journal of marketing research and case studies

Journal of Marketing Research and Case Studies Latest Publications

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Current Trends in Digital Marketing Communication

In the 21st century, businesses and communicators have faced new challenges. In the era of modern technology, internationalization and globalization, marketing communication implements new tools, trends and opportunities. Internet and technological development have opened up the potential for two-way marketing communication and online as well as offline communications are required for companies.

Promoting The Country of Origin Through the Assets of Exported Services: The Moroccan Case

Banking services are one of the main Moroccan exports in Africa. These representations can be studied in order to verify the reversed country of origin effect. Can these services impact the way their users perceive the country? Do they even communicate on their origin or does their process focus on the economical variables only? These questions nurture the scientific research.

An Exploration of the Green Targeting Strategy – Green Brand Positioning Strategy Linkage: A Qualitative Study

The importance of the relation between targeting and positioning strategies is amplified in the context of the green market, as a result of the difficulty that many companies face in attracting an important customer base. The purpose of this paper is to provide a perspective on the relation between the targeting strategy and the green brand positioning strategy.

Motivation to Use Free Floating Car Rental Service in Riga: The CARGURU Case

Digital transformation and digitalization in general have made a significant impact on the service industry, including banking, commerce and renting. Technology, including mobile applications, has converted traditional and formerly inseparable services into ones that can be used from any place and at any time.

Product Policy and Neuromarketing in The Context of Slovak Consumer

The aim of this paper is to present a theoretical summary of product policy and neuromarketing, as well as to identify differences in the perception of quality and selected forms of promotion, which significantly affect the shopping behavior of Slovak consumers. The research sample consisted of 166 respondents aged from 18 to 60 years (53.6% men).

Patterns of Communication between Gen Z and Public Institutions in Times of Crisis: A Study Based on Relationship Marketing Principles

In time of crisis, the role of public institutions is on the rise and the communication between citizens and institutions is increasingly important, in order to preserve society's civic fabric and ensure the maintenance of trust in the aftermath of the crisis.

Gravitating towards Consumers’ Use of Contactless Payment: A COVID 19 Pandemic Perspective

Over the years, past research has revealed that human nature is continuously evolving. Inevitably, this evolution is further extended to individuals’ adoption towards a new set of consumption behaviour. In the current global coronavirus pandemic (termed COVID 19), consumers are further contemplating on alternative forms of payment in pursuit of a safer method to purchase goods and services.

A Heuristic Method of Constructing Shortlists of Attractive Offers

Thanks to the Internet, consumers can easily obtain basic information about a very large number of offers at very little cost. This enables consumers to judge whether an offer of a unique valuable good (such as a flat or second-hand car) is potentially attractive, but more information (normally gained by observing an offer in real life) is needed to make a final decision.

Consumer Purchasing Behaviour and Neuromarketing in The Context of Gender Differences

The paper, in the theoretical part, deals with the issue of neuromarketing and gender differences in the context of shopping behavior. The main goal is to identify statistically significant differences in the evaluation of consumer shopping behavior and neuromarketing in the context of gender equality.

The Emerging Trend of Niche Tourism: Impact Analysis

This research paper addresses the current tourism global market shift towards a niche tourism approach and focuses on some of the most significant tourism forms in this growing sector, analyzing both the current development and future evolution of these tourism trends, also taking into account the current global pandemic situation.

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• 07 May 2024
• Cold Call Podcast

Lessons in Business Innovation from Legendary Restaurant elBulli

Ferran Adrià, chef at legendary Barcelona-based restaurant elBulli, was facing two related decisions. First, he and his team must continue to develop new and different dishes for elBulli to guarantee a continuous stream of innovation, the cornerstone of the restaurant's success. But they also need to focus on growing the restaurant’s business. Can the team balance both objectives? Professor Michael I. Norton discusses the connections between creativity, emotions, rituals, and innovation – and how they can be applied to other domains – in the case, “elBulli: The Taste of Innovation,” and his new book, The Ritual Effect.

• 29 Feb 2024

Beyond Goals: David Beckham's Playbook for Mobilizing Star Talent

Reach soccer's pinnacle. Become a global brand. Buy a team. Sign Lionel Messi. David Beckham makes success look as easy as his epic free kicks. But leveraging world-class talent takes discipline and deft decision-making, as case studies by Anita Elberse reveal. What could other businesses learn from his ascent?

• 17 Jan 2024

Psychological Pricing Tactics to Fight the Inflation Blues

Inflation has slowed from the epic rates of 2021 and 2022, but many consumers still feel pinched. What will it take to encourage them to spend? Thoughtful pricing strategies that empower customers as they make purchasing decisions, says research by Elie Ofek.

• 05 Dec 2023

What Founders Get Wrong about Sales and Marketing

Which sales candidate is a startup’s ideal first hire? What marketing channels are best to invest in? How aggressively should an executive team align sales with customer success? Senior Lecturer Mark Roberge discusses how early-stage founders, sales leaders, and marketing executives can address these challenges as they grow their ventures in the case, “Entrepreneurial Sales and Marketing Vignettes.”

Tommy Hilfiger’s Adaptive Clothing Line: Making Fashion Inclusive

In 2017, Tommy Hilfiger launched its adaptive fashion line to provide fashion apparel that aims to make dressing easier. By 2020, it was still a relatively unknown line in the U.S. and the Tommy Hilfiger team was continuing to learn more about how to serve these new customers. Should the team make adaptive clothing available beyond the U.S., or is a global expansion premature? Assistant Professor Elizabeth Keenan discusses the opportunities and challenges that accompanied the introduction of a new product line that effectively serves an entirely new customer while simultaneously starting a movement to provide fashion for all in the case, “Tommy Hilfiger Adaptive: Fashion for All.”

• Research & Ideas

Are Virtual Tours Still Worth It in Real Estate? Evidence from 75,000 Home Sales

Many real estate listings still feature videos and interactive tools that simulate the experience of walking through properties. But do they help homes sell faster? Research by Isamar Troncoso probes the post-pandemic value of virtual home tours.

• 17 Oct 2023

With Subscription Fatigue Setting In, Companies Need to Think Hard About Fees

Subscriptions are available for everything from dental floss to dog toys, but are consumers tiring of monthly fees? Elie Ofek says that subscription revenue can provide stability, but companies need to tread carefully or risk alienating customers.

• 29 Aug 2023

As Social Networks Get More Competitive, Which Ones Will Survive?

In early 2023, TikTok reached close to 1 billion users globally, placing it fourth behind the leading social networks: Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram. Meanwhile, competition in the market for videos had intensified. Can all four networks continue to attract audiences and creators? Felix Oberholzer-Gee discusses competition and imitation among social networks in his case “Hey, Insta & YouTube, Are You Watching TikTok?”

• 26 Jun 2023

Want to Leave a Lasting Impression on Customers? Don't Forget the (Proverbial) Fireworks

Some of the most successful customer experiences end with a bang. Julian De Freitas provides three tips to help businesses invest in the kind of memorable moments that will keep customers coming back.

• 31 May 2023

With Predictive Analytics, Companies Can Tap the Ultimate Opportunity: Customers’ Routines

Armed with more data than ever, many companies know what key customers need. But how many know exactly when they need it? An analysis of 2,000 ridesharing commuters by Eva Ascarza and colleagues shows what's possible for companies that can anticipate a customer's routine.

• 30 May 2023

Can AI Predict Whether Shoppers Would Pick Crest Over Colgate?

Is it the end of customer surveys? Definitely not, but research by Ayelet Israeli sheds light on the potential for generative AI to improve market research. But first, businesses will need to learn to harness the technology.

• 24 Apr 2023

What Does It Take to Build as Much Buzz as Booze? Inside the Epic Challenge of Cannabis-Infused Drinks

The market for cannabis products has exploded as more states legalize marijuana. But the path to success is rife with complexity as a case study about the beverage company Cann by Ayelet Israeli illustrates.

• 07 Apr 2023

When Celebrity ‘Crypto-Influencers’ Rake in Cash, Investors Lose Big

Kim Kardashian, Lindsay Lohan, and other entertainers have been accused of promoting crypto products on social media without disclosing conflicts. Research by Joseph Pacelli shows what can happen to eager investors who follow them.

• 10 Feb 2023

COVID-19 Lessons: Social Media Can Nudge More People to Get Vaccinated

Social networks have been criticized for spreading COVID-19 misinformation, but the platforms have also helped public health agencies spread the word on vaccines, says research by Michael Luca and colleagues. What does this mean for the next pandemic?

• 02 Feb 2023

Why We Still Need Twitter: How Social Media Holds Companies Accountable

Remember the viral video of the United passenger being removed from a plane? An analysis of Twitter activity and corporate misconduct by Jonas Heese and Joseph Pacelli reveals the power of social media to uncover questionable situations at companies.

• 06 Dec 2022

Latest Isn’t Always Greatest: Why Product Updates Capture Consumers

Consumers can't pass up a product update—even if there's no improvement. Research by Leslie John, Michael Norton, and Ximena Garcia-Rada illustrates the powerful allure of change. Are we really that naïve?

