essay on indian epics and mythology

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Indian epics-The 3 Most Important Epics of India You Should Know

The ramayana, the mahabharata, the bhagavad gita.

Ramayana and Mahabharata are the two main epics of India that both written in Sanskrit, and together form the canon of Hindu scripture . They are both extremely famous in India and, over the centuries, have inspired writers from all over the world.

The Ramayana tells the story about life of Rama from birth to death, praising his heroism and virtuosity and the Mahabharata narrates a complex story of war for the throne of Hastinapura. Bhagavad Gita is a story part of the Mahabharata became the famous Bhagavad Gita (the Lord's Song): nowadays it is Hinduism's most popular scripture, Gandhi described it as a "spiritual dictionary".

• The Mahabharata, the longest epic poem in the world, represents the core of India and its culture
• Arjuna is one of the most complex and most interesting characters in world mythology
• Part of the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita acts as a spiritual and moral guide for all Hindus
• Ramayana tells the story of Rama, whose ideal life is the perfect representation of Dharma
• The tale is an allegory about human duties and rights

The Ramayana is the other epic poem of India, forming, along with the Mahabharata, the Hindu Itihasa (meaning "history" in Hindi). The epic narrates the life of Rama, the prince of the Kosala Kingdom, and the author is believed to be Valmiki.

Various scholars estimate that the earliest parts of the text were written from the 7th to the 4th century BCE and that the text grew with later additions around the 3rd century CE. It is easy to see that the Ramayana is one of the oldest epics in the world, and also one of the longest ones: it consists of 24,000 verses.

Hindus consider it to be the "first poem", and the main theme is the depiction of the duties of relationships, with characters representing the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal king, etc. Like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana doesn't simply tell a story: it presents the teaching of the Hindu stages, with plenty of allegorical elements.

Besides the original Indian one, there are many other versions of the tale, found in countries like the Philippines, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia.

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Who penned the Indian epic Ramayana

According to the legend, the Ramayana was written by Valmiki, revered in India as the "first poet". The Ramayana composed by Valmiki is dated from 500 BCE to 100 BCE, according to various scholars.

Of course, even if Valmiki is the original author, the Ramayana, like any other epic tale, went through a process of interpolations and redactions, and thus it is impossible to date it accurately.

Valmiki was a literary genius, whose philosophic skepticism earned him the status of an outlaw. Valmiki, besides being the author of the poem, is also an important character: he meets Rama during his exile and talks with him and in the versions were Rama banishes his wife,he gives shelter to Sita and teaches the Ramayana to the two twins sons of Rama.

The protagonist

As the name says, the Ramayana tells the story of Rama, the seventh avatar of Vishnu and, along with Krishna and Gautama Buddha, his most popular incarnation. In some traditions of Hinduism, he is considered to be the Supreme Being.

Rama was the son of the king of Kosala and was married to Sita. Though part of the royal family, he lived a hard life, mostly because of some unexpected changes, that he was exiled and faced ethical questions and moral dilemmas.

His story discusses duties, rights, and social responsibilities in an allegorical way. Rama is a model character, and his life is a representation of the dharma .

Rama is extremely popular in India, and his character inspired other works of art, such as the Adhyatma Ramayana - a spiritual treatise; and the Ramcharitmanas - a popular dissertation that inspired the Ramilila festival performances.

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Rama, the ideal hero and a powerful and virtuous prince of Ayodhya, was born during an age terrorized by the demon Ravana.

During his youth, he managed to perform an incredible act that no other human being was ever capable of doing, he lifted and pulled the string of the bow of Shiva. This accomplishment earned him the right to marry the beautiful Sita. Other suitors for her hand could not even manage to lift the bow off the ground.

Just before Rama is about to inherit the throne, his father is forced to exile him for fourteen years under the influence of his stepmother. Rama accepted his exile and his wife and brother, Lakshman, went with him. They lived a simple life and spent time visiting the dwellings of many holy sages.

While they were in the forest, the demon Ravana kidnaped Sita and tried to seduce her, but she rejected him for 10 months.

To get her back, Rama and his brother formed an alliance with the monkey king, Sugriva. Rama asked Sugriva to rescue his wife Sita, and in return, he promised to help Sugriva to kill his brother, Vali, and reinstate the kingship of Vanaras.

Rama and Lakshman then invaded Ravana's palace with the help of Sugriva and an army of monkeys. After many battles, Rama defeated Ravana and won back Sita. During the battle, Lakshman was gravely wounded but was saved by a magical mountain herb brought by Sugriva.

After making Sita undergo a trial by fire to prove her chastity, Rama and his wife return to Ayodhya to live together. Rama's triumphant return is celebrated in the festival of lights, Diwali , and symbolizes the victory of good over evil.

In some regions, the victory of Lord Rama over the demon Ravana is celebrated during Dussehra , also known as Vijaya Dashami or Dashain. During Dussehra, there are many performances of the Ramlila story and celebrations that include the burning of Ravana statues.

In some versions, Rama thinks that his wife had been unfaithful to him and so he banishes her to the forest. Here she gives birth to his two sons, who later encounter Valmiki, the author of the poem, and teaches him the story of the Ramayana.

Over centuries, these stories have inspired a great deal of art, theater, and more recently popular TV serials. In Angkor Wat's west gallery the climax of the Ramayana, the Battle of Lanka, is carved into the walls.

More details about the story of the Hindu Epic Ramayana and its main characters, please cehck here!

The Mahabharata is the longest epic poem in the word : it consists of over 200,000 individual verse line and long passages written in prose. It has a total word count of 1.8 million, i.e. ten times the Iliad and the Odyssey combined.

To world literature, the Mahabharata has the same importance of the Bible, the works of Shakespeare, the Quran and the poems of Homer.

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The writer of Indian epic Mahabharata

According to the tradition, the Mahabharata was written by Vyasa, a sage that is also a major character inside the poem. The oldest parts of the poem are not older than 400 BCE, even if maybe the epic originated between the 8th and the 9th centuries BCE.

It is likely that the text reached the form we know today during the Gupta period (around the 4th century CE).

Vyasa is considered to be one of the seven immortals (the "Chiranjivins"), and the festival of Guru Purnima is held in his honor. According to the tradition, Vyasa dictated the text, while Ganesha wrote it down.

Even if there are dozens of major characters, one of the most important ones is undoubtedly Arjuna, the son of Pandu. He was one of the five Pandava brothers who fought against the Kauravas.

Arjuna was famous to be an extremely skilled archer and for its close relationship with Krishna, who became his charioteer. In the poem, Krishna acts as a moral guide for Arjuna : every time he has to face a dilemma, Krishna advises and guides him. All their conversation comprises the Bhagavad Gita (see below).

One of the most famous episodes of his youth is the archery competition. While exercising with a bow, the students have to shoot the eye of a wooden bird from afar and while all the other students were distracted by the things surrounding the bird, Arjuna could only see his target, and this great focus allowed him to hit the eye on the first shot.

Another famous story sees Arjuna fighting against 100,000 enemies in one day to avenge the death of his son, killed by the enemy king. Arjuna had pledged that he would slay him before nightfall or kill himself in case of failure.

This famous poem narrates the story of two families, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, who fought against each other in the Kurukshetra War. This war was a battle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan. The main story is interwoven with many secondary plots.

Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas, was younger than Yudhishthira, the eldest of the Pandavas, and both of them claimed the right to inherit the throne. This rivalry and enmity had existed between them since childhood.

To try and solve this problem, Duryodhana's uncle arranged a dice game in which the two rivals bet everything and Yudhishthira lost his wealth and kingdom. Afterward, the Kauravas brothers tried to disrobe Draupadi, the wife of all five Pandava brothers in front of the court to shame her, but her sari kept growing magically to cover her.

The Pandavas were forced into exile for 13 years after the game of dice. During their exile, they experienced many adventures and prepared alliances for future conflict.

At the end of Pandavas' exile, they negotiated to return to Indraprastha, but this request was denied by Duryodhana as the Pandavas had broken their banishment earlier and were discovered in the 13th year of exile hiding in the court of Virata. Because of this, they wouldn't be able to return. The Pandavas were unwilling to accept this and declared war on the Kauravas.

The Hind god, Krishna considered the Pandavas to be his human instruments, so he took their side and acted as the chariot driver for the master warrior, Arjuna. The struggle culminates in the battle of Kurukshetra which the Pandavas eventually win. It is in the middle of this war that Krishna delivered his famous speech on the eternal reality of immortality and the duties of human beings.

The poem ends with the death of Krishna and the end of his dynasty. The Pandava brothers then ascend to heaven. In Hinduism, all these episodes mark the beginning of the age of Kali Yuga, the final age of humankind where there are no values and people are headed towards destruction.

Artwork that depicts the characters of the Mahabharata

The Groups of Monuments at Mamallapuram is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is best known for its 7th and 8th-century Hindu religious monuments.

The group consists of 40 ancient monuments and Hindu temples, including the rock reliefs depicting the descent of the Ganges and Arjuna's Penance, processional chariots, and cave temples showing stories from the Mahabharata.

Bhima Ratha , an example of the artwork cut from a single stone, is a chariot that carved out of a long piece of granite. This work of art gets its name from one of the Pandava brothers, Bhima. It is the third chariot after Arjuna's and Draupadi's chariots which share a platform with a lion and Nandi, the bull.

Angkor Wat , the grandest of all Khmer temples in Cambodia and also one of the largest religious monuments in the world, contains beautiful carvings from the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics.

The reliefs in Angkor Wat's west gallery and south section tells the story of the Battle of Kurukshetra , with the Kauravas advancing from the left and the Pandavas from the right.

At the heart of the battle, the fighting is intense. Arjuna can be seen at the head of the Pandava army firing an arrow from his chariot. His chariot has four arms, identifying him as Krishna.

Check here for more information about The Hindu Epic Mahabharata and its Main Characters.

The Bhagavad Gita is a Sanskrit scripture, part of the Mahabharata. The entire narrative of the scripture is composed of a dialogue between Arjuna and his guide, Krishna.

When the war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas begins, Arjuna has to face heavy moral dilemmas that caused the violence and death that will come with the war. He wonders if he should renounce and ask Krishna for advice.

Krishna tells him to fulfill his warrior duty to uphold the Dharma , and in doing so Krishna offers a summary of what Hindu thinks about the dharma and the yogic ideals of moksha.

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As said, the Gita is a conversation between Krishna and Arjuna. The two talk right before the beginning of the war where the two massive armies of the Pandavas and Kauravas are about to destroy each other. This is a famous discourse on morality and contains the core values of Hindu religion and philosophy.

Arjuna, eager for war, asks Krishna to drive him in the middle of the battlefield: he sees that he will have to fight against some of his relatives, friends, and teachers. He doesn't want to kill them and is thus filled with despair. He drops the bow and wonders if he should just go away.

The two talks and Krishna resolve Arjuna's dilemmas. Even if their dialogue is set in the war context, the narrative is structured for the abstract to all situations, trying to answer basic questions about human life: its purpose, its origin, and meaning.

Spiritual concepts of the Gita

The importance of the Bhagavad Gita relies on trying to synthesize the various religious tradition of Hinduism. The text avoids indicating just one "right" spiritual path; instead, it harmonizes different ways of life and spiritual views.

The text tries to answer the questions of what a virtuous path is and how one can achieve spiritual liberation . The Gita discusses the three dominant trends in Hinduism: enlightenment-based renunciation, dharma-based householder life, and devotion-based theism -trying to forge harmony between the three.

In doing so, the Bhagavad Gita recommends that, instead of choosing one path, one should embrace all of them. People must do the right thing because they have understood that it is right, not because of its fruits ' desires are the main reason why people are distorted from the spiritual life.

According to the Gita, there are many ways to spiritual realization because everyone has a different personality and a different temperament. According to one's personality, there are several paths to choose from: the path of knowledge; devotion; action; and meditation.

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Related Reading

• The Story of the Hindu Epic Ramayana and its Main Characters
• The Hindu Epic Mahabharata and its Main Characters
• Ramayana and Mahabharata: Stories, Similarities and Differences
• Religion in India
• Hinduism - 9 Interesting Facts You Should Know

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History Cooperative

Hindu Mythology: The Legends, Culture, Deities, and Heroes

Hindu mythology, alternatively called Indian mythology, involves the all-encompassing lore behind the world’s third-largest religion. As a contender for being the oldest religion in the world, Hinduism had a significant impact on some of Earth’s earliest cultures. For example, Hinduism acted as the socio-theological backbone for the Indus Valley civilization for centuries. While the religion’s influences can be seen in things such as the (controversial) caste system, Hinduism further acted to unite ancient India.

