleon lost the Battle of Leipzig. Soon the Austrians, Prussians, and Bavarians were in northern France. The English in Spain were marching over the Pyrenees.

France tired of fighting, out of money, and out of men could no longer support Napoleon. For all the time it took Napoleon to conquer Europe, it was almost over night that he lost it all. On April 11, 1814 Napoleon was abdicated. With the overthrow of Napoleon, the Countries of Europe came to Vienna to remake the map. Most of the old kings were given back there lands and France was reduced. They also decided to exile Napoleon to the island of Elba. Even there he was a king. He organized an army and made roads. But all the while still had his eyes on France.

On June 18, 1815 Napoleon with his new army once again attacked the English, led by the Duke of Wellington, at Waterloo. This battle was short lived and Napoleon was quickly defeated, and he was once again abdicated. But this time they sent him to live on the Island of St. Helena, where he died in may 1821. As you can see Napoleon Bonaparte was one of the greatest military masterminds of all times, but as is with all good thing, they must come to an end. For all his intelligence and skill he was a terrible man. He killed almost half a million of his men, not to mention the men he kill that were not his enemies.

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Guest Essay

Daniel Barenboim: What Beethoven’s Ninth Teaches Us

By Daniel Barenboim

Mr. Barenboim is a pianist and conductor.

Ludwig van Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony was first performed exactly 200 years ago Tuesday and has since become probably the work most likely to be embraced for political purposes.

It was played at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin; it was performed in that city again on Christmas 1989 after the fall of the Berlin Wall, when Leonard Bernstein replaced the word “Joy” in the choral finale with “Freedom”; the European Union adopted the symphony’s “Ode to Joy” theme as its anthem. (These days the Ninth is being played in concert halls worldwide in commemoration of the premiere. The classical music world loves anniversaries.)

Beethoven might have been surprised at the political allure of his masterpiece.

He was interested in politics, but only because he was deeply interested in humanity. The story goes that he originally wanted to dedicate his “Eroica” symphony to Napoleon — it was to be called “Bonaparte” — but he changed his mind after Napoleon abandoned the ideals of the French Revolution and was crowned emperor.

I don’t believe, however, that Beethoven was interested in everyday politics. He was not an activist.

Instead, he was a deeply political man in the broadest sense of the word. He was concerned with moral behavior and the larger questions of right and wrong affecting all of society. Especially significant for him was freedom of thought and of personal expression, which he associated with the rights and responsibilities of the individual. He would have had no sympathy with the now widely held view of freedom as essentially economic, necessary for the workings of the markets.

The closest he comes to a political statement in the Ninth is a sentence at the heart of the last movement, in which voices were heard for the first time in a symphony: “All men become brothers.” We understand that now more as an expression of hope than a confident statement, given the many exceptions to the sentiment, including the Jews under the Nazis and members of minorities in many parts of the world. The quantity and scope of the crises facing humankind severely test that hope. We have seen many crises before, but we do not appear to learn any lessons from them.

I also see the Ninth in another way. Music on its own does not stand for anything except itself. The greatness of music, and the Ninth Symphony, lies in the richness of its contrasts. Music never just laughs or cries; it always laughs and cries at the same time. Creating unity out of contradictions — that is Beethoven for me.

Music, if you study it properly, is a lesson for life. There is much we can learn from Beethoven, who was, of course, one of the strongest personalities in the history of music. He is the master of bringing emotion and intellect together. With Beethoven, you must be able to structure your feelings and feel the structure emotionally — a fantastic lesson for life! When we are in love, we lose all sense of discipline. Music doesn’t allow for that.

But music means different things to different people and sometimes even different things to the same person at different moments. It might be poetic, philosophical, sensual or mathematical, but it must have something to do with the soul.

Therefore, it is metaphysical — but the means of expression is purely and exclusively physical: sound. It is precisely this permanent coexistence of metaphysical message through physical means that is the strength of music. It is also the reason that when we try to describe music with words, all we can do is articulate our reactions to it, and not grasp music itself.

The Ninth Symphony is one of the most important artworks in Western culture. Some experts call it the greatest symphony ever written, and many commentators praise its visionary message. It is also one of the most revolutionary works by a composer mainly defined by the revolutionary nature of his works. Beethoven freed music from prevailing conventions of harmony and structure. Sometimes I feel in his late works a will to break all signs of continuity.

The Italian philosopher Antonio Gramsci said a wonderful thing in 1929, when Benito Mussolini had Italy under his thumb. “My mind is pessimistic, but my will is optimistic,” he wrote to a friend from prison. I think he meant that as long as we are alive, we have hope. I try to take Gramsci’s words to heart still today, even if not always successfully.