• 29 Nov 2022

How Much More Would Holiday Shoppers Pay to Wear Something Rare?

Economic worries will make pricing strategy even more critical this holiday season. Research by Chiara Farronato reveals the value that hip consumers see in hard-to-find products. Are companies simply making too many goods?

• 26 Oct 2022

How Paid Promos Take the Shine Off YouTube Stars (and Tips for Better Influencer Marketing)

Influencers aspire to turn "likes" into dollars through brand sponsorships, but these deals can erode their reputations, says research by Shunyuan Zhang. Marketers should seek out authentic voices on YouTube, not necessarily those with the most followers.

• 25 Oct 2022

Is Baseball Ready to Compete for the Next Generation of Fans?

With its slower pace and limited on-field action, major league baseball trails football in the US, basketball, and European soccer in revenue and popularity. Stephen Greyser discusses the state of "America's pastime."

• 18 Oct 2022

When Bias Creeps into AI, Managers Can Stop It by Asking the Right Questions

Even when companies actively try to prevent it, bias can sway algorithms and skew decision-making. Ayelet Israeli and Eva Ascarza offer a new approach to make artificial intelligence more accurate.

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Journal of Marketing Research

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• Description
• Aims and Scope
• Editorial Board
• Abstracting / Indexing
• Submission Guidelines

Mission The Journal of Marketing Research ( JMR ) is a bimonthly journal serving the scholarly and practitioner communities in the field of marketing.

Editorial Objectives JMR is a broad-based journal that aims to publish the highest-quality articles in the discipline of marketing. Published articles must make a significant contribution to the marketing discipline, provide a basis for stimulating additional research, and meet high standards of scholarship.

Nature of JMR Research JMR publishes articles representing the entire spectrum of topics in marketing. It welcomes diverse theoretical perspectives, and a wide variety of data and methodological approaches. JMR seeks papers that make methodological, substantive, and/or theoretical contributions. Empirical studies in papers that seek to make a theoretical and/or substantive contribution may involve experimental and/or observational designs and rely on primary data (including qualitative data) and/or secondary data (including meta-analytic data sets).

Methodological Contribution

Authors seeking to make a methodological contribution should compare their proposed new methods to established methods, indicating the circumstances under which the new methods are superior and why. The papers should also disclose limitations of the new methods. The papers should explain what the proposed methods might mean for understanding consumers, firms, or regulatory agencies. Papers that review methods to stimulate further research are also welcome.

Substantive Contribution

Authors seeking to make a substantive contribution should provide insights into marketing phenomena, and discuss their implications for practitioners, policy makers, and customers, among other stakeholders. Research in other disciplines such as economics, management, operations, or psychology may be used to generate insights into marketing phenomena. Papers that use analytical economic models should provide substantive insights into important marketing problems.

Theoretical Contribution

Authors seeking to make a theoretical contribution should build new theory in the field of marketing, and discuss its implications for practitioners, policy makers, customers and/or other stakeholders. Authors should highlight their theoretical contribution by briefly reviewing extant research and explaining how their work advances this research. To the extent they are relevant, authors should describe implications of their new theories for other disciplines.

Click here to subscribe to the American Marketing Association Bundle, where you can gain access to all SAGE published AMA content! Learn more about JMR at AMA.org .

JMR is a broad-based journal that aims to publish the highest-quality articles in the discipline of marketing. Published articles must make a significant contribution to the marketing discipline, provide a basis for stimulating additional research, and meet high standards of scholarship.

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Please read the guidelines on this page and the AMA Submission Guidelines page  before visiting the submission site!

This journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics .

Please read the guidelines below the AMA Submission Guidelines page  , then visit the Journal of Marketing Research’ s submission site ( https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ama_jmr ) to upload your manuscript. Please note that manuscripts not conforming to these guidelines may be returned. Remember that you can log in to the submission site at any time to check on the progress of your paper through the peer review process.

Sage Publishing disseminates high-quality research and engaged scholarship globally, and we are committed to diversity and inclusion in publishing. We encourage submissions from a diverse range of authors from across all countries and backgrounds.

Only manuscripts of sufficient quality that meet the aims and scope of the Journal of Marketing Research will be reviewed.

There are no fees payable to submit or publish in this Journal. Open Access options are available - see section 3.3 below.

As part of the submission process, you will be required to warrant that you are submitting your original work, that you have the rights in the work, and that you have obtained and can supply all necessary permissions for the reproduction of any copyright works not owned by you. In addition, you must confirm that you are submitting the work for first publication in the journal and that it is not being considered for publication elsewhere and has not already been published elsewhere. Please see our guidelines on prior publication and note that the Journal of Marketing Research will consider submissions of papers that have been posted on preprint servers; please include the DOI for the preprint in your cover letter. Authors should not post an updated version of their paper on the preprint server while it is being peer reviewed for possible publication in the journal.  If your paper is accepted, you must include a link on your preprint to the final version of your paper.

If you have any questions about publishing with Sage, please visit the Sage Journal Solutions Portal .

1. What do we publish?

1.1 Aims and scope

1.2 Article types

1.3 Writing your paper

2. Editorial policies

2.1 Peer review policy

2.2 Authorship

2.3 Acknowledgments

2.4 Funding

2.5 Declaration of conflicting interests

2.6 Research data

2.7 Decision appeal policy

3. Publishing policies

3.1 Publication ethics

3.2 Contributor’s publishing agreement

3.3 Open access and author archiving

4. Preparing your manuscript

5. Submitting your manuscript

5.2 Information required for completing your submission

5.3 Permissions

6. On acceptance and publication

6.1 Accepted articles

6.2 Production

6.3 Online First publication

6.4 Access to your published article

6.5 Promoting your article

7. Further information

Before submitting your manuscript to the Journal of Marketing Research , please ensure that you have read the aims & scope .

• Research Article
• Special Issue Article

There is no limit to the number of references allowed.

The Journal of Marketing Research publishes articles representing the entire spectrum of topics in marketing. It welcomes diverse theoretical perspectives and a wide variety of data and methodological approaches.  JMR  seeks papers that make theoretical, substantive, and/or methodological contributions. Empirical studies in papers that seek to make a theoretical and/or substantive contribution may involve experimental and/or observational designs and rely on primary data (including qualitative data) and/or secondary data (including meta-analytic data sets).

1.2.1 Substantive contribution

Authors seeking to make a substantive contribution should provide insights into marketing phenomena and discuss their implications for practitioners, policy makers, and customers, among other stakeholders. Research in other disciplines such as economics, management, operations, or psychology may be used to generate insights into marketing phenomena. Papers that use analytical economic models should provide substantive insights into important marketing problems.

1.2.2 Methodological contribution

1.2.3 Theoretical contribution

Authors seeking to make a theoretical contribution should build new theory in the field of marketing, and discuss its implications for practitioners, policy makers, customers, and/or other stakeholders. Authors should highlight their theoretical contribution by briefly reviewing extant research and explaining how their work advances this research. To the extent they are relevant, authors should describe implications of their new theories for other disciplines.

For information about author anonymity, readability and language, copy editing and proofreading, and inclusive language, see the  AMA Submission Guidelines page .

In addition, the Sage Author Gateway has some general advice on  how to get published , plus links to further resources. Sage Author Services also offers authors a variety of ways to improve and enhance their article including English language editing, plagiarism detection, and video abstract and infographic preparation.

1.3.1 Make your article discoverable

For information and guidance on how to make your article more discoverable, visit the Sage Author Gateway page on How to Help Readers Find Your Article Online .

1.3.2 English language editing services

Authors seeking assistance with English language editing, translation, or figure and manuscript formatting to fit the Journal’s specifications should consider using Sage Language Services. Visit Sage Language Services  on the Journal Author Gateway for further information.

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Reviewers should be experts in their fields and should be able to provide an objective assessment of the manuscript. Our policy is that reviewers should not be assigned to a paper if:

• The reviewer is based at the same institution as any of the co-authors.
• The reviewer is based at the funding body of the paper.
• The reviewer has provided a personal (e.g. Gmail, Yahoo, Hotmail) email account and an institutional email account cannot be found after performing a basic Google search (name, department, and institution).

At submission, the journal currently allows authors to recommend or oppose reviewers. Note, however, that the Editor in Chief views these as a guideline and may follow or disregard this information at their discretion. No more than one recommended reviewer is permitted to serve on a review team.

The Journal of Marketing Research is committed to delivering high-quality, fast peer review for your paper, and as such has partnered with Web of Science. Web of Science is a third-party service that seeks to track, verify, and give credit for peer review. Reviewers for the Journal of Marketing Research can opt in to Web of Science in order to claim their reviews or have them automatically verified and added to their reviewer profile. Reviewers claiming credit for their review will be associated with the relevant journal, but the article name, reviewer’s decision, and the content of their review is not published on the site. For more information, visit the Web of Science website.

