how long is a mini dissertation

Dissertation Structure & Layout 101: How to structure your dissertation, thesis or research project.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) Reviewed By: David Phair (PhD) | July 2019

So, you’ve got a decent understanding of what a dissertation is , you’ve chosen your topic and hopefully you’ve received approval for your research proposal . Awesome! Now its time to start the actual dissertation or thesis writing journey.

To craft a high-quality document, the very first thing you need to understand is dissertation structure . In this post, we’ll walk you through the generic dissertation structure and layout, step by step. We’ll start with the big picture, and then zoom into each chapter to briefly discuss the core contents. If you’re just starting out on your research journey, you should start with this post, which covers the big-picture process of how to write a dissertation or thesis .

*The Caveat *

In this post, we’ll be discussing a traditional dissertation/thesis structure and layout, which is generally used for social science research across universities, whether in the US, UK, Europe or Australia. However, some universities may have small variations on this structure (extra chapters, merged chapters, slightly different ordering, etc).

So, always check with your university if they have a prescribed structure or layout that they expect you to work with. If not, it’s safe to assume the structure we’ll discuss here is suitable. And even if they do have a prescribed structure, you’ll still get value from this post as we’ll explain the core contents of each section.  

Overview: S tructuring a dissertation or thesis

• Acknowledgements page
• Abstract (or executive summary)
• Table of contents , list of figures and tables
• Chapter 1: Introduction
• Chapter 2: Literature review
• Chapter 3: Methodology
• Chapter 4: Results
• Chapter 5: Discussion
• Chapter 6: Conclusion
• Reference list

As I mentioned, some universities will have slight variations on this structure. For example, they want an additional “personal reflection chapter”, or they might prefer the results and discussion chapter to be merged into one. Regardless, the overarching flow will always be the same, as this flow reflects the research process , which we discussed here – i.e.:

• The introduction chapter presents the core research question and aims .
• The literature review chapter assesses what the current research says about this question.
• The methodology, results and discussion chapters go about undertaking new research about this question.
• The conclusion chapter (attempts to) answer the core research question .

In other words, the dissertation structure and layout reflect the research process of asking a well-defined question(s), investigating, and then answering the question – see below.

To restate that – the structure and layout of a dissertation reflect the flow of the overall research process . This is essential to understand, as each chapter will make a lot more sense if you “get” this concept. If you’re not familiar with the research process, read this post before going further.

Right. Now that we’ve covered the big picture, let’s dive a little deeper into the details of each section and chapter. Oh and by the way, you can also grab our free dissertation/thesis template here to help speed things up.

The title page of your dissertation is the very first impression the marker will get of your work, so it pays to invest some time thinking about your title. But what makes for a good title? A strong title needs to be 3 things:

• Succinct (not overly lengthy or verbose)
• Specific (not vague or ambiguous)
• Representative of the research you’re undertaking (clearly linked to your research questions)

Typically, a good title includes mention of the following:

• The broader area of the research (i.e. the overarching topic)
• The specific focus of your research (i.e. your specific context)
• Indication of research design (e.g. quantitative , qualitative , or  mixed methods ).

For example:

A quantitative investigation [research design] into the antecedents of organisational trust [broader area] in the UK retail forex trading market [specific context/area of focus].

Again, some universities may have specific requirements regarding the format and structure of the title, so it’s worth double-checking expectations with your institution (if there’s no mention in the brief or study material).

Acknowledgements

This page provides you with an opportunity to say thank you to those who helped you along your research journey. Generally, it’s optional (and won’t count towards your marks), but it is academic best practice to include this.

So, who do you say thanks to? Well, there’s no prescribed requirements, but it’s common to mention the following people:

• Your dissertation supervisor or committee.
• Any professors, lecturers or academics that helped you understand the topic or methodologies.
• Any tutors, mentors or advisors.
• Your family and friends, especially spouse (for adult learners studying part-time).

There’s no need for lengthy rambling. Just state who you’re thankful to and for what (e.g. thank you to my supervisor, John Doe, for his endless patience and attentiveness) – be sincere. In terms of length, you should keep this to a page or less.

Abstract or executive summary

The dissertation abstract (or executive summary for some degrees) serves to provide the first-time reader (and marker or moderator) with a big-picture view of your research project. It should give them an understanding of the key insights and findings from the research, without them needing to read the rest of the report – in other words, it should be able to stand alone .

For it to stand alone, your abstract should cover the following key points (at a minimum):

• Your research questions and aims – what key question(s) did your research aim to answer?
• Your methodology – how did you go about investigating the topic and finding answers to your research question(s)?
• Your findings – following your own research, what did do you discover?
• Your conclusions – based on your findings, what conclusions did you draw? What answers did you find to your research question(s)?

So, in much the same way the dissertation structure mimics the research process, your abstract or executive summary should reflect the research process, from the initial stage of asking the original question to the final stage of answering that question.

In practical terms, it’s a good idea to write this section up last , once all your core chapters are complete. Otherwise, you’ll end up writing and rewriting this section multiple times (just wasting time). For a step by step guide on how to write a strong executive summary, check out this post .

Need a helping hand?

Table of contents

This section is straightforward. You’ll typically present your table of contents (TOC) first, followed by the two lists – figures and tables. I recommend that you use Microsoft Word’s automatic table of contents generator to generate your TOC. If you’re not familiar with this functionality, the video below explains it simply:

If you find that your table of contents is overly lengthy, consider removing one level of depth. Oftentimes, this can be done without detracting from the usefulness of the TOC.

Right, now that the “admin” sections are out of the way, its time to move on to your core chapters. These chapters are the heart of your dissertation and are where you’ll earn the marks. The first chapter is the introduction chapter – as you would expect, this is the time to introduce your research…

It’s important to understand that even though you’ve provided an overview of your research in your abstract, your introduction needs to be written as if the reader has not read that (remember, the abstract is essentially a standalone document). So, your introduction chapter needs to start from the very beginning, and should address the following questions:

• What will you be investigating (in plain-language, big picture-level)?
• Why is that worth investigating? How is it important to academia or business? How is it sufficiently original?
• What are your research aims and research question(s)? Note that the research questions can sometimes be presented at the end of the literature review (next chapter).
• What is the scope of your study? In other words, what will and won’t you cover ?
• How will you approach your research? In other words, what methodology will you adopt?
• How will you structure your dissertation? What are the core chapters and what will you do in each of them?

These are just the bare basic requirements for your intro chapter. Some universities will want additional bells and whistles in the intro chapter, so be sure to carefully read your brief or consult your research supervisor.

If done right, your introduction chapter will set a clear direction for the rest of your dissertation. Specifically, it will make it clear to the reader (and marker) exactly what you’ll be investigating, why that’s important, and how you’ll be going about the investigation. Conversely, if your introduction chapter leaves a first-time reader wondering what exactly you’ll be researching, you’ve still got some work to do.

Now that you’ve set a clear direction with your introduction chapter, the next step is the literature review . In this section, you will analyse the existing research (typically academic journal articles and high-quality industry publications), with a view to understanding the following questions:

• What does the literature currently say about the topic you’re investigating?
• Is the literature lacking or well established? Is it divided or in disagreement?
• How does your research fit into the bigger picture?
• How does your research contribute something original?
• How does the methodology of previous studies help you develop your own?

Depending on the nature of your study, you may also present a conceptual framework towards the end of your literature review, which you will then test in your actual research.

Again, some universities will want you to focus on some of these areas more than others, some will have additional or fewer requirements, and so on. Therefore, as always, its important to review your brief and/or discuss with your supervisor, so that you know exactly what’s expected of your literature review chapter.

Now that you’ve investigated the current state of knowledge in your literature review chapter and are familiar with the existing key theories, models and frameworks, its time to design your own research. Enter the methodology chapter – the most “science-ey” of the chapters…

In this chapter, you need to address two critical questions:

• Exactly HOW will you carry out your research (i.e. what is your intended research design)?
• Exactly WHY have you chosen to do things this way (i.e. how do you justify your design)?

Remember, the dissertation part of your degree is first and foremost about developing and demonstrating research skills . Therefore, the markers want to see that you know which methods to use, can clearly articulate why you’ve chosen then, and know how to deploy them effectively.

Importantly, this chapter requires detail – don’t hold back on the specifics. State exactly what you’ll be doing, with who, when, for how long, etc. Moreover, for every design choice you make, make sure you justify it.

