reporting verbs in essays

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Reporting verbs Link in-text citations to the information cited

In academic writing, you will need to cite (or 'refer to') other people's work or ideas. In order to do this accurately, you will need to use reporting verbs to link your in-text citation to the information cited. This section looks at what reporting verbs are , then looks at the strength and grammar of reporting verbs. Finally, there is a table which lists some of the most common reporting verbs , giving meaning, strength and usage. At the end there are some exercises to help you practice.

What are reporting verbs?

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Reporting verbs, also known as referring verbs, are verbs which are used when you report or refer to another writer's work. They are needed to connect the in-text citation to the information which you are citing. See the following examples, in which the reporting verbs ( point out and state ) are shown in bold.

• Sharpling (2012) points out that reporting verbs have subtle differences in meaning.
• University of Adelaide (2014) states that using the same reporting verb all the time is both repetitive and boring.

The most common reporting verb is state . However, while it is simpler to use the same verb over and over, this will not give your writing much variation. In addition, each reporting verb has a slightly different meaning, depending on what the writer you are citing is saying. It is therefore important for you to be aware of and try to use a range of reporting verbs, depending on the information you are citing.

Note that According to is another common way to refer to a writer's work. This is not a reporting verb, but is used in the same way. A common student mistake is to use this with a reporting verb such as state , which makes the sentence grammatically incorrect. See the following examples.

• According to Smith (2016), using According to and state in the same sentence is a common student error.
• Smith (2016) states that using According to and state in the same sentence is a common student error.
• According to Smith (2016) states that using According to and state in the same sentence is a common student error.

Strength of reporting verbs

Check out the reporting verbs infographic »

Reporting verbs vary in terms of strength. Consider the following examples.

• Smith (2016) assumes that reporting verbs have different strengths.
• Smith (2016) insists that reporting verbs have different strengths.

Although both verbs have the same general meaning, namely believe , the verb assume is quite weak, while the verb insist is much stronger. The second verb most closely matches the information above on this page, i.e. as a fact, and is therefore more accurate than the first one.

Grammar of reporting verbs

Reporting verbs are often followed by a that clause. However, not all verbs follow this pattern. It is important, when using reporting verbs, to check the grammar usage to make sure that your writing is accurate. Consider the following examples.

• Smith (2016) insists that reporting verbs have different strengths. [ insist + that ]
• Smith (2016) agrees with Sharpling (2012) that reporting verbs have subtle differences in meaning. [ agree with sb ]
• Smith (2016) challenges writers to use reporting verbs accurately. [ challenge sb to do sth ]

Note that it is usually acceptable to use reporting verbs in either the past or present tense. The present tense is more common as this brings the past research into the present and therefore makes it more current and important. There may, however, be special requirements for your course, so it is always useful to check the style guide for assignments.

Examples of usage for the most common reporting verbs are given in the table in the following section.

Examples of reporting verbs

The table below lists some of the most common reporting verbs. They are listed according to their general meaning. Usage and strength are also given. Verbs which are in the same cell have the same general meaning, usage and strength (e.g. admit and concede both mean agree , are both followed by that clauses, and are both weak verbs).

To aid in studying reporting verbs, frequency data for the verbs have been added, for two academic corpora : the BAWE (British Academic Written English), a 6.5 million word corpus of written academic English, and the academic section of the BNC Baby, a 1 million word sub-corpus of the BNC (British National Corpus). The frequencies given are total counts for the verbs and corresponding forms. Click on the buttons to show the frequencies .

There is another version of the list, sorted by frequency , on another page.

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Bailey, S. (2000). Academic Writing. Abingdon: RoutledgeFalmer

EIT Online (n.d.). Reporting Verbs . Available at: http://www2.eit.ac.nz/library/ls_guides_reportingverbs.html (Access date: 17/6/16)

Hampton, M. (n.d.). Writing about others’ work: verbs for citations (Harvard APA style) . Available at: http://www.port.ac.uk/media/contacts-and-departments/student-support-services/ask/downloads/Verbs-for-citation.pdf (Access date: 17/6/16)

Sharpling, G. (2012). Reporting Verbs . Available at: https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/globalpad/openhouse/academicenglishskills/grammar/reportingverbs/ (Access date: 17/6/16)

University of Adelaide (2014). Verbs for Reporting . Available at: https://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/sites/default/files/docs/learningguide-verbsforreporting.pdf (Access date: 17/6/16)

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Author: Sheldon Smith    ‖    Last modified: 25 February 2024.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .

Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

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Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.

Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.

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Explore different ways of referring to literature and foregrounding your voice.

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Reporting verbs help you introduce the ideas or words of others as paraphrase or quotation from scholarly literature. Always accompanied by a reference, they indicate where you’re drawing on other people’s work to build your own argument. They also indicate  your stance  (agree, disagree, etc) on the scholarship you’re describing, highlighting your critical contribution. There are lots of reporting verbs to choose from and, depending on the context, they might be used to convey more than one stance, so you’ll notice that some appear in more than one category. 

The following reporting verbs has been organised according to the critical stances they signal.

Neutral description of what the text says

Reporting verbs.

• Observes 
• Describes 
• Discusses 
• Reports 
• Outlines 
• Remarks 
• States 
• Goes on to say that 
• Quotes that 
• Mentions 
• Articulates 
• Writes  
• Relates  
• Conveys 

Abrams mentions that culture shock has “long been misunderstood as a primarily psychological phenomenon” (34)  

Chakrabarty outlines the four stages of mitosis (72-3)

Acceptance as uncontested fact, having critiqued it

• Recognises 
• Clarifies 
• Acknowledges 
• Concedes 
• Accepts 
• Refutes 
• Uncovers 
• Admits 
• Demonstrates 
• Highlights 
• Illuminates 
• Supports  
• Concludes 
• Elucidates 
• Reveals 
• Verifies  

Abrams refutes the idea that culture shock is a “primarily psychological phenomenon” (34)

Chakrabarty demonstrates that mitosis actually occurs over five stages (73)

Recognition that this is one perspective on or interpretation of an issue or conclusion, and others might be possible

• Argues 
• Reasons 
• Maintains 
• Contends 
• Hypothesises 
• Proposes 
• Theorises  
• Feels 
• Considers 
• Asserts 
• Disputes 
• Advocates 
• Opines  
• Thinks  
• Implies  
• Posits 

Abrams contends that culture shock is socially produced (38)

Chakrabarty hypothesises that metaphase is a more complex process than previously thought (77)

Agreement with that perspective, interpretation or conclusion

• Shows 
• Illustrates  
• Points out 
• Proves 
• Finds 
• Explains 
• Agrees 
• Confirms 
• Identifies 
• Evidences  
• Attests  

Abrams points out that culture shock is a “stress response mechanism” (34)

Chakrabarty proves that mitosis is irreversible, once triggered (80)

Disagreement with that perspective, interpretation or conclusion

• Believes 
• Claims 
• Justifies 
• Insists  
• Assumes  
• Alleges 
• Denies 
• Speculates  
• Disregards 
• Supposes  
• Conjectures  
• Surmises 

Abrams’ analysis disregards the neurochemical factors that contribute to culture shock (36)

Chakrabarty speculates that “metaphase is the most important stage of mitosis” (78)

Slight reservations held - probably true but being cautious

Reporting verb.