The Editor or members of the Editorial Board may occasionally submit their own manuscripts for possible publication in the journal. In these cases, the peer review process will be managed by alternative members of the Board, and the submitting Editor/Board member will have no involvement in the decision-making process.

All parties who have made a substantive contribution to the article should be listed as authors. Principal authorship, authorship order, and other publication credits should be based on the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their status. A student is usually listed as principal author on any multiple-authored publication that substantially derives from the student’s dissertation or thesis.

Please note that AI chatbots, for example ChatGPT, should not be listed as authors. For more information see the policy on Use of ChatGPT and generative AI tools .

2.2.1 Author misconduct policy and procedures

See the  AMA Editorial Policies & Procedures page .

All contributors who do not meet the criteria for authorship should be listed in an Acknowledgments section on the title page. Examples of those who might be acknowledged include a person who provided purely technical help, or a department chair who provided only general support.

Acknowledgments should be included on the title page that is uploaded separately from the main text to facilitate anonymous peer review.

Per ICMJE recommendations , it is best practice to obtain consent from non-author contributors who you are acknowledging in your paper.

2.3.1 Third party submissions Where an individual who is not listed as an author submits a manuscript on behalf of the author(s), a statement must be included in the Acknowledgments section of the title page  and in the accompanying cover letter. The statements must:

• Disclose this type of editorial assistance—including the individual’s name, company, and level of input
• Identify any entities that paid for this assistance
• Confirm that the listed authors have authorized the submission of their manuscript via third party and approved any statements or declarations (e.g., conflicting interests, funding)

Where appropriate, Sage reserves the right to deny consideration to manuscripts submitted by a third party rather than by the authors themselves .

2.3.2 Writing assistance

Individuals who provided writing assistance (e.g., from a specialist communications company) do not qualify as authors and so should be included in the Acknowledgments section. Authors must disclose any writing assistance—including the individual’s name, company, and level of input—and identify the entity that paid for this assistance. It is not necessary to disclose use of language polishing services.

The Journal of Marketing Research requires all authors to acknowledge their funding in a consistent fashion under a separate heading on the title page. Please visit the Funding Acknowledgements page on the Sage Journal Author Gateway to confirm the format of the acknowledgment text in the event of funding, or state, “This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.”

The Journal of Marketing Research encourages authors to include a declaration of any conflicting interests and recommends that you review the good practice guidelines on the Sage Journal Author Gateway .

The Journal of Marketing Research is committed to facilitating openness, transparency, and reproducibility of research, and has a Policy for Research Transparency .  For more information, visit the Journal of Marketing Research Policy for Research Transparency page .

Subject to appropriate ethical and legal considerations, authors are encouraged to:

• Share your research data in a relevant public data repository
• Include a data availability statement linking to your data. If it is not possible to share your data, use the statement to confirm why it cannot be shared.
• Cite this data in your research

Peer reviewers may be asked to peer review the research data prior to publication.

• Peer reviewers may be asked to assess compliance with the research data policy
• Peer reviewers may be asked to assess research data files

If you need to anonymize your research data for peer review, please refer to Sage's  Research Data Sharing FAQs for guidance.

2.6.1 Falsification of Data/Misreporting of Data

See the  AMA Editorial Policies & Procedures page.

2.6.2 Replication Studies

Authors of direct replication studies seeking to replicate findings from an article published in the  Journal of Marketing Research who are unable to confirm the results or conclusions should contact Roland Rust, AMA Vice President of Publications, at [email protected] .

2.7 Decision appeal policy

See the  AMA Decision Appeal Policy page .

If an author believes the decision regarding their manuscript was affected by a publication ethics breach, the author may contact the publisher with a detailed written description of their concern, and information supporting the concern, at  [email protected] .

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Sage is committed to upholding the integrity of the academic record. We encourage authors to refer to the Committee on Publication Ethics’ International Standards for Authors and view the Publication Ethics page on the Sage Author Gateway .

3.1.1 Plagiarism

The Journal of Marketing Research and Sage take issues of copyright infringement, plagiarism, or other breaches of best practice in publication very seriously. We seek to protect the rights of our authors and we always investigate claims of plagiarism or misuse of published articles. Equally, we seek to protect the reputation of the journal against malpractice. Submitted articles are checked with duplication-checking software. Where an article, for example, is found to have plagiarized other work or included third-party copyright material without permission or with insufficient acknowledgment, or where the authorship of the article is contested, we reserve the right to take action including, but not limited to, publishing an erratum or corrigendum (correction), retracting the article, taking up the matter with the head of department or dean of the author's institution and/or relevant academic bodies or societies, or taking appropriate legal action.

3.1.2 Prior publication

If material has been previously published, it is not generally acceptable for publication in the Journal of Marketing Research . However, there are certain circumstances where previously published material can be considered for publication; for example, the  Journal of Marketing Research will consider submissions of papers that have been posted on preprint servers or presented at conferences. Please refer to the  AMA Editorial Policies & Procedures , the guidance on the Sage Author Gateway or, if in doubt, contact the editorial office ( [email protected] ).

3.2 Contributor’s publishing agreement      

Before publication, Sage requires the author as the rights holder to sign a Journal Contributor’s Publishing Agreement. Sage’s Journal Contributor’s Publishing Agreement is an exclusive license agreement, which means that the author retains copyright in the work but grants Sage the sole and exclusive right and license to publish for the full legal term of copyright. Exceptions may exist where an assignment of copyright is required or preferred by a proprietor other than Sage. In this case, copyright in the work will be assigned from the author to the society. For more information, please visit the Sage Author Gateway .

The Journal of Marketing Research offers optional open access publishing via the Sage Choice programme and Open Access agreements, where authors can publish open access either discounted or free of charge depending on the agreement with Sage. Find out if your institution is participating by visiting Open Access Agreements at Sage . For more information on Open Access publishing options at Sage please visit Sage Open Access . For information on funding body compliance, and depositing your article in repositories, please visit Sage’s Author Archiving and Re-Use Guidelines and Publishing Policies .

4. Preparing your manuscript for submission

For templates and information about formatting, manuscript organization, manuscript components, web appendices, and references, see the  AMA Submission Guidelines page .

The Journal of Marketing Research is hosted on Sage Track, a web-based online submission and peer review system powered by ScholarOne™ Manuscripts. Visit https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ama_jmr to log in and submit your article online.

IMPORTANT: Please check whether you already have an account in the system before trying to create a new one. If you have reviewed or authored for the journal in the past year, it is likely that you will have had an account created. For further guidance on submitting your manuscript online please visit ScholarOne Online Help  or contact the editorial office ( [email protected] ).

As part of our commitment to ensuring an ethical, transparent, and fair peer review process, Sage is a supporting member of ORCID, the Open Researcher and Contributor ID . ORCID provides a unique and persistent digital identifier that distinguishes researchers from every other researcher, even those who share the same name, and, through integration in key research workflows such as manuscript and grant submission, supports automated linkages between researchers and their professional activities, ensuring that their work is recognized.

We encourage all authors and co-authors to link their ORCIDs to their accounts in our online peer review platforms. It takes seconds to do: click the link when prompted, sign into your ORCID account, and our systems are automatically updated. We collect ORCID IDs during the manuscript submission process, and your ORCID ID then becomes part of your accepted publication’s metadata, making your work attributable to you and only you. Your ORCID ID is published with your article so that fellow researchers reading your work can link to your ORCID profile and from there link to your other publications.

If you do not already have an ORCID ID, please follow this link to create one or visit Sage's  ORCID homepage to learn more.

You will be asked to provide contact details and academic affiliations for all co-authors via the submission system and identify who is to be the corresponding author. These details must match what appears on your manuscript. The affiliation listed in the manuscript should be the institution where the research was conducted. If an author has moved to a new institution since completing the research, the new affiliation can be included in a manuscript note at the end of the paper. At this stage, please ensure that you have included all the required statements and declarations and uploaded any additional supplementary files (including reporting guidelines where relevant).

Please also ensure that you have obtained any necessary permission from copyright holders for reproducing any illustrations, tables, figures, or lengthy quotations previously published elsewhere. For further information, including guidance on fair dealing for criticism and review, please see the Copyright and Permissions page on the Sage Author Gateway .

6. On acceptance and publication      

Within two days of acceptance, your article will be published on the journal’s Accepted Manuscripts page . Accepted or “express” manuscripts are unchanged from the final version of the manuscript submitted in Sage Track. This version of the article will remain posted until the article is edited, typeset, and moved to the Online First page.

When your article enters production, it will be copy edited by a member of the AMA’s editorial staff. You may contact the editorial office ( [email protected] ) regarding questions about your article’s progress throughout the production process. Proofs will be made available to the corresponding author via the Sage editing portal or by email, and corrections should be made directly or notified to us promptly. Authors are reminded to check their proofs carefully to confirm that all author information, including names, affiliations, sequence, and contact details are correct, and that Funding and Conflict of Interest statements, if any, are accurate. 