In practice, you will likely end up coming back to this chapter once you’ve undertaken all your data collection and analysis, and revise it based on changes you made during the analysis phase. This is perfectly fine. Its natural for you to add an additional analysis technique, scrap an old one, etc based on where your data lead you. Of course, I’m talking about small changes here – not a fundamental switch from qualitative to quantitative, which will likely send your supervisor in a spin!

You’ve now collected your data and undertaken your analysis, whether qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. In this chapter, you’ll present the raw results of your analysis . For example, in the case of a quant study, you’ll present the demographic data, descriptive statistics, inferential statistics , etc.

Typically, Chapter 4 is simply a presentation and description of the data, not a discussion of the meaning of the data. In other words, it’s descriptive, rather than analytical – the meaning is discussed in Chapter 5. However, some universities will want you to combine chapters 4 and 5, so that you both present and interpret the meaning of the data at the same time. Check with your institution what their preference is.

Now that you’ve presented the data analysis results, its time to interpret and analyse them. In other words, its time to discuss what they mean, especially in relation to your research question(s).

What you discuss here will depend largely on your chosen methodology. For example, if you’ve gone the quantitative route, you might discuss the relationships between variables . If you’ve gone the qualitative route, you might discuss key themes and the meanings thereof. It all depends on what your research design choices were.

Most importantly, you need to discuss your results in relation to your research questions and aims, as well as the existing literature. What do the results tell you about your research questions? Are they aligned with the existing research or at odds? If so, why might this be? Dig deep into your findings and explain what the findings suggest, in plain English.

The final chapter – you’ve made it! Now that you’ve discussed your interpretation of the results, its time to bring it back to the beginning with the conclusion chapter . In other words, its time to (attempt to) answer your original research question s (from way back in chapter 1). Clearly state what your conclusions are in terms of your research questions. This might feel a bit repetitive, as you would have touched on this in the previous chapter, but its important to bring the discussion full circle and explicitly state your answer(s) to the research question(s).

Next, you’ll typically discuss the implications of your findings . In other words, you’ve answered your research questions – but what does this mean for the real world (or even for academia)? What should now be done differently, given the new insight you’ve generated?

Lastly, you should discuss the limitations of your research, as well as what this means for future research in the area. No study is perfect, especially not a Masters-level. Discuss the shortcomings of your research. Perhaps your methodology was limited, perhaps your sample size was small or not representative, etc, etc. Don’t be afraid to critique your work – the markers want to see that you can identify the limitations of your work. This is a strength, not a weakness. Be brutal!

This marks the end of your core chapters – woohoo! From here on out, it’s pretty smooth sailing.

The reference list is straightforward. It should contain a list of all resources cited in your dissertation, in the required format, e.g. APA , Harvard, etc.

It’s essential that you use reference management software for your dissertation. Do NOT try handle your referencing manually – its far too error prone. On a reference list of multiple pages, you’re going to make mistake. To this end, I suggest considering either Mendeley or Zotero. Both are free and provide a very straightforward interface to ensure that your referencing is 100% on point. I’ve included a simple how-to video for the Mendeley software (my personal favourite) below:

Some universities may ask you to include a bibliography, as opposed to a reference list. These two things are not the same . A bibliography is similar to a reference list, except that it also includes resources which informed your thinking but were not directly cited in your dissertation. So, double-check your brief and make sure you use the right one.

The very last piece of the puzzle is the appendix or set of appendices. This is where you’ll include any supporting data and evidence. Importantly, supporting is the keyword here.

Your appendices should provide additional “nice to know”, depth-adding information, which is not critical to the core analysis. Appendices should not be used as a way to cut down word count (see this post which covers how to reduce word count ). In other words, don’t place content that is critical to the core analysis here, just to save word count. You will not earn marks on any content in the appendices, so don’t try to play the system!

Time to recap…

And there you have it – the traditional dissertation structure and layout, from A-Z. To recap, the core structure for a dissertation or thesis is (typically) as follows:

• Acknowledgments page

Most importantly, the core chapters should reflect the research process (asking, investigating and answering your research question). Moreover, the research question(s) should form the golden thread throughout your dissertation structure. Everything should revolve around the research questions, and as you’ve seen, they should form both the start point (i.e. introduction chapter) and the endpoint (i.e. conclusion chapter).

I hope this post has provided you with clarity about the traditional dissertation/thesis structure and layout. If you have any questions or comments, please leave a comment below, or feel free to get in touch with us. Also, be sure to check out the rest of the  Grad Coach Blog .

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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36 Comments

many thanks i found it very useful

Glad to hear that, Arun. Good luck writing your dissertation.

Such clear practical logical advice. I very much needed to read this to keep me focused in stead of fretting.. Perfect now ready to start my research!

what about scientific fields like computer or engineering thesis what is the difference in the structure? thank you very much

Thanks so much this helped me a lot!

Very helpful and accessible. What I like most is how practical the advice is along with helpful tools/ links.

Thanks Ade!

Thank you so much sir.. It was really helpful..

You’re welcome!

Hi! How many words maximum should contain the abstract?

Thank you so much 😊 Find this at the right moment

You’re most welcome. Good luck with your dissertation.

best ever benefit i got on right time thank you

Many times Clarity and vision of destination of dissertation is what makes the difference between good ,average and great researchers the same way a great automobile driver is fast with clarity of address and Clear weather conditions .

I guess Great researcher = great ideas + knowledge + great and fast data collection and modeling + great writing + high clarity on all these

You have given immense clarity from start to end.

Morning. Where will I write the definitions of what I’m referring to in my report?

Thank you so much Derek, I was almost lost! Thanks a tonnnn! Have a great day!

Thanks ! so concise and valuable

This was very helpful. Clear and concise. I know exactly what to do now.

Thank you for allowing me to go through briefly. I hope to find time to continue.

Really useful to me. Thanks a thousand times

Very interesting! It will definitely set me and many more for success. highly recommended.

Thank you soo much sir, for the opportunity to express my skills

Usefull, thanks a lot. Really clear

Very nice and easy to understand. Thank you .

That was incredibly useful. Thanks Grad Coach Crew!

My stress level just dropped at least 15 points after watching this. Just starting my thesis for my grad program and I feel a lot more capable now! Thanks for such a clear and helpful video, Emma and the GradCoach team!

Do we need to mention the number of words the dissertation contains in the main document?

It depends on your university’s requirements, so it would be best to check with them 🙂

Such a helpful post to help me get started with structuring my masters dissertation, thank you!

Great video; I appreciate that helpful information

It is so necessary or avital course

This blog is very informative for my research. Thank you

Doctoral students are required to fill out the National Research Council’s Survey of Earned Doctorates

wow this is an amazing gain in my life

This is so good

How can i arrange my specific objectives in my dissertation?

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There is no standard format for the submission of a dissertation or thesis: formatting is at the candidate’s discretion, but using A4 paper is the expected norm. Reasonable width margins (2 – 2.5 cm) are desirable to ensure that binding does not impede reading of the text. However, candidates should consult their supervisor early on in the process. The contents must be printed in either double or one and a half spacing using a common font throughout. Printing on both sides of the page is allowed, but a reasonable weight paper must then be used. Although it is expected that the dissertation/thesis be written in English, it is possible with prior support of the supervisor and prior permission from the Doctoral Degrees Board, to submit a PhD in another language.

It is acceptable for a Masters dissertation or PhD thesis to include published papers , provided that:

• where published papers are included as separate chapters, the dissertation/thesis must nonetheless show acceptable academic style, constant formatting, scholarly content and coherence as a connected account with a satisfactory general introduction, statement of thesis and a final discussion chapter. The latter should not duplicate material that is already contained in the discussion sections of the various chapters/papers, but integrate the results from the various chapters and place them in a broader context;
• where multi-authored papers are included, the contribution of the candidate can be distinguished and is clearly stated

For Masters degrees a candidate must submit either three hard copies (degree by dissertation only) or TWO hard copies (degree by coursework plus dissertation) of the dissertation in temporary binding to the Postgraduate Officer in the Science Faculty Office . Once the dissertation has been finally accepted, one unbound hard copy and one electronic copy (in pdf format on a labelled, read-only CD packed in a hard "jewel" case) of the final, corrected dissertation must be lodged with the Faculty Office.

In the case of a PhD , the thesis may not exceed 80,000 words . If it is felt that it is essential to exceed this length, special permission must be obtained from the Dean. It is the expectation that Masters degrees should be substantially shorter than this with a maximum of 50,000 words allowed; on the order of 35,000 words (~100 pages) would be the expected norm.