• Notes 
• Suggests 
• Challenges 
• Critiques  
• Emphasises 
• Declares 
• Indicates 
• Comments 
• Upholds  

Abrams asserts that theories of culture shock have moved away from psychological explanations.

Chakrabarty emphasises the role of metaphase within mitosis (78)

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List of Reporting Verbs in Academic Writing

200 reporting verbs for students and academics.

• Albert Einstein agrees that...
• Albert Einstein and Arthur Patschke agree that...

Just for fun, we've added game of hangman, which selects a verb from this list as the secret word. Reporting verbs (also known as "verbs of attribution") are an essential aspect of academic writing, as they allow writers to clearly attribute ideas and information to their original sources. In academic writing, it is important to properly credit the sources of any ideas, facts, or data that are not the writer's own. Reporting verbs are verbs that indicate who said or wrote the information being presented, such as "argued," "claimed," "explained," "stated," or "suggested."

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Reporting Verbs in English: List with Examples & Exercises

Reporting verbs are used when you want to tell someone about another conversation. We also call this reported speech or indirect speech. Two examples of reporting verbs are say and tell. There are many others and these have different meanings and grammar structures. In this study guide, we’ll look at examples of these verbs and show you how to use them correctly. We’ll also look at reporting verbs to improve your academic writing. Let’s go!

What are reporting verbs?

Reporting verbs list.

• How do I use them?

Reporting verbs in academic writing

• Test your knowledge: exercises

What you will learn: 

Reporting verbs (or referring verbs) are words used to report about (or refer to) what another person has said, written or done. These verbs are used in reported speech, which can be direct or indirect.

The first reporting verbs that English students learn are usually say and tell . For example compare i) and ii) below:

• “It’s my birthday next weekend. Please, make a birthday cake for me!” Charlotte said to her mum ( direct speech)

Charlotte told her mum to make a birthday cake for her. ( indirect speech)

There are many other reporting verbs in English. These can be particularly useful in formal and academic writing.

General reporting verbs

In this table, we have listed out some common reporting verbs that are used in everyday English. To help you understand how to correctly place them in a sentence, we have put them into approximate categories based on their most common usage. However, you should remember that some of these reporting verbs can be used in difference contexts and sometimes with different grammar structures.

Academic reporting verbs

In the table below, we’ve listed out the reporting verbs in groups based on their general meanings. We have also indicated the relative “strength” of each verb. For example, if I imply (suggest/hint, weak) that you are wrong, this is very different from if I assert (state/say, strong) that you are wrong. Remember that English is seldom “black vs. white” – there are often several degrees of meaning.

How do I use reporting verbs?

Understanding what the verbs mean is generally the easiest step. You see a new word, you learn what the word means in your own language and you learn how to pronounce it in English. In actual fact, you can only really say you’ve learnt a word when you also know how to accurately use it in a sentence.

Let’s return to our example with Charlotte’s birthday cake:

 “It’s my birthday next weekend. Make a birthday cake for me,” Charlotte said to her mum ( direct speech)

Easy, right? Now let’s consider that there are many other ways that Charlotte could say this in English. Depending on what she said and how she said it, you might need to use a different reporting verb, not just say or tell . For example:

• If you want to express the idea of “ Don’t forget ” “ Don’t forget to make a birthday cake for me.” Charlotte reminded her mum to make a cake.
• If you want to express the idea of “ No, I don’t want to do something ” (i) “ I’m not going to make my own birthday cake!” Charlotte said that she wouldn’t make her own cake.(ii) “ I’m not going to make my birthday cake. You can do it!” Charlotte refused to make a cake. (iii) “I’ve got lots of work to do this weekend and I might be too busy for other things”Charlotte hinted that she wouldn’t make the cake.  

In these sentences, there are three different verbs (say, hint, refuse). They all mean “no” but say is a neutral verb, hint is a weak verb, and refuse is much stronger .

• If you want to express the idea of “Please do this!” “ Can you make a birthday cake for me, please ?” Charlotte asked her mum to make a cake. “ Please, please, please, can you make a cake for my birthday?” Charlotte begged her mum to make a cake (or) Charlotte pleaded with her mum to make a birthday cake. Ask, plead and beg all have a similar meaning, but plead and beg are much stronger than ask.

Learning words in English is like collecting bricks to build a house. It’s not enough just to get the bricks. You also need to learn how to arrange them correctly so that your house is solid! You can’t build a good house from just a couple of bricks (e.g. say and tell). That’s why you need to learn more vocabulary – like reporting verbs. We don’t want the Big Bad Wolf to blow your house down!

Let’s take a look at HOW to use reporting verbs in real sentences. Below, we have divided the verbs into their different grammar structures so they are easier for you to learn.

1. Reporting verb + infinitive

Verbs: Refuse, decide, promise, demand, agree, threaten, plead with Examples:

• Charlotte refused to make a cake. ( NOT : Charlotte refused making a cake)
• My boss decided to give me a promotion.
• The teacher demanded to know who was responsible for the mess.
• We agreed to keep quiet and not tell anyone the news. (or) We agreed that we would keep quiet.
• We threatened to go to the police.
• They pleaded with the man to release the hostage.

2. Reporting verb + somebody + (not) infinitive

Verbs : remind, ask, beg, warn , order, encourage, persuade, advise, urge, agree Examples :

• Charlotte reminded her mum to make a cake.
• They asked me to cook
• He begged his friend not to tell
• They warned me not to go there by myself.
• The government has ordered everybody to stay at home.
• Her parents always encourage her to work
• They persuaded me to stay for another drink.
• The doctor advised me to stop
• Our new neighbours have invited us to have dinner with them tomorrow.

3. Reporting verb + verb +ing

Verbs: Deny, suggest, recommend, report, propose, admit

These verbs can be used with +ing or with that , but it’s generally better to be concise and use the +ing verb. Short and sweet! Examples :

• They denied taking the last biscuit. (short) (or) They denied that they had taken the last biscuit. (long)
• She admitted stealing the money. (or) She admitted that she had stolen the money. / She admitted to me that she had stolen the money.
• She suggested taking a taxi because it would be quicker. (or) She suggested that we took a taxi.
• I recommend going in the morning when the weather isn’t so hot. (or) I recommend ( that) we go in the morning.
• I propose cancelling the next meeting until we have made a decision. (or) I propose that we cancel the next meeting.

4. Reporting verb + preposition + verb + ing

Verbs: Blame smbd for, accuse smbd of, insist on, apologise for, complain about, confess to, forbid smbd from, agree to, think about Examples :

• They blamed me for missing the train.
• She accused her friend of
• He apologised for breaking the window.
• She is thinking about moving to France.
• He insisted on paying for everybody. / He insisted that he paid for everybody.
• They complained about not having a small hotel room. / They complained that they didn’t have a bigger room.

