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Economic and Social Development – Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc.

Last updated on January 10, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

India now stands at the crossroads of its development journey.

The twin pillars of economic and social progress have become central to its transformation.

For all learners of the Indian Economy and Indian Society, understanding the nuanced interplay between these two dimensions is crucial. Now, the accepted vision is that India should not only grow as a rich nation, but the development should penetrate all sections of the people. Further, the growth and development should be sustainable.

This blog post delves into India’s evolving narrative of economic and social development, offering readers a comprehensive perspective on the challenges, achievements, and potential strategies that can shape the nation’s future.

Table of Contents

Economic Development: From Marginal to Global Player

The first concept is about growth ie. Economic Development.

In economics, growth means an increase in the production of goods and services. This means an improvement in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

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India’s economic transformation is a testament to its resilience and adaptability. From being considered a ‘developing country’ for decades, India has emerged as one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies. The journey has been characterized by landmark reforms, robust GDP growth, and a shift from agrarian dominance to a diversified economy.

When we study the economic development of India, we need to grasp the complexities of India’s economic evolution. The 1991 economic liberalization marked a turning point, dismantling the License Raj and opening doors to foreign investment. This period underscores the significance of pragmatic policymaking, as it laid the foundation for subsequent growth.

However, challenges such as poverty, unemployment, and income inequality persist. We must engage ourselves with evolving strategies to address these issues, such as the ‘ Make in India ‘ initiative, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) , and initiatives for financial inclusion like the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana .

Social Development: Empowering India’s Diversity

While economic progress is vital, sustainable development is incomplete without social inclusivity. We need to understand the intricacies of India’s diverse social fabric is paramount.

Inclusive Governance

The Indian Constitution’s emphasis on social justice has paved the way for transformative policies. Social development initiatives like the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) have provided a safety net for rural citizens, tackling both poverty and unemployment. Moreover, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act underscores the commitment to protecting marginalized communities.

Gender Equality

Promoting gender equality is an integral part of India’s social development narrative. Initiatives like the Beti Bachao, and Beti Padhao campaign aim to bridge gender gaps in education and employment. Additionally, the representation of women in local governance through Panchayati Raj Institutions showcases the role of grassroots democracy in empowering women.

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Synergy Between Economic and Social Development

The intricate interplay between economic and social development is undeniable. A growing economy provides the necessary resources to fund social welfare programs, while an empowered populace becomes a potent driver of economic growth.

Administrators must focus on improving the education system and skill development initiatives. The ‘Digital India’ campaign, coupled with the National Skill Development Mission, aligns with this vision, aiming to equip the youth with 21st-century skills.

Healthcare forms the bedrock of a productive society. Schemes like Ayushman Bharat exemplify the integration of economic and social priorities, offering financial protection during medical emergencies while improving the overall health index of the nation.

Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is the compass guiding the nation’s journey towards a future that balances economic progress with environmental stewardship and social inclusivity.

At its core, sustainable development is about meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

In India’s context, it’s an approach that seeks to balance economic growth with environmental protection and social equity.

Environmental Conservation: A Prerequisite for Progress

India’s natural beauty and biodiversity are invaluable assets. Sustainable development recognizes the need to preserve these resources for current and future generations. Initiatives like afforestation, wildlife conservation, and renewable energy adoption reflect the nation’s commitment to reducing its carbon footprint.

Social Inclusivity: Leaving No One Behind

Sustainability isn’t just about protecting the planet; it’s also about uplifting people. Inclusion lies at the heart of this endeavour. Programs that ensure access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities for all segments of society contribute to a more equitable future.

Economic Growth with a Green Tint

India’s economic aspirations are intertwined with sustainability. The push for green technologies, clean energy, and circular economy practices is not just environmentally responsible; it’s economically prudent. It opens doors to innovation, job creation, and enhanced global competitiveness.

Challenges on the Road to Sustainability

The journey to sustainable development is marked by hurdles:

• Population Pressure: A large population places strain on resources and infrastructure, necessitating sustainable consumption patterns.
• Urbanization: Rapid urban growth demands sustainable urban planning, waste management, and infrastructure development.
• Climate Change: India faces the impacts of climate change, including erratic weather patterns and rising sea levels. Mitigation and adaptation strategies are essential.

Government Initiatives: A Transformative Vision

The Indian government has taken several steps to embrace sustainability:

• National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): A comprehensive strategy that outlines measures to address climate change impacts through adaptation and mitigation efforts.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: A nationwide campaign to promote cleanliness and proper waste management.
• National Solar Mission: A commitment to increasing solar energy capacity to reduce dependency on fossil fuels.

Individual and Community Role

Every citizen plays a part in sustainable development. Small actions like conserving water, reducing waste, and supporting eco-friendly products contribute to the larger goal.

Sustainable development isn’t a luxury; it’s a necessity. India’s path to prosperity is intricately linked with its commitment to preserving its environment, uplifting its people, and embracing responsible growth. By fostering a holistic approach that weaves together economic, environmental, and social well-being, India is sowing the seeds for a future where development thrives without compromising the planet or leaving anyone behind.

Read more about sustainable development …

Amidst the vibrant colours, rich culture, and dynamic progress, India grapples with a persistent challenge: poverty .

There are families struggling to make ends meet, children missing out on education, and individuals lacking access to basic healthcare. Poverty transcends mere economics; it impacts human dignity and potential.

Causes and Complexity

Poverty rates are generally higher in rural areas compared to urban areas. Rural poverty is often linked to factors such as limited job opportunities and inadequate access to education and healthcare.

Poverty’s roots are deep and intertwined with various factors:

• Unemployment: Lack of job opportunities, especially in rural areas, leads to income instability.
• Underemployment: Many are trapped in low-paying, unstable jobs that fail to provide a decent living.
• Lack of Education: Illiteracy perpetuates poverty by limiting access to better job prospects.
• Healthcare Disparities: Poor health leads to decreased productivity and increased medical expenses.
• Social Discrimination: Marginalized communities face limited opportunities due to societal biases.

Impacts on Society

The impact of poverty extends beyond individual lives:

• Education Gap: Poverty often denies children access to education, perpetuating the cycle.
• Healthcare Challenges: Poor living conditions and inadequate nutrition lead to health issues.
• Crime and Unrest: Poverty can contribute to social unrest and criminal activities.
• Inequality: The gap between the rich and the poor widens, affecting social cohesion.

Government Initiatives: A Ray of Hope

The Indian government recognizes the urgency of addressing poverty and has introduced several initiatives to tackle the issue:

• National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA): Provides employment opportunities in rural areas, aiding income stability.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): Aims to provide affordable housing for urban and rural poor.
• Jan Dhan Yojana: Financial inclusion program to ensure access to banking services.
• Mid-Day Meal Scheme: Provides nutritious meals in schools, boosting attendance and health.

Civil Society and Non-Governmental Efforts

Numerous NGOs and grassroots organizations work tirelessly to combat poverty. Their efforts include education programs, vocational training, healthcare initiatives, and community development projects.

Towards a Brighter Future

The road to eradicating poverty is challenging, but progress is evident:

• Economic Growth: India’s growing economy can create more jobs and opportunities.
• Education Focus: Emphasis on education can break the cycle of poverty.
• Social Programs: Effective implementation of social welfare programs can uplift marginalized communities.

Poverty is a complex issue that requires multidimensional solutions. India’s journey towards prosperity involves addressing unemployment, inequality, and access to basic services. By weaving social and economic safety nets, fostering education, and supporting inclusive policies, we can create a society where every individual has the opportunity to escape the clutches of poverty and live a life of dignity and promise.

Read more about poverty in India …

Inclusion is the act of ensuring that every individual, regardless of their background, enjoys equal rights and opportunities.

The concept of inclusion forms the bedrock of India’s ethos.

In this post, we delve into the concept of inclusion in the Indian context, exploring its significance, challenges, and strides forward.

Equal Access to Opportunities

In a truly inclusive economy, everyone has an unobstructed path to opportunities. From education to entrepreneurship, access must be unrestricted by gender, caste, religion, or socio-economic background. When barriers are dismantled, a more diverse and skilled workforce emerges, propelling innovation and economic growth.

Financial Inclusion

Inclusion in the economic realm extends to financial accessibility. Programs like the Jan Dhan Yojana have brought millions into the formal banking system, giving them a chance to save, invest, and plan for the future. This empowerment contributes to poverty reduction and economic stability.

Social Cohesion

Inclusion in society fosters a sense of belonging and shared purpose. When individuals from different walks of life interact, understanding deepens, and prejudices weaken. This kind of cohesion is crucial in a country as diverse as India, where unity amidst diversity is a national strength.

Empowerment of Marginalized Communities

Inclusion takes on a transformative role when it empowers marginalized communities. Affirmative action policies and targeted programs uplift those historically left behind, creating a more equitable social landscape. Empowerment through education, skill development, and access to resources bridges gaps and drives social progress.

Gender Disparities

Despite progress, gender disparities remain a challenge. Women’s access to education, employment, and decision-making roles is often limited. Inclusive policies that promote gender equality are vital to harnessing the full potential of society and the economy.

Rural-Urban Divide

The rural-urban divide in India reflects uneven access to opportunities and services. Inclusive development means bridging this gap, ensuring that the benefits of progress reach every corner of the nation.

Education for All

Inclusion starts with education. Every child, regardless of background, deserves access to quality education. This prepares them to be active contributors to the economy and informed citizens in society.

Employment Opportunities

Promoting inclusion in the economy involves creating job opportunities that accommodate diverse skill sets. Inclusive workplaces that value diversity foster innovation and productivity.

Inclusion isn’t just a concept; it’s a commitment to building a society and economy that leaves no one behind. As India marches towards its goals of economic growth and social progress, the thread of inclusion must be woven through every policy, program, and initiative.

Inclusion ensures that every voice matters, every talent is nurtured, and every dream is achievable. It’s not just about unity in diversity; it’s about unity in progress.

Read more about inclusion …

Demographics

India, a land of unparalleled diversity and cultural richness, is equally fascinating when it comes to its demographics.

Demographics, the study of a population’s composition, characteristics, and trends, unveils a vivid tapestry of people, languages, religions, and aspirations. In this post, we’ll journey through India’s demographics, exploring its unique features and the transformative shifts that shape its future.

Population Diversity: Unity in Multiplicity

India’s population is a melting pot of various ethnicities, languages, religions, and traditions. With over 1.3 billion people, it’s the world’s second-most populous country. The term “unity in diversity” is exemplified in India’s demographics, where a multitude of identities coexist harmoniously.

Languages and Linguistic Diversity

India is a linguistic wonderland, with an estimated 22 officially recognized languages and thousands of dialects. Hindi, in its various forms, serves as a link between different regions, but states also embrace their native languages with pride. Each language is a window into unique cultures, traditions, and ways of life.

Religious Plurality

Religious diversity is a defining aspect of India’s demographics. Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and various other faiths are practised here. The nation’s commitment to secularism is a testament to its respect for all religions, fostering a harmonious coexistence.

Demographic Transitions: A Changing Landscape

India’s demographics are in a constant state of flux due to various factors, including birth rates, death rates, and migration. Over the years, the country has undergone significant demographic transitions that have far-reaching implications.

Youthful Population

One striking feature is India’s youthfulness. The median age is around 28 years, making it one of the youngest nations globally. This “youth bulge” offers immense potential for the workforce, innovation, and economic growth.

Urbanization and Migration

Urbanization is reshaping India’s demographic landscape. People from rural areas are moving to cities in search of better opportunities, resulting in the growth of urban centers. This migration brings cultural exchange, increased demand for infrastructure, and challenges related to housing and services.

Demographics and Development

Understanding demographics is crucial for policymaking and development strategies. By analyzing the age distribution, literacy rates, and income levels, authorities can tailor interventions to meet specific needs.

Healthcare and Aging

India’s demographics also hold insights into healthcare requirements. As the population ages, healthcare systems must adapt to address age-related ailments and ensure a healthy elderly population.

Education and Employment

The youth-dominated demographic structure calls for investment in education and skill development . Empowering the youth with quality education and job opportunities is a key step toward reaping the demographic dividend.

India’s demographics are a vibrant mosaic that reflects its cultural richness, historical legacy, and evolving aspirations. It’s a story of unity within diversity, where countless identities coalesce into a shared destiny. As India navigates its demographic transitions, understanding and harnessing this diversity will be critical for shaping a future that benefits all citizens, preserves traditions, and embraces progress.

Read more about India’s demographics …

Social Sector Initiatives

India has implemented a range of major social sector initiatives to address various challenges and improve the well-being of its citizens. These initiatives cover areas such as education, healthcare, women’s empowerment, rural development, and more. Here are some of the significant social sector initiatives in India:

1. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) : This landmark initiative aims to provide employment opportunities to rural households, ensuring livelihood security and reducing rural unemployment. It guarantees 100 days of wage employment per year to each household, promoting inclusive growth and rural development.

2. Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) : This financial inclusion program aims to provide access to banking services to every household, especially those in rural and remote areas. It encourages people to open bank accounts, avail insurance services, and benefit from direct subsidy transfers.

3. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign): Launched to promote cleanliness, hygiene, and sanitation across the country, this initiative focuses on building toilets, ensuring proper waste management, and improving the overall cleanliness of both rural and urban areas.

4. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao : This initiative aims to address gender bias and improve the status of the girl child in Indian society. It focuses on preventing female infanticide, promoting education for girls, and empowering them to lead successful lives.

5. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: This scheme provides free LPG connections to women from below-poverty-line households, reducing indoor air pollution from traditional cooking methods and promoting better health and safety.

6. Ayushman Bharat – Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY): Commonly known as the Ayushman Bharat scheme, it is one of the world’s largest government-sponsored health insurance initiatives. It provides health coverage to economically vulnerable families, ensuring they have access to quality healthcare without facing financial strain.

7. National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and National Health Mission (NHM): These initiatives focus on improving healthcare services in rural and remote areas by upgrading health facilities, training healthcare workers, and enhancing maternal and child health services.

8. Digital India : This initiative aims to transform India into a digitally empowered society by promoting digital literacy, providing access to various digital services, and enhancing online governance and service delivery.

9. Skill India : This program seeks to provide skill development and vocational training to millions of Indian youth, enabling them to acquire job-relevant skills and increase their employability.

10. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): This scheme aims to provide affordable housing to urban and rural poor households. It focuses on ensuring “Housing for All” by constructing pucca houses with necessary amenities.

11. National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW): This mission focuses on empowering women economically, socially, and politically. It promotes gender equality, addresses violence against women, and supports their overall well-being.

12. Atal Pension Yojana (APY): This pension scheme targets unorganized sector workers and provides them with a pension after their retirement age. It aims to ensure social security and financial stability for individuals in the informal sector.

These are just a few examples of the many social sector initiatives that India has undertaken to uplift its citizens’ quality of life and promote inclusive development. Each of these initiatives addresses specific challenges while contributing to the overall progress of the nation.

Read more about the social sector initiatives in India …

How to study Economic and Social Development?

Readers may note that this article on Economic and Social Development is just an overview of the topic. There is a lot more to learn about Economic and Social Development.

We recommend the below sources to learn the subject.

• Join  ClearIAS Video Course (Prelims cum Mains).
• Go through  ClearIAS notes on Economic and Social Development.
• Read  books on Economic and Social Development .

We must recognize that the journey of economic and social development in India is intertwined with their role.

Understanding the dynamics, challenges, and success stories of this journey is essential for crafting policies that bring holistic progress.

The youth hold the potential to shape India’s future by harnessing the power of inclusive economic growth and equitable social development.

Read: Income inequality

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6 Major Social Issues in India: Causes and Measures

India suffers from a host of social issues ranging from poverty to gendered violence. This article covers the concept of social issues and highlights the different experiences of rural and urban sectors. Further, it studies six important social issues namely poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, the caste system, gendered violence and communalism by analyzing their causes and the specific measures adopted to combat them.

What Are Social Issues?

An individual problem is one that affects only a particular individual or group. On the other hand, public issues are those faced by society as a whole. A social issue is when a situation is deemed less than the social ideal. It must result in unfavourable circumstances that can only be handled collectively. India has undergone many changes in the last decades. Social change brings with it a new set of circumstances wherein an otherwise overlooked issue might be given importance. For example, the population explosion in India was not viewed as a serious issue until the 1950s. It is also important to note that any problem only becomes a social issue when enough number of people find it undesirable. Sati was not deemed a social issue until Raja Ram Mohan Roy criticized the practice and a considerable number of people started supporting him (Ahuja 2014).

Rural versus Urban Social Issues

Many scholars have identified fundamental differences between the causes and consequences of issues experienced the rural and urban sectors.

The rural sector has five identifying characteristics. Firstly, people are either directly or indirectly dependent upon agriculture. Next, the upper caste citizens are the largest landholders. Thirdly, the roles and values of rural people are traditional. Also, the farmers receive inadequate compensation for their hard work. Finally, people are scattered in rural areas as compared to urban cities. This isolation means that their access to services like banks, hospitals and schools is also minimal.

Read: Farmers’ suicides in India

On the other hand, the urban sector is characterized by the concentration of large populations in small areas. This results in many issues such as slums, high crime rates, pollution, drug abuse and unemployment. Also, cities are highly interdependent on every small part. For example, a strike by bus workers could result in many problems for the functioning of a city.

Poverty can be defined as the inability to secure the minimum standard of living appropriate to society. According to the Planning Commission, 22% of India’s population lived below the poverty line in 2012.

Causes of Poverty

The sociologist David Elesh determined three causes of poverty namely individual, culture of poverty and social structure. The first ideology is propagated by those who believe that if an individual ends up in poverty, it is their own fault and due to a lack of hard work and initiative. This thought is rooted in the functionalist approach of sociology. It maintains that poverty is a good thing for society since it propagates the survival of the fittest. The culture of poverty concept was introduced in 1959 by Oscar Lewis. He believed that the lifestyle of the lower socio-economic classes fostered behaviours and attitudes associated with poverty. Hence, no amount of economic rehabilitation could help alleviate the poor. Finally, the social structure approach was propagated by sociologist Herbert Gans . He associated poverty with unjust social conditions and pointed out that the middle and higher classes had a vested interest in the poor. For example, the existence of the poor helped alleviate their social status. Thus, they had no interest in changing the social structure (Ahuja 2014).

Within the Indian context, many unique causes of poverty have been identified. The first is the rapidly rising population. This year, the population reached 138.72 crores which was a 1.26% increase from last year. Such a high population raised the demand for consumption of a limited number of resources. The second is low agricultural productivity due to lack of capital, technology and fragmented land holding. The next cause is unemployment which is present in the form of both underemployment and disguised unemployment in the agricultural sector. Social factors have also contributed to poverty through the caste system , gendered laws of inheritance and a lack of infrastructure. Finally, political factors such as the British exploitation of natural resources also led to a weakened Indian economy.

Poverty Alleviation Programs

The Indian government has launched many poverty alleviation programs for the rural and urban poor. A few major schemes have been described below. The Indira Awaas Yojna (IAY) was launched to aid the construction of houses for those belonging to scheduled tribes, scheduled castes, freed bonded laborers and the rural poor living below the poverty line. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGA) was introduced in 2005 all over India. Under this scheme, every rural household was guaranteed 100 days of wage employment in the form of unskilled manual labor each fiscal year. Finally, the food security scheme introduced in 2003 distributed allocated amounts of food grains to priority and antyodya households for free. This scheme covered almost 75% of the rural and 50% of the urban population (Ahuja 2014).

Unemployment

Unemployment has often been described as the most significant social issue in society. This is because an individual is dependent on their work for both their livelihood and their status. Sociologically, unemployment is defined as the inability to find remunerative work in the face of both potential and desire to earn. The three elements of unemployment are that the individual must be capable, willing and making an effort to be gainfully employed.

Types of Unemployment

There are three major classifications of unemployment, namely, seasonal, cyclical and technological.

Seasonal unemployment is a characteristic of the agricultural sector. Any cultivator in India is unemployed for almost four to six months every year. Workers at some manufacturing units like ice or sugar factories are also seasonally unemployed due to the nature of the work.

Cyclical unemployment is a result of the ups and downs in business. For example, an entrepreneur earning high profits might invest them in a startup thus creating employment. But when they start suffering losses, they might reduce the number of workers present in their industries.

Technological unemployment is caused because of the introduction of new technologies that displace manual labor. The adoption of automation in almost every industry has resulted in a loss of economic security for the average man (Ahuja 2014).

Causes of Unemployment

Sociologists have suggested that unemployment is a result of both economic and social factors.

Degrading social status means that many people consider themselves overqualified for certain jobs and thus prefer to remain unemployed. For example, many youths consider teaching in universities to be a prestigious job whereas teaching in a school is looked down upon.

Geographical immobility refers to surplus labor in one location and inadequate labor in another. People may be unable to move to areas with higher job opportunities due to a lack of information, language barriers or family responsibilities. For example, women in rural areas often lose out on paid work because they do not get the opportunity to migrate to cities like their husbands.

Population explosion has led to increased unemployment due to the limited number of job opportunities in the economy. Many people lose out on work due to personal reasons such as lack of education or experience or even illness and disability. The high rates of unemployment increase the dependency on parents to provide for their children and for the government to assume responsibility for them.

The defective education system fails to give importance to primary education and vocational training. The benefits of education are mostly availed only by middle- and high-income youth with access to private schools and universities. The conditions in most government schools are unsuitable for studying and are often a result for many girls to drop out (Ahuja 2014).

Remedial Measures

The Indian government has recognized the issue of unemployment within the country. They have taken many steps in the form of employment generation schemes. The MGNREGA scheme mentioned previously is one major measure. Unemployment cannot be solved by making India more labour-intensive which has been suggested in the past. Instead, the focus should be on educating the youth and making them employable within the upcoming service sector.

Unemployment: Definition, Types, Causes, Solutions and The Way Ahead

As mentioned in the previous section, illiteracy is a major barrier to development since it results in unskilled labor. According to the Census Commission of India, literacy refers to any person who can read and write with understanding in a recognized Indian language. The 2011 census revealed that the literacy rate of India was around 74% with many regional variations and gender disparities. All over India, Kerala has the highest literacy rate and Bihar the lowest.

Measures to Eradicate Illiteracy

Many programs have been introduced by the government in accordance with the education policies of India. A few of these have been mentioned below.

The National Adult Education (NAE) program was introduced in 1978 to promoted education within the age group of 15-35 years. The Rural Functional Literacy (RFL) program is a sub-program of the NAE and was launched in 1986. It aimed at creating awareness among adults about the numerous government schemes they could benefit from. Moreover, it involved student volunteers from universities in teaching adults. Finally, the National Literacy Mission was launched in 1988 by Rajiv Gandhi and aimed at involving volunteer agencies in the mission to educate illiterate persons all over the country (Ahuja 2014).

Caste System

The Indian caste system is based on the cultural features of hierarchy, pollution and purity. It subscribes to the doctrines of Karma and Dharma. The Indian government introduced the category of Scheduled Castes (SCs) to the constitution in 1935. Currently, SCs constitute around 16% of the Indian population. The main issues faced by Dalits are those of untouchability, exploitation, exclusion from religious and educational institutions and social discrimination.

Dalit Empowerment Measures

The government’s approach towards the upliftment of SCs was based on two ideas. The first was to overcome deprivations in terms of education, housing and employment that the SCs have inherited due to their historical exclusion from society. The second was to encourage their participation in the economic, social and political processes of the country.

Protective measures included acts such as the protection of the Civil Rights Act passed in 1976 and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Prevention of Atrocities Act passed in 1989. Together, these acts protected Dalits from untouchability, discrimination and violence in public places. Reservation policies within educational institutions, government services and political bodies are also a part of protective measures. These ensure adequate participation of SCs in public spheres though they are restricted to only the government sectors.

Development measures were introduced within the educational, economic and social spheres. To increase educational development the government has attempted to include reservations within educational institutions, provide financial support and coaching facilities and emphasized on girls education. Economic empowerment includes distribution of land to landless laborers and implementation of wage labor programs. Finally, social welfare schemes to increase access to sanitation, housing, drinking water and electricity have been introduced by the government (Thorat 2009).

Read: Dalit and Backward Classes Movements

Gendered Violence

Women have always been victims of exploitation and violence within the Indian subcontinent. Violence against women consists of criminal, domestic and social violence. Criminal violence consists of rape, murder, female foeticide and abduction. Domestic violence includes wife battering, dowry deaths and sexual violence. Social violence comprises eve-teasing, inheritance laws favouring men etc.

The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) released that 33,356 cases of rape were reported all over India in 2018. Most of these are instances where the rapist is known to the victim. Moreover, these statistics fail to reveal the high number of rapes that are not even reported by the victim.  Instances of rape cut across geographical locations, class and caste. Female employees are raped by employers, women inmates are raped by superintendents, female patients are raped by hospital staff and domestic helpers by their employers. Within the context of marriage, violence against women becomes harder to navigate. The Indian constitution does not recognize marital rape as a criminal offence (Ahuja 2014).

Measures to Prevent Women’s Harassment

The government in collaboration with volunteer organizations has taken a few steps for the safety of women. Shelters for women suffering from abusive husbands or in-laws have been established. But such accommodations suffer from issues of overcrowding and a lack of financial support. Helplines for women have been publicized by the police in various cities such as New Delhi. Legal institutions that provide free legal assistance to women have also been promoted by the government. But despite all these measures, the most important change that is required to combat women’s harassment is a change in attitude. The patriarchal society of India has oppressed women for too long. This pattern needs to change by taking small steps such as ending victim-blaming for sexual and violent assaults.

Communalism

Communalism refers to attempts to overemphasize the importance of religious identity and stimulate communal violence between different religious groups. Within India, tensions between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs have been present since the India-Pakistan partition. Muslims, Sikhs and other religious minorities are protected by the Indian constitution under provisions for justice, tolerance, equality and freedom. Despite these provisions, communal violence has been a part of India since independence. The recent case of the Babri Masjid and associated riots is a popular example of religious discord. Violence can take many forms of mass mobilizations, insurgency and riots. Usually, communal violence is more politically motivated than fueled by religion. Hindu- Muslim riots in Andhra Pradesh in 1990 led to more than a hundred deaths (Ahuja 2014).