Table of Contents

What is Hindu Mythology?

Hindu mythology is a collection of myths and legends that belong to the Hindu faith. Its iconic (and ancient) religious texts are the Vedas, the oldest Sanskrit literature in history. Altogether, Hindu mythology dates back to the 2nd millennium BCE and is believed to have originated around the Indus River.

What is the Basic Hindu Mythology?

The bare-bone basic beliefs of Hinduism include samsara (cycle of life and reincarnation) and karma (cause and effect). Hindus also believe that all living things have a soul – called an “atman” – that is part of a supreme spirit. Therefore, there are animistic principles that are found within Hinduism. The basics of Hindu mythology can be found in the four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda.

What is Hindu Mythology Called?

Practitioners of Hinduism have taken to calling the religion Sanātana Dharma, which denotes the religion’s primary principles and eternal truths. However, Hinduism has four major denominations: Shaivism, Shaktism, Smartism, and Vaishnavism. There are other, lesser-known sects within Hinduism as well, with their own interpretations of the mythology. On another hand, Hindu mythology has also been used interchangeably with Indian mythology.

Scholars believe that the religion originated in the Indus Valley civilization and its many cultures. The rock shelters of Bhimbetka offer insight into some of the region’s earliest societies, along with their cultural traditions and – perhaps – the threads of Hindu mythology.

READ MORE: Ancient Civilizations Timeline: The Complete List from Aboriginals to Incans

What is the Hindu Creation Myth?

In Hinduism, creation is credited to Lord Brahma . From himself, the universe came to be. He also created the dichotomy of good and evil, as well as the other devas, demons, and earthly creatures. In short, Brahma is the origin of all things.

In the Hindu creation myth, Brahma emerges from a golden egg. The existence of a gilded, cosmic egg is a motif prevalent in other world mythologies. The Brahmanda Purana goes into great detail to describe the cosmic egg and Brahma’s role in creation, along with his creation of mankind. You see, the creation of man came about when Brahma had kids with the goddess Saraswati, the Hindu goddess of knowledge.

Their (very human) son, Manu, would go on to marry the first human woman, Shatarupa, or Ananti, depending on the source. Translations get hazy, and Manu’s wife may or may not have been his sister, born at the same time as he was from Brahma alone. Together, they are the ancestors of all of humanity.

Why are There 14 Worlds in Hindu Mythology?

The 14 worlds in Hindu mythology represent varying levels of philosophical spiritual awareness, being more symbolic than anything. At least, that is the popular theory amongst theologists. The 14 realms could, honestly, just be the way the universe is divvied up per the way Hinduism developed.

In Hindu cosmology, there are 14 different worlds, or planes (lokas), which are discussed in the Atharvaveda . They are divided evenly, giving us seven upper worlds – known as the Vyahrtis – and the seven lower worlds, the Patalas. The lokas end up meeting in the middle, thus creating the earthly domain of Bhur-Loka. Major deities, such as Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva, have their own lokas that they lord over.

The Hindu Pantheon: Meet the Devas

Called devas, Hindu gods and goddesses are some of the oldest and most impressive divinities. Many gods have several aspects, avatars, or incarnations. These manifest in various myths and legends. Each major god has unmistakably iconography, to boot.

Hinduism and Hindu mythology are based on exuberant polytheism. There are countless devas and devis (goddesses), all of whom can influence the natural world. The Hindu pantheon is thought to be home to anywhere from 33 to 330 million gods and goddesses. It all comes down to religious texts and the different sects of Hinduism.

The most noteworthy deities include:

• The Dashavatara – the 10 Incarnations of Vishnu
• The Mahavidya – the 10 forms of Mahadevi
• The Navadurga – the 9 forms of Durga

*Shakti is the name of a goddess and the dynamic energies that flow throughout the universe at large; “shakti” may also refer to power and/or force, though it is primarily used to define cosmic energy 

The Trayastrinshata of the Rigveda

The Trayastrinshata is a collection of 33 Hindu deities that are referred to within the Rigveda and other prominent Hindu literature. However, they are not always 33 in number, and exactly who is a member of the Trayastrinshata changes between sources. The general consensus is that the Trayastrinshata are the children of Aditi, goddess of the cosmos, and the legendary sage Kashyapa, although this lineage does vary. In Buddhism , the Trayastrinshata are known as the Trayastrimsa.

The Adityas

The Adityas are twelve gods accounted for in the Brahmanas and the Rigveda . The deities are a portion of the offspring born between the goddess Aditi and the Vedic sage Kashyapa. They uphold moral righteousness and are, more or less, perfect beings. Each member of the Adityas is meant to represent the months as they are depicted in a solar year.

• Vishnu 

There are eleven Rudras, all of whom are a form of the Vedic deity, Rudra. How the Rudras came to depend on the source, with some – such as the Matsya Purana – citing their parents as the cow goddess Surabhi and Brahma. Other contenders for parents of the Rudras include the combination of Kashyapa and Surabhi, or the god of death alone, Yama. As the Hindu religion developed, Rudra became synonymous with the god Shiva.

The later Vishnu Purana describes how Shiva split into eleven separate selves while in the form of Ardhanarishvara. Thus, he created the Rudras. His other half (literally and metaphorically), Parvati, did the same and created the eleven wives of the Rudras, called the Rudranis.

The Vasus are eight attendants of the gods Indra and Vishnu. They embody fire, light , and heat. Rather than children of Kashyapa and Aditi, they have also been considered to be offspring of Manu or Yama and a minor goddess named Vasu.

The Ashvins

The Ashvins fulfill the divine twin facet of Hindu mythology. They are described as guardians and protectors, who swoop in on their chariots to save mortals from dire situations. Their parents are oftentimes said to be the sun god Surya and his consort, Saranyu. Unlike other members of the Trayastrinshata, the Ashvins are not known to have personal names.

The Trimurti and the Tridevi

Within Hindu mythology, the Trimurti and Tridevi are prominent deities. Also known as the Hindu trinity, the Trimurti is the divine triad of Brahma (Creation), Vishnu (Preservation), and Shiva (Destruction). Their wives and shakti are the Tridevi. The Tridevi are considered to be the feminine aspects of the masculine Trimurti.

The Matrikas

The Matrikas are seven Hindu mother goddesses. When depicted with an eighth member, they are known as the Ashtamatrikas. Potentially archaic interpretations of the danger that could beset children before adulthood, the Matrikas became associated with fertility, childbirth, and disease. Most notably, the Matrikas evolved to be the guardians of young children and infants.

The Navagraha

The Navagraha are nine celestial deities that represent nine heavenly bodies: the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The Navagraha also includes the two lunar nodes. In the Hindu Middle Ages, there were only seven identified heavenly bodies and, therefore, only seven deities to represent them. Each deity was associated with a weekday.

The Marutagana

The Marutagana were twenty to sixty storm deities. They are considered to be a part of Indra’s entourage, coming down from the north in a cacophony. Some scholars conclude that the Marutagana in the presence of Indra is the Hindu equivalent of a northern European Wild Hunt.

Who is the Indian God of Creation?

The Hindu god of creation is Brahma. As the creator of the universe itself, Brahma is a mighty god that is disconnected from popular Hindu myths. He does not toil over mortal affairs and exists more of an abstract belief than a deity.

It is thought that the lack of worship of Brahma is explained in a myth where Shiva, his brother and the “destroyer” god mutilates and curses him for developing an obsession with the first woman, Shatarupa. Otherwise, it is said that Brahma’s role ended when the world was created, and he went into an unofficial retirement – if that’s a thing gods could do. Hence, Vishnu and Shiva are still venerated because their roles are still being fulfilled.

Who is the Oldest God in Hinduism?

Brahma is the oldest god in Hinduism since he is the creator of the universe and the progenitor of all living things. Because of this, Brahma has been referred to as “grandfather” in some sects of the religion. Considering his seniority over other deities, it may be shocking to discover that the creator of all things isn’t heavily worshiped in modern Hinduism. The god of destruction, Shiva, is far more popular – especially within Hindu Shaivism traditions.

Brahma is associated with the ancient Vedic god of creation, Prajapati. As a Vedic creator deity, Prajapati could pre-date India’s Vedic Period (1500-1100 BCE) with origins in the Indus Valley civilization.

Why Do Hindu Gods Have So Many Arms?

Hindu gods have so many arms because, in short, more arms equals more power. The phenomenon of deities being presented with four arms in Hindu iconography actually has a name, chaturbhuja . Vishnu is most commonly depicted with the chaturbhuja , which is also an epithet of his, to show his supreme power over the universe.

It is safe to say that although the arms aren’t necessarily flexing, having more than two arms is undoubtedly a flex. A flex of power, that is.

Where Do Hindu Gods Live?

The Hindu gods live in Svarga, alternatively known as Svargaloka (Svarga Loka). It is one of seven higher planes (called lokas in Hinduism) in the religion’s cosmography. Svarga is described as the home of the devas, ruled over by the god Indra from its capital, Amaravati. As a realm of light and splendor, Svarga is a point of contention in the eternal conflict between the devas and the asuras.

Most deities of Hindu mythology reside within the plane of Svargaloka. Despite this, other prominent gods – namely members of the Trimurti – lord over their own respective realms. The god of death , Yama, likewise resides in and rules over his own separate plane, Naraka.

Ancient Vedic Religious Traditions and Hindu Beliefs

The Vedic religion of eld is thought to be the predecessor of present-day Hinduism. Though they have their key differences, the skeleton of Vedic practices still appears within Hindu mythology. In the Vedic religion, key gods included Indra, Agni, Soma, and Rudra, all of which appear in Hinduism. Vedic traditions also include the concept of a permanent afterlife, which challenges Hinduism’s belief in reincarnation.

Generally, it is thought that the Indian subcontinent transitioned from Vedic practices to Hinduism sometime in the sixth century BCE. This would be during the Late Vedic Period. Simultaneously, philosophical traditions began to lean into Hindu concepts, and the Vedic gods merged with newer, more unified Hindu divinities.

Sects and Cults

Today, there are four major sects of Hinduism: Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, and Smartism. Although it is easy to assume these sects were founded during the modern period, all four have ancient roots. Each believes in a supreme being, though who that being is changes between sects; in Smartism, who the higher power is varies between practitioners.

Indian folk cults are just as archaic and hold dominant traditions in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent. While veneration of all the gods was standard, their worship included Yakshas and Nagas. In some states, tutelary deities took precedence over other gods. Sacred groves became abundant and nature spirits became focal points of veneration.

Traditional Sacrifices

Sacrifices have a unique place in Hinduism, with myths in the Mahabharata and other Vedic texts addressing the religious practice. Animal sacrifices ( bali ) are amongst the most frequent sacrifices in Hinduism, as they date back to Vedic practices recorded in the Yajurveda . There are records of a horse sacrifice, called Ashvamedha , in the “ Ashvamedhika Parva” of the Mahabharata to establish a sovereign’s rule. Other animal sacrifices of cattle, oxen, goats, and deer are performed during ceremonies and festivals.

Many Hindus today are vegetarian, and bali is only performed by certain sects in some regions of India. This emerges from several later religious developments. The most influential is the 11th century CE Bhagavata Purana , wherein the god Krishna advises man to not perform animal sacrifices in the current age (Kali Yuga). Furthermore, the level of violence in bali caused the practice to become unfavorable in later periods when nonviolence became a cardinal virtue.

There is no real evidence of purushamedha , or human sacrifices, ever being performed in Hindu mythology. There’s a chance that Vedic religion called for it, but there has been no substantial evidence suggesting this. Scholars are sorely lacking both archaeological and literary evidence regarding the prevalence of purushamedha in Hinduism. The degrees of general blood sacrifices varied largely between the Vedic and Tantric Periods of India’s history.

Other sacrifices include food offerings and libations, which are given during rituals, festivals, and daily worship. The size and contents of the sacrifices offered may vary, with many facets of a sacrifice depending on the deity they are meant for.