By all accounts, Beethoven was courageous, and I find courage an essential quality for the understanding, let alone the performance, of the Ninth. One could paraphrase much of the work of Beethoven in the spirit of Gramsci by saying that suffering is inevitable, but the courage to overcome it renders life worth living.

Daniel Barenboim is a pianist and conductor, co-founder of the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra and founder of the Barenboim-Said Academy in Berlin.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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81 Napoleon Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Get some unique Napoleon essay questions and topics prepared by our team . Whether you’re willing to explore the French revolution, the country’s history, or how power corrupts people, you will find something for your task here.

✔️ Top Napoleon Essay Questions

🏆 best napoleon essay topics & examples, 📌 simple & easy napoleon essay titles, 👍 good napoleon bonaparte ideas.

• How Did Napoleon Start the War?
• What Led to the French Revolution?
• Did Power Corrupt Napoleon?
• How Was Napoleon Defeated?
• What Civil Code Did Napoleon Create?
• How Was Napoleon Raised?
• Was Napoleon a Good Politician?
• What Are the Main Napoleon Bonaparte’s Ideas?
• How Did Napoleon Affect the World’s History?
• Who Were Napoleon’s Supporters?
• Napoleon: A Child and Destroyer of the Revolution The fathers of the revolution wanted to make the people free by destroying the “absolute monarchy” in the country. Napoleon supported the same idea by established new policies to safeguard the needs of the people.”He […]
• The Achievements of Napoleon Bonaparte This ensured that France had a unified and progressive legal system that respected the need to uphold human rights and promote equality and justice in his country and its colonies.
• Napoleon Bonaparte, His Rise and Fall He was the second born son of a prominent man in Corsica; he represented Corsica at the court of the then king of France Luis XVI. The defeat of the royalists earned Napoleon the admiration […]
• Napoleon Bonaparte and Its Revolutions In fact, by the time of his death, napoleon had acquired vast wealth due to his own ability and by the sheer luck of being in the right place at the right time.
• Napoleon: Leadership Style The extremely high level of fragmentation peculiar to Europe at that era and the absence of the single perspective on France and its growing power provided him with the time needed to create a powerful […]
• Napoleon Bonaparte’s Role in the French Revolution Despite the outstanding development, Napoleon stayed in the position of the second lieutenant for six years; it was not until the beginning of the French Revolution that he was able to advance his career in […]
• Napoleon Bonaparte: His Successes and Failures Secondly, it is important to emphasize the changes in the military organization, for instance, the increased speed of conscription and the extensive use of artillery.
• Napoleon’s Rise to Power in 1800-1815 The government appreciated his contribution and promoted him to the division general and commander of the Army of Italy. Ambitious Napoleon realized the futility of the situation and decided to abandon his army in Egypt […]
• Influence of Napoleon Bonaparte to Classical Art Among the major event in this era were rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and the fall of Monarchy rule in France. The term, classical, as used in art is used to show the characteristic of works […]
• Napoleon, Metternich, and Bismarck: The Great Historical Figures Napoleon Bonaparte, Klemens von Metternich, and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck are the great historical figures who successes and failures were the results of their own actions but not of their acting according to the circumstances […]
• Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics The uniqueness of Napoleon is that he had already discovered in his time the current application of professional military skills and logistics in his strategies and tactics.
• Napoleon Bonaparte Life and Role in French History This work investigates the role of Napoleon in the French Revolution and analyzes his contribution to the history and causes of downfall.
• Napoleon Bonaparte’s Invasion of Russia August 15, 1769: the day Napoleon Bonaparte was born – the future emperor of France, the great commander, and a politician.
• Revolution and Napoleon Between the 1789 and the 1815 Even though the war was responsible for the larger portion of the debt it was not the only reason for the overwhelming debt that France was in.
• The Role of Napoleon Bonaparte in the French Revolution The aftermath of the revolutionary actions was disastrous and the society would have faced the need to readjust to more alternations in political orders.
• Napoleon Bonaparte and the Enlightenment He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 to win the faith of the Catholics and regulated public worship in France. He bought the trust of the Pope and thus he was able to use religion as […]
• Why Do You Think Napoleon Was a Hero? The three factors identified in the book include global influences, the interactions of the different sociopolitical and cultural factors and the roots of today’s civilization in the historical backdrop.
• Napoleon and Internal Situation of France The approval of the religious sects was granted when the ceremony anointing him as Emperor was officiated by the head of the Church.