Prescriptive Measures

India has suffered at the hands of communalism for too long. The government and the citizens must work together towards harmony. Symbolic gestures are not enough for Muslims as they must be empowered through literacy and employment. Secularism must be promoted through education. Moreover, communal minded politicians should be boycotted during elections and the police and military must be sensitized and encouraged to adopt a secular outlook.

This article has covered many social issues faced by Indian citizens on a daily basis. It is essential that such problems be recognized by individuals and governments alike so that they may work together towards a better future.

Ahuja, R. (2014).  Social problems in India . Jaipur: Rawat Publications.

Thorat, S. (2009).  Dalits in India: Search for a common destiny . New Delhi: SAGE Publications India Pvt. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9788132101086.n1

Arushi is a sociology and environmental studies. She is passionate about writing and researching about these two fields. She has a keen interest in social work and has collaborated with many volunteering programs in the past. Her hobbies include horse riding, trekking and painting.

• IAS Preparation
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• Social Issues In India

Social Issues in India - Major Classifications

Social issues in India are in plenty and they need to be addressed systematically to achieve social justice and economic justice to all the citizens of India. The founding fathers of India were keen on addressing the social issues of India by framing the constitution accordingly. Information on the major social issues will help the aspirants of the IAS Exam .

Classification of Social Issues

The below table gives a broad classification of major social issues in India.

Gender Issues

The details of 3 major gender issues are given below.

• As per the report of the Economic Survey 2017-18, there are 63 million missing women in India.
• Missing women are women who are not alive due to foeticide or infanticide.
• As per the World Economic Forum, India is ranked very low at 87th position in the “Global Gender Parity Report.”
• Indian Government launched the ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’ scheme to address the problem of the gender gap.
• The government has been carrying out information campaigns to address the problems by bringing in behavioural change in society.

Read about Gender Inequality in India in the linked article.

Triple Talaq

• Many Muslim-majority countries have banned triple talaq.
• To bring equality and justice to women, the Government of India has passed the Triple Talaq Bill, henceforth all declarations of talaq including written and electronic forms will be null and void.

Use the information given in the Triple Talaq Essay to substantiate your answers in the Mains exam.

Sexual Harassment at Workplace

• The government passed the Sexual Harassment at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act in 2013.
• It aims to protect the rights of women in any workplace in any capacity.

Learn in detail about Sexual Harassment at the Workplace in the linked article.

Poverty Report

• As per the World Bank Brookings Institute report, as of May 2018, there are only 73 million people in the poorest of the poor index.
• As per the report, 44 people in India are taken out of poverty every minute.
• If the growth continues at the same pace, then 50 million people will move out of poverty by 2022.
• India is no longer the country with the highest poverty.

Read about Poverty-related topics from the links given below:

Caste Related Issues

The details of caste-related issues are given below .

Lynchings because of caste-related issues occur in the country. There was no specific section to handle mob lynchings under the IPC but under the new Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, there is a provision for life imprisonment or death for such a crime. The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita “adds murder or grievous hurt by five or more people on specified grounds, as an offence. These grounds include race, caste, sex, language, or personal belief. The punishment for such murder is life imprisonment or death”.

Information and Broadcasting Advisory

• Information and Broadcasting Ministry has issued an advisory that the word ‘Dalit’ can no longer be used, this is as per the directive of the Bombay High Court and Madhya Pradesh High Courts. This is because the word found no mention in the Constitution of India or any statute.
• There was another directive from the Social Justice and Empowerment Ministry to use only the term ‘Scheduled Castes’.

Implications of Caste Census

• The next caste census will take place in 2021, the problems associated with it is that it will encourage caste-based politics rather than concentrating on developmental activities. Also, there will be strong sentiments for or against reservations.

This is also one of the major social issues in India. The details are given below.

Changing Pattern of Migration

• As per recent reports, the number of women migrating in India is increasing at a faster pace than men. Marriage continues to play an important role in the migration of women; however, now other economic factors like employment, business, and education are also playing an important role in migration.

Know about Migration from India’s context in the linked article.

Plight of Migrants

• There has been an increase in violence against migrants coming to a state from different parts of the country.
• Lack of job opportunities for the locals has led to growing resentment against the migrants who are dubbed ‘outsiders’

Learn the challenges of migration that are mentioned in the linked article.

A country’s sustainable progress is dependent on the availability of healthy human resources. With a deteriorating environment and unhealthy lifestyle, health is turning out to be one of the major social issues in India.

Impact of Air Pollution

• As per the India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative report, India faces 26% of the world’s premature deaths and disease burden due to air pollution.
• 1 in 8 deaths in India was attributed to air pollution, which makes it a leading risk factor for death.
• Poor air quality is responsible for heart ailments as well.

Campaign against Drugs

• The drug menace is extremely severe in Punjab.
• Punjab’s prisons are overcrowded with drug users and peddlers.
• Punjab set up a Special Task Force to tackle the menace.

Substance Abuse in India

• As per a recent report released by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, India has 6 crore alcohol addicts
• More than 3 crore Indians are using cannabis products.
• 8.5 lakh people in India inject drugs.

Know the relevant facts about Drug Abuse in India from the linked article.

Other Issues

Increasing Youth Suicides

• As per reports from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) between 2014 and 2016; 26,476 students committed suicide in India. Of these around 7,500 committed suicide due to failure in various examinations.
• The main blame lies with India’s education system.
• The education system has not been able to generate enough jobs.

Social Issues in India- UPSC Notes:- Download PDF Here

The above details would help candidates prepare for  UPSC 2024 .

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• A Sampling of Public Opinion in India

Optimism persists, but concerns about terrorism and Pakistan loom large

Table of contents.

• Acknowledgments
• Methodology

Polls are about to open to as many as 900 million people in the world’s largest democracy . The elections follow a year in which most Indian adults showed dissatisfaction with the nation’s progress on issues including unemployment, inflation and the efficacy of elections. Even prior to the Pulwama attack in Indian-administered Kashmir, majorities of Indians voiced concern about terrorism and the threat posed to their country by Pakistan. But despite these worries, most Indian adults are satisfied with the direction of their country and the economic prospects of the next generation, according to a Pew Research Center survey conducted among 2,521 respondents in India from May 23 to July 23, 2018.

Here are 12 takeaways about public opinion in India that provide context about the public’s views leading up to the national elections.

Indian public opinion on national conditions

Indian adults certainly recognize that their personal economic well-being has benefited greatly from strong national economic performance: Indian economic growth has averaged 7.3% per year since 2014 . Roughly two-thirds (65%) say the financial situation of average people in India is better today than it was 20 years ago. Only 15% say things are worse.

But there are signs of public unease. About two-thirds of Indians (66%) believe that today’s children will be better off than their parents. But that optimism is down 10 percentage points since 2017.

Similarly, a majority of Indians (55%) are happy with the way things are going in their nation today. But that is down 15 points from 70% in 2017 and marks a return to the level of public satisfaction in 2015, the first full year of Narendra Modi’s government. Still, Indians’ mood remains much higher than in the last two years of the previous government of Manmohan Singh.

Lack of employment opportunities is seen by the public as India’s biggest challenge, with 76% of adults saying it is a very big problem – little changed over the past year. In 2018, despite an estimated 3.5% formal unemployment rate, 18.6 million Indians were jobless and another 393.7 million work in poor-quality jobs vulnerable to displacement, according to estimates by the International Labor Office .

Other aspects of the economy are also at the top of the public’s concerns. More than seven-in-ten (73%) believe rising prices are a very big problem.

About two-thirds of the public says corrupt officials (66%), terrorism (65%) and crime (64%) are very big problems. In each case, such concern is down significantly from 2017 – by 20 percentage points in the case of crime, 11 points for terrorism and 8 points regarding officials’ corruption.

Indians with at least a secondary education are significantly more worried about corrupt officials than the less educated. Notably, there is little partisan difference in views of these problems.

On one very personal aspect of crime, more than half (54%) of Indians say the statement “most people live in areas where it is dangerous to walk around at night” describes India very or somewhat well.Roughly half of the public believes the gap between the rich and the poor is a very big problem (51%) and a similar share complains about poor-quality schools (50%). But while the latter sentiment has not changed since 2017, concern about inequality is down 10 points. More than four-in-ten are very concerned about air pollution and health care (both 44%), but these views are also down 10 points.

Notably, incidents of communal violence are higher than they were in 2014, according to Indian Ministry of Home Affairs data , but only about a third of Indians (34%) see this as a very big problem facing the country.

When asked whether various challenges facing India have gotten better or worse in the past five years, a time frame that largely encompasses the term of the current Modi government, few Indians voice a positive judgment. Just one-in-five (21%) say job opportunities have gotten better, while 67% think things have gotten worse (including 47% who say much worse). A similar share believes prices of goods and services (19%), corruption (21%) and terrorism (21%) have gotten better.

Meanwhile, 65% say prices have gotten worse, 65% are of the opinion that corruption has worsened (including again 47% who say it is much worse) and 59% think terrorism is worse. (This survey was conducted roughly nine months prior to the Pulwama attack, later claimed by Pakistan-based terrorist group Jaish-e-Mohammad .) Roughly one-in-four think the gap between the rich and the poor has narrowed (27%) and that air quality has gotten better (27%). In both cases, more than half the public thinks these things have gotten worse. And just 28% say communal relations have improved, while 45% say they have gotten worse.

As the Lok Sabha election nears, there is a decidedly partisan take on the direction of the country and the challenges facing India. Members of the opposition Indian National Congress party (Congress) are 21 percentage points more likely than backers of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) to say that job opportunities have worsened and 17 points more likely to say the same about air pollution. Congress adherents are more likely than BJP supporters to believe inequality has gotten worse (by 17 points), that corruption has worsened (12 points) and that terrorism and communal violence has become more of a problem.

As Indians head into election season, more than half (54%) are satisfied with the way democracy is working in their country. However, satisfaction has declined 25 percentage points from 2017, when 79% voiced approval. Men are more likely than women to give Indian democracy a thumbs-up, though one-in-five women decline to offer an opinion. Indians with a secondary education are more likely than those with less than a secondary education to be satisfied with their democracy, though one-in-six (17%) less-educated Indians offer no opinion. Such satisfaction is a partisan affair: 75% of BJP supporters, but only 42% of Congress adherents, are satisfied with how Indian democracy functions.

In April and May 2019, Indians will go to the polls to elect a new Lok Sabha, the 545-seat lower house of the Indian Parliament. Roughly 900 million people are eligible to vote. When it comes to specific aspects of their democracy, Indians voice strong frustrations about elections and elected officials.

Nearly two-thirds (64%) say most politicians are corrupt (including 43% who very intensely hold this view). Notably, nearly seven-in ten (69%) of both BJP supporters and Congress backers share the view that elected leaders are corrupt.

Another 58% voice the opinion that no matter who wins an election, things do not change very much. This includes a majority of both BJP and Congress adherents.

And only 33% of Indian adults believe elected officials care what ordinary people think. Men are more likely than women to believe that officials don’t care, but almost a third of women (32%) decline to voice an opinion.

At the same time, the public thinks that the Indian state allows democratic values to flourish.

By more than two-to-one (58% to 26%), Indians say their rights to express their own views are protected very or somewhat well. Those with more education are more likely than those with less education to say freedom of speech is protected, although, again, a significant share of the less educated (22%) voice no opinion.

A similar proportion (56% to 27%) says most people have a good chance to improve their standard of living in India. People living in urban areas are more likely than those in rural parts of India to believe in such opportunities. BJP supporters (66%) are more likely than Congress adherents (53%) to say Indian democracy delivers economic opportunity.

A plurality (47%) believes the court system treats everyone fairly, a perception held especially among young people.

Globalization and India

Indians (71%) overwhelmingly believe trade is good for their nation. Support for trade, in principle, is roughly comparable to that in Japan (72%) and the United States (74%), but lower than that in the European Union (85%), according to a recent international survey by Pew Research Center. And the share of Indian adults who say growing trade and business ties between India and other countries is very good has nearly doubled, from 25% in 2014 to 49% in 2018.

The rise in intense Indian support for trade reflects a widely shared perception that international commerce benefits individuals. Contrary to public opinion in the U.S., Europe and Japan, a majority of Indians believe trade with other countries leads to an increase in wages (57%) and creates jobs (56%). And such sentiment is up slightly from 2014. Few Indian adults believe trade kills jobs (15%) or undermines wages (13%). At the same time, roughly half of Indians (52%) say trade increases prices, a sentiment that is widely shared in other emerging markets yet is contrary to economic theory that international commerce should lead to falling prices.

Educational attainment plays a role in Indian views of trade. Of those who offer an opinion, adults with at least a secondary education are far more likely than those with less education (86% vs. 63%) to say that trade is good for India. They are also more likely to believe that trade creates jobs (72% vs. 49%) and boosts wages (71% vs. 50%), but also to think that trade leads to higher prices (65% vs. 46%). Less-educated Indians are roughly three times as likely as more educated Indians to voice no opinion about the impact of trade, highlighting the significance of education in shaping public views of globalization.

For those who provided a response, there is also a generational difference in public opinion about the impact of globalization. Young Indians, those ages 18 to 29, are more likely (59%) than older Indians, those ages 50 and older (50%), to believe that trade generates new employment. And young Indians (55%) are more likely than their elders (45%) to say trade raises prices. Older Indians are, however, more likely than their younger compatriots to have no view, or less willing to share that view, on the personal impacts of trade.