Festivals and Holidays

Many present-day Hindu festivals have ancient roots. Indeed, today’s festivals and holidays rely on the myths and legends of ancient Hindu mythology. From veneration of the gods to celebrating historical folklore, the festivals of Hinduism are as culturally rich as they are mythologically significant.

• Chhath Puja
• Ganesh Chaturthi
• Ghadimai Festival
• Guru Purnima
• Krishna Janmashtami
• Maha Shivaratri
• Rama Navami
• Vasant Panchami

Legendary Heroes of Hindu Mythology

Indian mythological characters are amongst the most daring legendary heroes. Featured primarily in epic mythology and literature, the all-star heroes of Hinduism often display superhuman characteristics. To be fair, several Hindu heroes are incarnations of the gods. So, being super natural isn’t all that far-fetched.

A majority of Hindu heroes and heroines are found in the two great epics , the Mahabharata and the Ramayana . The Bhagavata Purana is additionally counted as one of India’s great epics. Besides being explored in the longest epic poem ever written, the stories of Hindu mythology’s legendary heroes are gripping, daring, and filled with inexplicable wonder.

• Dronacharya

Mythological Creatures in Hindu Myths and Legends

The mythological creatures of Hindu mythology range from everything between legendary creatures, namely vahanas , to entire species of beings. Where sacred stories discuss the presence of nature spirits and malicious demons, there are also tales of sea monsters and dragons. Within Hindu mythos, mythical creatures acted as tools for the gods.

While some entities actively aided and abetted the deities’ miraculous feats, others, like the Asura, hindered them. In all, mythological creatures provided a means to an end while furthering the belief in the existence of good and evil forces in the world.

• The Daityas
• Airavata, the white elephant of Indra
• The Yakshas
• Garuda 

Dragons in Indian Mythology

In Hindu mythology, the most famous dragon is the Asura Vritra. A being of drought that hoards water instead of wealth, Vritra was created as an opponent to Indra. While other dragons are not directly named, the role of Vritra and the serpentine Nagas suggests the unique associations early Hindus had between dragons, serpents, and water.

READ MORE: Who Invented Water? History of the Water Molecule

Hindu Mythology’s Many Monsters

Where there are gods, there are bound to be monsters. The monsters of Hindu mythology represent another, darker part of the religion’s beliefs surrounding dharma. That, where there was morality and righteousness, there was immorality and spiritual corruption. Hindu monsters do not challenge the gods as much as they challenge mankind.

*A famous rakshasa is the demon king Ravana, featured in the Ramayana epic; the demon king Ravana is a quintessential Hindu villain, acting on impulse while displaying perpetual ignorance through his actions

Mythical Items found in Hindu Mythology

The mythical items of Hinduism have a range. There’s an elixir of immortality sitting right next to…a celestial missile? Three celestial missiles?! Anyways, which items played an important role in the legends of Hinduism depended on their proximity to the gods.

Items were both personal artifacts and gifts, bequeathed to those deemed worthy. Alternatively, some of the most well-known items in Hindu mythology were legendary plants. These plants could do anything from producing powerful poisons to granting any wish. Although all of the above are considered to have mythical origins, it is thought that some fantastical foliage could be found in nature.

• Kalpavriksha
• Narayanastra
• Pashupatastra

Hindu Mythology in Literary Works

The most famous literary works that are attributed to Hindu mythology are the four Vedas , which are amongst the religion’s most known texts. There are also the Puranas , with major Puranic texts including Shiva Purana and Padma Purana . Additionally, the two great Hindu epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . Overall, some of the most significant literary works that pertain to Hindu mythology are ancient texts that date to the Vedic Period.

Literature is the backbone of most world belief systems. The most popular religions in the world (i.e. Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, etc.) still refer to ancient texts. Moreover, religious doctrines are fantastic sources for locating earlier myths that are otherwise lesser known.

• The Bhagavad Gita
• The Upanishads
• Sangam (Tamil) Literature

Which God is Important to the Hindu Epics?

Vishnu is the most important god in the Hindu epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana . He is the “preserver” god of the Trimurti and therefore acts as a divine judge to quell disagreements. In either epic, the god Vishnu’s avatars are central characters.

Within the Ramayana , the seventh incarnation of Vishnu, Lord Rama, acts as the epic’s protagonist. He is the ideal man and a glorious king, on a journey to save his wife, Sita, from the morally corrupt Ravana. Otherwise, his eighth incarnation, Lord Krishna, acts as a divine advisor to the character Arjuna throughout the legendary Kurukshetra War of the Bhagavad Gita in the Mahabharata . Both incarnations are major deities in their own right, especially in Vaishnavism.

Famous Artwork that Captures Hindu Mythology

Artwork depicting Hindu mythology is found most commonly in temples and architecture. There are votive lingas , auspicious imagery, and niches that show the gods in their many forms or achieving their most courageous feats. Art was created with a conscious effort to capture the gods at their greatest, thereby honoring them further.

The most compelling aspect of Hindu artwork is the presence of mudras . Mudras are found in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain art. As a type of iconography, mudras are symbolic gestures or poses. They are prevalent in some forms of yoga, traditional folk dance, and religious rituals.

Hindu Mythology in Film and Television

In India, Bollywood is the major film industry, and Bollywood films have an unmistakable charm. Bollywood has done the most justice for Hindu mythology through film and television. Films that delve into Hindu legends, from the Ramayana to the tale of Ashwatthama include:

• Arjun: The Warrior Prince
• Sita Swayamvar

How to Cite this Article

There are three different ways you can cite this article.

1. To cite this article in an academic-style article or paper , use:

<a href=" https://historycooperative.org/hindu-mythology/ ">Hindu Mythology: The Legends, Culture, Deities, and Heroes</a>

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The Significance Of Ramayana And Mahabharata In Indian Literature

Step into the enchanting world of Indian literature as we explore the profound significance of two ancient epics: the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These captivating narratives have not only shaped the cultural fabric of India but have also transcended time and borders to become treasured classics worldwide. Through their intricate storytelling, moral teachings, and spiritual wisdom, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata continue to inspire generations, showcasing the linguistic and literary treasures that make Indian literature truly unique. Join us on a journey as we uncover the timeless allure of these monumental literary works on IndianCulture.com.

Table of Contents

The Origins of Ramayana and Mahabharata

Authorship and composition.

The origins of Ramayana and Mahabharata, two of the most important epics in Indian literature, can be traced back to ancient times. The authorship and composition of these epics have been the subject of much debate and speculation.

Ramayana, attributed to the sage Valmiki, is believed to have been composed around 500 BCE. It narrates the story of Prince Rama and his journey to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. The epic is written in the form of a poem and explores themes of duty, honor, and the triumph of good over evil.

On the other hand, the authorship of Mahabharata is more complex. It is said to have been composed by the sage Vyasa, but the epic itself has undergone several additions and revisions over the centuries. The earliest version is believed to have been written around 400 BCE, while the final version we know today was compiled around 300 CE. Mahabharata tells the story of the Kuru dynasty and the great war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas.

Historical and Cultural Context

To understand the significance of Ramayana and Mahabharata, it is important to examine their historical and cultural context. These epics are not merely literary works; they reflect the values, beliefs, and traditions of ancient Indian society.

Ramayana is set in the Treta Yuga, a time period characterized by the rule of virtuous kings and the prevalence of honor and righteousness. Mahabharata, on the other hand, takes place in the Dwapara Yuga, a time of moral decline and conflict.

Both epics provide glimpses into the social, political, and religious aspects of ancient India. They offer valuable insights into the caste system, the role of women, and the moral dilemmas faced by individuals of that time.

The Influence of Ramayana and Mahabharata on Indian Literature

Themes and motifs in indian literature.

Ramayana and Mahabharata have had a profound influence on Indian literature, serving as a source of inspiration for countless authors and poets. The themes and motifs found in these epics can be seen in various works of Indian literature.

The concept of dharma, or moral duty, is a recurring theme in both Ramayana and Mahabharata. This idea of righteous action and adherence to one’s duty has been explored in countless Indian literary works across different languages and time periods.

Other themes such as love, loyalty, sacrifice, and the complexities of human relationships are also prominent in these epics. They continue to resonate with contemporary readers and have been reimagined in modern Indian literature.

Characters and Archetypes in Indian Literature

The characters in Ramayana and Mahabharata have become archetypal figures in Indian literature. The heroic Prince Rama, the devoted Sita, the wise and righteous Hanuman, and the flawed yet honorable Pandavas are just a few examples.

These characters serve as role models and sources of inspiration for generations of writers. Their virtues and flaws are explored and examined in various literary works, contributing to the richness and diversity of Indian literature.

Furthermore, the presence of powerful female characters like Sita, Draupadi, and Kunti challenges traditional gender roles and provides a platform for the exploration of women’s agency and empowerment in Indian literature.

Religious and Philosophical Significance

Incorporation of hindu mythology in literature.

Ramayana and Mahabharata are deeply rooted in Hindu mythology and have played a significant role in the religious and cultural fabric of India. The inclusion of various gods, goddesses, and divine beings in these epics has helped reinforce religious beliefs and values.

The tales of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna are not only stories of heroism and adventure but also narratives that transcend the boundaries of the physical world. They reveal profound spiritual truths and teachings that have guided generations of Hindus.

These epics have provided a platform for the exploration of complex philosophical concepts like karma, dharma, and moksha. They have sparked intellectual debates and discussions, enriching the religious and philosophical landscape of India.

Moral and Ethical Teachings in Indian Literature

One of the greatest strengths of Ramayana and Mahabharata lies in their ability to convey moral and ethical teachings through captivating narratives. The dilemmas faced by the characters, their choices, and the consequences of their actions serve as valuable life lessons.

Ramayana, for instance, emphasizes the importance of loyalty, integrity, and devotion. It teaches the value of fulfilling one’s responsibilities and staying steadfast in the face of adversity.

Similarly, Mahabharata delves into complex moral issues such as the nature of duty, the ethics of war, and the consequences of greed and desire. It prompts readers to question their own actions and motivations, fostering introspection and self-reflection.

The Role of Ramayana and Mahabharata in Indian Society

Cultural integration and identity.

Ramayana and Mahabharata have played a significant role in shaping the cultural identity of India. These epics are deeply ingrained in the collective consciousness of the Indian people and have become an integral part of their cultural heritage.

The stories, characters, and values depicted in these epics have influenced various aspects of Indian society, including art, music, dance, and religious rituals. They have fostered a sense of unity and shared identity among diverse communities across the country.

Furthermore, the retelling and adaptation of these epics in different regional languages have helped promote cultural integration and understanding. They have provided a common ground for people from different linguistic backgrounds to connect and engage with each other’s traditions and folklore.

Performance Arts and Storytelling Tradition

From ancient times to the present day, Ramayana and Mahabharata have been performed through various art forms, including theater, dance, and music. The tradition of showcasing these epics through vibrant and elaborate performances has been a vital part of Indian cultural heritage.

Performances like Ramleela and Krishnaleela have become an important aspect of religious festivities and have served as a means of both entertainment and spiritual enlightenment. They bring communities together and provide a platform for storytelling and the preservation of oral traditions.

The impact of these performance arts extends beyond the boundaries of India. They have gained global recognition and have helped promote Indian culture and heritage on an international stage.

The Impact of Ramayana and Mahabharata on Indian Language and Grammar

Linguistic developments.

Ramayana and Mahabharata have had a profound influence on the development of Indian languages and grammar. These epics, written in classical Sanskrit, have served as a benchmark for linguistic excellence and have shaped the literary traditions of India.

The works of great poets like Kalidasa, Tulsidas, and Kambar have drawn inspiration from the linguistic richness and poetic beauty found in Ramayana and Mahabharata. Their compositions, infused with the grandeur and elegance of these epics, have contributed to the evolution and refinement of Indian languages.

Furthermore, the translation and adaptation of these epics into various regional languages have played a crucial role in the proliferation and preservation of these languages. They have provided a platform for linguistic creativity and innovation, fostering the growth and development of Indian literature as a whole.

Sanskrit Literature and Influence

Ramayana and Mahabharata are considered masterpieces of Sanskrit literature. They have served as a valuable resource for scholars of Sanskrit, enabling them to study and analyze the intricacies of the language.