There must be a title page on which should appear the thesis title, name of candidate (plus qualifications if you wish), name of Department, University and the month and year of submission. The following is the recommended wording used after the thesis title and name of the candidate: Dissertation (or Thesis) presented for the degree of Master of Science (or Doctor of Philosophy) in the Department of … University of Cape Town Month and Year

For a coursework Masters minor dissertation the wording should read "Dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of…".

Plagiarism Declaration

Following the title page there should be a page containing the following signed statement by the candidate: "I know the meaning of plagiarism and declare that all of the work in the dissertation (or thesis), save for that which is properly acknowledged, is my own‟.

Publication

When a candidate submits a thesis he/she shall be deemed to have granted the University free license to publish it in whole or part in any format the University deems fit.

Referencing

Forms of referencing must be standard for the discipline and must adhere to a recognised international convention, agreed to with the supervisor.

Due Dates and Process of Submission

At the conclusion of research, the candidate must submit a dissertation or thesis for examination. This normally occurs after receiving an indication from the supervisor that the product is in a form which is acceptable for submission. However, a candidate is not prevented from submitting without the supervisor’s approval.

If a candidate intends submitting a Masters dissertation for examination he/she must inform the Head of Department in writing, with a copy to the Dean, of such an intention two weeks in advance of planned submission date. The Head of Department, with input from the supervisor, will then nominate suitable examiners for approval by the Dean. If submitting a PhD thesis, the candidate must inform the Doctoral Degrees Board Officer (New Student Administration Building) in writing of such intention one month prior to planned submission.

The dates for submission of dissertations and theses are: First or Second week in February for persons hoping to graduate in September; First or Second week in August for persons hoping to graduate in March of the following year.

Please refer to the University Fees Booklet for submission dates with respect to fee rebates. Candidates who submit their thesis/dissertation before the beginning of the start of the first term are not required to register. If submitted after the start of the first term a candidate must register for that year, and a pro-rata fee will be charged, depending on the date of submission. Where a student who submitted prior to the start of term is required to revise and resubmit a dissertation/thesis, they must register and pay the academic fee for that year. Further information can be found at the UCT Student Handbook site .

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How to Write a Dissertation | A Guide to Structure & Content

A dissertation or thesis is a long piece of academic writing based on original research, submitted as part of an undergraduate or postgraduate degree.

The structure of a dissertation depends on your field, but it is usually divided into at least four or five chapters (including an introduction and conclusion chapter).

The most common dissertation structure in the sciences and social sciences includes:

• An introduction to your topic
• A literature review that surveys relevant sources
• An explanation of your methodology
• An overview of the results of your research
• A discussion of the results and their implications
• A conclusion that shows what your research has contributed

Dissertations in the humanities are often structured more like a long essay , building an argument by analysing primary and secondary sources . Instead of the standard structure outlined here, you might organise your chapters around different themes or case studies.

Other important elements of the dissertation include the title page , abstract , and reference list . If in doubt about how your dissertation should be structured, always check your department’s guidelines and consult with your supervisor.

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Table of contents

Acknowledgements, table of contents, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review / theoretical framework, methodology, reference list.

The very first page of your document contains your dissertation’s title, your name, department, institution, degree program, and submission date. Sometimes it also includes your student number, your supervisor’s name, and the university’s logo. Many programs have strict requirements for formatting the dissertation title page .

The title page is often used as cover when printing and binding your dissertation .

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The acknowledgements section is usually optional, and gives space for you to thank everyone who helped you in writing your dissertation. This might include your supervisors, participants in your research, and friends or family who supported you.

The abstract is a short summary of your dissertation, usually about 150-300 words long. You should write it at the very end, when you’ve completed the rest of the dissertation. In the abstract, make sure to:

• State the main topic and aims of your research
• Describe the methods you used
• Summarise the main results
• State your conclusions

Although the abstract is very short, it’s the first part (and sometimes the only part) of your dissertation that people will read, so it’s important that you get it right. If you’re struggling to write a strong abstract, read our guide on how to write an abstract .

In the table of contents, list all of your chapters and subheadings and their page numbers. The dissertation contents page gives the reader an overview of your structure and helps easily navigate the document.

All parts of your dissertation should be included in the table of contents, including the appendices. You can generate a table of contents automatically in Word.

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If you have used a lot of tables and figures in your dissertation, you should itemise them in a numbered list . You can automatically generate this list using the Insert Caption feature in Word.

If you have used a lot of abbreviations in your dissertation, you can include them in an alphabetised list of abbreviations so that the reader can easily look up their meanings.

If you have used a lot of highly specialised terms that will not be familiar to your reader, it might be a good idea to include a glossary . List the terms alphabetically and explain each term with a brief description or definition.

In the introduction, you set up your dissertation’s topic, purpose, and relevance, and tell the reader what to expect in the rest of the dissertation. The introduction should:

• Establish your research topic , giving necessary background information to contextualise your work
• Narrow down the focus and define the scope of the research
• Discuss the state of existing research on the topic, showing your work’s relevance to a broader problem or debate
• Clearly state your objectives and research questions , and indicate how you will answer them
• Give an overview of your dissertation’s structure

Everything in the introduction should be clear, engaging, and relevant to your research. By the end, the reader should understand the what , why and how of your research. Not sure how? Read our guide on how to write a dissertation introduction .

Before you start on your research, you should have conducted a literature review to gain a thorough understanding of the academic work that already exists on your topic. This means:

• Collecting sources (e.g. books and journal articles) and selecting the most relevant ones
• Critically evaluating and analysing each source
• Drawing connections between them (e.g. themes, patterns, conflicts, gaps) to make an overall point

In the dissertation literature review chapter or section, you shouldn’t just summarise existing studies, but develop a coherent structure and argument that leads to a clear basis or justification for your own research. For example, it might aim to show how your research:

• Addresses a gap in the literature
• Takes a new theoretical or methodological approach to the topic
• Proposes a solution to an unresolved problem
• Advances a theoretical debate
• Builds on and strengthens existing knowledge with new data

The literature review often becomes the basis for a theoretical framework , in which you define and analyse the key theories, concepts and models that frame your research. In this section you can answer descriptive research questions about the relationship between concepts or variables.

The methodology chapter or section describes how you conducted your research, allowing your reader to assess its validity. You should generally include:

• The overall approach and type of research (e.g. qualitative, quantitative, experimental, ethnographic)
• Your methods of collecting data (e.g. interviews, surveys, archives)
• Details of where, when, and with whom the research took place
• Your methods of analysing data (e.g. statistical analysis, discourse analysis)
• Tools and materials you used (e.g. computer programs, lab equipment)
• A discussion of any obstacles you faced in conducting the research and how you overcame them
• An evaluation or justification of your methods

Your aim in the methodology is to accurately report what you did, as well as convincing the reader that this was the best approach to answering your research questions or objectives.

Next, you report the results of your research . You can structure this section around sub-questions, hypotheses, or topics. Only report results that are relevant to your objectives and research questions. In some disciplines, the results section is strictly separated from the discussion, while in others the two are combined.

For example, for qualitative methods like in-depth interviews, the presentation of the data will often be woven together with discussion and analysis, while in quantitative and experimental research, the results should be presented separately before you discuss their meaning. If you’re unsure, consult with your supervisor and look at sample dissertations to find out the best structure for your research.

In the results section it can often be helpful to include tables, graphs and charts. Think carefully about how best to present your data, and don’t include tables or figures that just repeat what you have written  –  they should provide extra information or usefully visualise the results in a way that adds value to your text.

Full versions of your data (such as interview transcripts) can be included as an appendix .

The discussion  is where you explore the meaning and implications of your results in relation to your research questions. Here you should interpret the results in detail, discussing whether they met your expectations and how well they fit with the framework that you built in earlier chapters. If any of the results were unexpected, offer explanations for why this might be. It’s a good idea to consider alternative interpretations of your data and discuss any limitations that might have influenced the results.

The discussion should reference other scholarly work to show how your results fit with existing knowledge. You can also make recommendations for future research or practical action.

The dissertation conclusion should concisely answer the main research question, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of your central argument. Wrap up your dissertation with a final reflection on what you did and how you did it. The conclusion often also includes recommendations for research or practice.

In this section, it’s important to show how your findings contribute to knowledge in the field and why your research matters. What have you added to what was already known?