The reporting verbs we use in academic writing also follow specific grammatical patterns. Again, it is important to know whether the verb needs +ing, the infinitive , or that after it.

5. Academic reporting verb + that

Verbs: Point out, find, observe , state, agree, believe, assert, claim, contend, explain, guess, assert, imply, reason, prove, note, report, reveal.

• Bosley (2017) found that elderly patients experience fewer symptoms of pain when they have regular access to some form of nature. (or) Bosley (2017) found a link between symptoms and access to nature. ( find smth )
• Martinez (2008) and Zhang (2009) agree that … (or) Martinez (2008) and Zhang (2009) agree with this theory . ( agree with + smth/smbd )
• Persson (2003) claims that a community is impossible without a shared aim.
• Research conducted by Bradwell in 2017 revealed that there was a considerable difference in the amount of time UK and US teenagers spent with their families. (or) Research conducted by Bradwell in 2017 revealed a considerable difference in the amount of time UK and US teenagers spent with their families.

6. Academic reporting verb + smth

Verbs: Develop, study, focus on, acknowledge, doubt, contribute to, echo, subscribe to, question, disapprove of, dispute, reject, discuss, investigate, illustrate, present, outline, put forward, consider, support, emphasise, challenge, analyse, discard, identify, explore, propose, highlight, stress. Examples:

• Wang (2016) supports the idea that there is a significant link between play and child development. NOT : Wang (2016) supports that there is a significant link between play and child development.  
• Roberts (2018) identifies three possible factors in early diagnosis.
• Solara (2015) questions the importance of this approach. (or) Solara (2015)  questions whether this approach is important.
• Barboza (2018) rejects the three factors presented by Solara.
• Miller (2016) discusses this theory in detail. NOT : Miller (2016) discusses about this theory in detail

In academic writing, reporting verbs are used when you want to refer to what another person has said. You do this to strengthen your own argument and to show that other academics think the same as you.

It would be easy to just learn the verb “to state”, and use this all the time. However, using a range of other verbs can allow you to express your opinion about the author’s idea more precisely. For example, “to state” is quite neutral , but “to claim” implies that there is no proof behind what the author is saying.

Past or present tense?

You can use both the past and the present tense in academic writing.

If you are talking about recent research, use the present. This makes a connection between past research and now, which adds weight to your argument.

• Wang (2016) support s the idea that there is a significant link between play and child development. (present simple)

If you are talking about how research was conducted, you will need to use the past simple (either active or passive voice).

• Wang (2016) examin ed fifty groups of siblings. (past simple) The siblings were asked the following questions. (passive voice)

Avoid these common mistakes!

• It’s possible to express someone’s opinion using “According to…”. This does not need a reporting verb. “According to” does the job of a reporting verb already. e.g. “According to Covey (2017)…” (Not: “ According to Covey (2017) states that… ”)
• A source written by one author will need a singular verb with “-s” at the end e.g. “Liu (2016) suggest s that…” (Not: “ Liu (2016) suggest that… ”)
• A source written by more than one author will need a plural verb. e.g. “Liu and Helzer (2016) suggest that…” (Not: “ Liu and Helzer (2016) suggests that… ”)
• If you use “et al.” to indicate multiple authors, this will also require a plural verb as it means “they”. e.g. “Rosenberg et al. (2018) argue that…” (Not: “ Rosenberg et al. (2018) argues that…” )

Reporting verbs: Exercises

• Why didn’t you _____________ me that you don’t eat meat? a) say.  b) tell
• I didn’t ____________ anything to you, because I was too worried. a) tell.    b) say
• We __________ them to meet us in the main square at half past eleven. a) told.  b) said
• You should ________ her that you don’t want to go on holiday. a) say.  b) tell
• Are you going to ___________ anything to Sue about your good news? a) say.  b) tell
• They have ________ that we will need to bring our own bed linen and towels. a) told.    b) said

Which of these sentences are right and which are wrong? Choose correct or incorrect.

• She suggested to study together for the exam. a . Correct    b. Incorrect
• I said you not to do that. a. Correct    b. Incorrect
• I didn’t tell anyone anything. a . Correct.  b . Incorrect
• We have decided live in the countryside. a. Correct    b. Incorrect
• My grandmother always encouraged to learn to cook. a. Correct    b. Incorrect

Choose the correct verb to complete the sentences.

• She invited me ________ to her house for a drink after work. a. go    b. going  c. to go
• She asked me _________ some money. a. lending    b. to lend    c . to lend her
• They persuaded me _________ to London with them. a. go    b. to go    c. of going
• He advised _______ more exercise. a. I do    b. me to do    c. me doing
• He begged me not _______ anybody about the accident. a. of telling    b. tell    c. to tell
• He reminded ________ to renew the car insurance. a . to me    b. me    c. of me
• She refused _______ the washing-up again! a. me to do    b. to do.  c. doing
• She apologised _________ me an angry text message. a. of sending. b. for sending    c. sending
• He admitted ________ the red wine on the sofa. a. spilling    b. to spill    c. spill of
• He suggested _________ on a cycling holiday next year. a. go    b . going c. we going
• He denied _________ my car. a. taking    b . to take    c. taking of
• She decided __________ the risotto. a. having.  b. to have    c. to having

Exercise 1:

Exercise 2:

• b. Incorrect (She suggested studying together for the exam.)
• b. Incorrect (I told you not to do that.)
• b. Incorrect (We have decided to live in the countryside.)
• b. Incorrect (My grandmother always encouraged me to learn to cook.)

Exercise 3:

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APA 7: Verb Tense and Reporting Verbs

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The past tense or present perfect tense are appropriate when discussing a researcher’s work. Use the past or present perfect tenses in your in-text citations.

Berry (2022) and Gimmel et al. (2020) discovered that young people in foster care are at high risk for psychiatric disorders and poor long-term functional outcomes.

Wood (2018) and Winter (2008) used tribal critical race theory to explore the necessity and importance of letting Native people be the authority on their culture’s representation and allowing them to center their lived experiences and speak for themselves.

Present Perfect

Researchers have discovered that young people in foster care are at high risk for psychiatric disorders and poor long-term functional outcomes ( Berry, 2022; Gimmel et al., 2020) .

Other scholars have used tribal critical race theory to explore the necessity and importance of letting Native people be the authority on their culture’s representation and allowing them to center their lived experiences and speak for themselves (Wood, 2018; Writer, 2008).

Common Verbs (Reporting Verbs) Used in Academic Writing

Reporting verbs are used to convey what someone else has said or written. We use these in in-text citations to describe the ideas we are citing from authors’ works.

Tentative Reporting Verbs

Reporting verb handout.

• Verb Tense & Reporting Verbs

The information on this page formatted as a handout that can be printed for convenient reference as you write.

Neutral Reporting Verbs

Strong reporting verbs.

Adapted from American Psychological Association publication manual (7th ed.).

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 Reporting verbs

There are many different reporting verbs in academic English writing. Here is a list of the most common reporting verbs, what they mean and sample sentences to show you how they can be used.

Popular academic reporting verbs

Casts doubt on, demonstrates, hypothesises, provides evidence, puts forward, sentence examples of academic verbs.