The rich vocabulary, grammar, and poetic techniques found in these epics have been studied and emulated by generations of Sanskrit scholars. They have contributed to the expansion of Sanskrit literature and have helped establish a strong foundation for literary scholarship in India.

Moreover, the influence of Ramayana and Mahabharata can be seen in various classical Sanskrit texts and treatises. These epics have inspired numerous works of poetry, drama, and philosophy, further solidifying their position as cornerstones of Indian literary tradition.

Adaptations and Contemporary Relevance

Modern interpretations and retellings.

Ramayana and Mahabharata have continued to inspire countless reinterpretations and retellings in modern Indian literature. Authors have creatively reimagined these epics, bringing their stories to new audiences and exploring different perspectives.

Contemporary authors like Devdutt Pattanaik and Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni have delved into the complex characters and themes of these epics, infusing them with fresh insights and contemporary relevance. Their works have resonated with readers, sparking conversations about tradition, morality, and the human condition.

These modern interpretations have helped bridge the gap between ancient wisdom and the realities of the modern world. They provide a means of engaging with the timeless lessons of Ramayana and Mahabharata in a way that is relatable and accessible to a global audience.

Popularity in Film and Television

Ramayana and Mahabharata have also gained immense popularity in the world of film and television. These epics have been adapted into numerous movies, TV series, and animated films, reaching audiences far beyond the realm of literature.

Iconic characters like Rama, Sita, Krishna, and Arjuna have been portrayed on the silver screen, captivating viewers with their larger-than-life personalities and mythical adventures. These adaptations have not only served as entertainment but have also helped introduce the stories and teachings of Ramayana and Mahabharata to a wider audience.

The visual medium has allowed for the vivid depiction of epic battles, enchanting landscapes, and divine beings, making these ancient tales come alive in a new and immersive way. The popularity of these adaptations reflects the enduring appeal and relevance of Ramayana and Mahabharata in contemporary society.

Scholarly Studies and Academic Research

Critical analysis and interpretations.

Ramayana and Mahabharata have been subjects of extensive scholarly research and critical analysis. Academics from various fields, including literature, philosophy, history, and anthropology, have examined these epics from different angles, seeking to unravel their complexities and meanings.

Scholars have analyzed the narrative structure, symbolism, and philosophical underpinnings of these epics, providing valuable insights into their deeper layers of meaning. The diverse interpretations and perspectives have contributed to a deeper understanding of Ramayana and Mahabharata, opening up new avenues for intellectual inquiry and exploration.

Comparative Studies and Cross-Cultural Influences

The universal themes and motifs found in Ramayana and Mahabharata have made them subjects of comparative studies and cross-cultural influences. Scholars have compared these epics with other ancient civilizations’ mythology and folklore, uncovering surprising similarities and shared narratives.

Furthermore, Ramayana and Mahabharata have not only influenced Indian literature but have also left an indelible mark on world literature. These epics have served as sources of inspiration for authors and poets from different cultures, who have drawn upon their timeless wisdom and storytelling techniques.

The examination of these cross-cultural influences has helped foster greater understanding and appreciation of the universality of human experiences. It has brought people from different cultures together and highlighted the power of storytelling as a means of connecting and celebrating our shared humanity.

Translation and Global Recognition

Translations in different languages.

Over the centuries, Ramayana and Mahabharata have been translated into numerous languages, making them accessible to a wider audience across the globe. These translations have played a crucial role in spreading the cultural and literary wealth of India to different parts of the world.

From English to French, German to Japanese, these epics have been rendered into various languages, allowing people from different cultural backgrounds to engage with their timeless stories and teachings. These translations serve as bridges that connect diverse cultures and promote cross-cultural understanding and appreciation.

Appreciation and Recognition in Foreign Literature

The significance of Ramayana and Mahabharata in Indian literature has been recognized and appreciated by authors and scholars from around the world. These epics have become a source of inspiration and admiration in foreign literature.

Western authors like John Keats, Mark Twain, and Hermann Hesse have acknowledged the profound impact of these Indian epics on their own works. They have drawn upon the themes, characters, and moral teachings of Ramayana and Mahabharata, incorporating them into their narratives and exploring the parallels between different literary traditions.

This international recognition and appreciation of Ramayana and Mahabharata have solidified their position as literary treasures with a global reach. They have become ambassadors of Indian culture, fostering cultural exchange and dialogue between nations.

Preservation and Conservation Efforts

Manuscript traditions and preservation practices.

Preserving the authenticity and integrity of Ramayana and Mahabharata is of utmost importance to scholars and cultural enthusiasts. The manuscript traditions associated with these epics have played a vital role in their preservation.

Ancient palm-leaf manuscripts, written in Sanskrit or regional languages, have been meticulously preserved and studied by scholars. These manuscripts provide valuable insights into the historical and textual aspects of Ramayana and Mahabharata, allowing for the reconstruction of the original versions of these epics.

Efforts have been made to digitize these manuscripts and make them accessible through online archives and libraries. This ensures their long-term preservation and allows scholars and researchers from around the world to study and analyze them.

Conservation in Digital Age

In the digital age, conservation efforts have expanded beyond traditional manuscript preservation. Digital technologies have been employed to safeguard and present Ramayana and Mahabharata to a wider audience.

Digital libraries, audio recordings, and visual representations have enabled the dissemination of these epics in new and innovative ways. They have made these ancient stories accessible to a tech-savvy generation and have ensured their continued relevance and impact in a rapidly changing world.

These digital conservation efforts have also facilitated the collaboration and exchange of knowledge among scholars and researchers across the globe. They have opened up new avenues for the exploration and interpretation of Ramayana and Mahabharata, ensuring that these epics remain vibrant and relevant for future generations.

Challenges and Controversies Surrounding Ramayana and Mahabharata

Historical accuracy and mythological validity.

There have been debates and controversies surrounding the historical accuracy and mythological validity of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Some argue that these epics are purely mythological narratives with little basis in historical events, while others believe that they are accurate representations of ancient history.

Scholars and historians have attempted to reconcile the narratives of these epics with archaeological evidence and historical records. They have examined the geographical locations mentioned in these epics and have tried to trace their historical context.

The controversy surrounding the historicity of Ramayana and Mahabharata adds another layer of complexity to their interpretation and understanding. It reminds us that these epics are not just works of literature but also cultural artifacts that shape our understanding of the past.

Interpretation and Representation Issues

Another challenge surrounding Ramayana and Mahabharata is the interpretation and representation of certain characters and events. These epics have been scrutinized for their portrayal of women, lower castes, and marginalized communities.

Critics argue that these epics present a biased and patriarchal worldview, where women are often portrayed as subservient and passive, and caste-based discrimination is endorsed. They call for a reevaluation of these narratives and a more inclusive and equitable representation of diverse voices.

The interpretation and representation of these epics have also been fuel for political and ideological debates. Different religious and cultural groups have claimed ownership of these narratives, often using them to further their own agendas.

Addressing these challenges requires a nuanced and inclusive approach that acknowledges the diverse perspectives and interpretations of Ramayana and Mahabharata. It necessitates a reexamination of these texts in light of modern sensibilities and a commitment to fostering dialogue and understanding.

In conclusion, Ramayana and Mahabharata occupy a prominent place in Indian literature, culture, and religious traditions. Their timeless stories, moral teachings, and philosophical insights continue to resonate with readers across generations. These epics have inspired countless literary works, shaped the cultural identity of India, and influenced global literature. With ongoing conservation efforts and reinterpretations, Ramayana and Mahabharata will continue to be cherished as invaluable literary treasures for years to come.

Indian Culture Team

Bhima fighting with Jayadratha in a page from the Mahabharata ( c 1615), Popular Mughal School, probably done at Bikaner, India. Photo by Getty

The living Mahabharata

Immorality, sexism, politics, war: the polychromatic indian epic pulses with relevance to the present day.

by Audrey Truschke   + BIO

The Mahabharata is a tale for our times. The plot of the ancient Indian epic centres around corrupt politics, ill-behaved men and warfare. In this dark tale, things get worse and worse, until an era of unprecedented depravity, the Kali Yuga, dawns. According to the Mahabharata , we’re still living in the horrific Kali era, which will unleash new horrors on us until the world ends.

The Mahabharata was first written down in Sanskrit, ancient India’s premier literary language, and ascribed to a poet named Vyasa about 2,000 years ago, give or take a few hundred years. The epic sought to catalogue and thereby criticise a new type of vicious politics enabled by the transition from a clan-based to a state-based society in northern India.

The work concerns two sets of cousins – the Pandavas and the Kauravas – who each claim the throne of Hastinapura as their own. In the first third of the epic, the splintered family dynasty tries to resolve their succession conflict in various ways, including gambling, trickery, murder and negotiation. But they fail. So, war breaks out, and the middle part of the Mahabharata tells of a near-total world conflict in which all the rules of battle are broken as each new atrocity exceeds the last. Among a battlefield of corpses, the Pandavas are the last ones left standing. In the final third of the epic, the Pandavas rule in a post-apocalyptic world until, years later, they too die.

From the moment that the Mahabharata was first written two millennia ago, people began to rework the epic to add new ideas that spoke to new circumstances. No two manuscripts are identical (there are thousands of handwritten Sanskrit copies), and the tale was recited as much or more often than it was read. Some of the most beloved parts of the Mahabharata today – such as that the elephant-headed Hindu god Ganesha wrote the epic with his broken tusk as he heard Vyasa’s narration – were added centuries after the story was first compiled.

The Mahabharata is long. It is roughly seven times the length of the Iliad and Odyssey combined, and 15 times the length of the Christian Bible. The plot covers multiple generations, and the text sometimes follows side stories for the length of a modern novel. But for all its narrative breadth and manifold asides, the Mahabharata can be accurately characterised as a set of narratives about vice.

Inequality and human suffering are facts of life in the Mahabharata . The work offers valuable perspectives and vantage points for reflecting on how various injustices play out in today’s world too.

T he Mahabharata claims to show dharma or righteous conduct – a guiding ideal of human life in Hindu thought – within the morass of the characters’ immoral behaviours. But the line between virtue and vice, dharma and adharma , is often muddled. The bad guys sometimes act more ethically than the good guys, who are themselves deeply flawed. In the epic’s polychromatic morality, the constraints of society and politics shackle all.

Bhishma, a common ancestor and grandfather-like figure to both sets of cousins, is a quintessential Mahabharata figure. Loyal to his family to a fault, he takes a vow of celibacy so that his father can marry a younger woman who wanted her children to inherit the throne. Bhishma’s motivation, namely love of his father, was good, but the result of denying himself children was to divert the line of succession to his younger brothers and, ultimately, their warring children. Appropriately, Bhishma’s name, adopted when he took his vow of celibacy, means ‘the terrible’ (before the vow, he was known as Devavrata, ‘devoted to the gods’). Bhishma remains devoted to his family even when they support the Kauravas, the bad guys, in the great war.

Sometimes even the gods act objectionably in the Mahabharata . Krishna, an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, endorses dishonesty on more than one occasion. Even when Krishna advocates what the epic dubs dharma, the results can be hard to stomach. For example, when Arjuna, the third Pandava brother and their best warrior, hesitates to fight against his family and kill so many people, Krishna gives an eloquent speech that convinces him to plunge into battle.

Krishna’s discourse to Arjuna, known as the Bhagavadgita (‘Song of the Lord’), or Gita for short, is often read as a standalone work today, and revered by many across the world for its insights on morality and even nonviolence. In the 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi understood the Gita to support nonviolent resistance to colonial oppression. In the Mahabharata ’s plot, however, the Bhagavadgita rationalises mass slaughter.

What is the point of ruling when you got there only through deceit, sin and death?

‘Mahabharata’ translates as ‘great story of the Bharatas’, the Bharatas being the family lineage at the centre of the tale. However, in many modern Indian settings, ‘Mahabharata’ means a great battle. War is the narrative crux of the epic. The war that settles the succession dispute between the Pandavas and the Kauravas draws much of the world into its destructive whirlwind. Along with peoples from across the Indian subcontinent, Greeks, Persians and the Chinese also send troops to stand and fall in battle.

The Pandavas win, but at a magnificent cost of human life. The epic compels readers to imagine that human cost by describing the battle in excruciating, bloody detail over tens of thousands of verses. The Pandavas kill multiple members of their own family along the way, including elders who ought to be revered. Their victory is further soured by a night raid in which, on the last night of the war, the few remaining Kauravas creep into the slumbering Pandava camp and kill nearly everyone, including all the victors’ sons.