Online First allows final articles (completed and approved articles awaiting assignment to a future issue) to be published online prior to their inclusion in a journal issue, which significantly reduces the lead time between submission and publication. Visit the Sage Journals help page for more details, including how to cite Online First articles.

Sage provides authors with online access to their final article.

Publication is not the end of the process! You can help disseminate your paper and ensure that it is as widely read and cited as possible. The Sage Author Gateway has numerous resources to help you promote your work. Visit the Promote Your Article page on the Gateway for tips and advice.

Any correspondence, queries, or additional requests for information on the manuscript submission process should be sent to the Journal of Marketing Research ’s editorial office as follows: [email protected] .

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Collaborative servitization in service-oriented company: The case study of telco company

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation ICT Product Development, Belgrade, Serbia

Roles Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Technology, Innovations and Development Management, Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Roles Writing – review & editing

• Jovana Mihailović, 
• Biljana Stošić, 
• Radul Milutinović

• Published: May 15, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302943
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There is a growing interest in the subject of product-service system (PSS) and collaborative servitization in academia and practice. However, the focus is on exploring the growth of manufacturing companies without specifically analyzing the growth of service companies in applying PSS. There are companies, especially in the telco industry, that expand their service business to complex bundles of products and services. The paper investigates PSS in the service company and the role of collaboration in different PSS development phases: idea generation, development and go to market phase. The study adopted case-based research conducted in international Telco organization. The research demonstrates how a company creates and commercializes integrated packets of products and services, it identifies partners company works with and the benefits and challenges of their cooperation. The study addresses collaboration with customers and identifies five different customer profiles according to their openness to participate in the development of PSS. The study highlights the importance of (1) collaboration models, (2) customer involvement, and (3) strategic focus in successful application of collaborative servitization. The findings complement the literature for collaborative servitization and offer concrete input for companies in terms of how to better organize business, profit from collaboration models and gain market advantage.

Citation: Mihailović J, Stošić B, Milutinović R (2024) Collaborative servitization in service-oriented company: The case study of telco company. PLoS ONE 19(5): e0302943. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302943

Editor: Tachia Chin, Zhejiang University of Technology, CHINA

Received: November 6, 2023; Accepted: April 15, 2024; Published: May 15, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Mihailović et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the subject of product-service systems (PSS) has gained significant attention in academic circles. PSS can be described as a combination of products and services bundled in a way to better fit customer needs and offered as a single solution to customers [ 1 ]. This approach to business aims to meet customer needs more effectively by providing more comprehensive and tailored solutions. Nowadays organizations’ goal is to deliver performance, more than a product to customers.

Most researchers have analyzed manufacturing companies and cases when services are added to the products [ 2 – 4 ]. Servitization, as a path toward PSS, can also happen in service companies, when products are added to services [ 5 , 6 ]. Additionally, innovation in the domain of services is more complicated [ 7 ] and observing PSS in setting where products were added to services is challenging task [ 8 ].

An example from the telecommunication industry of integrating products into services is that of mobile communication providers giving a free mobile phone handset to customers who sign up for a service [ 9 ]. Nowadays, new technologies, especially 5G, represent an opportunity for telco operators to expand business and create new integrated packages of product and services from the field of IoT, security, cloud technologies [ 10 , 11 ].

The competition in the field of information and communication technologies (ICT) is very intensive and if mobile operators want to be competitive in the market, they need new business models [ 12 – 15 ]. Servitization as a strategy in combination with collaboration models can be an opportunity for operators to succeed [ 16 ]. Mobile operators lack knowledge and experience of how to design and develop PSS, especially considering that they now compete with rivals such as IT companies, device manufacturers, platform providers, etc. Hence, mobile operators are a suitable environment to observe the collaboration practices and application of PSS in a service company.

With this study authors focus on service companies and investigate the following:

• How companies can benefit from collaboration models in different phases of PSS development (idea generation, development and go to market phase) and what are the challenges—The link between the PSS and collaboration was previously investigated by several authors, however their research were focused on manufacturing companies that added services on top of their products [ 17 – 20 ].
• The importance of customer participation in the development of PSS—Customer involvement in PSS development is investigated as an isolated topic in literature [ 1 , 9 , 21 ]. Results obtained from manufacturing industry mainly showed positive influence of customer participation in PSS development [ 22 , 23 ], but there are also examples investigating negative side of close collaboration with customers [ 20 , 24 ].
• The strong strategic focus toward collaboration models in PSS development—Literature findings regarding the strategic aspect for implementing servitization through collaboration models have shown positive outcome (longer and improved customer relationship, competitive advantage, promotion toward sustainability) as well as negative outcome (increased additional costs, difficulties in coordinating multiple actors) [ 25 – 27 ].

Based on results obtained from the manufacturing industry and followed by a case study conducted in mobile operator company, it is argued that collaboration is very important in successful application of PSS in service-oriented companies.

Paper is structured in the following way: Section 2 represents the foundation of the research with literature review of servitization, different concepts of PSS and collaboration practices. The research methodology is described in Section 3. Section 4 comprises results of a case study. Discussion about potential implication derived from the case study and findings of the paper are presented in Section 5. Section 6 concludes the research with theoretical and managerial implications, as well as suggestions for future studies.

2. Research context

2.1. collaborative servitization.

PSS is a topic widely studied in academic literature [ 2 , 28 , 29 ]. The idea behind PSS is to create value for customers beyond the product itself, such as providing installation, maintenance, support, training, updates, and many other services. There are many interpretations of PSS concept in literature, some of them are: an integrated bundle of product and services; a marketable set of products and services; a business model; a business innovation strategy; a functional solution; integrated combination of products and services; customization and integration of products and services, their development, post development customer support [ 30 ].

For product-oriented companies, PSS offers growth of business by adding services to products, while for service-oriented companies it expands business by adding hardware [ 31 ]. In simple terms, a transition toward PSS can be defined as servitization [ 32 ]. Servitization is the innovation of organizations capabilities and processes to better create mutual value through a shift from selling products to selling PSSs [ 33 ] and adopting service dominant logic can be considered business model innovation [ 34 , 35 ]. Servitization provides opportunities for companies in the sense of gaining competitive advantage, improving quality of customer relationship, expanding portfolio and creating new sources of income [ 36 , 37 ]. To successfully implement PSS, companies should distinguish between PSS design (development) phase (conceptual phase [ 38 ] and detailed design [ 39 ]) and from go to market (deployment) phase because they differ both in terms of investments, benefits, and challenges [ 40 ].

To describe the process of servitization and PSS, one can observe the changes in characteristic features [ 16 , 41 ]: ownership, payment model, location of operation, single or multiple customer operation, maintenance. It depends on the company’s strategy, how to combine the features and how the package will be offered to customers. Combination of features can be interpreted through business model. [ 42 ] defined 3 main types of PSS business models according to the ownership of the solution and the payment model: product-oriented PSS, use-oriented PSS and result-oriented PSS. The relationship between the supplier and customers is more interactive, open and complex in result-oriented PSS than in product-oriented PSS [ 43 ].

Servitization is a long and continuous process [ 2 ] and the advancement of ICT brings out PSS to a higher level, by providing more service functionalities to customers [ 5 , 19 , 23 ]. For instance, sensors and cloud technologies are enabling data monitoring, storage, and post processing of data while data is used for creating new services. Technologies that are the biggest enablers of servitization are for example: IoT, predictive analytics; remote communications; consumption monitoring [ 44 , 45 ]. Since the first appearance of term servitization in 1988 in [ 6 ] depending on context and technology that relies behind the PSS, different servitization concepts have been defined as presented in Fig 1 .

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It is extremely difficult for an enterprise to possess all relevant capabilities and resources for servitization due to its capacity’s limitations [ 51 ]. This implies that companies need to collaborate with partners and open their business models so as to deliver those services effectively and efficiently [ 20 ] and to capture value from it [ 52 ]. Hence, collaboration plays a key role in servitization [ 53 – 55 ]. Even though the term collaborative servitization, as an approach to servitization in which companies work together to create new PSS, was first mentioned in literature in 2014 [ 48 ], the field was not deeply investigated, and lately there is an increasing interest in this topic [ 27 ]. It was shown that collaborative partnerships, as a servitization strategy, increase performance outcomes, such as profit and end customer satisfaction [ 19 , 53 ], however it also increases uncertainty and threat of failure due to third party dependency [ 20 ]. Collaborative servitization innovation is defined as a cooperative initiative to create and implement innovative solutions with simultaneous innovation of technology and service components [ 8 , 54 ].

Existing studies mainly focus on single cooperative partners, but there is a lack of research on the mechanisms of multiple partners working together and more microlevel studies are needed concentrating on individual, group, or project levels [ 56 ]. One of the collaboration strategies organizations can implement to respond to customer needs quickly and efficiently, is to create a pool of partners. When customer requirement appears, companies can select a solution that can best respond to the actual use case [ 57 ]. [ 17 ] demonstrated that collaboration with partners influences (positively) service offerings, but it doesn’t impact the sale of solution. They also pointed out that collaboration activities of manufacturers depend on product complexity, export rate and cultural differences (size, sector, and country of a manufacturing company). Additionally, integration of partners and their competencies demands a certain maturity to provide market value [ 8 ] and successful functioning of network of providers depends on well-developed organizational readiness [ 58 ].