Wills (2020) states that genetically modified (GM) food can be harmful for the body.  (says directly)

Jones (2018) mentions the importance of building restoration to a country’s economy.  (refers to briefly)

Harris (2021) suggests that Bitcoin has no value whatsoever. (says indirectly that something is true)  

Ackroyd et al. (2020) questions whether the use of facial recognition software is ethical. (suggests it is inaccurate)

Krashen (1981) discusses that language acquisition does not need extensive use of grammar rules. (to examine the key points)

Samuel and Preston (2021) argue that the increase spending for councils in England is not adequate enough to address the issues in the care sector. (they give reasons for their view)

Watson (2021)  claims that he has had a major breakthrough in the fight against cancer.  (says something is true directly, and firmly, often used when others disagree)

Asprey (2018) emphasises that exercise is a powerful anti-aging tool. (to highlight an important point)

Banks (2021) explains how the UK government plans to launch a rocket into orbit next year. (give clear details about something)

Parker (2019) concludes that a reduction in the manufacturing of single-use plastics is necessary to reduce plastic pollution. (the final point or summary)

Robinson and Williams (2022) reject the claims that 5G technology poses a threat to humans. (disagree with somebody or a theory)

Dawes et al. (2021) points out that a quarter of all adults in the UK used mobile payments in 2020. (states but does not develop at length)

Madley (2022) notes that robots will be an important investment in most industries.   (to say just briefly)

  Updated 2022

Reporting Verbs Worksheet

Reporting verbs: worksheet 

 Use the verbs in the box to put into the sentences in the worksheet. Each sentence has a description of the type of verb needed. Check the grammar of the verb too! TEACHER MEMBERSHIP  / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Reporting verbs

Academic writing requires you to use citations to refer to the original source when you have used someone else’s ideas or concepts in your writing.

One of the most common ways to incorporate these citations into your writing is to use reporting verbs to help you to present the information.

The use of reporting verbs in your written academic work can help to reflect your attitudes to the 'sourced information' or help you to voice your opinions/arguments better in your assignment work.

There is a wide variety of reporting verbs in the English language, some of which are detailed below:

Part 1: Advanced ways to show your attitude

Reporting verbs are a way for you, the writer, to show your attitude towards the source of information you are citing. These attitudes are either ‘ positive ’, ‘ negative ’ or ‘ neutral ’.

Do you agree with what the author has said? If so, use reporting verbs with a positive meaning to them. Here are some reporting verbs that tend to be positive:

Do you disagree with what the author has said? In this case, you can use a negative reporting verb to indicate this. Here are some reporting verbs used when there is a belief that the literature is incorrect:

Perhaps you feel neutral about the source you are citing. In this situation, you should use a neutral reporting verb. Here are some reporting verbs that tend to be neutral:

Keep in mind that there are many more reporting verbs you can use to more fully express how you feel about the sources you are using in your essays and papers. Adapted from:  The Independent Learning Centre  (opens external site), Chinese University, Hong Kong, n.d.  Reporting verbs , viewed 26 October 2012

Part 2: Your "writer's" voice

Academic writing at university normally requires you to use multiple information sources, and to evaluate the quality of these ideas. One important tool for doing this is reporting verbs.

Reporting verbs tell us that someone said something. However, careful selection of reporting verbs can help show your assessment of the quality of what they have said. This is a vital academic skill. It not only helps turn ordinary Pass-level work into much better work, but it also develops your critical thinking skills.

Reporting verbs can show your opinion of others’ ideas:

• a belief that the literature is correct (stronger position)
• a neutral attitude towards the veracity of the literature (i.e. neither correct nor incorrect – neutral position)
• a belief that the literature is incorrect (weaker position)

The grammar of reporting verbs

Reporting verbs have simple basic grammar. However, it can be confusing because there are two basic patterns.  Some reporting verbs belong to one pattern, some to the other, and some to both.

Pattern 1: Verb + Noun (noun phrase) The authors show the devastating results of this policy (Smith and Jones 2008, p. 12). For example: Gillard (2012) indicated her negative opinion of Abbott’s proposal. Pinker (2002) frequently approves of Chomsky’s theories.

Pattern 2: Verb + That + clause (i.e. sentence) Examples: The authors show that this policy had 'devastating economic results' (Smith & Jones 2008, p. 12). Gillard (2012) indicated that Abbott’s proposal was untenable in her opinion.

Reporting verbs are normally present simple – especially for recent articles and books. For example: Turner (2010) states that the modern nation wields more power in new ways. However, use the past tense if presenting the results of past research – even in recent literature. For example: The groups observed during the research showed a range of leadership styles (Kang 2006).

Adapted from:

Office of Student Success 2010, Reporting verbs , Australian Catholic University, viewed 17 October 2012. (opens external site) University of Adelaide,  Common reporting verbs for academic writing   (PDF 80kB, four pages) , viewed 25 October 2012.

UTS acknowledges the Gadigal people of the Eora Nation, the Boorooberongal people of the Dharug Nation, the Bidiagal people and the Gamaygal people, upon whose ancestral lands our university stands. We would also like to pay respect to the Elders both past and present, acknowledging them as the traditional custodians of knowledge for these lands.

Reporting verbs

Academic writing must draw on ideas from other scholarly sources. You can refer to these sources in your writing using reporting verbs. 

The reporting verb you choose can show the original author’s view or your view of the ideas. This shows the marker that you can understand and evaluate the source. 

Reporting verbs can be tentative, neutral or strong. Some verbs can fit in more than one category. Each reporting verb has a different meaning, so use a dictionary to check that you have chosen the right verb for your context.

Tentative reporting verbs

Tentative reporting verbs indicate less certainty and acknowledge other views may exist. 

Example sentence: Jones (2019) suggests that water pollution damages children’s health.

Neutral reporting verbs

Neutral reporting verbs describe the information as fact and tell the reader that you consider the source to be credible.

Example sentence: Watson (2018) notes that water pollution damages children’s health.

Strong reporting verbs

Strong reporting verbs can be used for information that is not factual but supported by sound evidence.

Example sentence: Adams (2016) disagrees with Jones (2019) and rejects the idea that water pollution damages children’s health.

Common reporting verbs

The following table categorises reporting verbs by their strength.

Grammar of reporting verbs

Many reporting verbs are followed by ‘that’.

Example: Wallis (2019) argues that the policy failed to protect children.

However, some reporting verbs follow other patterns.

Example: Papadopoulos (2016) rejects the idea that the policy was a failure.

Check a dictionary if you are not sure how to use a particular reporting verb.

Reporting verbs are usually written in the present tense .

Example: Playing golf appears to have significant benefits for a person’s physical and mental health (Woods & Norman, 2018).

Use the past tense when reporting specific findings of a previous study or describing how the study was conducted.

Example: The authors examined the relationship between golf and heart disease. Fifty professional golfers participated in the study.

Use the present perfect tense when summarising research with general subjects (e.g., “Researchers have found…”).

Example: Several studies have found that playing golf can reduce the risk of falls in the elderly (Brown, 2018; Green, 2019; White, 2018). 