After the slaughter, when blood has soaked the earth and most of the characters lie dead, Yudhishthira, the eldest of the five Pandavas, decides that he no longer wants the throne of Hastinapura. What is the point of ruling when you got there only through deceit, sin and death? Yudhishthira says:

आत्मानमात्मना हत्वा किं धर्मफलमाप्नुमः धिगस्तु क्षात्रमाचारं धिगस्तु बलमौरसम् धिगस्त्वमर्षं येनेमामापदं गमिता वयम्

Since we slaughtered our own, what good can possibly come from ruling? Damn the ways of kings! Damn might makes right! Damn the turmoil that brought us to this disaster!

Yudhishthira’s fellow victors ultimately convince him to fulfil the duty to rule, regardless of his personal inclination to retire to the forest. In an attempt to address his numerous sharp objections, Bhishma – who lies dying on a bed of arrows – gives a prolix discourse on dharma in various circumstances, including in disasters. Still, for some readers, lingering doubt cannot but remain that Yudhishthira might be right to want to shun a bitter political victory.

The Mahabharata follows Yudhishthira’s reign for some years. It concludes with the demise of the five Pandava brothers and their wife Draupadi. In an unsettling twist, the six wind up visiting hell for a bit, en route to heaven. This detour calls the very core of dharma, righteousness, into question , again reminding us that the Mahabharata is an epic ordered by undercutting its own professed ethics.

In its philosophy and ethics, the Mahabharata proffers riches to its readers, in particular about the nature of human suffering as an ever-present challenge to any moral order. But how does the work measure up as literature? The work is considered to be kavya (poetry). In classical Sanskrit literary theory, each kavya ought to centre around a rasa , an aesthetic emotion, such as erotic love ( shringara ) or heroism ( vira ). But what aesthetic emotion might a tale of politics and pain, such as the Mahabharata , spark in readers?

Confounded by this question, one premodern Indian thinker suggested adding a ninth rasa to the line-up that might suit the Mahabharata : shanta , quiescence or turning away from the world. The idea is that, after perusing the vicious politics and violence endemic to the human condition as depicted in the Mahabharata , people would be disenchanted with earthly things and so renounce the world in favour of more spiritual pursuits, as Yudhishthira wished to.

T he Mahabharata condemns many of the appalling things it depicts, but one area where its response is more tepid concerns the treatment meted out to women. The story of Draupadi, the leading Pandava heroine, is the most well-known. Before the great war, her husband Yudhishthira gambles her away in a dice game, and Draupadi’s new owners, the Kauravas, strip and publicly assault her at their court. The Mahabharata condemns this event, but Draupadi’s notorious sharp tongue also undercuts the empathy many might have had for her.

After she is won at dice, Draupadi argues with her captors. First, she speaks up privately, from her quarters of the palace. Then, after being dragged into the Kauravas’ public audience hall, traditionally a male space, she advocates openly about how the situation is ‘a savage injustice’ ( adharmam ugraṃ ) that implicates all the elders present. Her self-assertion in a hall of men works. She convinces Dhritarashtra, the Kaurava king, to release her and eventually the rest of her family. But in a world favouring demure women, Draupadi’s willingness to speak about her suffering means that she has always carried a reputation as a shrew and a troublemaker.

Draupadi entered the Pandava family when Arjuna won her in a self-choice ceremony. In such ceremonies, the name notwithstanding, the woman is given as the prize to the victor of a contest. However, Draupadi ends up with five husbands, when Arjuna’s mother tells him – without looking over her shoulder to see that she is speaking about a female trophy rather than an inanimate one – to split his prize with his brothers. To make her words true, all five Pandavas marry Draupadi.

Nobody ever says that a bride should be like Draupadi, unless the goal is to curse the newlywed

Nobody ever asks Draupadi if she wanted polyandry, and the question has rarely interested readers. However, the Mahabharata offers further justifications for this unusual arrangement that blame Draupadi. For instance, in a prior life, Draupadi had asked for a husband with five qualities; unable to find a man who had all of them, Shiva gave her five husbands. She should not have asked for so much.

Draupadi has never been considered a role model in mainstream Indian cultures. Some later Sanskrit and vernacular works mock her. Even today, a refrain at Hindu weddings is that the bride ought to be like Sita, the heroine of the Ramayana . Nobody ever says that a bride should be like Draupadi, unless the goal is to curse the newlywed.

In the Mahabharata , kidnapping is also an acceptable way to compel a woman to marry. For instance, Arjuna falls in love at first sight (or perhaps in lust) with Subhadra but, unsure whether she would accept him, he abducts her. This story has been cleaned up in some modern retellings – such as the TV serial from Doordarshan (one of India’s largest public service broadcasters) – which tend to water down misogyny.

The world of the Mahabharata is stacked against women. Our world today looks distinct in its details, but some basic principles are not much different. For example, more than one person has compared Draupadi’s plight with that of ‘Nirbhaya’, the name given to the young woman mortally gang-raped in Delhi in 2012. Nirbhaya (meaning ‘fearless’) resisted her attackers, and one of the rapists later said that this resistance prompted him and his fellow assaulters to be more brutal than they would have been otherwise. Two millennia later, the corrupt ‘moral’ remains: she should not have objected to unjust treatment.

T he Mahabharata represents a world of caste and class, where bloodline determines identity. Many characters try to break out of the bonds of lineage, but they usually fail in the end. Among the many tales in this vein, that of Karna stands out as offering harsh reflections on the limits of an individual to reshape his identity.

Karna’s mother is Kunti, mother of the five Pandava brothers, but Karna is not counted among the five. The story goes that, when Kunti was a girl, a sage gave her a boon that she could call any god at any time to impregnate her. Still unmarried, one night she calls Surya, the Sun god. Surya’s brilliance scares Kunti, and she asks him to leave, but he insists on seeing the matter through. And so, compelled by a male god who said she asked for it, Kunti conceives Karna.

This troubling conception augured Karna’s future troubled life. Kunti fears her father’s wrath if he were to find his daughter with child but without a husband. So, after giving birth, she sends Karna, her first-born son, down the river in a basket. A low-caste barren couple finds the abandoned infant and raises him as their own. The story parallels (unintentionally, most likely) that of Moses, with the classes of the birth and adopted parents reversed. Like Moses, Karna could never escape his birthright.

Karna is born with brilliant armour, inherited from his father, and other marks that he would be a great warrior. He is also drawn to fighting, which leads him, early in the epic, to enter a weapons competition in which the Pandavas and Kauravas also participate. When Karna is asked to announce his lineage, it comes out that he is the son of low-caste parents, and Bhima – one of the good guys – ridicules him. Sensing a chance to make a new friend, the Kauravas – the baddies of the story – give Karna a kingdom and so make him, technically, a king and eligible to fight. At this point in the tale, nobody knows that Karna is actually the eldest Pandava and that he is already royal by birth – except for his mother, Kunti, who watches the event silently.

Internalising the caste prejudice that condemned him, Ekalavya cut off his thumb and was never a threat again

As the eldest Pandava by blood, Karna should have been king. In fact, Krishna goes to Karna to make this argument on the eve of the great war, as a last-ditch effort to avoid catastrophe, and the conversation is one of the most interesting in the Mahabharata . The core questions are timeless: what determines a person’s identity? Can an individual reject or change who they really are? Who gets to say who each of us really is? Can we escape our destinies?

Karna refuses Krishna’s request to take his place as the eldest Pandava and ascend the throne. Instead, choosing bread over blood, Karna fights and dies with the Kauravas. But, according to Vyasa and the Mahabharata ’s many unknown authors, Karna, no matter his actions, was never a Kaurava. At the end of the epic, in a scene twisted in more ways than one, Karna winds up in hell with the other Pandavas, briefly, while the Kauravas bask in heaven.

The epic’s stance that we can’t transcend our births can appear very dark to modern eyes (or at least to some modern eyes) in stories that feature low-caste characters. Take the tale of Ekalavya. Ekalavya is born a tribal ( nishada ), outside of the four-fold Hindu class system, but his heart is set on life as a warrior ( kshatriya ) and learning to fight from Drona, who taught both the Pandavas and Kauravas. Drona denies Ekalavya instruction because of casteism, and so Ekalavya honours a clay statue of Drona every day while learning on his own. After a while, Ekalavya’s skills exceed those of Arjuna. And so, Arjuna cajoles Drona to demand that Ekalavya slice off his own thumb, thus ensuring that Ekalavya could never shoot an arrow again. Drona does so, under the guise of asking for gurudakshina (a teacher’s fee) since Ekalavya had built a statue of Drona’s likeness. Internalising the caste prejudice that condemned him, Ekalavya cut off his thumb and was never a threat to Arjuna again. The message is that, one way or another, varnashramadharma (moral behaviour according to one’s social class and life stage) prevails.

A 20th-century poem by the Dalit writer Shashikant Hingonekar puts it like this:

If you had kept your thumb history would have happened somewhat differently. But … you gave your thumb and history also became theirs. Ekalavya, since that day they have not even given you a glance. Forgive me, Ekalavya, I won’t be fooled now by their sweet words. My thumb will never be broken.

T he Mahabharata claims to be about the totality of human life in a verse included in both its first and final books:

धर्मे चार्थे च कामे च मोक्षे च भरतर्षभ यदिहास्ति तदन्यत्र यन्नेहास्ति न तत्क्वचित्

What is found here regarding the aims of human life – righteousness, wealth, pleasure, and release – may be found elsewhere, O Bull of the Bharatas. But what is not here, is found nowhere.

Indeed, the Mahabharata ’s promise to explore (among other things) immorality, politics, sexism and identity problems as general features of human life rings true in our times.

Over the past several years, politics in India and the United States have taken dark turns as both countries turn their backs on the values of pluralism and embrace ethno- and religious nationalisms. Violence and death are heavily used tools by governments in both countries.

Sexism has never gone away. It is a critical part of the current surge of Right-wing ideologies and their embrace of male privilege. Moreover, the responses to the COVID-19 pandemic are reasserting retrograde gender roles in many places across the globe. The pandemic’s toll on women’s physical safety, mental health and careers is great and growing.

Identity, too, plagues us. The caste system is still very much alive, in both India and the diaspora. We also struggle with types of oppression birthed in modernity, such as racism.

The Mahabharata makes no false promises of solving such problems, but it does offer us tools for thinking them through, now and in the future, even if – or perhaps especially if – that future looks dark. The epic itself foretells:

आचख्युः कवयः केचित्संप्रत्याचक्षते परे आख्यास्यन्ति तथैवान्ये इतिहासमिमं भुवि

Some poets told this epic before. Others are telling it now. Different narrators will tell it in the future.

A note on the text: translations in this article are my own; I prefer colloquial translations. For recent retellings of the Mahabharata in English, I recommend John D Smith’s Penguin edition (2009) for fidelity to text and completeness, and Carole Satyamurti’s Norton edition (2016) for poetry.

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MYTHS AND MYTHICAL NARRATIVES BASED ON INDIAN EPICS THE RAMAYANA AND THE MAHABHARATA: A STUDY THROUGH THE REVISIONIST TEXTS

Bharat (INDIA) is an elite country with its valuable epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. They are so scintillating that modern iconic writers are fascinated with the Indian myths and present their work with the usage of various hues of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These epics overflow with vibrant characters. They present the social, moral, political, cultural and spiritual society of ourcountry. Our Indian literature is too vast to understand every aspect of Indian mythology. This paper is an attempt to explore some of the mythical narratives of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata as reflected in select revisionist texts. The epic Ramayana represents the period of Tretayug, when the atmosphere and the people were not as much toxic as they were in the Mahabharata era. The Mahabharatais the epic of belligerent characters and storiesfrom the concluding period of Dwaparyug. Mythical narratives are based on the traditional stories of our Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads and many ancient stories of Indian mythology. In this paper,the researchers will take the help of some revisionist texts to explore further on some myths and mythical narratives. The selected revisionist texts which will be taken for study are – Devdutt Pattanaik's Sita, Vayu Naidu's Sita's Ascent and Pratibha Ray's Yajnaseni. It is said that Valmiki's Ramayana is totally a mythical narrative of the life of Ram and Sita. Similarly, in the epic Mahabharata, Ved Vyas has created an ocean of myths and mythical characters with all the aspects of human life. Rework on these two epics by revisionist writers display their significant features and values in our lives.