You must include full details of all sources that you have cited in a reference list (sometimes also called a works cited list or bibliography). It’s important to follow a consistent reference style . Each style has strict and specific requirements for how to format your sources in the reference list.

The most common styles used in UK universities are Harvard referencing and Vancouver referencing . Your department will often specify which referencing style you should use – for example, psychology students tend to use APA style , humanities students often use MHRA , and law students always use OSCOLA . M ake sure to check the requirements, and ask your supervisor if you’re unsure.

To save time creating the reference list and make sure your citations are correctly and consistently formatted, you can use our free APA Citation Generator .

Your dissertation itself should contain only essential information that directly contributes to answering your research question. Documents you have used that do not fit into the main body of your dissertation (such as interview transcripts, survey questions or tables with full figures) can be added as appendices .

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• Volume 103, Issue 9
• How to do a postgraduate research project and write a minor thesis
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4637-1416 Trevor Duke 1 , 2 , 3
• 1 Centre for International Child Health , University of Melbourne , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia
• 2 School of Medicine and Health Sciences , University of Papua New Guinea , Port Moresby , Papua New Guinea
• 3 Paediatric Intensive Care Unit , Royal Children’s Hospital , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia
• Correspondence to Prof Trevor Duke, University of Melbourne Department of Paediatrics,Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052 ; trevor.duke{at}rch.org.au

Many universities and colleges in low-income and middle-income countries require a masters dissertation or thesis for as part of postgraduate training, and some colleges offer a 1-year to 2-year diploma of child health as a clinical qualification to enable skills in child health for generalists, or as part of the early phase of paediatric training. This paper describes the stages of doing a research project for such a masters or diploma, and describes in detail how to write a minor thesis. The paper is designed to provide a practical approach for junior researchers, and their supervisors. Colleges differ in their formal requirements of a minor thesis (word count, line spacing, referencing style), but this paper outlines the principles and practical issues rarely covered elsewhere.

• medical education
• paediatric training
• research training
• low and middle income countries

https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2018-315340

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Introduction

What is a minor thesis and why do it.

A minor thesis is a written, systematic description of your project. It has a structure, and tells the story of your research: why you did it, how you did it, what you found and what it means.

The reasons to do a research project during your postgraduate training include to:

learn the basics of research theory and techniques, including epidemiology and biostatistics;

understand how to do a literature review, and how to appraise the literature to address questions;

explore an area of interest for you (develop some expertise and a deeper understanding of a topic);

give you tools to critically and thoughtfully appraise problems you are faced with every day;

learn to communicate scientific research in verbal presentations and written form.

Making a start on your project

Figure 1 shows many of the stages in conducting a research project. The order is not necessarily fixed, some steps, such as a literature search can be done early when considering a research question, or done later in the writing phase (often it is done in both phases). The literature review summarised in the thesis is usually focused on the research question, that is the question leads to the literature review (which is done in a systematic way). Learning about literature searching (through PubMed or Medline), learning about a reference manager database like EndNote and learning about databases and statistical analysis programs like Excel or SPSS can be done at any time, but best to start these early in the process. Not all steps are needed for some projects, such as a relatively simple clinical audit, but it is good to know what steps to consider.

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Stages in a research project and writing a minor thesis.

Choosing a research topic

A diploma of child health (DCH) thesis should address a simple clinical or public health question. It could be an audit of a condition or practice which is of interest to you. A research project often starts with an idea that interests you, or a problem you have noticed. You may have 12 months for your DCH (realistically even less, about 10 months prior to exams). The project should ideally be able to be completed in 4–6 months. This is because the main part of DCH training is developing clinical competence in paediatrics, and being a good registrar.

A masters project is expected to be more involved, and should be planned early, ideally in the year before you begin collecting data. You usually have 18 months to 2 years. You should choose a topic of interest, explore what has already been written on the subject, what local research exists, in what context this has been done, talk to your supervisors and take time to identify clear research questions and choose a feasible and practical method for your study. But a masters project and thesis should not dominate your time, as the main task of postgraduate training is to develop the all-round skills to be a good paediatrician. This includes an understanding of child health epidemiology and research methods, but too much of a focus on research can detract from clinical responsibilities and clinical learning.

A clear research question

While many students find it easy to identify a theme or topic, it is often more difficult to define a research question or questions. A research question should be objective and answerable using a research methodology. Research questions can be quantitative, qualitative or a combination of both. Quantitative research questions generate data that are measures or values, which can be used for descriptive and inferential statistics (such as ‘what are the causes of anaemia in children presenting to Kimbe Hospital?’ ‘what is the prevalence of disability among children admitted to hospital in Vientiane?’ or what ‘what is the long-term outcome for very low birth weight neonates in Honiara?’ The questions may be general (‘what are the patient  characteristics of children with MDR TB?’) or specific (‘what is the success rate of outpatient treatment of moderate gastroenteritis?’ and ‘what proportion of newborns with PROM will need antibiotic treatment?’). Many questions will be objective/numerical (‘what is the case fatality rate for birth asphyxia at Goroka Hospital between 2011 and 2016?’); some will be categorical (‘what are the common types of seizures that children with epilepsy in Yogyakarta have?’).

Qualitative research generates broader understanding of opinions, or reasons, providing insight. It can help explain the reasons for quantitative results. Qualitative research questions may include perceptions of patients, parents or healthcare workers (‘what do adolescents with rheumatic heart disease understand about their condition?’ or ‘what are the greatest concerns of the parents of children with epilepsy?’ or ‘what are the perceptions and experiences of families of children with cancer?’). Such qualitative research may help explain, for example, why adolescents have low (or high) adherence rates with secondary prophylaxis with benzathine penicillin for rheumatic heart disease. But qualitative research helps us understand more deeply the reasons why things are as they are. 1 2

Many projects will have a mix of both quantitative and qualitative questions, and it is important to identify the differences early, so the right methodologies can be applied. Most research projects have more than one research question, and some research questions are not fully defined when you start a study, they develop along the way. However, it is important to have at least one clearly defined research question to begin.

Definition of terms and metrics of measurement

From an objective research question, the clear definition of terms and metrics of measurement are derived. For example, the population should be described in detail. A population descriptive could be as broad as ‘all children admitted to "X" hospital between March and July 2018’, or as focused as ‘infants with HIV as diagnosed by PCR testing’  box 1 .

Case example

Definition of terms: ‘what is the long-term outcome for very low birth weight (VLBW) neonates in Honiara ( the population )?’ The definition of terms might include:

Definition of population: VLBW 1000–1499 g, born in Honiara national referral hospital or born outside and referred to the special care nursery between January and December 2018.

Definition of outcomes and standardised methods of measurement:

Nutrition: z-scores weight for length and weight for age at 12 months. The proportion of children with moderate and severe malnutrition.

Motor outcomes: the proportion of children at 12 months with moderate or severe neurological deficit identified by a standardised developmental examination (such as the Bayley’s test).

Sensory outcomes: the proportion of children with impaired hearing based on autoacoustic screening.

Anaemia: the proportion of infants at 12 months with a haemoglobin <10 g/dL (WHO standardised definition).

Infectious disease morbidity: the number of hospital admissions from infections in the first 12 months, after initial hospital discharge: these could be subcategorised into acute respiratory infections, gastrointestinal infections, febrile illnesses, etc.

P—among children under 2 years of age with moderate-to-severe pneumonia or bronchiolitis presenting to an emergency department.

I—does nebulised hypertonic saline given in up to three doses over 2 hours?

C—compared with standard care including antibiotics, oxygen.

O—result in a lower respiratory distress score and fewer children requiring inpatient care.

T—over the first 12 hours.

Such a description of a study is not suitable to all studies that are not controlled intervention studies, and PICOT can rarely be used to describe all aspects of a study. However, if you read a journal article abstract of a randomised trial and cannot summarise it in terms of PICOT, then it is either a poorly written article, or poorly conducted study.

Choosing a valid methodology

Broadly, there are two major types of studies—descriptive and analytical. Descriptive studies describe a problem or outcome; analytical studies describe an association between exposures and outcomes. Descriptive study designs include case-reports, case series and descriptive epidemiology. Analytical study designs include randomised controlled trials, cohort studies, case-control studies, case-crossover studies, cross-sectional studies, pre-post studies and some observational studies.

What study design you use depends on many factors, including the research question being addressed, how common the condition is, whether the question is asking about short-term or long-term outcomes, how long you have to do the study, etc. You should discuss with your supervisor exactly what type of methodology is appropriate to answer the question(s) being addressed.