Pathfinder link

Still have questions? Do you want to talk to an expert? Peer Learning Advisors or Academic Skills and Language Advisors  are available.

Content on this page adapted from:

The Robert Gillespie Academic Skills Centre. (n.d.). Reporting verbs. https://www.utm.utoronto.ca/asc/sites/files/asc/public/shared/pdf/tip_sheets_writing/Reporting_Verbs_web_v1_XH.pdf Used under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

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Reporting Verbs

In academic writing (and to a lesser extent, academic speaking) it will often be necessary to refer to the research of others and to report on their findings. In order to do so, we have to use reporting verbs such as 'Evans (1994) suggests that....'; 'Brown (2001) argues that....'.

The difficulty with using reporting verbs is that there are many different verbs, and each of them has slightly different, and often subtle shades of meaning. Using the correct words relies, as much as anything, on making the correct interpretation of what the writer you are studying is saying.

1. What are the different reporting verbs that can be used?

2. What are some of the main language points that need to be considered when using reporting verbs?

3. Example 1 : reporting verbs in an extract of academic writing

Reporting verbs differ in terms of their strength; for example, 'to suggest' is much weaker, and more tentative, than 'to argue'. The two verbs convey very different pictures about how the author you are studying sees his or her materials and research.

Some reporting verbs are used principally to say what the writer does and does not do. These verbs do not indicate any value judgement on the part of the writer; they are called 'neutral' reporting verbs.

A second group of verbs is used to show when the writer has an inclination to believe something but still wishes to be hesitant; we call these 'tentative' reporting verbs.

Finally, if the writer has strong arguments to put forward and is absolutely sure of his or her ground, we can use 'strong' reporting verbs to refer to these ideas.

Obviously, it is important (when we read) to ensure that we interpret the writer's ideas correctly. For instance, if we say 'Jones (1999) argues' rather than 'Jones (1999) suggests', this is a major difference of meaning. The first indicates strength, the second tentativity. It is very important, in academic writing, not to misinterpret a writer's intentions when we are reporting them.

In the table below, the main reporting verbs in English are classified in terms of their function, and their strength.

  2.   What are some of the main language points that need to be considered when using reporting verbs?

• The structure of sentences when using reporting verbs can vary, and can be flexible; for example:
• It is possible (and often quite attractive stylistically) to invert the subject and verb when reporting:

e.g. Thermodynamics, argues Jones (1999), is..

• Reporting the work of others often needs an extra sentence introduction or 'lead-in':
• It is important to remember to put the final 's' on the verb when the subject is 'he/she'.
• Very often, in academic writing, reporting takes place in the present tense , as in the examples above; this is because of the need to bring past research into the present moment.
• If you have used the verb 'said' very often in your writing, try to replace this with something more descriptive and precise.
• The words 'mention' or 'reckon' are informal and are often best replaced with a more formal equivalent.
• Other informal verbs of saying that are best avoided in academic writing are: 'come up with', 'guess', etc.
• As regards referencing, it is usually best to put the year of publication straight after the name used, before going on with the sentence. The page reference can then be placed at the end of the sentence.

Reporting Verbs – Usage, List of Examples & Worksheet

| Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond studied Advanced Writing & Editing Essentials at MHC. She’s been an International and USA TODAY Bestselling Author for over a decade. And she’s worked as an Editor for several mid-sized publications. Candace has a keen eye for content editing and a high degree of expertise in Fiction.

Do you recall telling a friend what someone else said? You probably used a reporting verb in your story. What is a reporting verb? Good question and I’ve got the answer for you!

I use reporting verbs like say, tell, and state when talking about what other people have said.

But reporting verbs can be challenging because of the subtle shades of meaning and structure of sentences. I’ll teach you the common usage of reporting verbs and the meaning of strong, neutral, and weak reporting verbs.

What Are Reporting Verbs?

A reporting verb in academic writing is used to talk about or report someone else’s actions, works, or activities. Its usage is essential when you need to comment on someone’s research, agree or disagree with their arguments, and evaluate their claims.

Consider this example to see how these verbs are used.

• Direct speech: The students said, “We want Science!”
• Indirect speech: The students said they wanted Science.

In the second sentence, the reporting verb said is used to report that the students want Science.

Here’s another example of how to report indirect questions.

• Direct speech: “Have you read my email?”
• Indirect speech: She asked me If I had read her email.

The reporting verb used is asked because the direct speech uses real questions.

Other examples of reporting verbs include describe, show, reveal, note, indicate, report, and assume. Some informal verbs like come up with and guess are not recommended in formal writing.

Usage of Reporting Verbs

Reporting verbs follow specific patterns for their sentence structure. For instance, say uses the basic verb pattern:

• Say + ( that ) + clause

Here are some examples of usage of the reporting verb say.

• Mia said she had already eaten.
• Lily said she had known her before.

Another common reporting verb is tell. The correct verb form is:

• Tell + someone + ( that ) + clause

Here’s an example of the grammar usage of tell.

• I told Rain to visit me.

Some reporting verbs like agree and offer only use the verb infinitive instead of the verb object infinitive pattern. For example:

• I offered to give him a ride.

Accuse and congratulate follow the verb object preposition gerund pattern. For example:

• They accused the man of stealing the bread.

This example shows a change in the original verb form.

• Direct speech: “I will come to the event.”
• Indirect speech: He said he would come to the event.

The reported speech changes to the use of would. A simple future tense verb in direct speech uses this modal verb for indirect speech.

Remember to use a singular verb with an -s ending if the subject is singular and a plural verb if the subject is plural. For example:

• She suggests that dinner parties should be hosted every Friday.
• They suggest that dinner parties should be hosted every Friday.

What Are the Most Common Reporting Verbs?

There is a wide range of reporting verbs used for different purposes. Below is a reporting verb list used for suggestions.

• Hypothesize

This list shows examples of reporting verbsthat show persuasion.

Here’s a list of academic reporting verbs.

• Casts doubt on

Strength of Reporting Verbs

Some verbs are stronger in their functions, while others are weaker. Let’s look at how strong and weak reporting verbs differ.

• The author assumes that verb patterns vary according to the reporting verb.
• The author insists that verb patterns vary according to the reporting verb.

Both assume and insist have similar definitions. But there are differences in meaning in terms of strength. The verb assume is weaker compared to insist. However, English is not black or white but a spectrum showing degrees of meaning.

Strong Reporting Verbs

Use strong reporting verbs for stronger arguments and claims. Here are some strong reporting verb examples.

• Believe that

Here are some examples of strong reporting verbs in sentences.

• She asserted that the speech lesson plan was not effective.
• The judge maintained that his role would be to oversee the entire project.

Neutral Reporting Verbs

A neutral reporting verb says what another person describes, refers to, or discusses. The table below lists some neutral reporting verbs.

• Demonstrate

Here are some sentences that use neutral reporting verbs.

• The teacher mentioned that she had been working on the speech quiz and speech worksheet.
• Eric stated that he could speak perfect Spanish.