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VEDA'S JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE [JOELL]

Bharat (INDIA) is an elite country with its valuable epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. They are so scintillating that modern iconic writers are fascinated with the Indian myths and present their work with the usage of various hues of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These epics overflow with vibrant characters. They present the social, moral, political, cultural and spiritual society of ourcountry. Our Indian literature is too vast to understand every aspect of Indian mythology. This paper is an attempt to explore some of the mythical narratives of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata as reflected in select revisionist texts. The epic Ramayana represents the period of Tretayug, when the atmosphere and the people were not as much toxic as they were in the Mahabharata era. The Mahabharatais the epic of belligerent characters and storiesfrom the concluding period of Dwaparyug. Mythical narratives are based on the traditional stories of our Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads and many ancient stories of Indian mythology. In this paper,the researchers will take the help of some revisionist texts to explore further on some myths and mythical narratives. The selected revisionist texts which will be taken for study are – Devdutt Pattanaik’s Sita, Vayu Naidu’s Sita’s Ascent and Pratibha Ray’s Yajnaseni. It is said that Valmiki’s Ramayana is totally a mythical narrative of the life of Ram and Sita. Similarly, in the epic Mahabharata, Ved Vyas has created an ocean of myths and mythical characters with all the aspects of human life. Rework on these two epics by revisionist writers display their significant features and values in our lives.

Vidya Shetty

The presence of issues related to patriarchal dominance and biased gender roles form a part and parcel of all feminist texts. Indian writers have been portraying women's inferior status in the family and larger community since ages. With the growth of revisionist literature, many authors have been retelling stories from The Ramayana, The Mahabharata and several Indian myths and religious texts to explore the under-represented women's voices. These unidimensional narratives, sugar-coated from the patriarchal perspective, are being revised in order to explore the possibility of alternate retellings. The stories of the two heroines in our great epics, Sita and Draupadi, form the most popular subject matter of such revisions. Whereas writers like Devdutt Pattanaik has represented these central protagonists without much revisions of their original tales, in the works of authors like Amish Tripathi, Divakaruni and Pratibha Ray, Sita and Draupadi are presented from quite different perspectives than the original ones. Thus, revisionist texts do not hesitate to present a Sita as a warrior and the minister of Mithila or a Draupadi who hates to cook, openly admires Karna and does not hesitate to oppose her mother-in-law. In addition to the shift in perspectives, revisionist texts also serve the purpose of exploring unexplored voices like that of Sita's sister, Urmila or Karna's wife, Uruvi. However, even though stories of different times and places, the narratives of these women portray the predominance of patriarchal hegemony in varied ways. This paper is an attempt to study the feminist strands in the stories of Goddess Lakshmi, Sita, Draupadi and Uruvi in select revisionist texts, while exploring the common strands of gender inequality and patriarchal subordination that they are subjected to. The study also seeks to probe into the different phases of their lives to establish a connect in the ways they act and react in similar situations.

Tanvi Mohile

Danielle Feller

The two sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa contain few descriptions of their heroes' childhood. Semantically, childhood implies stupidity, ignorance, and thoughtlessness, at times bordering on cruelty. Usually, the time of childhood is dealt with rather quickly, and seen essentially as a period of formation and learning. In the few instances when specific incidents of a character's childhood are mentioned, they are mostly cast in a negative light and meant to explain why certain untoward events happen subsequently. The young kṣatriyas' exuberant childhood deeds are often frowned upon by the brahmin authors or brahmin protagonists of the story, while the young brahmins are often shown as born with full language skills and knowledge of the Vedas, in order to skip over their time of childhood altogether.

Bikash Sarker

This paper talks about on the gender issues specifically in the background of The Mahabharata. In this paper the readers can realize easily the normative ideologies which against some incidents violate the normative and traditional gender notions or ideas through some major characters. It will be very understandable to the readers how male and female both are victims of those traditional gender notions and also the orthodox society rules.

Alisha Oli Mohammed

Indian Literature comprises several literatures-Sanskrit, Urdu, Tamil, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, and Malayalam. These literatures flourish today on the literary scene and most of these are distributed on a broadly which are called as "Regional Writings" in the mother tongue. Indian Mythology had a long history with millenniums and many gods and deities. Dr. Devdutt Pattanaik (1970-till date) is an Indian physician turned mythologist, author, theorist whose works focus largely on the area of myth, religion and mythology. The researcher's work Shikhandi and Other Tales They Don't Tell You is a collection of short stories from various Indian myths across India. Devdutt exposures that the Queer narratives in Indian folklores which describe about the gays and lesbians and hijras of Indian society It accepts Queer behaviour, be it cross dressing or homosexual intercourse, as perfectly natural, it leaves its social acceptance or rejection to culture, which is an artificial dynamic and artificial construct. The short story collection lights the suppressed voices of suppressed personalities in the Grand Narratives of Indian mythology, the analyses of these stories in which individuals of this age are resisted the hegemonic notion of gender and class.

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This paper attempts to analyse the dominant cultures of reading Warli paintings.

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haranadh gowrabathuni

There are lots of female characters in Mahabharata and Ramayana but few characters enchant people of all ages and all classes. Mass people admit that Sita should be the icon of all women. Draupadi though a graceful character yet not to be imitated. Comparatively, Gandhari's entrance into the epic is for a short while; though her appearance is very negligible, yet our research work is to show logically that Gandhari among these three characters is greater than the greatest. We think and have wanted to prove that Gandhari with her short appearance in the epic, excels all other female characters-depicted in Mahabharata and Ramayana.

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Teaching world epics

Bénédicte cuperly , le mans université. [email protected].

[Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review]

Teaching World Epics is a collection of twenty-eight essays edited by Jo Ann Cavallo. It offers a vast and impressive overview of world epic literature from antiquity to the present day. While not covering every culture on the planet, it conceptualizes epics as more than “a trajectory that went from Homer to Milton” (p. 3), and offers papers on literature from precolonial Mesoamerica, the Middle East, Southeast Asia and West Africa, alongside others.

As its name suggests, Teaching World Epics aims to provide instructors with the knowledge, methods and resources to acquaint their students with a significant facet of world culture. Although the book is primarily intended for English-speaking academics teaching at undergraduate level, many contributions can be used with profit at high school or graduate level, either in comparative literature classes or for cross-disciplinary subjects such as gender studies or religious studies. Most contributors are leading specialists in their chosen subject, while others have stepped out of their comfort zones, but all draw on solid teaching experience. The essays—which individually do not exceed ten pages—feature recommendations for study materials, such as editions or translations available in English, and feedback from teaching experiences.

These contributions are all driven by the same ambition: to help students grasp our common humanity through the study of epics. Epics are here understood as “stories relating memorable deeds by heroic characters whose actions have significant consequences for themselves and their larger communities” (p. 1). According to Frederick Turner, they are “the means by which we organize any coherent understanding of the world” (p. 249). This approach explains why the theoretical framework does not play a prominent role in this book. Some theories the students may have come into contact with are touched upon: for example, Ana Grinberg asks her students to consider how The Epic of Gilgamesh diverges from Campbell’s monomyth (p. 307). The emphasis put on a very hands-on approach, highly attentive to details and cultural specificities, is deliberate: the authors want to promote an inclusive, postcolonial perspective on world literature in order to help students understand how humans have grappled with existential questions across time and space. This does not in any way diminish the thoroughness of the contributions, which are anything but dogmatic.

Given the editor’s broad definition of epics, she includes in this category stories whose epic nature has been disputed, such as the West African Sun-Jata or the Chinese tale of the Three Kingdoms . As a result, the essays are extremely diverse in form and subject. It might have been worthwhile to question the place of epics today in the Western world and their relationship with other genres, such as the novel: did epics die out in European literature after the 17 th century? For example, to what extent is Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings or Philip Pullman’s His Dark Materials (which is a deliberate response to Milton’s Paradise Lost ) an epic? The book may give the questionable impression that epics no longer play a major, active role in the western world today. Similarly, to say that the Bible contains no epics (p. 50) is clearly a matter of opinion. If we stay true to the editor’s broad definition, the life of Moses and his journey out of Egypt are just as much epics as the other texts discussed in the book. On the whole, the category of literary epics, mostly from Europe, seems overly narrow when compared to the category of folk epics.

The book is structured around six main chapters. The first five follow a more or less chronological order, with literary epics being distinguished from oral-derived epics from the 16 th century onward. The last chapter, entitled “World Epics in Various Context”, pulls together various essays, one dealing with secondary education, the other three recounting teaching experiences with several texts united by theme, geographical origin or analytical framework. While the rationale behind this division developed in the introduction is quite clear, a better title could have been found for the last part. Similarly, Charles S. Ross’ essay, which compares Statius’ Thebaid to Kurosawa’s The Seven Samurai and Sturgis’ Magnificent Seven , could have been placed in the final chapter. That said, this division does succeed in bringing out similarities between epics from different regions of the world, which after all was the editor’s goal. It also leaves instructors free to discuss the texts from whatever perspective they wish, which would have been difficult if the epics had been ordered by theme.

Since it is not possible to discuss each of the twenty-eight essays, I am going to address some issues pertaining to the study of epics that permeate the entire volume.

Overall, it is quite remarkable that, when a subject is treated somewhat poorly in one essay, it often receives a more nuanced treatment in another. Arshia Sattar’s essay, for example, is somewhat lacking in nuance when it comes to the question of translation. Seeking to justify the use of translations of the Mahabharata rather than retellings, the author writes that “a translator will tell you what the text wants to say” (p. 21). This assertion is highly questionable, especially at a time when we are dealing with automated translations that are often presented as neutral: it is crucial to make students understand that translating a literary text (be it written or oral) is an act that necessarily implies making choices that are ultimately political, in the broad sense of the word. This question is central to Atefeh Akbari’s remarkable essay, which tackles with great finesse the issues involved in translating the Odyssey , in particular when it comes to gender representations (pp. 328–329). She relies on David Damrosch’s definition of world literature, according to which world literature is “writing that gains in translation” (p. 326), to show the impact of translation on reception. Several authors suggest, as she does, that their students compare different translations in order to understand how translation choices modify the reader’s perception of the text. Developing a similar but more subtle argument to Sattar’s, Nathan C. Henne stresses the importance of choosing a translation that does not use reasons of convenience to alter the texts studied, in this case Popol Wuj , a text composed in K’iche’, a Mesoamerican language dating back to the pre-colonial period: “we must challenge our students to confront awkward language differences that uniquely reflect and preserve fundamentally different cosmovisions” (p. 210/211).

Ultimately, the issue of the translation ties in with the broader question of alterity. [1] The analysis of epics helps to identify two pitfalls in this area: reducing the unknown to the known, and exoticizing the other to the point of dehumanization. On this point, Joseph M. Ortiz’s essay on New World epics offers an interesting counterpoint to Henne’s contribution on Popol Wuj . The author presents a course he teaches at the University of El Paso focusing on three texts, Camões’s Os Lusíadas , Ercilla’s La Araucana and Villagrá’s Historia de la Nueva México . He directs students’ attention to the way in which these three authors portray indigenous people. While Camões offers a racialized and racist depiction of the Khoikhoi, a people of South Africa, comparing them to Polyphemus, the other two authors also reduce the unfamiliar to the familiar, through simplifying comparisons. Villagrá, for example, likens the battles against the Acomans to those against the Moors. [2]

Ortiz notes that his students use these texts, which are often ambiguous, to deepen their reflection on the memory of this era right in the city where they live, El Paso. Villagrá dedicates an episode of his Historia to the Battle of Acoma, one of whose Spanish protagonists was celebrated by the controversial unveiling of a statue in front of El Paso airport. More generally, one of the book’s remarkable aspects lies in its reflection on the historic inscription of these stories without neglecting current events. [3] The writers explain how they provide their students with a better understanding of the links between literature and history by interrogating the notion of canon, its link with communities, especially nations, and the possibility of subverting it. Thomas A. DuBois shows how Elias Lönnrot, by creating the Kalevala from material collected in Finnish folklore, greatly contributed to the birth of a national feeling among the Finns, a population colonized for centuries by Sweden and Russia. Roberta Micallef underlines the changing attitude of political powers toward the Manas epic in Central Asia, while Barlow Der Mugrdechian highlights the importance of David of Sassoun for the Armenian community, especially since the genocide of 1915.

