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April 11, 2013

15 min read

The Reading Brain in the Digital Age: The Science of Paper versus Screens

E-readers and tablets are becoming more popular as such technologies improve, but research suggests that reading on paper still boasts unique advantages

By Ferris Jabr

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In a viral YouTube video from October 2011 a one-year-old girl sweeps her fingers across an iPad's touchscreen, shuffling groups of icons. In the following scenes she appears to pinch, swipe and prod the pages of paper magazines as though they too were screens. When nothing happens, she pushes against her leg, confirming that her finger works just fine—or so a title card would have us believe. The girl's father, Jean-Louis Constanza , presents "A Magazine Is an iPad That Does Not Work" as naturalistic observation—a Jane Goodall among the chimps moment—that reveals a generational transition. "Technology codes our minds," he writes in the video's description. "Magazines are now useless and impossible to understand, for digital natives"—that is, for people who have been interacting with digital technologies from a very early age. Perhaps his daughter really did expect the paper magazines to respond the same way an iPad would. Or maybe she had no expectations at all—maybe she just wanted to touch the magazines. Babies touch everything . Young children who have never seen a tablet like the iPad or an e-reader like the Kindle will still reach out and run their fingers across the pages of a paper book; they will jab at an illustration they like; heck, they will even taste the corner of a book. Today's so-called digital natives still interact with a mix of paper magazines and books, as well as tablets, smartphones and e-readers; using one kind of technology does not preclude them from understanding another. Nevertheless, the video brings into focus an important question: How exactly does the technology we use to read change the way we read? How reading on screens differs from reading on paper is relevant not just to the youngest among us , but to just about everyone who reads—to anyone who routinely switches between working long hours in front of a computer at the office and leisurely reading paper magazines and books at home; to people who have embraced e-readers for their convenience and portability, but admit that for some reason they still prefer reading on paper; and to those who have already vowed to forgo tree pulp entirely. As digital texts and technologies become more prevalent, we gain new and more mobile ways of reading—but are we still reading as attentively and thoroughly? How do our brains respond differently to onscreen text than to words on paper? Should we be worried about dividing our attention between pixels and ink or is the validity of such concerns paper-thin? Since at least the 1980s researchers in many different fields—including psychology, computer engineering, and library and information science—have investigated such questions in more than one hundred published studies. The matter is by no means settled. Before 1992 most studies concluded that people read slower, less accurately and less comprehensively on screens than on paper. Studies published since the early 1990s , however, have produced more inconsistent results: a slight majority has confirmed earlier conclusions, but almost as many have found few significant differences in reading speed or comprehension between paper and screens. And recent surveys suggest that although most people still prefer paper—especially when reading intensively—attitudes are changing as tablets and e-reading technology improve and reading digital books for facts and fun becomes more common. In the U.S., e-books currently make up between 15 and 20 percent of all trade book sales. Even so, evidence from laboratory experiments , polls and consumer reports indicates that modern screens and e-readers fail to adequately recreate certain tactile experiences of reading on paper that many people miss and, more importantly, prevent people from navigating long texts in an intuitive and satisfying way. In turn, such navigational difficulties may subtly inhibit reading comprehension. Compared with paper, screens may also drain more of our mental resources while we are reading and make it a little harder to remember what we read when we are done. A parallel line of research focuses on people's attitudes toward different kinds of media. Whether they realize it or not, many people approach computers and tablets with a state of mind less conducive to learning than the one they bring to paper.