BJP supporters are more likely than Congress backers to think trade creates jobs and raises wages, but they are also more likely to believe that trade raises prices.

With more than 1.35 billion people, India is home to the world’s second-largest population and nearly a fifth of the total world populace. India also happens to be the top source of international migrants – one-in-twenty migrants worldwide in 2015 were born in India. In 2017 more than 16 million Indians were living abroad , with high concentrations in the United Arab Emirates, the United States, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. Still, this constitutes only about 1% of India’s birth population, putting the nation well under the 3% average emigration rate for other countries around the world.

When asked if people leaving for jobs in other countries posed a problem for India, more than six-in-ten (64%) said this type of emigration was a problem, including nearly half (49%) saying it is a very big problem. Although outmigration itself may not be viewed favorably, in 2016 Indian migrants abroad collectively sent nearly $63 billion worth of remittances back to family and friends living in India, or roughly 3% of total gross domestic product.

At the same time, Indians show little enthusiasm for expanding immigration into their country. Roughly three-in-ten Indians (29%) say their government should allow fewer immigrants, with an additional 16% volunteering that there should be no immigration at all.

Just 13% think more immigration into India should be encouraged, and 11% think immigration levels should stay about the same as they are now. In 2017, just over 5 million people (or less than 1% of the population) living in India were born in other countries, with most of them coming from neighboring Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal.

When thinking about why people move abroad, Indians say it is to advance careers and pursue educational opportunities. Roughly three-quarters think finding better jobs and furthering education are important reasons why people in India move to other countries. Roughly half see uniting with family living in another country as an important reason why Indians relocate abroad, while only about a quarter think Indians move to escape violence.

More than eight-in-ten Indians with higher incomes and educational attainment cite the pursuit of better career and education opportunities as reasons people move to other countries, while fewer cite fleeing violence or joining family abroad. Indians in both urban and rural areas also see following better prospects for learning and working abroad as important reasons people in India emigrate.

India-Pakistan relations

Most Indians see Pakistan, their neighbor to the west, as a threat. When asked how serious of a danger Pakistan poses for India, about three-quarters in India (76%) say Pakistan is a threat, including 63% who say it is a very serious threat. Only 7% of Indians do not see Pakistan as a danger for their country. (This survey was conducted roughly nine months prior to the Pulwama attack, later claimed by Pakistan-based terrorist group Jaish-e-Mohammad , and retaliatory Indian air strikes in Pakistani territory.)

Indians from many walks of life share in this sentiment. Those in rural areas and urban centers, supporters of the prime minister’s BJP and supporters of the opposition Congress party, as well as Indians across age groups, all agree that Pakistan threatens their nation.

Indians who express confidence in Narendra Modi are more likely (70%) to see Pakistan as a threat than are those with less confidence in the prime minister, although even among this latter group about half view Pakistan as a danger (51%).

One source of historical tensions between these two nations lies in Kashmir , a region in the Indian subcontinent whose possession has been disputed since the Partition of India – the creation of the modern Indian and Pakistani states – in 1947.

A majority of Indians (55%) see the situation in Kashmir as a very big problem. When asked how this issue has changed over the past five years, more than half (53%) say circumstances in Kashmir have gotten worse. Only 18% think things have gotten better, and just 6% believe conditions are the same.

When asked about the government’s strategy in dealing with the situation in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, a majority believes the Indian government should use more military force than they are currently using. Equal, though small, shares think the military should use either less or about the same amount of force (both 7%).

Global views of India

Throughout Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s term in office, international perceptions of India have been mostly positive. Majorities in all five Asia-Pacific countries surveyed have a favorable view of India , with such positive judgement ranging from 64% in South Korea to 57% in Indonesia and Australia. Half the American public also shares this upbeat opinion of the world’s largest democracy.

Compared with 2014, the year Modi first came to office as prime minister, views of India abroad have largely remained stable. Favorable views have increased by a negligible 5 percentage points in South Korea, while they have decreased by the same amount in Japan, Indonesia and the U.S. The Philippines holds more positive views today than four years ago, with a 13-point increase in Indian favorability over that time.

There is a notable gap between how Indians see their country’s global stature and how others around the world see it. While 56% of Indians believe their country is playing a bigger role in world affairs than a decade ago, a median of just 28% across 26 nations polled agree. Pluralities in six countries believe India’s role has grown over the past 10 years, with notable shares saying India’s stature has increased in advanced economies, including France (49%), Japan (48%), South Korea (48%), Sweden (47%) and the UK (46%).

Fewer (a median of 22%) think India’s global role has diminished in the past decade. In particular, South Africans (37%) and Brazilians (32%) see India as a less important global power. The most common view across the nations surveyed (a median of 34%) is that India’s role is about the same as it was 10 years ago.

In many European countries, people with higher levels of education and income are more likely to think India plays a larger role today than it did 10 years ago. For example, roughly six-in-ten in France (59%) and the UK (58%) with a postsecondary degree or more say India’s power has grown, compared with about four-in-ten of those with less education.

Views of India’s relatively stagnant role on the world stage compared with 10 years ago diverge from international evaluations of China – a median of 70% in 25 countries say Beijing is playing a more important role in world affairs than 10 years prior. ( For more comparisons between countries, see Chapter 3 of “ Trump’s International Ratings Remain Low, Especially Among Key Allies. ”)

Across the Asia-Pacific region, as well as in the U.S., the share of the public who express confidence in Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi exceeds the share who lack confidence in him. A majority in the Philippines give the leader a vote of confidence for his handling of world affairs, as do more than four-in-ten in Japan, Australia and South Korea.

The U.S. shows some division in perceptions of the Indian prime minister, with slightly more of the public saying they have confidence in Modi than do not (39% vs. 32%, respectively).

More than a third of Indonesians (37%) express confidence in Modi, though an equal proportion offer no opinion. Roughly a quarter (26%) have no confidence. (Find more about confidence in global leaders from the 2018 Global Attitudes Survey .)

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Impact case study

Understanding and tackling the causes of social oppression in india.

  It is hard to imagine a work of social science as a page-turner that you cannot put down. But this intrepid author has produced that rare find: a gripping, incisive, and nuanced account of the nature of Maoism in central India, with an empathetic yet clear-eyed portrayal of the complexity of its individual stories. A beautifully written and absorbing book that disturbs, moves and educates the reader all at once. Professor Jayati Ghosh Professor of Economics, Jawaharlal Nehru University

Research by

Professor Alpa Shah

Department of anthropology.

Professor Alpa Shah’s research has increased awareness and understanding of the economic and social oppression of Adivasis and Dalits in India. 

What was the problem? 

Of all the human rights abuses committed globally, caste and tribe oppression in India are among the most widespread.  

In recent decades, India has been one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. Proponents of growth have argued that its benefits would “trickle down” through Indian society. However, not only have the redistributive fruits of economic growth been negligible for vast swathes of India's population, some have even fared worse as a result of growth policies.  

The demographics of the poor are starkly socially marked. Dalits (stigmatised as “untouchable” castes) and Adivasis (indigenous tribal people, stigmatised as “wild and savage”), account for almost 25 per cent of the country’s population and a staggering four per cent of the world’s population. These communities have been shown by economists to suffer disproportionate levels of poverty, being worse off than all other groups almost everywhere across the country. Whilst it is possible to make this case, however, quantitative analysis is unable to explain it.  

What did we do? 

Research carried out jointly by LSE and SOAS has revealed the socio-economic processes that perpetuate the oppression and disproportionate poverty in the worst-off groups in India.  

LSE’s Professor Alpa Shah and Dr Jens Lerche (SOAS) jointly led a team of anthropologists conducting detailed ethnographic fieldwork in five different sites to understand the impact of India’s political and economic transformation on the country’s oppressed minorities. The anthropologists lived with Dalits and Adivasis in Himachal Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Maharashtra between August 2015 and September 2016.  

In the resulting 2018 book, Ground Down by Growth , the research team revealed the specific ways in which the expansion of capitalist growth in India has entrenched, rather than erased, social differences based on caste and tribe. It shows how traditional forms of identity-based discrimination have transformed into new mechanisms for exploitation and oppression in the labour market, dispossessing people of their land for mining and industries. Three interrelated processes underpin the persistence of this social oppression. First, earlier power inequalities are inherited in the new economies, as control over factors adversely affecting Adivasis and Dalits remains with locally dominant groups. Second, the vulnerability of Adivasis and Dalits is perpetuated by their disproportionate representation in a cheap, seasonal, casual migrant labour force. Thirdly, the resulting class relations involve overlapping forms of oppression based on caste, tribe, region, and gender that fragment unity amongst the oppressed and so stymie social change. This supports the conclusion that policy solutions would need to focus on land and labour rights, as well as discrimination based on caste, tribe, and gender.  

Professor Shah’s 2018 monograph on Adivasis and the Indian economic boom, Nightmarch , expands on these revelations in a deep, immersive study of Adivasis living in the mineral-rich forests and hills of central and eastern India. Shah lived with those communities for more than four and a half years (from 2000 to 2002 and 2008 to 2010) to conduct this research. The book explores the relationship between India’s economic growth, Adivasi mobilisation in one of the world’s most intractable and underreported rebellions (a 50-year long, armed, Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgency), and state repression of the Adivasis. The rebels are overwhelmingly portrayed by the Indian state and the international media as “terrorists”, or else romanticised by activists as indigenous eco-rebels fighting the mining companies.  

Offering a rare insider perspective, Nightmarch presents a fundamental challenge to these conventional narratives. It reveals the multiple and contradictory ways in which the emotional intimacy that developed between guerrillas and the local communities attracted Adivasis to the movement, while simultaneously undermining its appeal. The book also shows how, in the name of counterinsurgency, the Indian state is violently and forcibly clearing Adivasis from their land to make way for mining companies. The nuanced approach taken in Nightmarch has been recognised as making a significant contribution to the polarised debates that dominate Indian media on this conflict, as well as to the understandings of insurgency globally.  

What happened? 

This research has contributed to enhanced awareness, improved understanding, and new policies supporting collective action for Adivasis and Dalits.  

Ground Down by Growth led to a new UN-International Labour Organization (ILO) report , co-authored by Shah and Lerche, highlighting the structural nature of discrimination in the world of work, providing policy recommendations and extending research impact from India to Nepal, Bangladesh, Jordan, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Lebanon. The research also provided evidence of how India was in breach of two ILO Conventions on employment and occupation discrimination and indigenous and tribal populations . As a result, several ILO departments raised formal concerns about Dalit and Adivasi discrimination to its Committee of Experts, which oversees ILO liaison with the Indian government.  

Anti-Slavery International (AI) works to address forced and bonded labour in informal work. The research has significantly shaped its understanding of the caste and tribe-based dimensions of this in India and underpinned its 2017 flagship campaign publication “Slavery in India’s Brick Kilns”. The India-based Aajeevika Bureau, which focuses specifically on migrant labour, has also used the research to support its advocacy relating to the structural discrimination faced by Adivasi labourers.  

Every year since 2014, Professor Shah and Dr Lerche have been invited to present their findings on caste discrimination to the UK’s House of Lords by the All Party Parliamentary Group for Dalits. In May 2017, Shah explicitly extended the concerns of this group from Dalits to Adivasis, who appeared on their agenda for the first time. The group’s Co-Chair Lord Harries has since tabled two parliamentary questions regarding labour discrimination and land alienation of Dalits and Adivasis, so including these marginalised voices in UK parliamentary debate.  

The research has enhanced wider public awareness of the inextricable relationship between economic growth and social oppression in India. This was achieved principally through a major photography exhibition at the Brunei Gallery at SOAS in 2017 – Behind the Indian Boom – curated by Shah with Simon Chambers and based on visual imagery emerging from the research. The exhibition has since been displayed in Turin, Italy, and received significant audiences and media attention in both destinations.  

Nightmarch has also received extensive media coverage in India, the UK, US and Italy. It won the 2020 Association for Political and Legal Anthropology Book Prize and was a finalist for the 2019 Orwell Prize for political writing and the New India Book Foundation Prize. Nightmarch featured in several 2018 Book of the Year lists, including the New Statesman , History Workshop , Hindu Year in Review , Scroll India , and the Hong Kong Free Press , with numerous positive reviews featured across international news media . Professor Shah was interviewed about Nightmarch for, among others, the Times of India and BBC Radio 4, so bringing visibility to the issues faced by the very poorest in India to a large, international audience. 

Related content

Research for the world article: inequality, insurgency and conflict, book review: nightmarch: among india’s revolutionary guerillas, event recording: revolution and freedom, event recording: ground down by growth, bbc radio 4 documentary: india's red belt.

Essay on Social Issues in India for Students in 2000 Words

On this page, you will read an Essay on Social Issues in India for Students in 2000 Words. In India and Every society has specific problems that commonly refer to social issues or social problems. It is a problem that affects a significant percentage of the population or community in a country or world.

So, let’s Start the Essay on Social Issues in India

Table of Contents

What are Social Issues?

Social issues (social problems, social evil, and social conflict) refer to any undesirable state that opposes the society or part of society. This is an unwanted social situation, which often raises problems; continue that is harmful to society.