Basic steps to collecting, analysing and presenting qualitative descriptive information 2

Verbatim recording of responses from interviews, focus groups or observations.

Coding of this information, deidentifying where appropriate to ensure confidentiality.

Recording insights and reflections on the data.

Sorting through the data to identify similar phrases, themes, patterns, opinions and also identifying where these differ or diverge.

Gradually deciding on a small group of common themes that address the question, or generalisations (such as opinions or commonly reported practices) that hold true for the population studied.

Examine these generalisations in the light of existing knowledge and/or quantitative data.

Presenting the data according to themes, described in an objective way, with the verbatim responses from subjects as evidence for that generalisation. This helps to ensure that the analysis stays close to the informants’ points of view.

Developing your database: be clear about the metrics

An important element in successful research is the development of a data analysis plan. An analysis plan informs how you organise your data. It ensures your data collection form will have questions designed specifically to address your research questions, and that resultant databases are set up to answer your research questions. It is useful to develop a data analysis plan with your supervisor prior to designing any data collection tools, in order to ensure necessary questions are included in the most appropriate format, and that you understand the statistical tests you will be using.

With guidance from your data analysis plan, the data collection forms should will be designed to answer your research questions. The database should be developed early and checked by you and your supervisor to ensure it reflects the data collection forms, and that it is easy to enter data and analysable in order to answer these questions.

Some quantitative variables will have a numerator and denominator, and you should identify these. Identify the metrics clearly and early, and ensure you record them consistently (do not mix up metrics in your spreadsheet, such as recording some ages as months and some as years, or some weights in grams and others in kilograms). If there is more than one metric for an outcome—such as the definition of severe malnutrition, which may differ depending on age and tests done (weight-for-age / weight-for-height / mid-upper arm circumference / body mass index) then have four columns each labelled as the separate metric, and a ‘summary column’, which is binary 1/0 if severe malnutrition, based on whether the appropriate metric is present.

Ethics and funding

All studies should have ethics review. This is mandatory for publication in a peer-reviewed journal, and needed to fulfil the international standards of ethical research (Declaration of Helsinki 1964). Ethics approval is usually not required for a systematic review of previously published research, but most masters theses require an original research project with primary data collection. Research ethics is not meant to be a barrier, but an enabler of good research that is in the patients’ interests. There are a number of ethical principles that all researchers should adhere to, including consent, autonomy and human dignity, confidentiality, non-maleficence (doing no harm), beneficence (maximising good outcomes), justice and scientific integrity. 3 4 It is good to learn about ethics along the way, as this can help you be a good doctor and paediatrician, as well as a good researcher.

Set aside some time every week to do some work on your study and thesis

Begin to write your thesis early, just making a start is a big hurdle. You will have done a lot of work in the proposal stage, so use that document and expand on it. Organise your computer, with a separate folder for your study and thesis documents. Allocate time each week to work on your study or writing.

A masters study and thesis are best done over an extended period of time, and it is good to keep making some progress each week . Trainees sometimes have a writer’s block, or their study falters, or they become discouraged if they leave it for weeks or months. If you do something each week you maintain the threads of thought and keep others around you interested in your study, and it is good for your morale! Registrars who leave their project or writing to the end do not get as much out of their research experience as those who work steadily on it over 2 years, keeping clinical and research training requirements balanced.

Refer regularly back to the study questions

Each research project will have a number of questions, some major or primary outcomes and some supplementary or additional questions. They should be described clearly in the methods of the thesis and you should be able to identify them in your data collection form, your database and your thesis.

Keep your supervisor informed and interested in your study and thesis progress

Your supervisor is a busy person, with clinical, teaching and other responsibilities. But your supervisor should feel involved in your study, so keep them up to date on your progress, discuss problems with them early and listen to their feedback. Sometimes small research obstacles can be overcome easily if you discuss them, but if you keep them to yourself they become magnified in your mind. A problem shared is a problem halved! Communicate with your supervisor in person and by email, share your thesis writing with them. You should plan to meet your supervisor regularly; while some of these meetings will be to discuss clinical aspects of your training, set aside some time to focus on your project specifically. Sometimes your clinical supervisor will be different from the person who is supervising your research project. If you feel you are not getting the support you need from your supervisor, contact the masters coordinator or the professors to seek more assistance. Often this will be because your supervisor is busy, or may not be sure of how to help you—it is not because they do not want to! Do not let problems go unaddressed—always ask.

Documents and backup

Write one master document, which can be used for the initial technical and ethics proposal, then expanded during your study to form your thesis, or sometimes adapted as a report to a funding agency, and concisely revised as a journal article you may write after completion of the study. Some people use multiple documents for each of these purposes and have multiple thesis versions on their computer. That is OK if it works for you, but it can be inefficient and confusing. The advantage of using one master document is that when you update or revise it, add a table, figure or reference or correct an error, everything gets updated and you do not have ‘version confusion’. You will inevitably end up with a couple of versions: first the proposal, then use that document to expand to a thesis document, then a paper you might write that is based on your study. Clearly name (and date) each type of document and each version, for example, Audit of antibiotic use Masters project proposal Your Name February 10  2018.doc and Audit of antibiotic use Masters thesis Your Name May 6  2018.doc , or a file name that clearly indicates what the purpose of the document is and when it was written or revised. Discuss version control with your supervisor(s) early in your research project—ensure you all agree on a system. A good method might be for you to date each version, and when your supervisor(s) review or edit your work, they add their initials to the file name. This ensures it is clear who has worked on the document. Ask your supervisor to ‘track changes’ so any suggested edits are found easily.

Set up a folder that contains all the separate documents for your thesis, do not just have them randomly scattered in your computer.

Back up the latest version of all thesis and study documents regularly, and keep the backup flash-drive or external hard drive in a safe and secure place. On your backup drive, only have your project documents, and do not use it in other people’s computers to minimise the risk of viruses. Backing up your data and study documents on cloud storage can be useful if you have reliable internet access: Dropbox is an open-access program, which provides free (up to 2 GB) cloud storage ( https://www.dropbox.com ), Google Drive is another method for cloud storage of documents for security in case your computer malfunctions. Cloud storage also enables sharing of documents with your supervisor.

Writing style

In a thesis write in the past tense. A study proposal (ie, for a study not yet underway) is usually written in the future tense: " In this study we plan to recruit 30 children with asthma. Children with acute intermittent asthma and chronic persistent asthma will be eligible. Children with a past history of Tb or bronchiectasis will be excluded" . In a thesis the same information in the past tense reads: " In this study we recruited 30 children with asthma. Children with acute intermittent asthma and chronic persistent asthma were eligible. Children with a past history of Tb or bronchiectasis were excluded" .

Writing should be concise and clear. I find it useful to read sentences out aloud to myself and ask, is the meaning clear and unambiguous? It is useful to ask someone else to read over your thesis at the end; not necessarily a medical person who is familiar with the topic, but an educated person who writes well (such as a teacher or scientist in another field). A thesis should be written in language that people without specific knowledge of the subject can understand.

Thesis structure

There is no one right way to write a thesis, but there is a generally accepted structure which has a number of major parts. A thesis can be written with these major parts as chapters, or as one document like a journal article with major subheadings. The major parts are mentioned here in this article.

A very brief (total  250–300 words) overview of the whole minor thesis. It usually has a structure (introduction, method, results, conclusions), each part with just one or two sentences. The abstract should fit on one page. It should state clearly the research question, the study type, the main method, the primary results and a conclusion (one to two sentences) based on the primary result. The abstract does not need references.

Introduction should state why you did the study, why it is an important topic to research. This may only be three to four paragraphs, especially if you have a literature review which follows. The introduction provides contextual information as to why you did the study. The introduction can highlight the burden of the disease or condition, why it is an important one in your country or in the region or globally, why it is important for your specialty. Your introduction may outline whether the condition or topic has been well studied or neglected in terms of research or study, and identify the gap that will be addressed by your study. In a DCH thesis, you might just write about why you became interested in the topic because you cared for a patient with the condition, or you are seeing a lot of such problems in your ward or hospital, etc. In the introduction, you should state clearly the objectives of your study, and the research question(s) being addressed.