"There is physicality in reading," says developmental psychologist and cognitive scientist Maryanne Wolf of Tufts University, "maybe even more than we want to think about as we lurch into digital reading—as we move forward perhaps with too little reflection. I would like to preserve the absolute best of older forms, but know when to use the new." Navigating textual landscapes Understanding how reading on paper is different from reading on screens requires some explanation of how the brain interprets written language. We often think of reading as a cerebral activity concerned with the abstract—with thoughts and ideas, tone and themes, metaphors and motifs. As far as our brains are concerned, however, text is a tangible part of the physical world we inhabit. In fact, the brain essentially regards letters as physical objects because it does not really have another way of understanding them. As Wolf explains in her book Proust and the Squid , we are not born with brain circuits dedicated to reading. After all, we did not invent writing until relatively recently in our evolutionary history, around the fourth millennium B.C. So the human brain improvises a brand-new circuit for reading by weaving together various regions of neural tissue devoted to other abilities, such as spoken language, motor coordination and vision. Some of these repurposed brain regions are specialized for object recognition —they are networks of neurons that help us instantly distinguish an apple from an orange, for example, yet classify both as fruit. Just as we learn that certain features—roundness, a twiggy stem, smooth skin—characterize an apple, we learn to recognize each letter by its particular arrangement of lines, curves and hollow spaces. Some of the earliest forms of writing, such as Sumerian cuneiform , began as characters shaped like the objects they represented —a person's head, an ear of barley, a fish. Some researchers see traces of these origins in modern alphabets: C as crescent moon, S as snake. Especially intricate characters—such as Chinese hanzi and Japanese kanji —activate motor regions in the brain involved in forming those characters on paper: The brain literally goes through the motions of writing when reading, even if the hands are empty. Researchers recently discovered that the same thing happens in a milder way when some people read cursive. Beyond treating individual letters as physical objects, the human brain may also perceive a text in its entirety as a kind of physical landscape. When we read, we construct a mental representation of the text in which meaning is anchored to structure. The exact nature of such representations remains unclear, but they are likely similar to the mental maps we create of terrain—such as mountains and trails—and of man-made physical spaces, such as apartments and offices. Both anecdotally and in published studies , people report that when trying to locate a particular piece of written information they often remember where in the text it appeared. We might recall that we passed the red farmhouse near the start of the trail before we started climbing uphill through the forest; in a similar way, we remember that we read about Mr. Darcy rebuffing Elizabeth Bennett on the bottom of the left-hand page in one of the earlier chapters. In most cases, paper books have more obvious topography than onscreen text. An open paperback presents a reader with two clearly defined domains—the left and right pages—and a total of eight corners with which to orient oneself. A reader can focus on a single page of a paper book without losing sight of the whole text: one can see where the book begins and ends and where one page is in relation to those borders. One can even feel the thickness of the pages read in one hand and pages to be read in the other. Turning the pages of a paper book is like leaving one footprint after another on the trail—there's a rhythm to it and a visible record of how far one has traveled. All these features not only make text in a paper book easily navigable, they also make it easier to form a coherent mental map of the text. In contrast, most screens, e-readers, smartphones and tablets interfere with intuitive navigation of a text and inhibit people from mapping the journey in their minds. A reader of digital text might scroll through a seamless stream of words, tap forward one page at a time or use the search function to immediately locate a particular phrase—but it is difficult to see any one passage in the context of the entire text. As an analogy, imagine if Google Maps allowed people to navigate street by individual street, as well as to teleport to any specific address, but prevented them from zooming out to see a neighborhood, state or country. Although e-readers like the Kindle and tablets like the iPad re-create pagination—sometimes complete with page numbers, headers and illustrations—the screen only displays a single virtual page: it is there and then it is gone. Instead of hiking the trail yourself, the trees, rocks and moss move past you in flashes with no trace of what came before and no way to see what lies ahead. "The implicit feel of where you are in a physical book turns out to be more important than we realized," says Abigail Sellen of Microsoft Research Cambridge in England and co-author of The Myth of the Paperless Office . "Only when you get an e-book do you start to miss it. I don't think e-book manufacturers have thought enough about how you might visualize where you are in a book." At least a few studies suggest that by limiting the way people navigate texts, screens impair comprehension. In a study published in January 2013 Anne Mangen of the University of Stavanger in Norway and her colleagues asked 72 10th-grade students of similar reading ability to study one narrative and one expository text, each about 1,500 words in length. Half the students read the texts on paper and half read them in pdf files on computers with 15-inch liquid-crystal display (LCD) monitors. Afterward, students completed reading-comprehension tests consisting of multiple-choice and short-answer questions, during which they had access to the texts. Students who read the texts on computers performed a little worse than students who read on paper. Based on observations during the study, Mangen thinks that students reading pdf files had a more difficult time finding particular information when referencing the texts. Volunteers on computers could only scroll or click through the pdfs