Social problems cause many problems by factors that are beyond the control of one person and cause many conflicts for moral reasons.

The drawback of all Social Issues

There are many drawbacks to all social issues. This includes:

• Social issues are situations that have adverse and harmful consequences for society.
• Social issues arise when people leave from nature or society from an ideal situation.
• Almost all social issues have some common origins.
• Many of them are interrogating, and if one solves, the other will also resolve.
• Social issues have a massive lousy impact on society and can affect any part of it.
• Social issues need a common approach to the solution.
• Almost everywhere, societies in this world have social issues.
• India is struggling with many social issues such as the caste system, child labor, illiteracy, gender inequality, superstition, religious conflicts, and more. It is a critical time for society to free itself from these undesirable social evils.

Major Social Issues in India

The main social issues in India are briefly discussed below in the following order-

• Caste system
• Child labor
• Child Marriage
• Gender Inequality
• Domestic Violence against Women
• Sexual Violence and Harassment to Women
• Child Sex Abuse
• Communalism
• Dowry system
• Superstition
• Religious Conflicts
• Untouchability
• Child Trafficking
• Over – Population

1. The caste system

The caste system is a system for determining the class or assigning a status to people from birth. The causes, effects, and solutions of the caste system in India are described below:

The main reason for creating the caste system in India is the caste assignment based on professional specialization. Four classes of the caste system: Four classes include:

• Brahmins – priesthood class.
• Kshatriyas – a class of warriors and rulers.
• Vaishyas – a commercial class.
• Sudras – the lowest of four traditional classes involved in household members and workers, etc.

The caste system has many disadvantages, such as:

• Promotes inequality
• Undemocratic by nature
• False differentiation in superiority and inferiority
• It increases the difference between people from the upper and lower caste.
• People fall victim to the caste.

Education will help people realize the disadvantages of the caste system. There is a need for broad social change for equality. There should include special classes in schools that give children value and moral education.  Thanks to better learning and economic progress, people belonging to different castes mix and cooperate.

Poverty means a situation in which it does not fulfill the basic needs of people. This is a vicious circle and means no money or material goods.

The significant causes of poverty are:

When resources and opportunities are limited, and the population is high, there is an unemployment situation that ultimately leads to poverty.

Poor people will always have to rely on others to survive. Poor food quality can lead to poor nutrition. Poor people have less freedom to choose their profession. Poverty can affect the morality and self-esteem of people living in extreme difficulties. It also causes stress, which ultimately affects interpersonal relationships.

Low living standards prevail among poor people. When many people live in poverty, the opportunities for developing the country’s economy become limited. Increasing employment opportunities can control debt.

The government should take further steps towards charity, trust, and some transparency when spending money in these social institutions. The education system should reform and initiatives to attract more children to attain the school.

3. Child labor

Child labor is a system of involving children in any business activity. Child labor means involving underage children. The main reasons for child labor in India are:

• Unemployment
• Illiteracy and
• A low standard of living

If the above problems resolve by Indian society, then the country will have fewer social issues. When the family is poor, they often have no choice but to send their children to work. Because of parents’ unemployment, children do not receive the proper education and forces to engage in child labor.

Adverse effects of child labor are:

Child labor is a cruel practice. It hinders personal development, destroys their childhood. Child labor deprives the opportunity to play, make friends, dreams, relax, and enjoy all critical aspects of a healthy, desirable childhood. Children are the upcoming pillars of the country and engaging them in child labor will weaken these pillars.

The primary solution to the problem of child labor is:

Provide education and knowledge to children. If the parent’s income increases, children get an education. The government will have to take further steps to enforce labor law properly. As the employment opportunity of adults will increase, it reduces child labor.

Child labor is an unfortunate and disturbing phenomenon that unfortunately still needs to be eliminated in many parts of the world, including India.

4. Illiteracy

Illiteracy describes the inability to read and/or write. Because of the problem of unemployment and poverty, children have no chance of proper education. Many people remain illiterate because of physical or mental disabilities. Other social evils like the caste system and gender inequalities also cause illiteracy. One of the leading causes of crime is illiteracy.

Most illiterate people are unaware of the advantages of maintaining cleanliness and hygiene . Illiterates have difficulty in getting a good job and earning. Overpopulation is a massive increase in the number of people and is causing by some factors.

The only and best way to eliminate illiteracy from society is education. The government should take steps to promote free education for the backward class of society in government schools. The government is also looking at the fact that people receive fair pay for their work.

5. The dowry system

Dowry is one of the worst practices widespread in Indian society. There is a tradition of asking for a dowry at the time of marriage and greed among the groom’s family for quick and easy money. People are also asking for a dowry to keep up status.

The main problems of the dowry system in society are:

The bride’s family, which usually belongs to the middle and low classes, face its bitter side. Parents often take out a loan for their daughter’s marriage. Most times, observing the lousy situation of their parents, the bride becomes mentally affected. Sometimes psychological torture caused by dowry leads to suicidal tendencies.

6. Religious conflicts:

Religious conflicts are among the most severe social issues today.

The difference in beliefs: people belonging to different religions have different views.Lack of education: People who want to spread violence in the name of religion can easily mislead illiterate people. Sometimes, conflicts between communities lead to violence and crime.

The solution to religious violence lies only in the hands of Societies.

7. Children’s marriage

Child marriage in India has been practiced for centuries, and children are married before their physical and mental maturity. Regardless of its roots, child marriage is a gross violation of human rights, leaving physical, psychological, and emotional scars for life.

Second, economically weak and large families encourage this practice because it helps to send girls early. While the boy’s marriage provides additional help in household and business operations.

Awareness-raising: all stakeholders should be alert and convinced of the adverse effects of child marriage. Checking loopholes in law: shortcomings need to be corrected to strengthen the law.

8. Gender Inequality

The problem of gender inequality is historical. The sociological reality behind this structure is the transition from a matriarchal society, which is more egalitarian, to a patriarchal society.

Although economic and technological progress has changed the social structure, the problem of gender inequality still exists, even in modern, urbanized societies.

The problem of the education system

In all areas of men-dominated society, including the structure of the state, the education system, the health care system, security forces, and the judiciary, there is a male culture and a sense of power.

In the education system, equal opportunities must be guaranteed for all children, regardless of gender, and the government should ensure this practice is implemented.

The program should be non-discriminatory and textbooks, especially in terms of language, should be prepared under the principles of gender equality.

9. Domestic violence against women

This form of domestic violence is the most common. The most common causes of harassment and torture of women are dissatisfaction with the dowry and abusing women for more, arguing with a partner, refusing sex with him, neglecting children, leaving home without telling the partner, improper cooking or on time, engaging in new matters, not caring for my parents-in-law, etc.

Many other factors in urban areas lead to differences at the beginning and then are domestic violence. Violence against young widows is also increasing in India.

Other forms of physical abuse of women also include beating, grabbing, burdening them with bullying, public humiliation, and neglecting health problems.

10. Starvation

Although the concept of food security was coined 17 years ago, humanity has been fighting hunger and thrust since ancient times. A new global partnership to reduce extreme poverty and set several time-bound targets with a deadline of 2015, known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), is expected to give new impetus to the cause of food security.

The reasons for this disturbing phenomenon are different in each case. The physical availability of food at both macro and micro levels can be negatively affected due to the lack of local production, natural and human-made disasters, seasonal changes, water scarcity, poor infrastructure, insufficient storage capacity, stockpiling, and even legal problems.

However, factors that impede food absorption include a lack of clean drinking water, inadequate health, hygiene and sanitation, a low level of literacy and a fiscal cushion for governments for public sector development programs that would help ensure essential service delivery.

11. Terrorism

Terrorism not only kills the innocent but it also undermines democratic governance, even in mature democracies such as the United States and much of Europe, India, and other parts of the world.

To eliminate the threat that terrorism poses to democracy , the United States and its allies should continue to emphasize sharing intelligence and make such efforts.

12. Sexual harassment and the violation of women’s rights

Violence against women and girls is a severe violation of human rights. Decades of mobilization of civil society and women’s movements have put the end of gender-based violence high on the list of national and international priorities.

We should work with governments to develop particular national action plans to prevent and counter-violence against women, strengthening coordination between the actors required for lasting and meaningful operation.

13. Sexual exploitation of children

In recent years, it reflects the reality of how child pornography is produced. Sexual exploitation of children is a severe problem in our society, and it happens more often than people realize it.

Based on reports submitted to Cybertip, the Studies show that most criminals do not have criminal records. The sexual exploitation of children covers a wide range of behaviors and situations.

14. Untouchability

This is a practice in which people from the lower caste are kept far away, deprived of social equality and suffering from touch disabilities. These are considered contaminating or polluting the people of the higher castes.

The word “untouchable” refers to a despised and degraded portion of the Hindu population. Untouchables occupy the lowest place in society and have been subjecting to various types of social, cultural, and other restrictions. Eve Govt has been worked a lot on this issue, but few are still happening in rural areas.

15. Child trafficking

Child trafficking is a crime that uses girls and boys for many purposes, including forced labor and sex. It is associated with criminal activity and corruption. Further, smuggling and exploitation are posing an increasing risk to children worldwide.

When human trafficking occurs, children are often victims of trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation or for work, such as domestic service, factory work, agricultural work, mining, or forced to fight conflicts.

16. Overpopulation

Overpopulation is a condition in which the human population increases to the extent that exceeds the carrying capacity of the ecological system. In an overcrowded environment, the number of people is higher than the number of necessary survival materials, such as transportation, water, shelter, food, or social facilities. This is regularly contributing to the deterioration of the environment, the quality of life, and even the collapse of the ecosystem.

Conclusion of Essay on Social Issues in India

Society can solve social issues themselves. These issues make up a barrier to the progress of society, which is why we should work together to end them. If we do not unite against them, social issues will continue to grow. It can be solved only through mass consciousness, education, humanity, and a positive attitude.

I hope you like this Essay on Social Issues for Students.

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Social Issues In India Project For Class – 12

Table of Contents

1- INTRODUCTION

Social concerns are issues that significantly affect people’s lives and society. These problems might include everything from poverty, injustice, and prejudice in the matters of healthcare, education, and the environment. In this project, we’ll look at one of today’s most important societal challenges and how it affects both people and communities.

We will investigate the root causes of [ social issue ] and how it manifests in our society throughout this research. We will also examine how this problem affects various groups, including [insert examples of groups that are impacted, such as women, children, or minorities]. Additionally, we will look at recent attempts and fixes intended to solve [social issue].

We want to use this initiative to motivate people and communities to take action toward a more just and equitable society by increasing knowledge of the complexity of [social issue].

Millions of people worldwide are impacted by poverty, which is a complicated and multidimensional socioeconomic issue. Poverty, which is defined as the absence of the means of subsistence, can have a significant negative effect on people, families, and communities. We will examine the causes, effects, and potential solutions to this enduring social issue of poverty in this study.

Wide-ranging effects of poverty on people’s life include health inequalities, restricted access to opportunities and education, and greater vulnerability to crime and violence. Give examples of how poverty impacts people and communities in your region or nation.

Although attempts have been made to reduce poverty, this societal issue nevertheless poses a serious challenge to governments, charities, and communities all over the world. The policies and programmes now in place to combat poverty, such as social welfare measures, initiatives for job training and education, and microfinance programs, will be examined in this study.

Through this project, we seek to increase awareness of poverty as a social problem and spur action to build more just and equitable society.

3- CAUSES OF POVERTY IN INDIA

India is the second-most populated nation in the world with a population of over 1.3 billion. India continues to struggle with poverty despite recent economic growth and progress that have been swift. More than 270 million Indians, who make less than $1.90 a day, live below the poverty line, according to the World Bank. The causes of poverty in India and how it impacts people and communities across will be examined in this research.

For effective policies and actions to be developed and implemented to solve this societal challenge, it is essential to understand the causes of poverty. We will examine current measures, such as social welfare programs, job and education programs, and microfinance programs, in our project to reduce poverty in India.

We believe that this project will increase public knowledge of the underlying causes of poverty in India and motivate action to build a more just and equitable society.

4- EFFECT OF POVERTY

Millions of people around the world are impacted by poverty, which has terrible effects on people, families, and communities. Every element of life, including health, education, work, and access to needs, can be significantly impacted by poverty. In this research, we will investigate the effects of poverty on people and communities as well as the ways in which it supports injustice and inequality.

Poverty not only has an immediate negative impact on people, but it also feeds social injustice and institutional inequity. Other forms of marginalization, such as bias against certain races, genders, or castes, are frequently linked to poverty. In addition to contributing to social and political marginalization, poverty can also create cycles of poverty that last for several generations.

With the help of this research, we seek to better understand how poverty affects both individuals and society as a whole and to spur action for the development of more just and equitable societies.

5- CASE STUDIES ON POVERTY

Millions of individuals around the world are impacted by the complicated and varied social problem of poverty. While statistics might make poverty challenging to comprehend, case studies can give a more intimate and human perspective on how poverty affects people. In order to better understand how poverty contributes to structural inequality and social injustice, we will look at case studies of poor people and communities.

We want to offer a more nuanced picture of the effects of poverty on people and communities through these case studies. Additionally, we want to emphasise the fortitude and tenacity of those who are poor and the need of using community-based approaches to solve poverty and its problems.