Close collaboration with customers contributes to effective servitization outcomes [ 8 ] and reduction of operational risk [ 59 ]. More than just targeting customer needs when designing solutions, solutions could be adaptable during their use to accommodate evolving customer needs [ 45 ]. Servitization and collaboration with customers was investigated in the manufacturing industry and have shown positive results in creating tailored solutions and capturing value for both customers and supplier [ 22 , 23 ]. There are also examples investigating the negative side of close collaboration between provider and customers that can result in unrealized solutions due to lack of capabilities, unrealistic expectations, and poor cooperation [ 24 ] or customers might have limited perspective [ 60 ]. Nevertheless, by cooperating with customers manufacturers can also help them understand benefits and the value that comes out of new services [ 61 ].

Strategic planning and arrangements toward implementing servitization through collaboration models is very important [ 62 ]. It is a strategic decision if company will outsource missing competences, and accordingly how much they will rely on partners [ 63 ]. As shown in literature, companies are implementing new business models, going through transformation, managing new roles, and that can have positive outcomes (longer and improved customer relationship, competitive advantage, promotion toward sustainability) as well as negative outcomes (increased additional costs, difficulties in coordinating multiple actors) [ 25 – 27 ]. Additionally, strategic partnerships can strengthen a position on the market and create external service identity [ 63 ].

2.2. Servitization and telco companies

The telecommunication industry is undergoing continuous evolution due to growing need for faster data rates, external market competition and regulatory pressure and rising societal expectations. Back in the early 90s, 2G network was set up to support voice and short messaging services. 3G was introduced with the purpose of providing internet connectivity with very modest speed; afterwards, in 2010s 4G, a completely IP based system, had higher data speeds, quality and capacity services. In 5G focus is to deliver high-quality services to all devices, while future 6G are usually mentioned together with advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, etc. [ 64 ].

Technological changes can negatively impact the performance of large telco firms, but it is also an opportunity for operators to redefine their position on the market and improve business [ 65 ]. Disruptive change in telco industry impacts mobile operators and their business forcing them to succeed in three domains: infrastructure management (to follow the technology trend and enable connectivity services operators are well known for), to create and sell new products and services and customer relationship management (identify which business model suits customer the best) [ 13 ].

With the development of embedded SIM card (eSIM), operators faced new challenges and opportunities. ESIM means flexible connectivity, that customer can change operators without physically having to change the SIM card [ 66 ]. Changing operator is activity that is programmable remotely via software, and local profile switching for IoT devices can be realised in fast and energy efficient way [ 67 ]. ESIM might also mean higher customer churn, increased competition within the digital ecosystem, decline in roaming revenue, decline in average revenue per user, hence new attractive business models are needed to retain customers and increase the value they bring to operator [ 66 , 68 ].

Nowadays, new technologies, especially 5G, represent an opportunity for mobile operators to expand business and create new integrated packages of product and services from the field of IoT, security, cloud technologies [ 10 , 11 ]. This statement is supported by statistical data showing that the number of IoT devices in 2020 was 15.1 billion and it is expected to grow to more than 29 billion in 2030 [ 69 ].

In highly competitive environment like telecommunications, rivals are not just other operators, but many other companies such as system integrators, device manufacturers, platform providers, IT companies [ 70 ]. To establish a unique market position and strengthen its competitiveness on the market, telco operators should use distinct approaches and new business models [ 12 , 14 , 71 , 72 ]. Servitization is one possible way [ 16 ]. Additionally, since operators lack skills, they need strategies to find partners and end-users [ 73 ] and hence there is a need to examine collaborative servitization in telco operator environment.

3. Research methodology

The methodology used for this research is a qualitative methodology based on a multiple-case study approach. Qualitative case study research was the method mostly used in similar research that can be found in literature and have given quite good results in regard to understanding collaborative servitization, the impact of customer involvement and strategic focus toward successful PSS development [ 22 , 23 , 57 – 59 ].

The research is conducted in a private telco operator. The company is a member of an international group which has over 26 million customers across seven countries in Europe. Case study consists of four phases. To provide a comprehensive picture of the study, the data were gathered from a variety of sources including employees from the company (experts and decision makers), documents from the organization and customers (the end users of services provided by telco operator), which enabled triangulation of data and validation of study [ 74 ]. A case study protocol and database were created in order to improve reliability of the study. The research methodology is presented in Fig 2 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302943.g002

Phase 1 –20 solutions and projects that are combination of products and services are selected and interviews with 8 product managers conducted. The purpose of interviews was to investigate the practice regarding the collaboration with different partners and PSS business models. Experts have more than five years of experience in building operator portfolios. Interviews lasted around 1.5 hours. The respondents were asked open questions with the support of an interview guide. Data from discussions are complemented and validated with other materials such as documentations, manuals, and product presentations.

Phase 2 and Phase 3 were two panel discussions. 10 experts and decision makers participated in each panel: 6 product managers, manager of product development team, manager of presales team, sales director, and ICT solutions director. Participants were encouraged to debate, exchange ideas, and reach common understanding about the topics discussed. One panel discussion was about products and services, problems, and examples of good practice in the development and go to market phase regarding partnerships. The second panel discussion was about the strategic approach toward collaborative servitization. The study findings were presented back to the company to get additional comments and to reduce the influence of subjectivity introduced by the study method. Additionally, secondary data (organization documentation) were used to triangulate findings, mitigate method bias and improve validity [ 74 ].

Phase 4 –30 different companies (business customers, one representative from each company) filled in a questionnaire about their expectations from telecommunication providers and their services, their innovativeness and interest in trying new technologies.

Participants were informed about the purpose of the research and the use of data they provide. The authors did not ask the respondents for any confidential information and the data used in this study are completely anonymized.

4.1. PSS in mobile operator company- Portfolio analysis

The starting point of the research is to investigate operator current portfolio and the solutions in the context of servitization. Twenty different solutions that are combination of products (hardware and software) and services (connectivity, consultancy, maintenance, reports…) are analyzed. Solutions are divided into three groups:

• Mass market IoT solutions (IoT connectivity, IoT platform, smart home solution, smart cash register, vehicle tracking system)
• Tailored made IoT solutions (complex IoT solutions for monitoring, automation and controlling of different processes and devices. Solutions are executed as a project, specifically created to respond to customer business and requirements. Some projects were done in agriculture, some in production processes and logistics (due to privacy, authors cannot write the full specification of projects).
• Other ICT products (cloud services (data hosting, cloud probate branch exchange (pbx), backup as a service) and solutions related to infrastructure and network (telehousing, software-defined wide area network), printing as a service, Microsoft services).

The business model can vary depending on the end customers wishes and the product itself. What is common for all solutions is that maintenance and the initial set up of the equipment are usually included in the price. Most of the solutions involve SIM cards, and the voice and data usages as monthly fees. Hardware is sold eighter as a fixed price product at the beginning of the contract, or it is paid monthly through the bill. In these cases, the customers are the owners of devices.

A mixture of product-oriented and use-oriented solution is when hardware is sold as a one-time fee at the beginning of the contract, and then customers pay fixed monthly fee for using the services (8 solutions). In some cases, the price of HW is bundled with a fixed monthly service fee, so the customers only pay fixed monthly fees during the contract (4 solutions). Another type of use-oriented solutions are licensed-based products, which means customers get a service and pay monthly fee for using it (4 solutions). In the operator portfolio, there are also examples of result-oriented products (3 solutions). Fig 3 illustrates the analyzed solutions in a matrix format, with two dimensions representing the business model types (product-oriented, use-oriented and result-oriented) and solution types (mass market IoT solution, tailored made IoT solution, and other ICT products).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302943.g003

As it can be seen, Table 1 presents the features of the observed solutions. First level support for solutions is always done by the operator. According to the service level agreement (SLA) operator should solve any problem that occurs with product. Second level support is done by operator or partner, and third level support is, in most cases, done by partners and hence strong SLA with partners is important to ensure successful incident solving.

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Analyzed solutions are all developed with at least one partner (except two solutions that were created internally). 11 solutions are developed with one partner, and 7 with two or more partners (4 solutions with two partners, and 3 solutions with three partners) ( Table 2 ).

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Go to market phase, is challenging by nature, even more if the market is unknown for company. Mobile operator as a connectivity provider is not seen as a solution provider, for example in the field of IoT or in the field of security. Firstly, people are not aware of all the services the operator has. Secondly, even if customers knew about the services, they would question the operator’s competences. In those cases, partners can help the operator establish the customer relationship and gain the necessary trust.

In this research 5 out of 20 solutions have at least one partner that is selling the solution, and there is a plan to start selling three more products through the partner network.