• Causes and Consequences of Napoleon’s Rule The most significant reform by Napoleon was the legislation of the civil code or code of napoleon of 1804. The first case implied that no person had privileges from any of the laws, tax […]
• Napoleon Bonaparte’s Military Dictatorship Second, the leaders of the new government generally come from the armed forces and have a substantial support both of the citizens and of the military.
• Napoleon Bonaparte: Conqueror and Liberator These personalities change the image of the world forever and lead to the appearance of some unique phenomena which predetermine the further development of society and the whole world.
• Memoirs of Napoleon’s Egyptian Expedition On the other hand, it is possible that the tone of disappointment that is found in Mouret’s passage is just a manifestation of the soldier’s dislikes.
• Napoleon Bonaparte in his study He was just about to hang the breeches back in the closet, when he noticed that there was a big stain on the back-side of the left leg.
• French revolution and the Napoleon era The enlightenment era consisted of quite a number of ideas that changed the French society in addition to growing wave of civilization in the West.
• The French Revolution and Napoleon’s Governance Like any substantial change in the political life of any country, the French Revolution consisted of several stages of the dramatic transformation of the state system, political and social life in France. During the decade […]
• The Rise and fall of Napoleon and The Cause of Revolution After the Robespierre and Jacobins taking the over the government in the year 1793, Napoleon took charge of the artillery and his achievements in the area made him the favorite at that time.
• Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics in His Invasion of Russia The effectiveness of military strategies and tactics depends on the ability of military commander to mobilize his armies and resources effectively.
• Napoleon’s Retreat from Moscow Most of his paintings focused on battle scenes, especially the events that occurred during Napoleonic Wars.”Some of his great works included the Prussian Attack and Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow which depicts the failure of the […]
• The Enlightenment Period And Napoleon’s Rule
• The Greatest Educational Reform in France Under the Rule of Napoleon Bonaparte
• To What Extent Was Napoleon Responsible for His Own Downfall
• The Early Life and Military Career of Napoleon
• The Reason Napoleon Was Beaten At Waterloo
• Napoleon Bonaparte Was the Cure of the French Revolution
• War And Foreign Policy Under Napoleon ‘s Regime
• The Role of Nationalism in Europe During the Era of the French Revolution and the Reign of Napoleon
• The Relationship of Snowball and Napoleon in Animal Farm by George Orwell
• The Impact of Napoleon on the Art and Science of War
• Reasons for the Defeat of Napoleon in Russia in the Campaign of 1812
• The Rise of Napoleon and Intro to French Revolution
• Was Napoleon A Betrayer Of The French Revolution
• The Presentation of Napoleon in Animal Farm by George Orwell
• Was Napoleon The Son Of The Revolution
• The Signalman, An Arrest and Napoleon and The Spectre
• Was Napoleon a Benevolent Dictator? An Economic Justification for Codification
• The Last Interview Of Napoleon Bonaparte By Erica M. Historian
• Was Napoleon Bonaparte the Saviour or the Destroyer of the Ideals of the French Revolution
• The Weaknesses of the Directory Was the Main Reason for Napoleon’s Rise to Power
• Who Is the More Effective Leader for Animal Farm: Snowball or Napoleon
• The Role of Napoleon Bonaparte in the French Revolution
• What is the Relationship Between Snowball and Napoleon in Animal Farm
• The Transcending of Personality: Prometheus and Frankenstein, Lord Byron and Napoleon
• The Complete Changes of the Character of Napoleon in Animal Farm, a Novel by George Orwell
• The Tactics and Strategies of Napoleon Bonaparte
• The Military Career and Achievement of Napoleon Bonaparte
• The Roles of Propaganda and Terror in Maintaining Napoleon’s Domination
• The Life and Brilliance of the French Emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte
• The Main Differences Between the Vision of Major’s Words and the Grim Reality of Napoleon’s
• The Importance of Napoleon the Iii and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870
• The Similarities Between the French and Americans and the Importance of Napoleon Bonaparte
• The French Defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and Napoleon’s Lack of Judgment
• Timeline of Events Showing Napoleon’s Rise to Power in George Orwell’s Animal Farm
• The Successes and Failures of Napoleon Bonaparte
• Why did Napoleon Lose the Battle of Waterloo
• The Life, Quests and Death of Napoleon Bonaparte
• Was Napoleon Bonaparte A Hero Or A Villain
• The Support of Napoleon Bonaparte of Conservatism in France and the Debate Between the Liberal and Conservative Nature of Bonaparte’s Rule
• Nationalism That Played a Major Role in the Downfall of Napoleon
• Napoleon’s Leadership Qualities in the Animal Farm
• To What Extent Were Napoleon’s Domestic Policies Based Upon The Principles Of The French Revolution
• The Usage of Propaganda by Squealer, Napoleon, and the Humans in Animal Farm, a Novella by George Orwell
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