one section at a time, whereas students reading on paper could hold the text in its entirety in their hands and quickly switch between different pages. Because of their easy navigability, paper books and documents may be better suited to absorption in a text. "The ease with which you can find out the beginning, end and everything inbetween and the constant connection to your path, your progress in the text, might be some way of making it less taxing cognitively, so you have more free capacity for comprehension," Mangen says. Supporting this research, surveys indicate that screens and e-readers interfere with two other important aspects of navigating texts: serendipity and a sense of control. People report that they enjoy flipping to a previous section of a paper book when a sentence surfaces a memory of something they read earlier, for example, or quickly scanning ahead on a whim. People also like to have as much control over a text as possible—to highlight with chemical ink, easily write notes to themselves in the margins as well as deform the paper however they choose. Because of these preferences—and because getting away from multipurpose screens improves concentration—people consistently say that when they really want to dive into a text, they read it on paper. In a 2011 survey of graduate students at National Taiwan University, the majority reported browsing a few paragraphs online before printing out the whole text for more in-depth reading. A 2008 survey of millennials (people born between 1980 and the early 2000s) at Salve Regina University in Rhode Island concluded that, "when it comes to reading a book, even they prefer good, old-fashioned print". And in a 2003 study conducted at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, nearly 80 percent of 687 surveyed students preferred to read text on paper as opposed to on a screen in order to "understand it with clarity". Surveys and consumer reports also suggest that the sensory experiences typically associated with reading—especially tactile experiences—matter to people more than one might assume. Text on a computer, an e-reader and—somewhat ironically—on any touch-screen device is far more intangible than text on paper. Whereas a paper book is made from pages of printed letters fixed in a particular arrangement, the text that appears on a screen is not part of the device's hardware—it is an ephemeral image. When reading a paper book, one can feel the paper and ink and smooth or fold a page with one's fingers; the pages make a distinctive sound when turned; and underlining or highlighting a sentence with ink permanently alters the paper's chemistry. So far, digital texts have not satisfyingly replicated this kind of tactility (although some companies are innovating, at least with keyboards ). Paper books also have an immediately discernible size, shape and weight. We might refer to a hardcover edition of War and Peace as a hefty tome or a paperback Heart of Darkness as a slim volume. In contrast, although a digital text has a length—which is sometimes represented with a scroll or progress bar—it has no obvious shape or thickness. An e-reader always weighs the same, regardless of whether you are reading Proust's magnum opus or one of Hemingway's short stories. Some researchers have found that these discrepancies create enough " haptic dissonance " to dissuade some people from using e-readers. People expect books to look, feel and even smell a certain way; when they do not, reading sometimes becomes less enjoyable or even unpleasant. For others, the convenience of a slim portable e-reader outweighs any attachment they might have to the feel of paper books. Exhaustive reading Although many old and recent studies conclude that people understand what they read on paper more thoroughly than what they read on screens, the differences are often small. Some experiments, however, suggest that researchers should look not just at immediate reading comprehension, but also at long-term memory. In a 2003 study Kate Garland of the University of Leicester and her colleagues asked 50 British college students to read study material from an introductory economics course either on a computer monitor or in a spiral-bound booklet. After 20 minutes of reading Garland and her colleagues quizzed the students with multiple-choice questions. Students scored equally well regardless of the medium, but differed in how they remembered the information. Psychologists distinguish between remembering something—which is to recall a piece of information along with contextual details, such as where, when and how one learned it—and knowing something, which is feeling that something is true without remembering how one learned the information. Generally, remembering is a weaker form of memory that is likely to fade unless it is converted into more stable, long-term memory that is "known" from then on. When taking the quiz, volunteers who had read study material on a monitor relied much more on remembering than on knowing, whereas students who read on paper depended equally on remembering and knowing. Garland and her colleagues think that students who read on paper learned the study material more thoroughly more quickly; they did not have to spend a lot of time searching their minds for information from the text, trying to trigger the right memory—they often just knew the answers. Other researchers have suggested that people comprehend less when they read on a screen because screen-based reading is more physically and mentally taxing than reading on paper. E-ink is easy on the eyes because it reflects ambient light just like a paper book, but computer screens, smartphones and tablets like the iPad shine light directly into people's faces. Depending on the model of the device, glare, pixilation and flickers can also tire the eyes. LCDs are certainly gentler on eyes than their predecessor, cathode-ray tubes (CRT), but prolonged reading on glossy self-illuminated screens can cause eyestrain, headaches and blurred vision. Such symptoms are so common among people who read on screens—affecting around 70 percent of people who work long hours in front of computers—that the American Optometric Association officially recognizes computer vision syndrome . Erik Wästlund of Karlstad University in Sweden has conducted some particularly rigorous research on whether paper or screens demand more physical and cognitive resources. In one of his experiments 72 volunteers completed the Higher Education