Several essays highlight that these stories, depending on the audience and the storyteller, can take on very different meanings. John William Johnson points out that Sun-Jata ‘s performances in Mali rely on shared context and knowledge with the audience. Some aspects of the story are left unsaid, which the outsider must keep in mind. In her fascinating article, Paula Richman invites her students to look at retellings of the Ramayana , which allow social groups to reappropriate episodes from the epic in contexts ranging from devotional retellings to puppet shows in marginalized communities. She refers to an article by Usha Nilson exploring the various Ramayana songs sung by domestic workers and their female employers, and how they envision them differently. [4]

Finally, the question of how to share this knowledge with students obviously occupies a central place within this book. Most of it is based on maieutics, with suggested questions to help students develop their thinking. Zachary Hamby, who teaches in secondary schools, explains how he helps his students engage with epics via some very interesting role-playing and writing games, which he details. Several essays provide insight into the process of composing epics, with students being asked to compose an epic using existing song texts (DuBois) or to rewrite a story in a completely different form (Angelica A. Duran). By doing so, it becomes clear for students that epics do not necessarily take the form of a text, in particular a text in verse, as the traditional definition would have it: epics are first and foremost stories. Akbari’s essay contains several particularly interesting suggestions for activities to understand the power of those specific stories: working on prefaces to grasp the translator’s intentions (which can be, as she shows, very telling), extensively annotating an excerpt or having students create their own, ideal syllabus.

Ultimately, Teaching World Epics fulfills the mission set by its authors: to provide teachers with the keys they need to help their students discover the relevance and diversity of world epics.

Authors and Titles

Jo Ann Cavallo, Introduction.

Arshia Sattar, Morality and Human Nature in the Mahabharata.

Paula Richman, The Multivocal Ramayana Tradition of India.

Carolina López-Ruiz, Understanding the World of Greek and Near Eastern Epics through Homer’s Iliad.

Christine G. Perkell, Ambiguity in Virgil’s Aeneid.

Charles S. Ross, Bad Boys to the Rescue in Statius’ Thebaid.

Victoria Turner, Ideologies of Intercultural Encounter in Three Epics of Medieval France.

Katherine Oswald, The Calculated Heroism of the Poema de mio Cid.

Stefan Seeber, The Nibelungenlied: Otherworld, Court, and Doom in the Classroom.

Albrecht Classen, The Middle High German Kudrun: A Female Protagonist’s Action to End Male Violence.

Emrah Pelvanoğlu, Epic Tales, Ethics Code, and Evidence of Legitimacy: The Intriguing Case of The Book of Dede Korkut.

David T. Bialock, Elizabeth Oyler, and Roberta Strippoli, A Buddhist Perspective on War, Exile, and Women in The Tale of the Heike.

Moss Roberts, Three Kingdoms: Division, Unification, and National Identity from the Han Dynasty to Today.

Luisanna Sardu, Epic Poems and Emotions: Anger in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso and Bigolina’s Urania.

Jason Lotz, Teaching Spencer’s Faerie Queene through Allegory and Digital Rhetoric.

Joseph M. Ortiz, Camões’s Os Lusíadas, Ercilla’s La Araucana and Villagrá’s Historia de la Nueva México         .

Angelica A. Duran, “Thou Hast Seen One World Begin and End”: Worldmaking with Paradise Lost.

Nathan C. Henne, Stretching the Boundaries of Epic: Popol Wuj, Maya Literature and Coloniality.

Thomas A. DuBois, Finland’s Kalevala: Folk Songs, Romantic Nationalism, and an Enduring National Epic.

Roberta Micallef, The Many Lessons of the Central Asian Epic Manas.

Barlow Der Mugrdechian, The Armenian National Folk Epic David of Sassoun.

Frederick Turner, To Drink from the Source: Teaching the Mwindo Epic.

John William Johnson, The Epic of Sun-Jata in the Light of Abrahamic and Mande Traditions.

Thomas A. Hale, Orality and History in The Epic of Askia Mohammed.

Brenda E. F. Beck, The Legend of Poṉṉivaḷa Nāḍu: A South Indian Oral Folk Epic.

Zachary Hamby, Epic Engagement: Giving Ancient Stories New Life in the Secondary School Classroom.

Ana Grinberg, Epic Youth Narratives in an Active Learning World Literature Course.

Dwight F. Reynolds, The Epic of Gilgamesh, Sirat Bani Hilal, and the Shahnameh.

Atefeh Akbari, World Epics in Comparison: The Odyssey, Kebra Nagast, and the Shahnameh.

Jo Ann Cavallo, Resources.

[1] On that topic, it is unfortunate that research from outside the English-speaking world is almost never referred to throughout the volume, even when it is written in English. Yet students must be shown that research is conducted all around the world and that it can bring innovative insights. For example, what Christine G. Perkell describes as inconsistencies in the Aeneid (p. 61) is typical of texts that incorporate mythical materials. They are not likely to be errors, but contradictory versions deliberately incorporated in a single text. See Zgoll, Christian. ‘Myths as Polymorphous and Polystratic Erzählstoffe .’ In Mythische Sphärenwechsel: Methodisch neue Zugänge zu antiken Mythen in Orient und Okzident , edited by Annette Zgoll and Christian Zgoll, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 9–82. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110652543-002

[2] As Victoria Turner points out in her paper on medieval French epics, the comparison is not necessarily negative, since the Moors can stand for a “radical similarity” (p. 82).

[3] I must say that some of the connections to current events strike me as a little clumsy ( e.g. the comparison between Shambuka’s death and George Floyd’s death on p. 37), but it may be because I do not teach in the United States.

[4] Nilson, Usha. ‘Grinding Millet but Singing of Sita: Power and Domination in Awadhi and Bhojpuri Women’s Songs.’ In Questioning Ramayanas: A South Asian Tradition , edited by Paula Richman, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, pp. 137–158, 379–381.

• Old World Gods

Indian Mythology vs. Greek Mythology: A Fascinating Comparison of Ancient Traditions

Indian mythology and Greek mythology are ancient traditions that share surprising similarities. They both have deep roots in antiquity and have influenced various aspects of everyday life, from art and literature to religion and philosophy.

This article provides a comparative analysis of these two mythological traditions, exploring their origins, key deities, themes, and cultural influences. We will examine the parallels between creation myths, the roles of supreme deities, heroic themes, and the concepts of the afterlife in Indian and Greek mythology .

Additionally, we will delve into the religious and philosophical impacts of these mythologies.

Content of this Article

Origins and Development of Indian Mythology

Indian mythology , with its rich and diverse traditions, has its roots in ancient India and has evolved over centuries. It encompasses a vast array of deities, stories, and philosophical concepts that reflect the religious and cultural beliefs of the Indian subcontinent.

Ancient Indian deities and their significance

Ancient Indian mythology is marked by the worship of numerous gods and goddesses, each representing different aspects of life and nature. These deities, such as Brahma , Vishnu , Shiva , Lakshmi , Saraswati , and Durga , hold immense significance in Hindu mythology.

Brahma , the creator god, is revered as the source of creation and wisdom. Vishnu , the preserver, is believed to maintain balance and protect the universe. Shiva , the destroyer, is associated with transformation and rejuvenation.

Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth and prosperity, while Saraswati is the goddess of knowledge and arts. Durga represents feminine energy and strength.

Influence of Hindu scriptures on Indian mythology

The influence of ancient Hindu scriptures, such as the Vedas and the Upanishads, on Indian mythology is profound.

These texts provide the foundation for many mythical stories, rituals, and philosophical ideas. The Rigveda, for example, contains hymns dedicated to various gods and goddesses, offering insights into their roles and characteristics.

The Puranas, a collection of ancient texts, further elaborate on the genealogies, exploits, and teachings of the gods and heroes in Indian mythology . They narrate stories of creation, the cyclic nature of existence, and the interplay between gods and humans.

The mythology also draws heavily from epic texts like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which narrate the heroic deeds and trials of legendary figures like Rama , Krishna , and Arjuna.

These epics explore universal human themes such as duty, morality, love, and the struggle between good and evil.

• Ancient Indian deities hold immense significance in Hindu mythology, representing various aspects of life and nature.
• Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas and the Upanishads have a profound influence on Indian mythology , shaping its stories, rituals, and philosophical concepts.
• The Puranas and epic texts like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata provide detailed accounts of gods, heroes, and their mythological adventures.

Origins and Development of Greek Mythology

The origins and development of Greek mythology have shaped the rich tapestry of ancient Greek culture.

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This section explores the key gods and goddesses in Greek mythology and delves into the profound influence of Greek literature and philosophy on these captivating tales.

Key gods and goddesses in Greek mythology

Greek mythology is replete with a diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses, each with their own unique roles and characteristics.

From the mighty Zeus , the king of the gods, to the fearsome Poseidon , the god of the sea, and the enigmatic Hades , the ruler of the underworld, these deities held great significance in the lives of the ancient Greeks.

Other notable gods and goddesses include Athena , Apollo , Artemis , Aphrodite , Hermes , and Hephaestus , amongst many others.

Influence of Greek literature and philosophy on mythology

Greek literature and philosophy played a pivotal role in the development and perpetuation of Greek mythology . Works such as Homer’s epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, served as important sources of mythological narratives, featuring heroes and gods engaged in epic adventures.

The tragedians, such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, further explored the complexities of the divine-human relationship and the consequences of hubris. Additionally, the philosophical ideas of scholars like Plato and Aristotle interpreted mythological concepts, elevating them to realms of moral and existential significance.

• Homeric epics, including the Iliad and the Odyssey, provided a wealth of mythological tales, showcasing the heroic exploits of gods and mortals.
• Tragegers such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides delved into the intricate dynamics between gods and humans, exploring themes of fate, moral dilemmas, and the tragic consequences of defying the divine order.
• Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle interpreted Greek mythology to explore ethical, metaphysical, and existential questions, lending a philosophical depth to these ancient stories.
• Greek philosophical ideas, such as Plato’s Allegory of the Cave and Aristotle’s concept of catharsis in tragedy, shed light on the symbolic and psychological dimensions of mythological narratives.

The influence of Greek literature and philosophy on mythology cannot be underestimated, as these creative minds imparted profound insights and enduring interpretations that continue to captivate and inspire to this day.

Similarities between Indian and Greek Mythology

This section explores the remarkable parallels between Indian and Greek mythology , highlighting shared themes and concepts.

Parallels in Creation Myths and the Origins of the Universe

Both Indian and Greek mythology have creation myths that explain the origins of the universe. In Indian mythology , the universe arises from the cosmic egg laid by Brahma , while in Greek mythology , it emerges from the primordial chaos.

In both traditions, the universe undergoes a process of order and organization, with divine beings shaping the world and its inhabitants. These creation narratives reflect a shared belief in the importance of divine intervention and the cyclical nature of cosmic existence.

Comparing Supreme Deities in Indian and Greek Mythology

Indian and Greek mythologies both feature supreme deities who hold immense power and influence over the cosmos.

In Indian mythology , Brahma , Vishnu , and Shiva make up the holy trinity known as the Trimurti, representing creation, preservation, and destruction respectively.

Comparatively, Greek mythology showcases Zeus , Poseidon , and Hades as the ruling trio of the gods, governing sky, sea, and underworld.

These supreme deities display similar attributes and responsibilities, acting as major divine forces in their respective pantheons and interacting with mortal beings.

Themes of Heroism, Prophecy, and Fate in Both Mythologies

Both Indian and Greek mythologies explore themes of heroism, prophecy, and fate, emphasizing the interplay between gods and mortals.

In Indian mythology , heroes like Rama and Arjuna embark on epic quests, facing challenges and fulfilling prophecies.

Similarly, Greek mythology features legendary heroes like Hercules and Perseus , guided by prophetic messages and destined for extraordinary feats.

The idea of fate, woven into the narratives of both mythologies, suggests that the actions and choices of individuals are influenced by divine will or predetermined destiny.

This concept adds depth and complexity to the stories, showcasing the interconnection between gods and humans.