4.2. Collaborative servitization in mobile operator company

The study investigates three phases of PSS development within the context of collaboration: idea generation, where operator and partner companies collaborate during the search for new ideas, conduct market research, and validate concepts; development, where partner companies and operator collaborate in creating the solution; and go-to-market, where partner companies and operator collaborate during the product’s commercialization.

Benefits and challenges of collaboration with partners are observed through three aspects:

• Solution related (benefits and challenges related to new bundles of products and services)
• Relationship related (focused on relationship with partners, communication, the complexity of collaboration…)
• Business related (how certain situations impact operator costs and the time)

Results are presented in Table 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302943.t003

A first step in creating new bundles of products and services is to identify the customer needs, and to agree on high level design of a solution. Sources for new ideas are conferences, reports, other operators, and their portfolios, but also customers, their needs and wishes. What is common for all ideas is that they go through testing phase (validation phase) with customers. Innovation hubs and consultant companies help with market research and testing. They organize interviews as focus groups or scheduled meetings with customers, or provide, if exist, some statistical reports. In some cases, the operator takes advantage of the existing customer base, and if possible, gets feedback from his customers about their interest in new solutions.

Sometimes startups reach operator with their idea they work on, they need help to find customers, or they need a partner for developing a solution. 40% of experts during the panel discussion believe that working with startup is too risky, however they all agreed that operator should be closed to startup ecosystem, and monitor activities they have, in the case some good opportunity appears.

The operator tends to create a network of reliable partners, with whom they can cooperate on several projects. Complex projects need several partners. Even though the responsibility is clearly divided, communication is harder, it takes longer time to agree on the meeting time, and it takes more time to get feedback from all sides. Agility and responsiveness tend to be lost in projects that involve several experts from different companies.

During the first panel discussion, experts agreed that projects that involved one partner were easier to manage and had more success. Projects involving two partners were also successful but did experience some difficulties in communication and clear responsibility sharing. Projects involving more than two partners were hard to handle, and some were not successful, especially due to lack of agility and longer response time, it was hard to coordinate meetings and schedule quick meetings.

During the second panel discussion experts pointed out the importance of well-defined SLA and incident management platform. Customer experience and solution excellence is of great importance, so in the case of an incident or customer complaint, it can be hard to determine who is responsible for the problem. Hence clear procedures and a responsibility matrix needs to exist. The operator doesn’t control the whole solution and toward the customers he guarantees excellence, therefore there is a risk of failure due to his partner’s faults.

During the project companies get to know each other better and understand each other’s capabilities, knowledge, expertise, and way of working. The experts agreed that if one project was successful, there is a high probability that companies will cooperate again. When the operator knows partner, he knows what to expect. Additionally, if he doesn’t need to search for partner, he can get quicker response to customer demand. However, 60% of panel participants agreed that if there is time, there should be a partner (vendor) selection process to get a better price and to leave the possibility of finding and testing some potentially new partners.

In the go to market phase, it is challenging to reach customers, and to convince them the solution is good, and that the operator is a reliable solution provider. Partnerships with recognized experts in the domain can be of help. One example is a product for smart homes. These sensors were part of the operator portfolio for several years, however, there was not much success in selling. Then the partnership with insurance companies was signed. Insurance companies were selling a smart home solution together with home insurance policy and they managed to sell three times more devices than operator. Similar situation was repeated with device that measured temperature. Transportation companies were not interested in investing in this device for remote monitoring of temperature in vehicles transporting temperature sensitive goods, since they were covered by insurance. However, insurance companies found this product very useful for combining it with insurance policies for transportation.

The operator can partner up with recognized individuals in the several industries and use their reputation to promote themselves. All participants of the second panel agreed that operators need different go to market strategies. One proposed solution was mediator, a recognized individual in the public, that can help operator reach customers, to establish a good reputation and become recognized as a solution provider.

Simple solutions are offered through a partner network. For a specific product, the operator can have several partners. If there is a collaboration model defined, the complexity doesn’t increase with having more partners for the same solutions (like it is the case in solution design). During the panel discussion experts agreed that gaining customers through a partner is challenging and requires a procedure for partner finding, evaluation and onboarding. They also agreed that there should be a dedicated person who leads all the processes for partner onboarding and is responsible for all the activities strategically and in execution.

4.2.1. Customer participation in the development of PSS.

The customer, as a partner in developing PSS, is addressed separately and the main results are presented in Table 4 .

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All the experts, during the panel discussion, agreed that customers are valuable resources for new ideas. However, not all of them agreed that starting from customer ideas is a good strategy, 20% percent of them find it too slow (in terms of generating revenue) and too narrow (in terms of mass production).

In the IoT ecosystem complex solutions are designed for specific customer requirements and customer demands are usually triggers for new solutions. This is because the design of the solution depends on the information customers need, how frequently they need data, where are the devices situated, etc.

Experts agreed that it is important to relate the idea to the existing strategy. Moreover, the solution should be profitable eighter by number of devices ordered by single customer or solution has a wide market and can be used by other companies.

The panelists agreed that proof-of-concept (PoC) is a good method to get valuable feedback from customers, and to introduce a solution to customers. They also pointed out that PoC should be conducted with strategically selected companies that have a potential to become good promoters of solutions in the future. However, if customers are not much involved (interested) in the project PoC might be unsuccessful.

An example is a project in which a customer lost testing devices (they fell from the wall of container and were never found again).

Friendly customers can help with the commercialization of the product. When a product is new on the market, the operator offers some special promotions, for his first users. This can be beneficial for both customers and operator. The operator can use references and successful stories from his first customers in marketing purposes to increase sale of a solution, and customers can benefit in price. For some complex solutions the operator offers a free trial period for customers to test and decide upon buying a solution (an example is SD-WAN solution).

Panelists agreed that customers are important partners in all three observed phases, but they also pointed out that not all cooperations were successful and that customers should be carefully selected. To explore the potential of customer participation in the development of PSS, 30 companies (users of different telecommunication services) were questioned (one representative from each company).

Based on the answers customers provided five different customer profiles are identified. The profiles differ in the attitude customers have toward digital solutions (innovation and technology) and the relationship they have with operator (Figs 4 and 5 ).

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One of the profiles (customer type 1) is specifically open to new experiences and innovation. Customers from this segment see telco operator as a partner, they are digitally advanced and in step with modern trends, easily adopting and implementing innovations and generally open to new experiences. Customers belonging to this type are open to trying and accepting solutions they were not aware they needed. As such, these customers are convenient for testing new solutions. In this research, customer type 1 was 13% of the total number of participants.

The two other customer profiles (type 2 and type 3) are also technologically advanced. One group perceives operator as a consultant and needs operator for improving business (but with existing and verified solutions). Customers from the third segment want and pay only for the premium service, they follow the newest digital trends. They are not suitable for being a partner in innovation, because developing new products means learning from mistakes and being flexible for modifications, and this group is exact and doesn’t tolerate mistakes.

Other profiles are less digitally literate (type 4 and type 5). One customer group is aware of the importance of digital modern trends but is more a follower. This group sees telecommunication provider as support that gives help and advice. The least digitally advanced customer group perceives telco provider as vendor and doesn’t need anything beyond basic service.

5. Discussion

The case study has shown that PSS is well established in operator’s portfolio. There are different business models, depending on ownership, solution management and payment model. These features define a mixture of product-oriented, use-oriented, and result-oriented servitization models.

For most of the complex ICT solutions mobile operators rely on partners since they don’t possess all relevant capabilities and resources for developing and exploiting PSS to customers. Existing research on collaborative servitization emphasize the need for more practical, micro level studies to understand collaborative practices [ 2 , 17 , 56 ]. Some analogies were found with previous studies [ 38 – 40 ] that suggested different approaches to servitization depending on phase: idea generation, development and go to market phase. However, this research, by focusing only on telco industry explores deeper the collaboration practice in each of the phases and identifies partners, benefits and challenges of collaboration and gives real-life examples. In each of the analyzed stages the mobile operator collaborates with different partner, in a different way and with a different goal.

Given that the first research question was how companies benefit from collaboration models in different phases of PSS and what are the challenges, benefits and challenges were observed through 3 aspects (to organize and synthesize results in an understandable way): one associated to solutions (product and services as integrated packages), one group presenting relationship with partners and one showing how collaborative servitization impacts operator time and costs ( Table 3 summarizes the results of collaborative practises with different partners while Table 4 focuses only on customer as a partner).

In the idea generation phase customers play the most important role, since their requirements and problems are taken as a base for new products and services. Solution is constructed based on customer needs for services, and the offer can be packed according to requests. Innovation hubs and consultants sometimes navigate the process of testing an idea. Ideas for new solutions might also come from outside of the organization, when smaller companies (usually startups) seek for partner for scaling up their business. During the development phase, collaboration is established between the operator and companies who have knowledge to develop a solution: system integrators, startups, suppliers, universities. In go to market phase collaboration is established with companies and individuals that are respected in the field where solution is positioned, or with companies that can reach customers with the solution when customers need them.