Literature review

Literature review is a summary of the existing knowledge of the research topic. It should be focused, on the general topic and specific research question being addressed. In doing a literature review, keep notes on the search terms you use and on the search engines used (eg, PubMed, Google Scholar). For accessing full-text articles, papers are increasingly published as open access and you can access these through these search engines, however if your university or hospital has registered for Hinari program set up by WHO ( http://www.who.int/hinari/en/ ), and you have good internet band speed you will have access to thousands of other journals and ebooks.

In the opening paragraph of your literature review state how you did the search, for example, " I searched the published literature using PubMed and Google Scholar using the terms ‘asthma’ ‘spacer device’ ‘salbutamol’ ‘treatment’ ‘metered dose inhaler’ ‘home-made’ and ‘developing country’ or ‘low and middle income country’" . While there are formal methods of searching for information using standardised key words, phrases and MESH terms, when you are starting out with literature searching, try to make the search reflect closely your research question, and record exactly the words you use in the search.

Usually a literature review is written from ‘general to very specific’; the opening paragraph outlines the previously published information on the burden of the condition or the magnitude and significance of the problem, then subsequent paragraphs focus more narrowly on the previous literature on your specific research question(s). A good literature review integrates existing research under themes or subheadings, rather than having a series of paragraphs which just state what previous studies have found. A literature review may be structured thematically and have subheadings to identify themes. For example, a literature review for a study of the role of home-made spacers for asthma could start with the literature on the burden/prevalence of asthma in the community, and a paragraph about overall treatments (beta-2 agonists, corticosteroids), another about mechanisms of drug delivery (oral, metered dose inhalers, nebulisation), one about the effectiveness of spacers and their availability in certain areas and then focus specifically on the existing literature about home-made spacer devices. It is not necessary to write everything about asthma, but focus the review on the question you are studying; start general and move to very specific. Sometimes there may not be much literature on the subject you are studying, that is OK, just summarise what exists and highlight the gaps. There is no need to ‘pad out’ the literature review with peripheral information, make it relevant, concise and informative.

See references and reference manager program (below) to plan how to organise and cite your references.

In most journal articles, the literature review is incorporated into the discussion (and a little by way of background in the introduction). This can be the case in a minor thesis, but it is up to you. Most people find it easier to have a separate section, which is the literature review at the beginning, but there are no fixed rules.

Methodology

Methodology is a detailed description of how you actually did the study. It should be reproducible, that is, be written in a way that would enable another investigator to reproduce the same methodology and arrive at the same result (or a different result in a different population). Write the methodology of your study early, while you are doing it. Details of the exact method can be missed if it is not written until the end of your study. You will have written a methodology for your study proposal, you should start with this, change the future to past tense and add any details that have changed. Often at the end of a study, the methodology is a little refined or different to that which was submitted as a proposal. In the methodology there are no results, or other literature, and the only references are for methodology, or statistical or analytical methods described by another researcher in the literature. The methodology should include:

the study population;

definitions of all terms, cases, conditions;

how the study was planned and carried out;

the exact data you collected;

how, when, how often and where it was collected;

how the data were managed (entered into a database);

what the database is;

the analytical tests you did;

ethics approval;

explain any methodological problems and how they were addressed.

Results are presented as narrative, tables, graphs and figures. There are no fixed rules, except the results should be organised and logical. Unless it is very important and central to your thesis, it is best not to duplicate the exact result in each medium of presentation (eg, the same information—such as the baseline characteristics of the study population presented in a figure, table and narrative). Tables can provide a lot of detail and be informative; if presented as a written narrative, this can make the results too long and be tedious. The narrative should highlight the main results, describing in detail the outcomes for the primary research question, important secondary outcomes and orientate the reader to the tables, graphs and figures: explain what they describe, their main findings (without describing every detail). Each table, figure or graph must be referenced in the narrative (eg, ‘see figure 2’) at the appropriate point in the narrative, or this can be written as ‘table 1 describes the baseline characteristics of the children with asthma’, then describe in narrative the key baseline characteristics, but other details can be left for the reader to discover from examining the tables.

It is often thought that the results cannot be written until the study is complete. While this is partly true, it is important to plan and organise the results section early. Put subheadings into your thesis document that will help guide your subsequent analysis and writing. Draw up ‘dummy tables’ that contain the variables you want to report even before you have analysed the data, but leave the cells which will contain the numerical result blank. You may add other variables later, but drawing up such tables as you do the study will help you organise the presentation of results.

There is no fixed limit to the number of tables a minor thesis can have, but avoid duplicating data in the tables and the figures, and avoid a figure or graph that describes an obscure or unimportant aspect of the study. You do not have to include every result or data point that you gathered in the results, this can make a thesis seem to be lacking perspective, you may not ‘see the wood for the trees’, that is, you may miss the really important points because of too much information being reported, and the reader will find it tedious to read.

In tables and the narrative, include numbers (%), not just percentages. Percentages give no indication of the spread or precision of the data. Saying that 33% of children with asthma have chronic symptoms tells us limited information, as it does not indicate precision. The CIs may be extremely wide depending on the number of subjects investigated: 3/10=30% (0.3; 95% CIs 0.06 to 0.65), which means the true proportion could be anything from 6% to 65% in a small sample of 10 children with asthma. If the sample that yielded 30% of children with asthma as having chronic symptoms was 100 children, that is, 30/100=30% (95% CIs 0.21 to 0.40), that is, the true proportion is somewhere between 21% and 40%, a much more precise result. So never just quote a % in the results without clarifying what ‘n’ is (the number with the characteristic/number studied), and ideally include a CI around such proportions. There are many programs that can calculate CIs around a simple proportion, one is: http://www.sample-size.net/confidence-interval-proportion/

The analyses of most diploma and masters studies involves primarily basic descriptive epidemiology , rather than the need for any complex analytical tests, like regression or p values. It is important to get the descriptive epidemiology right, describe the population or subjects in the study in a logical way, numbers, percentages or proportions, median or means, ranges, IQRs or CIs. Be clear about numerators and denominators. Denominators will sometimes be different depending on the variable being described, and the number of observations made. It is not useful to have p values for every statistic, and many good thesis can be written without p values at all! For some analytical tests, such as the comparison of two proportions to determine if they are different (5 of 83 children in grade 1–4 have asthma, whereas 9 of 206 children in grades 5–7 had asthma) a p value can be useful in indicating whether an observed difference is likely to have arisen by chance.

For the presentation of most analyses of a comparison between groups, CIs are much more informative than p values. Avoid the trap of reporting multiple p values and the mistaken view that finding a p value of <0.05 is ‘significant’. If you do enough statistical tests a p value of <0.05 will arise merely by chance, not because a real difference exists. A p value alone cannot determine that a hypothesis is ‘true’, or if results are important. Only report p values and other analytical tests on your primary and major secondary results if indicated. Avoid using p values to report minor post hoc results (findings from your study that you did not plan), these are often just chance findings that reflect unanticipated bias or confounding. Unanticipated post hoc results may be interesting and generate further hypotheses for another study, but they should not be interpreted as definitive or conclusive. Often inexperienced researchers or readers assume that a ‘significant p value’ is conclusive when it provides preliminary information only. So do not overinterpret your results or fill them with p values and obscure statistical tests, but describe the findings clearly and concisely in plain language. The results section of a minor thesis does not have to be long, it can be one to two pages of narrative, and can have subheadings for each of the relevant results.

Discussion is an interpretation of the results, what they mean. The discussion should return to the objectives and the primary research questions of the study and indicate whether they have been achieved. The discussion should be organised into thematic paragraphs or sections, and subheadings can be a good way to guide the reader. The first paragraph of the discussion should restate the main result(s) of the study in plain language (without statistical tests). The discussion should compare the results with previous studies or pre-existing knowledge of the subjects. It should not duplicate the literature review (but it can link to this), but the discussion should cite other research where the results can be compared or contrasted with your own. Other research may be in different contexts (different populations, different level of resources, different methodologies, different outcomes measured). It is important to understand why two different studies addressing the one problem may yield different results, it does not mean that one study is inferior or inadequate.

The primary outcome or question is usually addressed in the first few paragraphs (with comparisons with other research if appropriate) and then secondary outcomes discussed (with similar comparisons).

Write in ways that indicate you are scientifically open to unexpected outcomes, and understand the uncertainty of your study. Do not write, for example: "I did this study to prove that probiotics reduce the duration of watery diarrhoea", but rather ‘this study was done to evaluate whether probiotics would reduce the duration of watery diarrhoea’. Similarly, do not be too categorical or certain: ‘this study proves that steroids should be used to treat chronic otitis media’, rather ‘in this small study of school aged children with chronic serous otitis media, topical corticosteroids reduced the duration of purulent ear discharge’.