• Parallels in creation myths and the origins of the universe
• Comparing supreme deities in Indian and Greek mythology
• Themes of heroism, prophecy, and fate in both mythologies

Stories and Character Analysis in Indian Mythology

This section explores the captivating tales and character analysis found in Indian mythology .

Two prominent epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, illustrate the rich storytelling tradition and provide insights into the roles of gods and humans.

Epic tales of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata

• The Ramayana: This ancient epic follows the journey of Prince Rama as he embarks on a quest to rescue his wife, Sita , who has been abducted by the demon king Ravana . It showcases themes of honor, devotion, and the battle between good and evil.

The role of gods and humans in Indian mythology

In Indian mythology , gods and humans often interact closely, shaping destiny and influencing each other’s paths. Humans seek divine guidance and intervention, while gods play significant roles as both protectors and mentors.

• Heroic Figures: Characters like Rama , Arjuna, and Draupadi demonstrate qualities of bravery, righteousness, and resilience, providing moral and ethical examples for human behavior.
• Divine Incarnations: Avatars such as Krishna , an incarnation of Vishnu , walk among humans and guide them in moments of crisis, imparting divine wisdom and enlightening them in their quests.
• Devotion and Worship: Rituals, prayers, and offerings are integral parts of Indian mythology , showcasing the devotion and reverence humans hold for their deities.

By examining these stories and analyzing the roles of gods and humans, we gain insight into the significance of Indian mythology as a means of moral instruction, cultural preservation, and spiritual enlightenment.

Stories and Character Analysis in Greek Mythology

In Greek mythology , the Twelve Olympians play a significant role in shaping the stories and characters of ancient Greece. They are a group of twelve gods and goddesses who reside on Mount Olympus and hold supreme power over various aspects of human life and the natural world.

Each deity has their own unique personality, symbols, and domain, contributing to the rich tapestry of Greek mythology .

The Twelve Olympians and their stories

• Zeus : The king of the gods, Zeus is associated with thunder and lightning. He is known for his numerous affairs with both gods and mortals, which often result in the birth of legendary heroes and demigods.

Tragic heroes and their interactions with deities

Greek mythology is famous for its tragic heroes, individuals who possess extraordinary qualities but ultimately meet a tragic fate.

These heroes often interact with the gods, either as allies or adversaries, shaping their destinies and the world around them.

One of the most renowned tragic heroes is Heracles , known as Hercules in Roman mythology.

His incredible strength and bravery are tested through a series of labors imposed on him by the gods as punishment for his past actions. Heracles ’ stories showcase his struggles, triumphs, and eventual ascension to godhood.

Another tragic hero is Perseus , who embarks on a perilous quest to slay the monstrous Gorgon Medusa . With the help of the gods, Perseus overcomes numerous challenges and uses Medusa ’s severed head as a powerful weapon.

His story exemplifies the hero’s journey and the influence of deities in shaping the outcome.

Oedipus , the subject of the famous tragedy by Sophocles, is another notable tragic hero in Greek mythology .

He unknowingly fulfills a prophecy that he would kill his father and marry his mother. His story explores themes of fate, free will, and the consequences of defying the gods.

These tragic heroes reflect the complex and intricate relationship between mortals and gods in Greek mythology .

The gods often meddle in the lives of heroes, both aiding and challenging them, leading to their ultimate triumphs or downfalls.

The Underworld in Indian and Greek Mythology

In Indian mythology , the concept of the afterlife and judgment is deeply rooted in Hindu beliefs. According to Hindu scriptures, after death, the soul undergoes a journey through various realms, including Heaven, Hell, and the realm of ancestors.

The ultimate goal is to achieve Moksha, the liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

On the other hand, in Greek mythology , the realm of the Underworld is known as Hades . It is ruled by the god Hades , and it serves as the final destination for souls after death.

The Underworld is a vast and complex realm with different sections, such as the Elysian Fields for the virtuous souls and Tartarus for the wicked.

Concepts of the Afterlife and Judgment in Indian Mythology

In Indian mythology , the afterlife destinations are determined by one’s karma, actions, and the performance of religious rituals in their earthly life.

The soul is believed to face judgment by the god of death, Yama , who examines the balance of good and bad deeds to determine the soul’s fate. Those who have led a righteous life are rewarded with heavenly realms, while those with negative karma may be subjected to punishment or reincarnation.

The Realm of Hades and its Significance in Greek Mythology

The realm of Hades plays a crucial role in Greek mythology . It is depicted as a gloomy and somber place where the shades of the dead reside. The souls undergo judgment upon reaching the Underworld, where their actions in life are weighed and their eternal fate is determined.

While some are granted a peaceful existence in the Elysian Fields, others face various punishments in Tartarus for their wrongdoings.

Hades himself is a complex figure, not purely malevolent but rather a stern ruler with a sense of justice.

The Underworld serves as a reminder of mortality and the consequences of one’s actions in the mortal realm.

Overall, the concepts of the afterlife and judgment in Indian and Greek mythologies offer distinct visions of what awaits humans beyond death.

While Indian mythology focuses on the cycle of reincarnation and achieving spiritual liberation, Greek mythology emphasizes the realm of Hades as the final destination for souls and the necessity of judgment for one’s actions in life.

Holy Trinity in Indian and Greek Mythology

In this section, we will delve into the concept of the holy trinity in both Indian and Greek mythology , exploring the divine trios that hold significant roles in their respective mythological traditions.

These trinities embody the fundamental aspects of the pantheon and play a crucial role in shaping the mythology of each culture.

Understanding the trinity of Brahma , Vishnu , and Shiva in Hinduism

Hindu mythology features a trinity known as the Trimurti, consisting of Brahma , Vishnu , and Shiva . Brahma is the creator deity, responsible for the creation and maintenance of the universe.

Vishnu is the preserver, ensuring harmony and order in the world. Shiva is the destroyer and transformer, representing the cyclical nature of existence.

Each deity in the Hindu trinity has a distinct role and attributes.

Brahma is depicted with four heads and is associated with knowledge and creativity. Vishnu is worshipped in various forms, such as Rama and Krishna , and is known for restoring balance and righteousness.

Shiva is often depicted as a meditating yogi with a trident, symbolizing his control over the forces of creation, preservation, and destruction.

Examining the roles of Zeus , Poseidon , and Hades in Greek mythology

Greek mythology also presents a trinity of gods with Zeus , Poseidon , and Hades taking central roles.

Zeus is the king of the gods, ruling over the heavens and wielding thunderbolts. As the god of the sky and weather, he represents power and authority.

Poseidon is the god of the sea, controlling the oceans and all aquatic phenomena.

His trident is his iconic symbol, representing his authority over the waters and his ability to cause both calmness and storms. Hades , the god of the underworld, rules over the realm of the dead and the afterlife.

Each member of the Greek trinity possesses distinct qualities and domains. Zeus symbolizes leadership and justice, while Poseidon represents the forces of nature and the power of the seas.

Hades , in contrast, oversees the realm of the dead, embodying the mysteries of the afterlife and the concept of finality.

Comparative Analysis of Religious and Philosophical Influences

Impact of indian mythology on hindu religious practices and beliefs.

Indian mythology has had a profound impact on Hindu religious practices and beliefs. The rich pantheon of Hindu gods and goddesses that are worshipped and revered today find their origins in the ancient myths and legends.

These myths not only provide narratives for devotion and worship but also offer moral and spiritual guidance to followers. The ancient texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas serve as important sources for the stories and teachings that shape Hindu rituals and traditions.

The epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, for instance, continue to inspire devotion and serve as moral compasses for millions of Hindus.

Influence of Greek mythology on ancient Greek religion and philosophy

Greek mythology played a significant role in shaping ancient Greek religion and philosophy. The gods and goddesses of Greek mythology were not only worshipped but also seen as metaphors for human experiences, emotions, and virtues.

The myths offered explanations for natural phenomena, moral dilemmas, and the human condition. The religious rituals and festivals dedicated to the gods were an integral part of ancient Greek society, fostering a sense of collective identity and reinforcing communal values.

Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, drew on these mythological narratives to articulate their philosophical ideas and theories on ethics, metaphysics, and the nature of reality.

The comparative analysis of the religious and philosophical influences of Indian mythology and Greek mythology reveals the profound impact these ancient traditions had on their respective cultures. Indian mythology , deeply rooted in Hinduism, continues to shape religious practices and beliefs, providing guidance and inspiration to millions.

Greek mythology , with its rich pantheon of gods and complex narratives, influenced not only ancient Greek religion but also laid the foundation for philosophical concepts and ideas that permeated Western thought.

Exploring these influences provides insights into the human quest for meaning, understanding, and the search for transcendence.

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Odysseus: the Archetypal Hero in Greek Mythology

This essay about Odysseus in Greek mythology characterizes him as the archetypal hero, distinct for his intellect and cunning rather than mere physical strength. It explores his strategic brilliance, exemplified by his encounters with mythical creatures like the Cyclops Polyphemus, and discusses his complex personality, marked by both ingenuity and hubris. The essay highlights how Odysseus’s intelligence often leads to both survival and self-inflicted hardships, such as the extended wrath of Poseidon. His relentless determination to return home to Ithaca reflects his loyalty and perseverance, central virtues that resonate with ancient Greek values. Moreover, Odysseus’s story is presented not just as a series of external challenges, but as a profound narrative on identity, responsibility, and the human condition, making his character a timeless emblem of heroic complexity and resilience.

How it works

Odysseus, the central figure of Homer’s epic poem “The Odyssey,” is one of the most compelling heroes in Greek mythology. His adventures during his decade-long journey home after the Trojan War have cemented his status as an archetypal hero. Unlike other heroes who rely on brute strength or divine favor, Odysseus’s heroism is primarily defined by his intellect and cunning, making him a distinctive figure in the pantheon of Greek mythology.

Odysseus’s journey is as much about mental resilience and strategic thinking as it is about physical challenges.

His ability to devise ingenious solutions to seemingly insurmountable problems highlights his mastery of guile and deception. One of the most iconic episodes is his encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus, where Odysseus tricks the giant by claiming his name is “Nobody.” When Odysseus blinds him, Polyphemus screams for help that “Nobody” is attacking him, thus ensuring Odysseus and his men can escape. This episode not only showcases Odysseus’s tactical genius but also underscores his ability to adapt his strategies to different foes and situations.

However, Odysseus’s cunning is a double-edged sword. While it enables his survival and the protection of his crew, it also leads to hubris and mistakes. His unnecessary taunting of Polyphemus after their escape provokes Poseidon, who then curses Odysseus to wander the seas for many more years before he can return home. This incident reflects a critical aspect of Odysseus’s character: his complexity. Unlike straightforwardly virtuous heroes, Odysseus is deeply flawed, which makes him more relatable and human. His journey encompasses not only external battles but also an internal struggle with his flaws and decisions, enhancing his role as an archetypal hero.

The trials Odysseus faces also serve to illuminate his virtues, such as loyalty and perseverance. Despite numerous temptations and setbacks, including the enchanting Calypso and the bewitching Circe, Odysseus never loses sight of his goal to return to his wife Penelope and his son Telemachus in Ithaca. His unwavering determination to return home, despite the allure of immortality and ease, showcases his devotion and fidelity. This aspect of his character resonates with the values of Greek society, which esteemed loyalty to one’s family and city-state.

Odysseus’s enduring appeal as a hero also lies in his profound human emotions and experiences, which are universal and timeless. His story is not just about physical adventures but also an exploration of themes such as identity, responsibility, and the impact of one’s choices. Through Odysseus, Homer explores the consequences of war, the meaning of home, and what it truly means to be a hero. These themes are woven seamlessly into his adventures, offering a narrative rich with lessons about the complexities of human nature and the ethical dilemmas faced by individuals.

In conclusion, Odysseus embodies the archetypal hero in Greek mythology not because he is perfect or invincible, but because he represents a profound exploration of character complexity and human resilience. His story transcends the ancient world, offering insights into the virtues and vices that shape human existence. Odysseus’s legacy as a hero is defined by his intelligence, strategic thinking, and, most importantly, his human vulnerabilities, making him a lasting symbol of the heroic journey in literature and beyond. His tale continues to inspire and teach, reminding us of the enduring power of storytelling in exploring and understanding the human condition.

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