Each phase poses different challenges in terms of collaboration (relationship related factors). For example, the increase in the number of partners increases complexity in the development phase (agility is hard to reach, it is hard to coordinate everyone’s availability, or to identify responsibility for solution malfunctioning and clear SLA and incident management procedure is crucial). On the other hand, in go to market phase for one solution operator may have many partners, and the number of partners is not increasing the complexity of the model. However, in the go to market phase special models and collaboration principles for partner selection and partner onboarding need to be created to be effective and productive in selling across partner network.

With the right partners collaboration models can bring satisfactory results in each of the analyzed phases, firstly to identify the right solution, develop it according to requirements and monetize it on the market which proves that partnerships are very important for successful application of PSS in service-oriented companies. Special attention should be given to challenges of collaboration in the context of complexity in communication and responsibility sharing.

Next research question was investigating the importance of customer involvement in PSS development, and it identifies benefits and challenges of that collaboration. The study confirms previous research from manufacturing industry [ 1 , 22 , 23 ] about significance of customer participation in all phases of PSS development. As can be seen in Table 4 , during idea generation solution is designed according to customer feedback, and each new idea is tested with customers before going into development. In the development phase, customer feedback during PoC is of crucial importance for later project realization. Collaborating with customers allows operators to minimize failure in the sense of creating a solution that customers need and are willing to pay for. During the go to market phase, friendly customers can be of great help for product promotion. Customer capabilities are important for solution success, as shown in [ 24 ], the panelists agreed that not all customers are interested in participating in PSS development, testing, and providing feedback. To investigate this more thoroughly, 30 business customers filled in a survey, and the research has shown that only one group of customers (among 5 that were identified in the research) perceives operator as a partner in business and is open to innovate and try new solutions (solutions that possibly can positively impact their business). Potentially, another customer type that sees an operator as a consultant could be a suitable group for friendly customers. Overall results lead to the conclusion that customers (when carefully selected) play important role in the implementation of PSS.

Previous studies emphasized the importance of strategic approach toward collaborative servitization [ 26 , 62 ] and how projects fail when solutions don’t create sufficient value compared to costs they are causing [ 22 ]. To better understand this, in this study the strategic aspects are analysed in each stage of PSS development as a third research topic. The panel participants fully agreed that collaboration models are matter of strategic principles. For example, as shown in Table 4 under business aspects, in the idea generation and development phase operator should balance between the number of requirements and customer satisfaction. Requirements should be limited since too much customization results in price increase and realization time increase, and that might not be satisfactory for customer. Niche solutions are not mass-market solutions, and their profitability is questionable, but if a solution is created through a big project, it has potential to be successful in terms of investment.

In addition, operator balances the trade-off between complexity of the solution and complexity of relationship with partners. Operator is responsible for solution performance toward customers and with more partners the risk of failure is more dependent to third party (relationship factors in Table 3 ).

Moreover, having partner in go to market phase means having a lower margin (the collaboration model is seen as an investment for creating a successful and well-established position on the market), so operator strategically selects partners.

Finally, customers are of great value in collaborative servitization, but they need to be carefully selected (according to customer types) and their requirements should match company’s strategy and solution itself should be profitable in terms of the number of potential devices per single customer, or in terms of the size of the market (the number of customers that might use solution).

6. Conclusion

Telecommunication companies are expanding their scope of services with integrated bundles of products and services to ensure growth in their own market but also to expand to other markers due to the digitalization trends. Because of changes in the telco sector, the lack of competence and lack of experience in the new markets mobile operators tend to establish different collaboration practices that they incorporate into specialized offers for their customers. Through a case study in an international telco operator company, it was shown that PSS and the role of partnerships in the context of servitization, are of strategic importance in idea generation, development and in go to market phase. Each phase demands a different approach and different partners, while the customers are regarded as important partners in all the stages.

Previous studies have primarily focused on exploring collaborative servitization within manufacturing companies without specifically analyzing the growth of service companies in applying PSS. The study contributes to the research on collaborative servitization by taking a different approach and observing collaborative servitization in companies that added products to services.

The findings of the paper offer concrete inputs about collaborative servitization: who are the partners, what are the benefits and the challenges regarding solutions, relationship with partners, time, and costs in different stages of PSS development. Several managerial implications can be drawn for telco companies that move toward PSS or need improvements in application of collaborative servitization. Firstly, by indicating benefits and challenges of collaborative servitization in different phases. Secondly by pointing out the importance of collaborating with customers. The research identified different customer types, and only one group that is suitable for the role of partner. Finally, the study highlights strategic aspect that is different in each stage of PSS development, and it can help managers understand their role and its importance in successful PSS application.

The present study has certain limitations that should be considered when interpreting the outcomes. One of the limitations of the study is observing telco industry in general while the study focus on specific segments of the mobile industry meaning mobile operators. Producers of telco equipment are more like manufacturers, and it would be interesting to conduct study in other telco segments such as system integrators, equipment producers in the future and compare it with this one. Secondly, study was more focused on PSS development and go to market strategy for PSS, rather than PSS operations. Additionally, the servitization was addressed only in business-to-business context (B2B). Finally, the analysis of 30 companies has shown that only certain customer types are eligible for the role of the partner, but it did not provide an answer how big is that group (compared to other groups also identified). The next step would be to translate these finding to a larger scale research to obtain more general approach how to identify, select and onboard customers as partners in development of PSS.

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AN IMPACT STUDY OF SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN AJMER

• Marcel Chaudhary Research Scholar, Engineering College, Ajmer
• Dr. Varsha Maheshwari Assistant Professor, Sophia Girls’ College, Ajmer
• Ms. Yuvnika Sogani Research Scholar, Engineering College, Ajmer

In recent years, the proliferation of social media platforms has revolutionized marketing strategies, offering businesses unprecedented opportunities to engage with consumers. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media marketing on consumer behavior in Ajmer, a culturally rich city in India. Through a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative interviews and quantitative surveys, this research explores how social media marketing practices employed by businesses in Ajmer influence consumer perceptions, attitudes, and purchasing decisions. A structured survey was conducted among a diverse sample of consumers in Ajmer to quantify the extent to which social media marketing influences their purchasing behavior across various product categories. Key variables such as demographic factors such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status will be examined to understand how they moderate the relationship between social media marketing and consumer behavior.

The findings of this study are expected to provide valuable insights for businesses in Ajmer and beyond, enabling them to optimize their social media marketing strategies to effectively target and engage consumers. Furthermore, the research contributes to the existing body of knowledge on the evolving dynamics between social media marketing and consumer behavior in the context of a culturally distinct city like Ajmer.

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Evaluation of online job portals for HR recruitment selection using AHP in two wheeler automotive industry: a case study

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• Published: 12 May 2024

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• S. M. Vadivel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5287-3693 1 &
• Rohan Sunny   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0002-2347-3081 2  

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Automotive companies are booming worldwide in the economy. In order to sustain in the highly competitive world, every organization tries to create itself a trademark in the market. In our research, we looked at how two wheelers automotive company's selection enhances an organizational performance, which ensures the company's future growth. In today's fast-paced, globally integrated world, human resources are one of the most important production variables. It is critical to preserve and improve economic competitiveness by properly selecting and developing these resources. The main aim of this study is to identify the best online job portal website for recruitment at Two Wheeler Company and to suggest an HR strategy which resonates company’s values and culture. In this study, we have selected 6 criteria and 6 online popular job portals for recruitment with a sample of 15 candidates have been selected. Findings reveal that, AHP method has significant results on the selection of best employer, which helps HR Manager to finalize the decision making process/strategies. Towards the managerial implications section, the researcher aims to design an functional and effective HR strategy that can grasp, engage and retain the top talent in the organization.

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Abbreviations

Analytic hierarchy process

Artificial intelligence

Analysis of variance

Chief Human Resources Officer

Consistency index

Curriculum vitae

Consistency ratio

Decision making

Faculty Development Programme

Hierarchical linear modelling

Human resources

Research and Development

Randomized index

Structural equation modelling

Search engine optimization

Triple bottom line

Technique for order preference by similarity

Maximum Eigen value

The normalized value of ith criterion for the jth alternative

The normalized value of jth criterion for the ith alternative

The number of alternatives for a certain MCDM problem

The number of criteria for a certain MCDM problem

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to two wheeler Automotive Industries in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, for their invaluable assistance and cooperation. We greatly acknowledge Ms. Ruchi Mishra, Research scholar from NIT Karnataka, for editing this manuscript in better form.

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Vadivel, S.M., Sunny, R. Evaluation of online job portals for HR recruitment selection using AHP in two wheeler automotive industry: a case study. Int J Syst Assur Eng Manag (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13198-024-02358-z

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Study Suggests Genetics as a Cause, Not Just a Risk, for Some Alzheimer’s

People with two copies of the gene variant APOE4 are almost certain to get Alzheimer’s, say researchers, who proposed a framework under which such patients could be diagnosed years before symptoms.

By Pam Belluck

Scientists are proposing a new way of understanding the genetics of Alzheimer’s that would mean that up to a fifth of patients would be considered to have a genetically caused form of the disease.