Through this initiative, we want to encourage people to take action in the direction of more just and equitable communities, where everyone has access to the tools and chances they need to prosper.

In various civilizations all throughout the world, notably in South Asia, where it is still widely practiced in many groups, dowry has a long history. When a couple gets married, the bride’s family is required to give the groom’s family some property or money. This is referred to as the “dowry.” While the dowry’s original purpose was to give the bride financial stability in the event of her husband’s passing, it has since evolved into a means of abuse and exploitation for many women. In this research, we will investigate the practice of dowry, its cultural and historical origins, and the manner in which it contributes to violence against women and gender inequality.

In many parts of the world, including South Asia where it is frequently considered as a necessary expense for families trying to arrange a marriage for their daughter, dower has become a ubiquitous social issue. The need to pay a sizable dowry can put a financial strain on the family of the bride and, in extreme circumstances, end in violence and abuse directed against the bride. As it implies that women are viewed as financial liabilities rather than valuable members of society, the practise of dowry furthers gender inequality.

Through this study, we will investigate how dowries affect women’s lives and how they contribute to violence against women and gender inequality. We will also look at the current dowry-related activities, such as community-based programmes and legal reforms, as well as the difficulties still facing this practise.

Through this initiative, we seek to increase public awareness of the negative effects of dowries and motivate action to build more just and equitable communities where women are valued and respected as full participants in society.

7- ORIGIN OF DOWRY

For ages, various societies all throughout the world have used the dowry system. While dowry practises differ from culture to culture, the fundamental idea of a bride’s family giving money or property to the groom’s family at the time of marriage is universal. A multitude of cultural, historical, and economic variables have influenced the development of dowry, making it a complicated and varied concept. In this study, we will investigate the dowry’s historical development in various cultural and historical situations.

From ancient Rome through mediaeval Europe to contemporary South Asia, dowry has been used in varied forms around the world. The practise of dowry has several justifications, some of which are economic, such as ways to give the bride financial security or to make up for the loss of a potential worker for the groom’s family. Dowry may also be related to societal considerations like the need to uphold family honour or maintain social standing.

Through this study, we will investigate the intricate history and cultural influences that have shaped the development of dowry. We will also look at how dowries have changed and evolved across cultures and circumstances, as well as how these changes have affected gender dynamics and social dynamics.

Through this study, we seek to learn more about the history of dowry and how it has influenced and been influenced by cultural and historical circumstances. We also seek to raise awareness of the ways that dowries support social injustice and gender inequality, and to motivate action to build more just and equitable communities where women are recognised and valued as full participants in society.

8- DOWRY IS AN ILLEGAL ACT

In many parts of the world, especially in South Asia, where it is still common in many cultures, the practise of dowry has long been a source of debate and cause for concern. Many nations have passed legislation outlawing the practise of dowry and giving women legal protection in an effort to address this problem. In order to end the practise of dowry and the violence and abuse it causes against women, the Dowry Prohibition Act was passed in India in 1961. In this study, we’ll look at the Dowry Prohibition Act’s history, development, and effects on the dowry industry in India.

The Dowry Prohibition Act was a significant piece of Indian legislation that sought to outlaw the practise of dowry and protect women from it. The act makes it illegal to give or receive dowry and makes it a crime that is punishable by jail time and/or a fine. The act also establishes dowry prohibition officers to look into dowry-related complaints and provides rules for the avoidance of dowry harassment.

We will investigate the history, breadth, and effects of the Dowry Prohibition Act in-depth through this research. We will also look at the difficulties that still exist in executing the law, including the pervasive societal and cultural attitudes that support the practise of dowry and the demand for more information and education on the subject.

Through this project, we seek to raise awareness of the role that legal frameworks have in addressing societal issues like dowry and to motivate action in the direction of building more just and equitable communities where women are cherished and respected as equal members of society.

9- DOWRY CASE STUDY

Millions of women and their families continue to be affected by the dowry tradition, which has been a chronic problem in many cultures around the world. Even though the practise of dowry is outlawed in many nations, it nevertheless exists in a number of forms and frequently results in violence, abuse, and discrimination against women. In this research, we’ll look at a dowry case study and investigate how the practise has influenced the lives of women, families, and communities.

Dowry can put enormous pressure on families to live up to the expectations of the groom’s family because it is frequently viewed as a symbol of social prestige and a source of financial security. This pressure can result in a range of abuses, such as domestic violence, harassment, and in the worst cases, even murder. The practise of dowry remains a problem throughout most of the world, especially in South Asia, despite the efforts of governments and activists to end it.

In this project, we will look at a dowry case study, concentrating on the experiences of the women and families impacted by this custom. We will examine the different dowry-related kinds of discrimination and abuse, as well as how these abuses may affect women’s and families’ lives. We will also look at the obstacles activists and organisations confront in their fight against the practise of dowry.

Through this initiative, we seek to raise awareness of the effects of dowries on women and families and to motivate action in the direction of the development of more just and equitable communities, where women are appreciated and respected as full participants in society.

10- CHILD LABOR

Millions of children worldwide are impacted by the global problem of child labor, which is frequently associated with poverty and a lack of educational opportunities. Working kids frequently miss out on childhood, education, and the chance to reach their full potential. In this project, we will investigate the problem of child labour and look at its sources, effects, and attempts at prevention.

There are many different types of child labor, including domestic work, agricultural work, and employment in factories and mines. Children who labour are frequently put in risky and exploitative situations and run the risk of suffering from physical, emotional, and psychological problems. The problem of child employment persists in many parts of the world, especially in developing nations, despite the efforts of governments and organisations to address it.

Through this study, we will explore the economic, social, and cultural aspects that contribute to the persistence of child labor, as well as its causes and effects. We will also look at the initiatives taken by governments, groups, and people to address the problem of child labor, including laws and initiatives designed to protect children’s rights and deal with its underlying causes.

Through this initiative, we seek to increase public awareness of the problem of child labour and motivate action to build more just and equitable communities where kids are safe and given the tools they need to reach their full potential.

11- TYPES OF CHILD LABOUR

Child labour is a complicated problem that affects kids of various ages and socioeconomic situations worldwide. Although the phrase “child labour” frequently conjures up pictures of kids toiling away in factories or mines, it actually refers to a wide range of activities that can harm kids’ development, education, and health. In this study, we will investigate the many forms of child work, looking at its traits, frequency, and effects on kids.

Hazardous and non-hazardous kinds of child labour exist, and it can take place in a range of locales such as homes, streets, and workplaces. Domestic work, agricultural work, and employment in factories and mines are a few of the most prevalent types of child labour. Children who participate in these activities are frequently subjected to risky situations, long hours, and low remuneration, and they run the risk of suffering bodily, emotional, and psychological harm.

Through this research, we will investigate the various forms of child labor, looking at each one’s distinctive traits and the difficulties they provide for kids’ development, education, and well-being. We will also look at the causes of various forms of child labor, such as poverty, a lack of educational opportunities, and cultural and societal standards.

Through this initiative, we seek to increase public awareness of the various forms of child labour and encourage action to build more just and equitable communities where kids are protected and given the tools they need to reach their full potential.

12- CAUSES AND EFFECT

Child labour is a complicated subject that is influenced by numerous economic, social, and cultural elements. It has a significant negative impact on children’s health, development, and education. It is essential to comprehend child labour’s causes and effects in order to establish methods that will effectively address the problem and advance the welfare of children everywhere. In this project, we’ll look at the root causes of child labour and consider how it affects kids, families, and communities.

The root reasons of child labour are complex and include elements like poverty, limited educational opportunities, and societal and cultural norms that place little importance on children’s education and general well-being. These elements frequently interact with one another to produce a complicated web of conditions that forces kids into the labour force. Child labour has a variety of detrimental repercussions on children’s development, education, and overall health as well as on their families and communities.

Through this study, we will explore the economic, social, and cultural aspects of child labour’s persistence as well as its underlying causes. We will also look at how child labour affects children, their families, communities, and how it contributes to social injustice and continued poverty.

In order to create more equitable and just societies where children are safeguarded and given the opportunity to attain their full potential, we want to increase public understanding of child labour’s fundamental causes and far-reaching effects.

13- CASE STUDIES ON CHILD LABOR

Millions of children worldwide are impacted by the widespread problem of child labor, which robs them of their childhoods and prevents them from pursuing their educations and realising their full potential. Although there are many distinct types of child labor, each one involves a violation of children’s rights and a failing on the part of society to safeguard its most defenceless citizens. We will look at a specific case study of child labour in this project, examining the conditions that lead to the kid’s exploitation, the effects on the child and their family, and the initiatives taken to address the problem.

In the case study we’ll be looking at, a young child was made to labour in risky circumstances in a factory where they were exposed to harmful chemicals, long hours, and low pay. The youngster’s family was struggling to make ends meet because they were so poor, so the money the child brought in was crucial. The rigours of the job interfered with the child’s education, and the dangerous conditions had an adverse effect on their health.

Through this research, we will thoroughly examine the case study, examining the underlying reasons why the child was exploited and the effects it had on the child’s health, development, and education. We will also look at the measures taken to address the problem, such as the assistance programmes for the child and their family and broader legislative and lobbying initiatives to end child labour.

Through this project, we want to increase public awareness of child labour’s harmful effects on children and their families. We can better appreciate the complicated problems that lead to child labour and the efforts being taken to address them by looking at specific case studies.

In conclusion, socioeconomic problems including poverty, dowry, and child labour are intricate, diverse concerns with significant repercussions for people, families, and societies. These problems are caused by several economic, social, and cultural causes, therefore resolving them will take all-encompassing and coordinated action. We have learned more about the underlying causes and effects of poverty, the history and repercussions of dowries, and the forms, causes, and effects of child labour as a result of our investigation into these issues.

Despite the difficulties these societal concerns provide, several efforts are being undertaken to address them. There are numerous strategies that can be used to address these problems and advance social justice and equity, from grassroots community activities to global policy and advocacy campaigns. We can contribute to the creation of a more just and equitable world where everyone has the chance to realise their full potential by increasing awareness of these concerns and working to support these initiatives.

In the end, dealing with social difficulties necessitates a commitment to understanding, empathy, and group action. We can make the world more just and equitable for everyone by acknowledging the humanity of those impacted by poverty, dowry, and child labour and collaborating to improve their well-being.

Certificate of Completion

I, [Your Name], a student of Class 12 at [Your School/College Name], am proud to receive this certificate for successfully completing the project on “Social Issues in India. ” This project delved into the complex and significant societal challenges that affect people and communities in our country.

Throughout this project, I thoroughly investigated and analyzed various social issues, including poverty, dowry, and child labor. I examined their root causes, effects, and the measures taken to address these problems. This research has provided me with valuable insights into the complexities of social issues and the need for collective action to build a more just and equitable society.

I express my heartfelt gratitude to [Teacher’s Name], my project guide, for their unwavering support, guidance, and encouragement throughout this project. Their expertise and mentorship have been instrumental in deepening my understanding of the social issues in India and helping me shape my research effectively.

I would also like to extend my thanks to [School/College Name] for providing me with the opportunity to explore and analyze the critical social issues prevalent in our country. This project has not only enriched my knowledge but also heightened my awareness of the importance of addressing these issues to create a better society.

With great pride, I accept this certificate, symbolizing my dedication and hard work in completing the project on “Social Issues in India. “

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A Comprehensive Analysis of Mental Health Problems in India and the Role of Mental Asylums

Vanee r meghrajani.

1 Community Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND

Manvi Marathe

2 Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND

Ritika Sharma

3 Medicine and Surgery, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND

Ashwini Potdukhe

4 Medical Surgical Nursing, Smt. Radhikabai Meghe Memorial College of Nursing, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND

Mayur B Wanjari

5 Research Scientist, Department of Research and Development, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND

Avinash B Taksande

6 Physiology, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, IND

This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of mental health in India, highlighting the challenges faced, the existing initiatives, and the future directions for improving mental healthcare delivery. India is grappling with a high prevalence of mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and substance use disorders. The burden of mental health issues on individuals, families, and society is immense, leading to reduced quality of life, impaired functioning, and significant economic and social consequences. Various social and cultural factors, such as stigma, discrimination, gender inequalities, poverty, rapid urbanization, and cultural beliefs surrounding mental illness, further exacerbate the challenges of addressing mental health problems. Access to mental healthcare remains a significant concern, with considerable gaps in access to and quality of treatment and limited availability of mental health professionals, especially in rural areas. Inadequate infrastructure, a lack of awareness, and insufficient integration into primary healthcare systems hinder access to appropriate care. The historical development of mental asylums in India is examined, highlighting their establishment, purpose, and evolution over time. Critiques and challenges associated with mental asylums are discussed, including stigmatization, human rights concerns, the absence of human center approaches, quality of care, and the need for alternative approaches to mental healthcare.

Introduction and background

With its vast population and diverse demographics, India confronts a substantial mental health burden that warrants urgent attention [ 1 ]. Mental disorders cut across various age groups, socioeconomic backgrounds, and geographical regions, impacting individuals from all walks of life [ 1 ]. The repercussions of these conditions encompass personal suffering, impaired daily functioning, and extensive societal costs [ 1 ]. The prevalence of mental health disorders in India has risen steadily in recent years, contributing to the escalating public health concern. Estimates suggest that nearly 15% of the Indian population grapples with some form of mental health issue. This figure encompasses many disorders, including anxiety disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and neurodevelopmental disorders [ 2 ].