Entrance Examination READ test—a 30-minute, Swedish-language reading-comprehension exam consisting of multiple-choice questions about five texts averaging 1,000 words each. People who took the test on a computer scored lower and reported higher levels of stress and tiredness than people who completed it on paper. In another set of experiments 82 volunteers completed the READ test on computers, either as a paginated document or as a continuous piece of text. Afterward researchers assessed the students' attention and working memory, which is a collection of mental talents that allow people to temporarily store and manipulate information in their minds. Volunteers had to quickly close a series of pop-up windows, for example, sort virtual cards or remember digits that flashed on a screen. Like many cognitive abilities, working memory is a finite resource that diminishes with exertion. Although people in both groups performed equally well on the READ test, those who had to scroll through the continuous text did not do as well on the attention and working-memory tests. Wästlund thinks that scrolling—which requires a reader to consciously focus on both the text and how they are moving it—drains more mental resources than turning or clicking a page, which are simpler and more automatic gestures. A 2004 study conducted at the University of Central Florida reached similar conclusions. Attitude adjustments An emerging collection of studies emphasizes that in addition to screens possibly taxing people's attention more than paper, people do not always bring as much mental effort to screens in the first place. Subconsciously, many people may think of reading on a computer or tablet as a less serious affair than reading on paper. Based on a detailed 2005 survey of 113 people in northern California, Ziming Liu of San Jose State University concluded that people reading on screens take a lot of shortcuts—they spend more time browsing, scanning and hunting for keywords compared with people reading on paper, and are more likely to read a document once, and only once. When reading on screens, people seem less inclined to engage in what psychologists call metacognitive learning regulation—strategies such as setting specific goals, rereading difficult sections and checking how much one has understood along the way. In a 2011 experiment at the Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, college students took multiple-choice exams about expository texts either on computers or on paper. Researchers limited half the volunteers to a meager seven minutes of study time; the other half could review the text for as long as they liked. When under pressure to read quickly, students using computers and paper performed equally well. When managing their own study time, however, volunteers using paper scored about 10 percentage points higher. Presumably, students using paper approached the exam with a more studious frame of mind than their screen-reading peers, and more effectively directed their attention and working memory. Perhaps, then, any discrepancies in reading comprehension between paper and screens will shrink as people's attitudes continue to change. The star of "A Magazine Is an iPad That Does Not Work" is three-and-a-half years old today and no longer interacts with paper magazines as though they were touchscreens, her father says. Perhaps she and her peers will grow up without the subtle bias against screens that seems to lurk in the minds of older generations. In current research for Microsoft, Sellen has learned that many people do not feel much ownership of e-books because of their impermanence and intangibility: "They think of using an e-book, not owning an e-book," she says. Participants in her studies say that when they really like an electronic book, they go out and get the paper version. This reminds Sellen of people's early opinions of digital music, which she has also studied. Despite initial resistance, people love curating, organizing and sharing digital music today. Attitudes toward e-books may transition in a similar way, especially if e-readers and tablets allow more sharing and social interaction than they currently do. Books on the Kindle can only be loaned once , for example. To date, many engineers, designers and user-interface experts have worked hard to make reading on an e-reader or tablet as close to reading on paper as possible. E-ink resembles chemical ink and the simple layout of the Kindle's screen looks like a page in a paperback. Likewise, Apple's iBooks attempts to simulate the overall aesthetic of paper books, including somewhat realistic page-turning. Jaejeung Kim of KAIST Institute of Information Technology Convergence in South Korea and his colleagues have designed an innovative and unreleased interface that makes iBooks seem primitive. When using their interface, one can see the many individual pages one has read on the left side of the tablet and all the unread pages on the right side, as if holding a paperback in one's hands. A reader can also flip bundles of pages at a time with a flick of a finger. But why, one could ask, are we working so hard to make reading with new technologies like tablets and e-readers so similar to the experience of reading on the very ancient technology that is paper? Why not keep paper and evolve screen-based reading into something else entirely? Screens obviously offer readers experiences that paper cannot. Scrolling may not be the ideal way to navigate a text as long and dense as Moby Dick , but the New York Times , Washington Post , ESPN and other media outlets have created beautiful, highly visual articles that depend entirely on scrolling and could not appear in print in the same way. Some Web comics and infographics turn scrolling into a strength rather than a weakness. Similarly, Robin Sloan has pioneered the tap essay for mobile devices. The immensely popular interactive Scale of the Universe tool could not have been made on paper in any practical way. New e-publishing companies like Atavist offer tablet readers long-form journalism with embedded interactive graphics, maps, timelines, animations and sound tracks. And some writers are pairing up with computer programmers to produce ever more sophisticated interactive fiction and nonfiction in which one's choices determine what one reads, hears and sees next. When it comes to intensively reading long pieces of plain text, paper and ink may still have the advantage. But text is not the only way to read.