Weak Reporting Verbs

Weak reporting verbs suggest much weaker functions. Check out this weak verbs list.

Here are sentence examples that use weak reporting verbs.

• Linda guessed that subject-verb agreement is a common student error.
• She hoped she could play the piano when she was in high school.

Reporting Words Summary

The grammar of reporting verbs is easier than you think. Use this type of verb when reporting or discussing what another person said.

I hope my guide helped you understand the difference in meaning between strong and weak reporting verbs and their correct sentence structure. Hopefully, it also allowed you to construct any normal sentence with this type of verb.

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Unit 3: Summarizing and Responding to Writing

15 Reporting Verbs

Using reporting verbs effectively.

Words like “says” and “discusses” are often overused when reporting information from sources. See the chart below for alternatives to these verbs.

Be careful with the phrasing after your reporting verb.

Many reporting verbs can be followed by “that:”

• Experts agree that mobile devices can be distracting in the classroom.
• Gambino claims that …
• X concludes that …
• X emphasizes that …
• X implies that …
• X maintains that …
• X suggests that
• X states that …

How do you know if a reporting verb is followed by “that?”

Use a learner’s dictionary, like the Oxford Learners Dictionary . to see which words  collocate with that verb.

However, some reporting verbs cannot be followed by “that:”

Some reporting verbs can be followed by “about:”

• X talks about …
• X writes about …

However, some reporting verbs cannot be followed by “about:”

Some reporting verbs collocate (go together) with specific words:

• agrees with
• agrees or disagrees with the idea that
• asks if/whether
• challenges the notion/idea that
• disputes the notion/idea that
• disagrees with
• explains how/why

Tip: Use the Skell Sketch Engine Corpus to see examples of how reporting verbs can be used.

Academic Writing I Copyright © by UW-Madison ESL Program is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What Are Reporting Verbs in English Grammar?

Different Tenses Offer Different Effects

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• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In English grammar , a reporting verb is a  verb (such as say, tell, believe, reply, respond, or ask ) used to indicate that discourse is being quoted or paraphrased . It's also called a  communication verb .

"[T]he number of reporting verbs that can be employed to mark  paraphrases  is around a dozen," author Eli Hinkel reported, "and they can be learned with relative ease while working on a writing assignment (e.g.,  the author says, states, indicates, comments, notes, observes, believes, points out, emphasizes, advocates, reports, concludes, underscores, mentions, finds ), not to mention phrases with similar textual functions such as  according to the author, as the author states/indicates, in the author's view/opinion/understanding,  or  as noted/stated/mentioned ."

Tenses and Their Uses

Most often, reporting verbs, such as seen in fiction to show dialogue, are in the past tense, because as soon as a speaker says something, it is literally in the past. 

George Carlin illustrates this in this example of reported speech: "I went to a bookstore and  asked  the saleswoman, 'Where's the self-help section?' She  said  if she  told  me, it would defeat the purpose."

To contrast with words spoken once, putting a reporting verb in the present tense is used to show an adage, something that someone has said in the past and continues to say or presently believes. For example: "She always says how he's not good enough for you."

Next, a reporting verb may be in the historical present tense (to refer to an event that took place in the past). The historical present is often used for dramatic effect or immediacy, to place the reader right in the scene. The technique should be used sparingly, so you don't create confusion, but its use can make for a dramatic lead to a story, for example. "The year is 1938, the place, Paris. The soldiers smash shop windows and run through the street and yell ..." 

You also use reporting verbs in the literary present tense (to refer to any aspect of a work of literature). This is because no matter what year you watch a particular movie or read a book, the events always unfold in the same way. The characters always say the same thing in the same order. For example, if you're writing on "Hamlet," you might write, "Hamlet shows his anguish when he speaks his 'To be' soliloquy." Or if you're reviewing fantastic movie lines, you might write, "Who can forget when Humphrey Bogart says  to Ingrid Bergman, 'Here's looking at you, kid' in 'Casablanca'?" 

Don't Overuse Reporting Verbs

When you're writing dialogue, if the identity of a speaker is clear from the context , such as in a back-and-forth conversation between two people, the reporting phrase is often omitted; it doesn't have to be used with each line of dialogue, just enough times to make sure the reader doesn't get lost as far as who's speaking, such as if the conversation is long or if a third party interjects. And if the lines of conversation are short, using a bunch of "he said" "she said" gets distracting for the reader. It's more effective to leave them out in this instance.

Overusing "creative" substitutions for, "said" can also get distracting for the reader. A reader goes by "said" quickly and doesn't lose the flow of the dialogue. Be judicious in using substitutions for "said." 

"The line of dialogue belongs to the character; the verb is the writer sticking his nose in," wrote Elmore Leonard in The New York Times .  "But  said  is far less intrusive than  grumbled, gasped, cautioned, lied . I once noticed Mary McCarthy ending a line of dialogue with 'she asseverated,' and had to stop reading to get the dictionary."

• Teaching Academic ESL Writing . Routledge, 2004
• Elmore Leonard, "Easy on the Adverbs, Exclamation Points and Especially Hooptedoodle." July 16, 2001
• Dialogue Guide Definition and Examples
• Understanding the Types of Verbs in English Grammar
• Indirect Speech Definition and Examples
• What Is the Historical Present (Verb Tense) in English?
• Constructed Dialogue in Storytelling and Conversation
• Reporting Verbs for English Language Learners
• literary present (verbs)
• Backshift (Sequence-of-Tense Rule in Grammar)
• Meaning of Tense Shift in Verbs
• Examples of Signal Phrases in Grammar and Composition
• How to Use Indirect Quotations in Writing for Complete Clarity
• Reported Speech
• Indirect Speech in the English Language
• Direct Speech Definition and Examples
• Sequence of Tenses in English Grammar
• How to Use Attribution Correctly in Journalism

How can I most effectively use reporting verbs?

This is the third and final chapter about Reporting Verbs . To complete this reader, read each chapter carefully and then unlock and complete our materials to check your understanding.   

– Discuss how to use reporting language most effectively

– Highlight the five key areas of reporting language use

– Provide examples of each area to improve language use

Chapter 1: Why are reporting verbs important in academia?

Chapter 2: Which reporting verbs and phrases are most useful?

Chapter 3: How can I most effectively use reporting verbs?

Before you begin reading...

• video and audio texts
• knowledge checks and quizzes
• skills practices, tasks and assignments

After discussing why reporting verbs are used and which reporting verbs and phrases are most common in academic writing, the final chapter in this topic deals with the issue of using such language most effectively. It’s not enough to simply remember and use a variety of reporting verbs; these verbs need to be employed accurately by the writer, which means understanding their meaning , how to manipulate their syntax and tense , how to premodify or collocate these verbs correctly, and how to avoid informal reporting language in your formal academic writing. All five of these concepts are dealt with in turn below, with examples provided to guide you in selecting appropriate reporting verbs.