The consequences of these mental health challenges reverberate throughout society. Firstly, individuals struggling with mental health problems face immense personal anguish and distress, as these conditions often impede their ability to lead fulfilling lives. They may encounter difficulties maintaining relationships, pursuing education or employment opportunities, and participating in social activities [ 3 ]. Moreover, mental health problems substantially affect the overall functioning of communities and the nation. Decreased productivity, both in the workplace and within households, is a significant economic consequence. Mental health issues often lead to absenteeism, reduced work efficiency, and long-term disability, negatively impacting workforce productivity and economic growth [ 4 , 5 ].

The financial burden associated with mental health problems cannot be overlooked. Increased healthcare expenditure is incurred due to the need for mental healthcare services, including diagnosis, treatment, medication, and therapy [ 6 ]. The indirect costs, such as lost productivity and an increased burden on caregivers, further exacerbate the economic impact [ 6 ]. Beyond the economic aspect, mental health problems in India also have far-reaching social implications. Stigma and discrimination surrounding mental disorders persist in many communities, hindering individuals from seeking help and support. This leads to delays in diagnosis and treatment, perpetuating the cycle of suffering and exacerbating the long-term consequences [ 7 ].

The rising prevalence of mental health disorders in India and their multifaceted impacts necessitate a comprehensive understanding of the challenges. Addressing mental health issues becomes crucial not only for the well-being of affected individuals but also for the overall progress and development of the nation. By investigating the role of mental asylums in this context, this review article aims to shed light on potential strategies to tackle mental health problems and improve the lives of individuals grappling with these conditions in India [ 1 , 2 , 6 ]. This review article aims to comprehensively analyze mental health problems in India and explore the role of mental asylums in addressing these challenges. By examining the historical and current context, this review aims to shed light on the strengths, limitations, and potential future directions of mental asylums in the Indian mental health landscape.

Methodology

The literature search strategy involved a comprehensive approach to identifying relevant studies on mental health problems in India. Multiple databases, including PubMed, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar, were searched using a combination of keywords such as "mental health," "India," "prevalence," "burden," "access to care," and "mental health disorders." The search was conducted without any language or date restrictions to ensure the inclusion of a wide range of studies. In addition to academic literature, reports from government agencies, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations were reviewed to capture a holistic understanding of the topic. To ensure the selection of appropriate studies, specific inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. Inclusion criteria included studies on mental health problems in India, prevalence rates, types of mental health disorders, access to mental healthcare, social and cultural factors influencing mental health, and mental health policies and initiatives in India. Both quantitative and qualitative studies were considered. Studies that provided insights into the challenges, current practices, and future directions for mental healthcare in India were prioritized. Exclusion criteria involved studies that were not specific to mental health or did not pertain to the Indian context. Studies with insufficient data, case reports, editorials, and opinion pieces were also excluded. The focus was primarily on peer-reviewed articles, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and research reports that provided substantial evidence and analysis of mental health problems in India. The selection of studies involved a two-step process. Initially, titles and abstracts were screened to assess their relevance to the research topic. Subsequently, full-text articles were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Any discrepancies or uncertainties during the study selection process were resolved through discussion and consensus among the research team members.

Mental health problems in India

Prevalence and Types of Mental Health Disorders

In India, mental health disorders have a high prevalence, impacting a considerable proportion of the population. Epidemiological studies report prevalence rates for psychiatric disorders varying from 9.5 to 370 per 1000 people in India [ 8 ]. This prevalence encompasses a broad spectrum of mental health disorders, reflecting the diverse challenges individuals face in the country [ 8 ]. The prevalence rates of mental health disorders in India highlight the need for effective interventions and support systems to address the mental well-being of the population. Conditions such as depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and substance use disorders are commonly observed mental health disorders in India [ 8 ].

Depression: Depression is a common mental health disorder characterized by persistent sadness, hopelessness, and a loss of interest or pleasure in activities. At the population level, 3.5% of deaths were attributable to anxiety or depression [ 9 ]. It can negatively impact an individual's mood, thoughts, behavior, and physical well-being. Symptoms of depression may include fatigue, changes in appetite, sleep disturbances, difficulty concentrating, and thoughts of self-harm or suicide. Depression can significantly impair a person's daily functioning, interpersonal relationships, and overall quality of life [ 9 ].

Anxiety disorders: Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive and persistent worry, fear, or anxiety that significantly interfere with daily functioning. Generalized anxiety disorder involves chronic and excessive worry about various aspects of life. Panic disorder is characterized by recurrent panic attacks, which are intense periods of overwhelming fear and physical symptoms such as heart palpitations and shortness of breath. Phobias involve an intense fear of specific objects, situations, or activities. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) performed to alleviate anxiety. Anxiety disorders can cause significant distress, avoidance behaviors, and impaired functioning [ 10 ].

Bipolar disorder: Bipolar disorder is characterized by alternating periods of elevated mood (mania or hypomania) and episodes of depression. During manic episodes, individuals may experience heightened energy levels, decreased sleep, racing thoughts, inflated self-esteem, impulsive behavior, and an exaggerated sense of self-importance. Depressive episodes are marked by sadness, loss of interest, fatigue, and changes in appetite and sleep patterns. Bipolar disorder can profoundly impact an individual's emotions, behavior, relationships, and overall functioning [ 11 ].

Schizophrenia: Schizophrenia is a chronic and severe mental disorder that affects a person's perception of reality, thinking processes, emotions, and behavior. Common symptoms include hallucinations (perceiving things that are not there), delusions (false beliefs), disorganized speech and behavior, reduced emotional expression, and social withdrawal. Individuals with schizophrenia may experience difficulties in cognitive functioning, such as problems with memory, attention, and executive functioning. Schizophrenia can significantly impair an individual's ability to think, interact with others, and function in society [ 12 ].

Substance use disorders: Substance use disorders involve the excessive and compulsive use of substances, such as alcohol or drugs, despite negative consequences. These disorders can have significant impacts on mental health. Substance abuse can lead to addiction, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms when the substance is unavailable. Substance use disorders can cause various mental health issues, including mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychosis, cognitive impairments, and social and occupational problems. The associated problems may include financial difficulties, legal issues, relationship conflicts, and physical health complications [ 13 ].

Social and cultural factors influencing mental health in India

Societal Stigma and Discrimination

Mental illness carries a significant social stigma in Indian society, leading to discrimination and social exclusion for individuals with mental health problems. The stigma surrounding mental illness often stems from misconceptions, fear, and a lack of awareness. This stigma creates barriers to seeking help and support, as individuals may fear judgment, rejection, or negative consequences. Consequently, individuals may delay or avoid seeking treatment, resulting in inadequate or delayed care and further exacerbating their condition [ 14 ].

Gender Inequalities

Gender inequalities in India have a profound impact on mental health. Women, in particular, face unique challenges and are more vulnerable to mental health problems. Factors such as domestic violence, sexual abuse, unequal power dynamics, limited access to education and employment opportunities, and societal expectations can contribute to increased stress, anxiety, and depression among women. The intersectionality of gender with other factors, such as socioeconomic status and caste, further compounds mental health disparities [ 15 ].

Poverty and Socioeconomic Factors

Poverty and socioeconomic disparities play a crucial role in developing and exacerbating mental health disorders in India. Limited resources, including access to quality healthcare, mental health services, and essential social support systems, significantly impact mental well-being. Stressful living conditions, financial instability, and a lack of opportunities for upward mobility contribute to heightened psychological distress and the risk of mental health problems [ 16 ].

Rapid Urbanization and Migration

India's rapid urbanization and migration patterns have significant implications for mental health. Urban areas often present challenges such as social dislocation, loss of social support networks, increased competition, and higher stress levels. The migration process, whether from rural to urban areas or within urban areas, can disrupt social cohesion, traditional support systems, and stability, leading to an increased risk of mental health problems [ 17 ].

Family Dynamics and Societal Pressure

Family dynamics and societal expectations pressure individuals, impacting their mental well-being. Expectations related to education, career success, marriage, and gender roles can create significant stress and anxiety. Interpersonal conflicts, strained relationships, and dysfunctional family dynamics can also contribute to developing mental health issues. In some cases, the stigma associated with mental illness within families can lead to a lack of understanding and support, further hindering the individual's ability to seek help [ 18 ].

Cultural Beliefs Surrounding Mental Illness

Cultural beliefs and traditional practices related to mental illness vary across different regions and communities in India. These beliefs can influence help-seeking behaviors, treatment approaches, and perceptions of mental health. Sometimes, cultural beliefs may stigmatize mental illness, discourage open discussions, and promote harmful practices or ineffective remedies. This can hinder access to evidence-based care and perpetuate the cycle of mental health-related challenges [ 19 ].

The Burden of Mental Health Issues on Individuals and Society

Mental health problems substantially burden individuals and society as a whole in India. Individuals with mental health disorders often experience a reduced quality of life, impaired functioning in various domains (such as work, relationships, and education), and an increased risk of suicide [ 20 ]. Societally, mental health problems lead to significant productivity losses due to absenteeism, decreased work performance, and disability. The economic impact includes increased healthcare costs and decreased productivity, impeding social and economic development [ 21 ]. Additionally, mental health problems contribute to the overall burden on the healthcare system, straining resources and diverting attention from other areas of healthcare.

Access to mental healthcare in India

Shortage of Mental Health Professionals

The availability of mental health professionals, including psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric nurses, is insufficient to meet the growing demand for mental healthcare in India. The shortage is particularly prominent in rural areas, where access to mental health professionals is limited. This uneven distribution of services creates a significant barrier for individuals seeking timely and appropriate mental healthcare [ 22 - 23 ].

Inadequate Infrastructure and Resources

Mental healthcare facilities, especially in rural areas, often lack the necessary infrastructure, equipment, and resources to provide comprehensive care. There is a shortage of psychiatric hospitals, outpatient clinics, and community-based services. The lack of appropriate infrastructure hinders the delivery of mental healthcare services and limits the capacity to meet the diverse needs of individuals with mental health disorders [ 24 ].

Lack of Awareness and Stigma

Limited awareness and pervasive stigma surrounding mental health issues in India contribute to the underutilization of mental healthcare services. The stigma associated with mental illness leads to discrimination, social isolation, and prejudice against individuals seeking help. This stigma discourages individuals from openly discussing their mental health concerns and seeking timely treatment [ 25 ].

Insufficient Integration into Primary Healthcare

Mental health services are not adequately integrated into primary healthcare systems in India. This lack of integration results in a fragmented approach to mental healthcare, hindering early detection, timely intervention, and continuity of care for individuals with mental health problems. The separation of mental health from primary healthcare reinforces the notion that mental health is separate from physical health, perpetuating the treatment gap [ 26 ].

Historical development of mental asylums in India

Establishment and Purpose of Mental Asylums

Mental asylums were established in India during the colonial era, primarily under British rule. The first mental asylum in India, the Indian Lunatic Asylum, was established in 1745 in Calcutta (now Kolkata). These institutions were initially established to confine and segregate individuals with mental illness from the rest of society. The focus was primarily on custodial care, with little emphasis on therapeutic interventions [ 27 ].

The main objectives of mental asylums were to provide a secure and controlled environment for those deemed "insane" and to manage and control perceived threats posed by individuals with mental illness. Asylums were often located in remote areas away from urban centers and were designed to isolate individuals with mental illness from the general population [ 28 ].

Changes and Evolution of Mental Asylums Over Time

Over time, mental asylums in India have undergone significant changes and evolution. With advancements in medical understanding and changes in societal attitudes towards mental illness, the approach to care within mental asylums shifted from custodial confinement to a more humane and therapeutic approach [ 29 ].

In the mid-19th century, mental asylums began adopting moral treatment principles influenced by European reform movements. Moral treatment aims to provide a more humane and respectful environment for individuals with mental illness. It focused on promoting moral and spiritual development, engaging patients in meaningful activities, and creating a supportive therapeutic milieu [ 30 ].

In the 20th century, developing psychiatric research institutes and training centers in India further contributed to the evolution of mental healthcare practices. These institutions played a crucial role in advancing the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of mental health disorders. They also provided opportunities to train mental health professionals and conduct research to improve care [ 31 ].

Role of Mental Asylums in Addressing Mental Health Problems

Mental asylums significantly addressed mental health problems in India, particularly when alternative options were limited. They provided a place of refuge for individuals with mental illness, offering shelter, basic care, and some level of treatment. The asylums acted as custodial institutions, ensuring the containment and management of individuals considered "insane" by societal standards [ 32 ].

Although mental asylums' quality of care and conditions varied widely, some asylums did strive to provide treatment and rehabilitation to their residents. Occupational therapy, recreation, and vocational training were introduced to promote functional improvement and reintegration into society. Some mental asylums also contributed to the understanding and treatment of mental health disorders through research and training initiatives [ 33 ].

However, it is important to acknowledge that mental asylums face significant criticism and challenges. Stigmatization, abuse, overcrowding, a lack of resources, and inadequate staff training were pervasive issues. These concerns led to an evaluation of the asylum model and the recognition of the need for broader reforms in mental healthcare delivery [ 34 ]. The role of mental asylums has evolved, and today, the focus is shifting towards community-based care, deinstitutionalization, and integrating mental health services into mainstream healthcare systems.