Currently, the vast majority of Alzheimer’s cases do not have a clearly identified cause. The new designation, proposed in a study published Monday, could broaden the scope of efforts to develop treatments, including gene therapy, and affect the design of clinical trials.

It could also mean that hundreds of thousands of people in the United States alone could, if they chose, receive a diagnosis of Alzheimer’s before developing any symptoms of cognitive decline, although there currently are no treatments for people at that stage.

The new classification would make this type of Alzheimer’s one of the most common genetic disorders in the world, medical experts said.

“This reconceptualization that we’re proposing affects not a small minority of people,” said Dr. Juan Fortea, an author of the study and the director of the Sant Pau Memory Unit in Barcelona, Spain. “Sometimes we say that we don’t know the cause of Alzheimer’s disease,” but, he said, this would mean that about 15 to 20 percent of cases “can be tracked back to a cause, and the cause is in the genes.”

The idea involves a gene variant called APOE4. Scientists have long known that inheriting one copy of the variant increases the risk of developing Alzheimer’s, and that people with two copies, inherited from each parent, have vastly increased risk.

The new study , published in the journal Nature Medicine, analyzed data from over 500 people with two copies of APOE4, a significantly larger pool than in previous studies. The researchers found that almost all of those patients developed the biological pathology of Alzheimer’s, and the authors say that two copies of APOE4 should now be considered a cause of Alzheimer’s — not simply a risk factor.

The patients also developed Alzheimer’s pathology relatively young, the study found. By age 55, over 95 percent had biological markers associated with the disease. By 65, almost all had abnormal levels of a protein called amyloid that forms plaques in the brain, a hallmark of Alzheimer’s. And many started developing symptoms of cognitive decline at age 65, younger than most people without the APOE4 variant.

“The critical thing is that these individuals are often symptomatic 10 years earlier than other forms of Alzheimer’s disease,” said Dr. Reisa Sperling, a neurologist at Mass General Brigham in Boston and an author of the study.

She added, “By the time they are picked up and clinically diagnosed, because they’re often younger, they have more pathology.”

People with two copies, known as APOE4 homozygotes, make up 2 to 3 percent of the general population, but are an estimated 15 to 20 percent of people with Alzheimer’s dementia, experts said. People with one copy make up about 15 to 25 percent of the general population, and about 50 percent of Alzheimer’s dementia patients.

The most common variant is called APOE3, which seems to have a neutral effect on Alzheimer’s risk. About 75 percent of the general population has one copy of APOE3, and more than half of the general population has two copies.

Alzheimer’s experts not involved in the study said classifying the two-copy condition as genetically determined Alzheimer’s could have significant implications, including encouraging drug development beyond the field’s recent major focus on treatments that target and reduce amyloid.

Dr. Samuel Gandy, an Alzheimer’s researcher at Mount Sinai in New York, who was not involved in the study, said that patients with two copies of APOE4 faced much higher safety risks from anti-amyloid drugs.

When the Food and Drug Administration approved the anti-amyloid drug Leqembi last year, it required a black-box warning on the label saying that the medication can cause “serious and life-threatening events” such as swelling and bleeding in the brain, especially for people with two copies of APOE4. Some treatment centers decided not to offer Leqembi, an intravenous infusion, to such patients.

Dr. Gandy and other experts said that classifying these patients as having a distinct genetic form of Alzheimer’s would galvanize interest in developing drugs that are safe and effective for them and add urgency to current efforts to prevent cognitive decline in people who do not yet have symptoms.

“Rather than say we have nothing for you, let’s look for a trial,” Dr. Gandy said, adding that such patients should be included in trials at younger ages, given how early their pathology starts.

Besides trying to develop drugs, some researchers are exploring gene editing to transform APOE4 into a variant called APOE2, which appears to protect against Alzheimer’s. Another gene-therapy approach being studied involves injecting APOE2 into patients’ brains.

The new study had some limitations, including a lack of diversity that might make the findings less generalizable. Most patients in the study had European ancestry. While two copies of APOE4 also greatly increase Alzheimer’s risk in other ethnicities, the risk levels differ, said Dr. Michael Greicius, a neurologist at Stanford University School of Medicine who was not involved in the research.

“One important argument against their interpretation is that the risk of Alzheimer’s disease in APOE4 homozygotes varies substantially across different genetic ancestries,” said Dr. Greicius, who cowrote a study that found that white people with two copies of APOE4 had 13 times the risk of white people with two copies of APOE3, while Black people with two copies of APOE4 had 6.5 times the risk of Black people with two copies of APOE3.

“This has critical implications when counseling patients about their ancestry-informed genetic risk for Alzheimer’s disease,” he said, “and it also speaks to some yet-to-be-discovered genetics and biology that presumably drive this massive difference in risk.”

Under the current genetic understanding of Alzheimer’s, less than 2 percent of cases are considered genetically caused. Some of those patients inherited a mutation in one of three genes and can develop symptoms as early as their 30s or 40s. Others are people with Down syndrome, who have three copies of a chromosome containing a protein that often leads to what is called Down syndrome-associated Alzheimer’s disease .

Dr. Sperling said the genetic alterations in those cases are believed to fuel buildup of amyloid, while APOE4 is believed to interfere with clearing amyloid buildup.

Under the researchers’ proposal, having one copy of APOE4 would continue to be considered a risk factor, not enough to cause Alzheimer’s, Dr. Fortea said. It is unusual for diseases to follow that genetic pattern, called “semidominance,” with two copies of a variant causing the disease, but one copy only increasing risk, experts said.

The new recommendation will prompt questions about whether people should get tested to determine if they have the APOE4 variant.

Dr. Greicius said that until there were treatments for people with two copies of APOE4 or trials of therapies to prevent them from developing dementia, “My recommendation is if you don’t have symptoms, you should definitely not figure out your APOE status.”

He added, “It will only cause grief at this point.”

Finding ways to help these patients cannot come soon enough, Dr. Sperling said, adding, “These individuals are desperate, they’ve seen it in both of their parents often and really need therapies.”

Pam Belluck is a health and science reporter, covering a range of subjects, including reproductive health, long Covid, brain science, neurological disorders, mental health and genetics. More about Pam Belluck

The Fight Against Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s is the most common form of dementia, but much remains unknown about this daunting disease..

How is Alzheimer’s diagnosed? What causes Alzheimer’s? We answered some common questions .

A study suggests that genetics can be a cause of Alzheimer’s , not just a risk, raising the prospect of diagnosis years before symptoms appear.

Determining whether someone has Alzheimer’s usually requires an extended diagnostic process . But new criteria could lead to a diagnosis on the basis of a simple blood test .

The F.D.A. has given full approval to the Alzheimer’s drug Leqembi. Here is what to know about i t.

Alzheimer’s can make communicating difficult. We asked experts for tips on how to talk to someone with the disease .

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Determination of GABA, glutamate and carbamathione in brain microdialysis samples by capillary electrophoresis with fluorescence detection (English)

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Disulfiram has been used as a deterrent in the treatment of alcohol abuse for almost 60 years. Our laboratory has shown that a disulfiram metabolite, S ‐( N,N ‐diethylcarbamoyl) glutathione (carbamathione), is formed from disulfiram and appears in the brain after the administration of disulfiram. Carbamathione does not inhibit aldehyde dehydrogenase but has been shown to be a partial non‐competitive inhibitor of the N ‐methyl‐D‐aspartic acid glutamate (Glu) receptor. In light of disulfiram's apparent clinical effectiveness in cocaine dependence, and carbamathione's effect on the N ‐methyl‐D‐aspartic acid receptor, the effect of carbamathione on brain Glu and γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) needs to be further examined. A CE‐LIF method based on derivatization with napthalene‐2,3‐dicarboxyaldehyde to simultaneously detect both neurotransmitter amino acids and carbamathione in brain microdialysis samples is described. The separation of Glu, GABA and carbamathione was carried out using a 50 mmol/L boric acid buffer (pH 9.6) on a 75 cm×50 μm id fused‐silica capillary (60 cm effective) at +27.5 kV voltage with a run time of 11 min. The detection limits for Glu, GABA and carbamathione were 6, 10 and 15 nmol/L, respectively. This method was used to monitor carbamathione and the amino acid neurotransmitters in brain microdialysis samples from the nucleus accumbens after the administration of an intravenous dose of the drug (200 mg/kg) and revealed a carbamathione‐induced change in GABA and Glu levels. This method demonstrates a simple, rapid and accurate measurement of two amino acid neurotransmitters and carbamathione for in vivo monitoring in the brain using microdialysis sampling.

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• Title: Determination of GABA, glutamate and carbamathione in brain microdialysis samples by capillary electrophoresis with fluorescence detection
• Contributors: Kaul, Swetha ( author ) / Faiman, Morris D. ( author ) / Lunte, Craig E. ( author )
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• Keywords: Glutamate , GABA , Microdialysis sampling , Carbamathione
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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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