A discussion of the shortcomings or limitations of the study is appropriate. Every study ever done has some limitations, so it does not mean you have done a poor study, just because there are some limitations. You should be honest about the limitations, but do not overstate them either (ie, it is not necessary to make excuses for a study). This is especially the case for so-called ‘negative studies’, that is, studies that did not find a difference or a significant result in the primary outcome; such studies can be just as important as ‘positive studies’, so you should not feel such a study is unworthy. Furthermore, you should not try to highlight an obscure post hoc p value that is <0.05 in order to give your study ‘significance’. In the limitations section, try to identify if there are any systematic biases or confounding in your study; this will help you avoid overstating the results. In reading other papers for your literature review, and for your own research, beware of the risk of type II error; the finding that there is ‘no difference’ when this could be due to a small sample size (a study that is underpowered to find a statistical difference, even when one exists). Again, for a DCH or masters thesis, do not worry if your study seems ‘too small’, it is the quality of the work that is important, and this will not be judged solely on the number of patients recruited into a study.

No new results can be introduced in the discussion section; if in writing the discussion you find a new result that you want to include or comment on, you need to incorporate it in the results section first, and then you can make comment on it in the discussion.

Conclusions/recommendations

The conclusions should be brief. Return to the research questions and suggest whether they have been answered or solved, and what the main finding was. Return to the objectives of the study and suggest if they have been achieved. Indicate what has been learnt from the study and how it might be applied. And indicate any clear recommendations that you think can come out of your study, which may be a change in clinical practice, increased awareness of the topic or problem, the adoption of your research method into everyday practice or the need for further research to be conclusive about a finding.

Any important statement of fact in the thesis should have a reference; this is obvious in the literature review, but applies equally to the introduction and discussion. References are not usually included in the methods, unless you are referencing another investigator’s method that you have used, or a statistical test or program that you used. Appropriate references may be journal articles identified during your literature review, or books or websites. When referencing a fact or finding from a journal ideally go to the original research paper which identified the finding, not an opinion paper which just repeated the finding. Ideally, you should get a copy of the full-text (not just the abstract) of the article that contains the finding that you are reporting as a fact, to verify that the paper did indeed say that. This is a type of fact checking that is good to do.

There are many ways to reference a thesis, references can be cited in the text as numbers (eg, 3, 5 , or [3, 5]) or (authors name, year). It does not matter as long as it is consistent throughout the thesis. I find the (authors name, year) format can make it hard to read the text if there are many references interspersed throughout the paragraphs. The numerical citations are more acceptable for the vast majority of journal styles, so it is best to do it this way, so it is easier to revise your thesis into a journal article.

There are various standards for referencing, including the Harvard Referencing Standard. There is no source document for Harvard style, but many universities have their own guidelines based on the Harvard style, such as Adelaide University: http://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/referencing_guides/harvardStyleGuide.pdf.

It is best to have a reference manager program , which can make reference lists in a particular journal style for you after you input the references from your literature search. There are many such programs now, including EndNote ( www.endnote.org ), which is used by a lot of scientists and clinical researchers. Using EndNote you can import citations directly from Google Scholar and PubMed searches, and you can download the full-text article if it is Open Access. EndNote is a commercial product, but other reference manager programs are freely available. Zotero is a free, open-source reference manager with cloud backup into which you can manually insert citations or extract citations from internet search engines ( https://www.zotero.org/download/ ). Other programs include Mendelay ( https://www.mendeley.com/ ) and ‘Cite This For Me’ ( http://www.citethisforme.com/harvard-referencing ).

It takes a bit of work learning how to use EndNote or Zotera and how it links to Pubmed and Google Scholar and to learn how to insert references into such a program, but it is well worth it.

When referencing a website, you should state the title of the website, the title of the web page, the exact URL and the date you accessed it.

If in your thesis you include or adapt tables or figures from another source (such as a website), you need to reference these.

Journals have different styles as to the number of authors listed in a reference. Some, if a reference has six authors or less include all their names. If a reference has seven or more authors just include six names, then ‘ et al ’.

Thesis order and length

The order of the pages of a thesis.

The full title of the thesis.

The full name of the candidate.

The name of the school associated with the research.

The year the thesis was submitted.

Declaration

Except where acknowledgement has been made, the work is your own.

The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for another degree or assessment.

Acknowledgements

Table of contents

Lists of tables, figures and diagrams

Main body of the thesis (as described above)

Introduction—including objectives and specific research question(s);

Literature review;

Discussions;

Conclusions and recommendations;

Reference list.

Appendices—these are not mandatory in every thesis, but appendices can be helpful in enabling the reader to see what research tools you used or exactly how you gathered the data. Appendices may include:

Tables of raw data if appropriate, they have to be well formatted and not identify any patient by name or place of origin (confidentiality);

Ethics approval document;

Consent form used in the study;

Data collection form used in the study;

Any educational material used in the study.

Anything included in the appendices should be cited in the text of the main thesis, so the reader understands why they are included, for example, "We used a survey form that included basic demographic information, questions on frequency of asthma, asthma severity, previous hospitalisations, medication use, whether the child has an asthma action plan and what method the child used for taking Ventolin (see appendix 2)”. The reader can then refer to appendix 2 to see exactly what questions were asked.

Avoid plagiarism

It is really important that a postgraduate diploma or masters thesis be all your own work. It is too tempting these days to cut-and-paste information from Wikipedia, journal articles found online or other internet sites, but this is plagiarism and it is unacceptable and a form of cheating. Sometimes plagiarism occurs inadvertently if you are unsure of what the university standard is, or sometimes it occurs when people are under stress of deadlines. Regardless, it is always unacceptable. If you start only writing in your own words you will not fall into the trap of plagiarism. Do not directly copy anything from another source, but write it completely in your own words and add the original source as a reference. Many universities use programs like Turnitin to check for plagiarism. Another good program is Grammarly, which is both a Grammar and Plagiarism check. It is available at https://www.grammarly.com/1.

Writing up a paper for publication

It often takes several rounds of revisions to get a paper in shape for submission, but you should aim to write your thesis in a format where the most important or original data are publishable. You may not be able to include all the results or text in a journal publication. Brevity is important, and often ‘less is more’. Ask your supervisor about writing up your thesis for submission to a journal.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Professor Mike English (Kenya Medical Research Institute), Eleanor Neal, Dr Jocelyn Chan, Dr Hamish Graham (University of Melbourne) and Dr Bob Phillips for very helpful comments, and to the postgraduate students for their inspiration and examples. This paper drew on a number of sources, including ‘Minor thesis and research report structure’, from the Study and Learning Centre, RMIT University: http://mams.rmit.edu.au/8zbeww6e1n3i.pdf (accessed 11 February 2017). There is a book by Paul Gruber and Justin Zobel from University of Melbourne, which the author could not access, but this may be a useful reference. ‘How to write a better minor thesis’ Melbourne University Press, 2014 ( https://www.mup.com.au/items/135100).

• Taylor SJ ,
• Neergaard MA ,
• Andersen RS , et al
• Munyaradzi M ,

Funding The author gratefully acknowledges the RE Ross Trust for support to child health research training in Papua New Guinea and the Pacific, which is the basis of this work.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

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Trapped in dissertation revisions?

How long is a dissertation, published by steve tippins on april 9, 2019 april 9, 2019.

Last Updated on: 2nd February 2024, 05:03 am

How long is a dissertation? This is a question that almost every doctoral student asks at some point. It is not a new question–in fact, it’s been asked every time a paper of some sort is assigned in any class.

The simple answer (for any paper) is, “long enough to answer the question.” Not a really helpful answer, but satisfying from a professor’s perspective.

The truth is, there is no one answer to how long a dissertation is. I can’t say 146 pages is what’s needed, as you may write to page 146 and stop without fully exploring your topic. 90 pages could adequately address your research question, or you could write 200 pages and still not fully answer what you set out to. Every topic is unique, as is each person’s writing style.

Some websites even give specific answers that are simply inaccurate. In my experience, dissertations vary too much to be pinned down like that.

However, there are some practical suggestions I can make about how long your dissertation should be, how to adequately address the requirements of each section, as well as how to expand or reduce the length of specific chapters according to your needs. I’ll explore these below.