As was explained in Chapter 2, reporting verbs may be categorised into their neutrality or argumentative strength. Whether the reporting verb is neutral, weak or strong in how it presents an argument all affects the meaning of the claim that’s reported in the source voice . However, it’s not only the argumentative strength of the reporting verb that must be considered, but also the meaning of the very verb itself. Remember to research each verb carefully, perhaps through dictionary or corpus investigations , before using that verb with confidence in your writing. Whether the author of the source you wish to use ‘confirms’, ‘doubts’ or ‘criticises’ can only be determined by (a) understanding the meaning of those reporting verbs, and (b) understanding the authors opinion ( stance ) about their research findings.

In addition to meaning , it’s also important to carefully consider a verb’s grammar if you wish to use that verb accurately in your writing. Verb transitivity plays an active role here, determining how many objects that verb requires. Additionally, paying attention to whether the verb necessitates a finite or non-finite clause to be grammatical is quite important too. We’ve therefore provided some example constructions and their associated reporting verbs to help you with this below.

3. Tense, Aspect and Agreement

There are three aspects of morphology that must also be considered with reporting verbs , as with any verb . The first two are tense and aspect , such as whether to use the reporting verb in the present or past tense or simple, progressive or perfect aspect. Generally here, the following quick rules for the three most common tense/aspect combinations can be followed:

a) Use the simple present to describe a generally accepted truth, whether in the past, present or future: “Smith (2010) discusses how air pollution is harmful for a person’s health”.

b) Use the simple past to describe a finding or piece of research that was completed at a specific point in the past, and for evidence that’s quite old or has perhaps already been refuted by other research: “Hofman (1966) argued that air pollution had little effect on a person’s health.”

c) Use the present perfect to include a finding that occurred at an uncertain time in the past and which is still relevant today: Lee and Lee’s (2016) research has highlighted to many scholars that air pollution is a bigger threat than first assumed.”

In addition to tense and aspect , don’t forget to correctly inflect a reporting verb for correct subject-verb agreement . For example, while it might be correct to say ‘Lee (2016) states ’, for ‘Lee and Lee (2016)’ the verb would need to be ‘ state ’.

4. Premodification and Collocation

To further alter the argumentative strength of a reporting verb , you can also premodify that verb with a number of adverbs such as ‘clearly’, ‘strongly’ or ‘somewhat’, as in the following examples:

In addition to altering the words that precede the reporting verb, don’t forget to consider also the words that immediately follow, and are required by, that verb . Such words are called collocations , and we’ve provided four of the most common collocates for you below with their associated reporting verbs:

5. Informal Reporting Verbs

Finally, remember to avoid using informal reporting verbs in your academic work, such as ‘guess’, ‘mention’, ‘reckon’, ‘say’ and any phrasal verbs such as ‘point out’. Should you remember this and every other rule that’s been mentioned over the last three chapters, and perhaps even download and complete our worksheets on this topic, you’ll soon be using reporting verbs with confidence and ease.

To reference this reader:

Academic Marker (2022)   Reporting Verbs.  Available at: https://academicmarker.com/academic-guidance/vocabulary/reporting-verbs/ (Accessed: Date Month Year).

• Newcastle University
• University of Adelaide
• University of Technology Sydney

Downloadables

Once you’ve completed all three chapters about reporting verbs , you might also wish to download our beginner, intermediate and advanced worksheets to test your progress or print for your students. These professional PDF worksheets can be easily accessed for only a few Academic Marks .

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• International

The latest on the massive solar storm

By Angela Fritz, Elise Hammond and Chris Lau, CNN

Incredible lighthouse picture from Maine

From CNN's Chris Lau

Among a flurry of surreal images capturing the dazzling auroras is one taken by Benjamin Williamson of a lighthouse in Portland, Maine.

"It's one of the most incredible things I've ever seen, the awe and wonder," Williamson told CNN.

He said he used a long-exposure technique to snap the shot, but did not edit it.

Watch the full interview with Williamson here .

Things could be about to ramp up

If you still haven't seen the aurora, hold on for another 30 minutes to an hour, according to CNN meteorologist Chad Myers.

The next wave of coronal mass ejections, or CMEs, which cause the aurora, is about to arrive, he said.

"Just wait a minute because things are going to start to ramp up here," he said, adding that the increase could arrive "anytime now." "When it comes, get outside, get ready, put your coat on."

For those who are too busy to witness the phenomenon tonight, Myers said the aurora is expected to last three nights.

Why does the aurora last for a weekend?

By CNN's Chris Lau

Generally, it takes just eight minutes for light to travel 93 million miles to the Earth from the sun, but astrophysicist Janna Levin said the energized particles causing the current wave of aurora travel a lot slower, causing the phenomenon to last for the weekend.

"Some of these mass ejections are trillions of kilograms," she said. "They're slower. So they're taking longer, but still hours, maybe tens of hours."

Here's how the solar storm looks in the South and on the East Coast

The aurora was visible across the East Coast and in the South Friday.

Here's how it looked in Chester, South Carolina.

Down in Florida, waves of color swam through the sky.

Up north in New Jersey, a purple-ish haze could be seen in the sky.

Will solar storms get more intense and risky in the future?

The answer is probably not in the short term, according to astrophysicist Hakeem Oluseyi.

He said scientists study what is constantly happening on the surface of the sun and have found a pattern.

“Geological data shows us that in the past the sun was way more active than it is today. It has cycles where it goes very quiet ... and you have events that show that the solar activity was much, much greater,” he told CNN. “So there's no evidence that we're going to see those big maxima this cycle." 

But the astrophysicist also spoke of a caveat - the limitations of modern science.

“Even though it's predictable in the short term, we still don't quite understand what creates the magnetic fields in the sun,” he said, adding: “That's why NASA has so many satellites looking at the sun.”

In Pictures: Auroras light the sky during rare solar storm

From CNN Digital's Photo Team

A series of solar flares and coronal mass ejections from the sun are creating dazzling auroras across the globe .

The rare solar storm may also disrupt communications. The last time a solar storm of this magnitude reached Earth was in October 2003, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Space Weather Prediction Center.

See more photos of the aurora from tonight.

Behind dazzling aurora could lie “real danger,” Bill Nye the Science Guy says

The massive solar storm could present “a real danger,” especially with the modern world relying so much on electricity, according to Bill Nye the Science Guy , a science educator and engineer.

Scientists are warning an increase in solar flares and coronal mass ejections from the sun have the potential to disrupt communication on Earth into the weekend. Solar flares can affect communications and GPS almost immediately because they disrupt Earth’s ionosphere, or part of the upper atmosphere. Energetic particles released by the sun can also disrupt electronics on spacecraft and affect astronauts without proper protection within 20 minutes to several hours.

In comparison to tonight's event, Nye drew comparisons with another incident in 1859, known as the Carrington Event, when telegraph communications were severely affected.

“The other thing, everybody, that is a real danger to our technological society, different from 1859, is how much we depend on electricity and our electronics and so on,” Nye said. "None of us really in the developed world could go very long without electricity."

He noted that there are systems in place to minimize the impact, but “stuff might go wrong,” stressing that not all transformers are equipped to withstand such a solar event.

“It depends on the strength of the event and it depends on how much of our infrastructures are prepared for this the sort of thing,” he said.