Critiques and challenges of mental asylums in India

Stigmatization and Social Attitudes Towards Mental Asylums

Mental asylums in India have historically faced stigmatization and negative societal attitudes. They have been associated with neglect, abuse, and human rights violations. The perception of mental asylums as places of confinement and isolation perpetuates the stigma surrounding mental health and hampers efforts to promote community-based care. This stigma often prevents individuals from seeking help and reinforces the idea that mental health conditions should be dealt with in isolation rather than as part of a broader community [ 35 ].

Human Rights Concerns and Ethical Considerations

Human rights concerns have been raised regarding mental asylums in India. Reports have documented overcrowding, a lack of privacy, and inadequate living conditions in some institutions. Patients' rights, including dignity, autonomy, and privacy, can be compromised in these settings. Additionally, the ethical considerations of involuntary admissions, the use of restraints, and the need for informed consent in psychiatric treatment are critical issues that must be addressed to protect individuals' rights and well-being [ 36 ].

Quality of Care and Treatment Modalities

The quality of care provided in mental asylums varies widely across India. While some institutions adhere to evidence-based treatments, rehabilitation programs, and a multidisciplinary approach, others struggle with resource constraints, inadequate staffing, and outdated practices. Using outdated treatments and over-reliance on medications without adequate psychosocial support services remain challenges within the mental asylum system. Improving the quality of care requires a focus on the training and capacity-building of mental health professionals, ensuring access to evidence-based treatments, and promoting holistic approaches that address the individual's social, psychological, and emotional needs [ 37 ].

Alternative Approaches to Mental Healthcare

The criticisms and challenges surrounding mental asylums have spurred the exploration of alternative approaches to mental healthcare in India. Community-based care has gained recognition as a more humane and effective approach that emphasizes the involvement of families, communities, and social support networks. Integrating mental health into primary healthcare settings allows for early detection, timely intervention, and holistic management of mental health problems. Other alternative approaches include mobile mental health units to reach underserved populations, telemedicine for remote consultations, and the implementation of psychosocial interventions that prioritize individual empowerment, resilience, and well-being. These alternative approaches promote a shift towards person-centered care and community support, reducing reliance on institutionalized care and enhancing India's overall mental health ecosystem [ 38 ].

Current mental health initiatives in India

Government Programs and Policies

The Government of India has implemented several programs and policies to address mental health issues. The National Mental Health Program (NMHP) is a flagship initiative to improve mental healthcare services. The program aims to provide accessible and affordable mental healthcare, promote community participation, train mental health professionals, and raise awareness about mental health. It also emphasizes integrating mental health into primary healthcare systems [ 39 ].

In addition, the Mental Healthcare Act of 2017 is significant legislation that prioritizes the rights and dignity of individuals with mental illness. It provides a legal framework for delivering mental healthcare, protects the rights of individuals with mental illness, decriminalizes suicide, and promotes community-based care [ 40 ].

Community-Based Mental Health Services

Community-based mental health services have gained prominence in India as a strategy to bridge the treatment gap and improve access to mental healthcare. These services adopt a decentralized approach, delivering mental healthcare at the community level through trained professionals. Community mental health programs involve outreach activities, awareness campaigns, counseling services, and support for individuals with mental health disorders and their families. The aim is to reduce stigma, enhance accessibility, and provide holistic care sensitive to communities' cultural context [ 38 ].

Integration of Mental Health into Primary Healthcare

Integrating mental health into primary healthcare is a key strategy to improve access to mental healthcare services. The District Mental Health Program (DMHP) is a notable initiative. The DMHP focuses on strengthening mental health services at the primary care level by training primary healthcare workers to identify and manage common mental health conditions. It involves capacity building, the provision of essential psychotropic medications, referral systems, and community-based rehabilitation services. This integration ensures that mental health is given equal importance to physical health, leading to early detection, timely intervention, and continuity of care [ 41 ].

Awareness Campaigns and Advocacy Efforts

Awareness campaigns and advocacy efforts are critical to promoting mental health literacy, reducing stigma, and raising public awareness about mental health issues. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), mental health professionals, and community groups actively engage in advocacy, education, and destigmatization initiatives. These efforts aim to challenge stereotypes, provide accurate information about mental health, promote help-seeking behaviors, and create supportive environments for individuals with mental health disorders. Awareness campaigns often utilize various media platforms, community events, and workshops to reach a wide audience and promote positive attitudes toward mental health [ 42 ]. These current mental health initiatives in India demonstrate a multifaceted approach that combines government policies, community-based services, integration into primary healthcare, and awareness campaigns. Such comprehensive efforts are crucial in addressing the complex challenges of mental health and improving the overall mental well-being of individuals in the country.

Future directions for mental health in India

Increasing the Number of Mental Health Professionals

Addressing the shortage of mental health professionals requires a multi-pronged approach. One strategy is to increase the number of psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, and other mental health specialists. This can be achieved through expanded training programs that attract more individuals to the field and provide them with the necessary skills and knowledge to practice effectively. Scholarships and incentives can also be offered to encourage professionals to work in underserved areas where the shortage is more pronounced. By increasing the workforce in mental health, access to care can be improved [ 43 ].

Enhancing Training and Capacity-Building

To ensure the delivery of high-quality mental healthcare, it is crucial to provide comprehensive and specialized training to mental health professionals. This includes continuous professional development programs that keep professionals updated with the latest evidence-based practices. Professionals can provide more effective and targeted interventions by enhancing their knowledge and skills in diagnosing and treating mental health disorders. Training programs should focus on culturally sensitive approaches and address the specific needs of diverse populations [ 44 ].

Decentralizing Mental Health Services

To bridge the gap in mental healthcare between urban and rural areas, it is essential to strengthen mental healthcare infrastructure and services at the district and community levels. This involves establishing mental health facilities, outpatient clinics, and community-based services in rural and remote areas. By bringing mental health services closer to where people live, access to care can be improved, and individuals can receive timely interventions. This also helps reduce the burden on tertiary care centers and psychiatric hospitals [ 45 ].

Integrating Mental Health into Primary Healthcare

Recognizing the importance of early detection and intervention, integrating mental health services into primary healthcare settings is crucial. This integration involves training primary healthcare providers to identify and manage common mental health conditions. It also includes establishing referral systems between primary care and specialized mental health services. Individuals can receive timely support and treatment by integrating mental health into primary healthcare, and the stigma associated with seeking mental healthcare can be reduced [ 46 ].

Strengthening Referral Systems

To ensure seamless transitions between different levels of care, robust referral systems must be developed. Effective communication and coordination between primary healthcare providers, specialized mental health services, and other relevant sectors (such as education and employment) are essential. Referral systems should ensure that individuals with mental health problems receive continuous support and follow-up care as they move through different stages of their treatment journey. This helps maintain continuity of care and address individuals' holistic needs [ 47 ].

Public-Private Partnerships and Leveraging Technology

To improve mental healthcare delivery, collaborations between the public and private sectors can be fostered through public-private partnerships. Such partnerships can enhance resource allocation, capacity-building, and the development of innovative approaches to mental health. Private sector involvement can bring additional expertise and resources to complement public sector efforts. Furthermore, leveraging technology can significantly improve access to mental healthcare, particularly in remote and underserved areas. Telemedicine, mobile health applications, and online platforms can facilitate virtual consultations, remote monitoring, and self-help interventions, expanding the reach of mental health services [ 48 ].

By implementing these recommendations, India can make significant strides in improving mental healthcare delivery, addressing workforce shortages, enhancing training and capacity-building, decentralizing services, integrating mental health into primary care, strengthening referral systems, and harnessing the potential of public-private partnerships and technology. These strategies contribute to a more comprehensive and accessible mental health system that meets the diverse needs of individuals nationwide.

Policy reforms and resource allocation

Allocating Adequate Resources

Increasing budgetary allocations specifically for mental health is essential. Sufficient funds should be allocated to support infrastructure development, including the establishment of mental health facilities, outpatient clinics, and community-based services. Adequate resources are also necessary to recruit and train mental health professionals, implement training programs for primary healthcare providers, conduct research, and address mental health disparities across regions [ 49 ].

Prioritizing Mental Health in the Healthcare Agenda

Recognizing mental health as a priority area within the broader healthcare system is essential for effective reform. This involves integrating mental health into national health policies, strategic plans, and programs. Setting measurable targets and indicators for improving mental healthcare outcomes helps ensure that progress is monitored and interventions are evidence-based [ 50 ].

Developing a Robust Regulatory Framework

Establishing and implementing a comprehensive regulatory framework is crucial for ensuring quality standards, ethics, and guidelines for mental health services. This includes developing licensing and accreditation processes for mental healthcare providers, monitoring compliance with professional standards, and enforcing ethical guidelines. Additionally, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms should be in place to assess the quality and effectiveness of mental healthcare delivery, identify areas for improvement, and ensure accountability [ 51 ].

Ensuring Policy Implementation

Strengthening coordination and collaboration among government departments responsible for mental health, social welfare, education, and employment is necessary for effective policy implementation. Intersectoral collaboration facilitates a holistic approach to addressing mental health issues and ensures that policies and initiatives are coordinated. This coordination can include sharing resources, data, and expertise, as well as joint planning and monitoring of mental health programs [ 52 ].

Holistic and multidisciplinary approaches to mental health

Integrating Psychological, Social, and Biological Perspectives

Recognizing that mental health disorders have complex causes and manifestations, it is essential to adopt an integrated approach that addresses mental health's biological, psychological, and social determinants. This means acknowledging the interplay between genetic factors, brain chemistry, individual experiences, and social contexts in developing and managing mental health disorders [ 53 ].

Collaborative Care Models

Collaborative care models involve a coordinated and team-based approach to mental healthcare delivery. These models bring together multiple stakeholders, including mental health professionals, primary healthcare providers, social workers, and community organizations, to work collaboratively to address the needs of individuals with mental health disorders [ 54 ].

Promoting community participation and support systems

Engaging Community Leaders and Organizations

Collaborating with community leaders, religious and cultural organizations, and community-based groups is crucial for promoting mental health awareness, reducing stigma, and improving access to care. Community leaders and organizations have significant influence and reach within their communities. By partnering with them, it is possible to conduct awareness campaigns, organize educational events, and disseminate accurate information about mental health. This collaboration can help create supportive environments where individuals feel comfortable seeking help and accessing mental healthcare services. Community-based organizations can also play a role in identifying individuals in need of support and connecting them with appropriate resources [ 55 ].

Involving Individuals with Lived Experience

It is essential to involve individuals with personal experience with mental health problems in decision-making, service planning, and advocacy efforts. Their unique insights and perspectives can contribute to more person-centered and recovery-oriented mental healthcare services. These individuals can provide valuable input on the challenges they faced, the types of support that were helpful to them, and the gaps in existing services. Their involvement can help shape policies, programs, and interventions more responsive to the needs and preferences of individuals with mental health disorders. It also empowers them to become advocates for mental health and reduce stigma through sharing their stories and experiences [ 56 ].

Peer Support Networks and Community-Based Rehabilitation

Establishing peer support networks, self-help groups, and community-based rehabilitation programs is essential for fostering a sense of belonging and support among individuals with mental health disorders. Peer support networks provide a platform for individuals to connect, share experiences, and offer mutual support. These networks can help reduce feelings of isolation and provide a sense of community, which is particularly beneficial during recovery. Self-help groups allow individuals to share coping strategies, provide emotional support, and learn from each other's experiences. Community-based rehabilitation programs empower individuals with mental health disorders to develop skills, reintegrate into society, and participate in meaningful activities. These initiatives promote social inclusion, recovery, and well-being [ 57 ]. By implementing these recommendations, India can significantly improve its mental healthcare delivery, ensure better access and quality of care, reduce stigma, and promote holistic well-being for individuals with mental health disorders.

Conclusions

Addressing mental health problems in India holds immense significance, considering the scale of human value impact involved. The country's population size gives added weight to the importance of tackling these barriers. It is crucial to recognize that mental health issues affect a significant portion of the population and can lead to severe consequences if left unaddressed. Therefore, concerted efforts are essential to combating these challenges effectively. Reducing the stigma surrounding mental illness is critical to addressing mental health problems in India. Stigma creates barriers that hinder individuals from seeking the necessary help and support they require. To overcome this, public awareness campaigns and educational initiatives are vital in combating stigma and promoting understanding and empathy toward those with mental health conditions. A comprehensive and compassionate approach is necessary to tackle India's complex mental health challenges. By reducing stigma, improving accessibility, enhancing the quality of services, shifting towards community-based care, protecting human rights, and integrating mental health into mainstream healthcare systems, India can make significant progress in addressing mental health issues. The benefits will extend beyond individuals, contributing to society's overall development and well-being.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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The Possible Collapse of the U.S. Home Insurance System

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Across the United States, more frequent extreme weather is starting to cause the home insurance market to buckle, even for those who have paid their premiums dutifully year after year.

Christopher Flavelle, a climate reporter, discusses a Times investigation into one of the most consequential effects of the changes.

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Christopher Flavelle , a climate change reporter for The New York Times.

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

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