But first, let’s try and at least give the beginning of an answer to the question “how long is a dissertation?”

Marcus Beck Sets Out to Answer “How Long Is A Dissertation?”

Any discussion of dissertation length must include the work done by Marcus Beck . As a way to distract himself from his own dissertation writing, Beck calculated the average length of dissertations in the University of Minnesota database.

You can see from looking at his data that average length varies by discipline. So the first answer to how long a dissertation is, is that it depends upon what area you are writing your dissertation. It appears that a dissertation in History will be much longer, on average, than one in Chemistry. He also calculated the average across all disciplines.

Don’t be intimidated by how long the average dissertation is.

Many people look at the average length of a dissertation and get intimidated by the high page count. But, as Marcus Beck says in his blog post, “The actual written portion may only account for less than 50% of the page length.”

I’ve found this to be true. References, appendixes, tables and figures, page breaks, and white space all contribute to the high page count. The actual number of words you need to write is likely considerably less than the page count initially implies.

How Long Should My Dissertation Be?

Even though there’s no single answer about how long a dissertation should be, there probably is an ideal range which your dissertation falls into. This depends on your topic of research, but also on other factors. I’ll discuss some of these below.

Institutional Guidelines

I know of schools that have policies such as “Chapter 2 must be at least 40 pages long and no more than 60 pages.” Why this type of requirement? In my mind, there are two reasons.

First, they want to give some sort of guideline for students that is helpful but does not overburden faculty (a 230-page lit review is daunting to read).

Second, credibility is important. An 8-page lit review does not reflect well upon the student or the institution.

Most schools now have a dissertation template with the headings that are needed for most sections. If you take the time to completely fill in the headings with all of the relevant information, you should come up with an adequate number of pages. Remember, in academic writing, we don’t leave much to chance, we tell the reader everything.

Committee Preferences

It is likely that you will get a committee member who will give you priceless advice such as, “more is needed here.” When you get this type of comment it can be frustrating as specific feedback can be much more helpful.

Usually, what a committee member means by comments like this is that you haven’t really convinced the reader that you have fully explored the area or demonstrated a strong understanding of the material. So, expand what you are saying. Don’t imply anything, state it directly. This lets your committee know that you really do get it.

Sometimes you will get committee members giving contradictory advice. One member may want more information and another may want less. My first piece of advice is to negotiate these types of requests through your Chairperson.

This is where your Chair’s experience and guidance can be very helpful. Second, if a member really wants material included but others do not think it is very helpful, then adding the material in an appendix may make everyone happy.

Practical Suggestions For Dissertation Length, Chapter-By-Chapter

If you adequately and succinctly address each required section, you should end up with the right length for each chapter (and therefore, a dissertation of the right length). I’ll also give some rough guidelines on average page length where appropriate.

This is the introduction to your study. It is important to lay out the agenda for your research. Be sure that your problem statement, title, and research questions are in alignment (all referring to the same idea).

Chapter 1 tends to average in the 15-25 page range. If you get beyond 25 pages, you are usually including material that is better presented elsewhere in the dissertation.

Chapter 2 should thoroughly explore the existing research on your topic. However, it shouldn’t go on and on.

• If you are looking to beef up Chapter 2, it is always helpful to add research that supports the methodology that you are planning to use.
• If the chapter is too long, try to reduce the references you cite to those that are the most relevant and recent.

Make sure that you tell the reader what you did and how you did it. What type of analysis did you use and why? How many respondents were involved and how did you find them? The idea is to make sure that readers understand what you did and could replicate it if they want to.

As this is a plan for your research, it seems to naturally fall in the 15 to 20 page range.

The results of your study are presented here. Include all material that will help the reader understand what you found. There is a tendency to inundate the reader with tables, charts, and graphs. If they don’t directly relate to what you found or are redundant they can be included in an appendix. You don’t want to lose your reader in an avalanche of tables and numbers.

In most dissertations, it is Chapter 5 where you get to explain what the results of your research mean and the implications. This is the only chapter where you have some freedom to really express your opinions. Go ahead and do so.

I am always surprised when someone has spent 15 months of their life working on a research topic and they submit a Chapter 5 that is 8 pages long. Spread your wings and really explore what your results mean.

How Long is a Dissertation? Summary

The is no doubt about it, a dissertation is a long document. It is, however, not written in one sitting. You work on it for many months, crafting paragraphs and coming to conclusions. Many people find that because the document can be written in pieces that when it’s all put together, it is longer than expected. Keep writing and adding your thoughts and you will make it.

Many students find it helps to have a supportive guide who’s both been through the dissertation writing process before and is experienced in helping students. If that would be useful to you, feel free to reach out to me about my dissertation coaching or dissertation editing services.

Steve Tippins

Steve Tippins, PhD, has thrived in academia for over thirty years. He continues to love teaching in addition to coaching recent PhD graduates as well as students writing their dissertations. Learn more about his dissertation coaching and career coaching services. Book a Free Consultation with Steve Tippins

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Mini-Dissertations

Research is core to the Faculty's Masters-level and PhD programmes. 

LLM and MPhil programmes with coursework and dissertation require a submisision of not more than 25,000 words. Although an original contribution to knowledge is always desirable in a minor dissertation/research paper, it is not an essential requirement. However, candidates must show that they have:

• a thorough knowledge of the chosen subject 
• mastered techniques required for competent research in law
• the capacity for independent thought and sound reasoning
• satisfactorily presented the results of research.

The School for Advanced Legal Studies has developed guidelines for Masters-level dissertations   - read this booklet thoroughly before embarking on your research to understand details of:

• What is Expected of a Minor Dissertation/Research Paper
• Finding a Supervisor
• Expectations and Responsibilities of Students and Supervisors
• Conflict Resolution
• Publication and Copyright
• Language policy
• Postgraduate Writing Centre
• Guidelines on the Format of the Minor Dissertations/Research Paper
• Guidelines on Language and Style
• Submission and Examination Process
• Important Contacts in the Law Faculty

We have also included here a copy of the Student Guide .

All students registered for a dissertation component must complete the Memorandum of Understanding at the point of registration on the online registration system. Returning students are required to complete the Annual Supplement to the Memorandum of Understanding on the online system at the point of registration each academic year.

How to Master the “Mini-Thesis”

• Krystal Felton
• March 25, 2022

Why You Need to Master the “Mini-Thesis”

By now, you probably know that a thesis statement tells the reader the main idea or argument of your paper. Mastering the thesis statement is an important part of writing well because if you can’t tell the reader your main idea, you will lose them in your paper. After you’ve mastered writing a thesis statement, it’s time to master what I like to call a “mini-thesis.”

What is a mini-thesis?

Each heading or subheading of your paper needs a mini-thesis statement. This mini-thesis, or MT, as we will affectionately call it, tells the reader the main idea or argument of that section. Let’s say you are using a traditional IMRaD organizational structure, with headings for the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections. The MT of the introduction section will probably be your main thesis statement, the one that states the main idea/argument of the overall project or paper. But the rest of the sections are where it gets fun!

How do I write a mini-thesis?

Writing a mini-thesis statement does not need to be the first thing you write. In fact, it can be the last sentence you write! Though your MT should appear early in the section, sometimes, you won’t know what the key argument is until you’ve written the rest of the content. Let’s say you need an MT for the Methods section. After you’ve written the entire section, think for a minute about what the most important thing is for your reader to know. Ask yourself: if my reader remembers nothing else, what do I need them to know about my method in order for them to understand the rest of my paper? For a methods section, the MT will probably clearly state what method you used.

The Results section will generally list your findings. Again, you will want to ask yourself: what is the most important thing for my reader to know about the results of my study? This will probably be a statement that supports your overall thesis statement or that answers your primary research question. State your MT in one sentence.

Finally, in the Discussion section, the MT will again concisely sum up the most important elements of the information you are presenting. What is the most important thing for your reader to know in order for them to be persuaded by your arguments? In other words, what do you absolutely need the reader to understand from your discussion section? That’s your MT.

Including MTs throughout your paper helps the reader follow along with your most important points and makes your writing clearer. This is especially helpful in the case of academic writing. For example, if you need to defend your dissertation to a committee who are keen on picking apart your arguments, MTs make it clear to your reader 1) that you have clearly stated your main ideas, 2) how all of your ideas work together, and 3) why each section of your writing is vital to your project.

If you would like to work on MTs in your writing, send us an email! We can’t wait to help you develop MTs for your next project.

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