Bill Nye breaks down significance of the solar storm | CNN

This post has been updated with more details on solar flares' impact on electronics.

Here's where clouds will block the view of the northern lights in the US

From CNN's Angela Fritz

After an incredibly stormy week, most of the Lower 48 has clear skies to see the northern lights. But there are some areas where clouds and rainy weather are spoiling the view.

A deck of clouds is blocking the sky in the Northeast, from parts of Virginia into Maine, as an area of low pressure spins off the East Coast.

In the Midwest, the aurora will be hard to see through thick clouds in parts of Wisconsin, Michigan — including the Upper Peninsula — and Illinois.

A stripe of clouds is tracking across Texas, including Dallas-Forth Worth, and into Louisiana.

And in the Southwest, patchy clouds across the the Four Corners region could make the northern lights difficult to spot.

Aurora seen at least as far south as Georgia

Barely visible to the naked eye, the aurora can be seen in Atlanta in the 10 p.m. ET hour. 

It is easier to see through photographs using a long exposure. The photos below, taken by CNN's Eric Zerkel and Emily Smith, used 3- and 10-second exposures.

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Guest Essay

China’s Dead-End Economy Is Bad News for Everyone

By Anne Stevenson-Yang

Ms. Stevenson-Yang is a co-founder of J Capital Research and the author of “Wild Ride: A Short History of the Opening and Closing of the Chinese Economy.”

On separate visits to Beijing last month, Secretary of State Antony Blinken and Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen bore a common message : Chinese manufacturing overcapacity is flooding global markets with cheap Chinese exports, distorting world trade and leaving American businesses and workers struggling to compete.

Not surprisingly, China’s leaders did not like what they heard, and they didn’t budge. They can’t. Years of erratic and irresponsible policies, excessive Communist Party control and undelivered promises of reform have created a dead-end Chinese economy of weak domestic consumer demand and slowing growth. The only way that China’s leaders can see to pull themselves out of this hole is to fall back on pumping out exports.

That means a number of things are likely to happen, none of them good. The tide of Chinese exports will continue, tensions with the United States and other trading partners will grow, China’s people will become increasingly unhappy with their gloomy economic prospects and anxious Communist Party leaders will respond with more repression.

The root of the problem is the Communist Party’s excessive control of the economy, but that’s not going to change. It is baked into China’s political system and has only worsened during President Xi Jinping’s decade in power. New strategies for fixing the economy always rely on counterproductive mandates set by the government: Create new companies, build more industrial capacity. The strategy that most economists actually recommend to drive growth — freeing up the private sector and empowering Chinese consumers to spend more — would mean overhauling the way the government works, and that is unacceptable.

The party had a golden opportunity to change in 1989, when the Tiananmen Square protests revealed that the economic reforms that had begun a decade earlier had given rise to a growing private sector and a desire for new freedoms. But to liberalize government institutions in response would have undermined the party’s power. Instead, China’s leaders chose to shoot the protesters, further tighten party control and get hooked on government investment to fuel the economy.

For a long time, no one minded. When economic or social threats reared their heads, like global financial crises in 1997 and 2007, Chinese authorities poured money into industry and the real estate sector to pacify the people. The investment-driven growth felt good, but it was much more than the country could digest and left China’s landscape scarred with empty cities and industrial parks, unfinished bridges to nowhere, abandoned highways and amusement parks, and airports with few flights.

The investment in industrial capacity also generated an explosion in exports as China captured industries previously dominated by foreign manufacturers — mobile phones, television sets, solar panels, lithium-ion batteries and electric vehicles. Much of the Chinese economic “miracle” was powered by American, European and Japanese companies that willingly transferred their technical know-how to their Chinese partners in exchange for what they thought would be access to a permanently growing China market. This decimated manufacturing in the West, even as China protected its own markets. But the West let it slide: The cheap products emanating from China kept U.S. inflation at bay for a generation, and the West clung to the hope that China’s economic expansion would eventually lead to a political liberalization that never came.

To raise money for the government investment binge, Beijing allowed local authorities to collateralize land — all of which is ultimately owned or controlled by the state — and borrow money against it. This was like a drug: Local governments borrowed like crazy, but with no real plan for paying the money back. Now many are so deep in debt that they have been forced to cut basic services like heating, health care for senior citizens and bus routes . Teachers aren’t being paid on time, and salaries for civil servants have been lowered in recent years. Millions of people all over China are paying mortgages on apartments that may never be finished . Start-ups are folding , and few people, it seems, can find jobs.

To boost employment, the party over the past couple of years has been telling local governments to push the establishment of new private businesses, with predictable consequences: In one county in northern China, a village secretary eager to comply with Beijing’s wishes reportedly asked relatives and friends to open fake companies. One villager opened three tofu shops in a week; another person applied for 20 new business licenses.

When mandates like that fail to create jobs, the party monkeys with the employment numbers. When monthly government data revealed last year that 21 percent of Chinese youth in urban areas were unemployed, authorities stopped publishing the figures. It resumed early this year, but with a new methodology for defining unemployment . Presto! The number dropped to 15 percent.

But Mr. Xi’s policy options are dwindling.

With the real estate market imploding, the government can no longer risk goosing the property sector. It has begun touting a revival in domestic consumption , but many Chinese are merely hunkering down and hoarding assets such as gold against an uncertain future. So the government is again falling back on manufacturing, pouring money into industrial capacity in hopes of pushing out more products to keep the economy going. With domestic demand anemic, many of those products have to be exported.

But the era when China was able to take over whole industries without foreign pushback is over. Many countries are now taking steps to protect their markets from Chinese-made goods. Under U.S. pressure, Mexico’s government last month reportedly decided it would not award subsidies to Chinese electric vehicle makers seeking to manufacture in Mexico for export to the U.S. market; the European Union is considering action to prevent Chinese electric vehicles from swamping its market; and the Biden administration has moved to encourage semiconductor manufacturing in the United States and limit Chinese access to chip technologies, and has promised more actions to thwart China.

China won’t be able to innovate its way out of this. Its economic model still largely focuses on cheaply replicating existing technologies, not on the long-term research that results in industry-leading commercial breakthroughs. All that leaves is manufacturing in volume.

China’s leaders will face rising economic pressure to lower the value of the renminbi, which will make Chinese-made goods even cheaper in U.S. dollar terms, further boosting export volume and upsetting trading partners even more. But a devaluation will also make imports of foreign products and raw materials more expensive, squeezing Chinese consumers and businesses while encouraging wealthier people to get their money out of China. The government can’t turn to economic stimulus measures to revive growth — pouring more renminbi into the economy would risk crushing the currency’s value.

All of this means that the “reform and opening” era, which has transformed China and captivated the world since it began in the late 1970s, has ended with a whimper.

Mao Zedong once said that in an uncertain world, the Chinese must “Dig tunnels deep, store grain everywhere and never seek hegemony.” That sort of siege mentality is coming back.

Anne Stevenson-Yang ( @doumenzi ) is a co-founder and the research director of J Capital Research, a stock analysis firm. She spent 25 years in China as an entrepreneur, analyst and trade advocate.

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