Books vs Internet Research (What’s Better?)

We all do research on various topics several times a day, many times without even realizing we are doing it. Whether we’re searching for a new recipe or looking to find out how to do something, regardless of the complexity of the task, more often than not, we turn to the almighty Internet for answers rather than searching for them in specialty books. 

While this may seem to work just fine in many cases, what we usually don’t realise is that we’re actually missing out on a lot of information and make the active choice of speed over accuracy or complexity. 

Let’s take a closer look at this “books vs Internet” debate and find out which one is actually better for our research needs.

Which Is Better for Research, the Internet or Books?

Well isn’t this a question for the ages? And unfortunately, the answer is yet to be found. 

Even though many have tried to find a definitive answer, it all seems to come down to a series of factors: 

• The topic you’re researching
• How much time you have
• How in-depth you need your research to be 

Obviously, both reading books and Internet research have a series of benefits and disadvantages when compared to the other. Let’s have a closer look at these pros and cons.

Reading Books for Research –  Benefits and Disadvantages

• While the Internet has been around for decades, books have proven their value for centuries. So one of the first and most compelling arguments for reading books is that they have been used for hundreds of years as learning tools. Books have played a tremendous role in the development of civilization and have been used for learning by people who pushed the technology ahead time and time again. One would argue that if books were good enough to shape Nikola Tesla into the genius he was, they should be good enough for us. 
• Despite the unfathomable amount of information available on the Internet today , books tend to better cover the subjects you’re researching. 
• Books are timeless and convenient. You don’t need any device, battery or a connection in order to open a book and start learning about the topic you’re interested in.
• Books are easy on the eyes, which would allow you to spend a lot more time researching whatever you need to learn without any strain on the eyes.

Disadvantages

• It takes longer to do research using books than it does using the Internet
• Books don’t have a search function, so finding specific information using keywords is impossible
• The cost of using books for research can turn out to be quite high, depending on the topic
• Books are harder to carry around, so you might not always have access to them from anywhere

Using the Internet for Research – Benefits and Disadvantages

• The Internet gives you access to more resources than you could ever absorb in a lifetime on any topic
• The cost for Internet access nowadays is quite low and usually, there’s no limit to how much you are allowed to explore.
• Internet research is quick, easy and facile. It can be done from anywhere nowadays, as long as you have a device with an Internet connection and a full battery.
• You can’t trust everything you read on the Internet. We all learned that the hard way, especially in the past couple of years.
• The information is usually not structured as well as it is in books.
• The answers we find online to different questions usually only cover the subject superficially

That being said, the battle of Internet vs books ends up a draw in my opinion, at least when looking at the bigger picture. It all depends on the topic you’re researching and how well you need that subject to be covered in your research material. 

Why Are Books Better Than the Internet for Research?

Many times, despite the Internet being quicker, cheaper and sometimes more convenient, the winners of the books vs the Internet battle will be the books. Here’s why.

Let’s say you’re interested in learning a new skill. Maybe you’re thinking of a career change or you just want to explore a certain topic for different reasons. 

Maybe you want to start your own business or simply want to learn how to better run the business you already own. 

A simple Internet search for “how to be a better entrepreneur” could provide some answers. You will find tens, hundreds of articles on different websites with a couple thousands words each, a handful of bullet points and a “recipe for success”, guaranteed to help you achieve your goals. 

But that barely scratches the surface of what you should be learning in order to be a better entrepreneur. A book about management or leadership will contain hundreds of pages of valuable information, structured in an easily understandable manner and with a lot more context, which will help you better understand the topic than a couple of bullet points. 

These books have been written by industry leaders, experts in their field, people who have dedicated their lives to the topic you’re researching and have spent hundreds of hours trying to condense their lifetime of experience into a couple hundred pages for your benefit. 

Most articles you find online nowadays are written by professional content writers who research the topic you’re interested in for a couple of hours, read a couple of other materials for inspiration and spend another couple of hours actually writing the article that is supposed to make you turn your life around. 

Online articles are usually optimized for readability, for better loading times, and for better positions in the search results of your preferred search engine. 

There can’t even be a comparison between a book about leadership and an online search for “how to be a better leader”. How can it be? How can we compare a 200 pages book written by an expert to an online article written by a content writer who had a 3000 words limit for the article and had to follow strict optimization rules?

Can the Internet Replace Books?

That being said, one would tend to believe that books are the ultimate research tool and that the Internet can cover any subject only to a certain extent. That is not necessarily true though.

Again, the topic dictates the ideal research tool more than anything else. 

For example, if you’re looking to learn how to cook better or simply want to try out new recipes from time to time, the Internet is probably the only place you will ever need to look from now on. The amount of information about cooking available online renders most cookbooks rather useless nowadays, especially if we take into account that the information is available online in different formats, which also includes video.

Why would you read how to cook a dish when you can watch that dish being cooked and learn this way?

On the other hand, the Internet won’t be as effective as a learning tool if you want to learn a more complex activity such as trading. The more complicated the skill you want to learn or the task you want to accomplish, the better off you are doing your research from actual books rather than the Internet.

Then again, there are certain topics however that give you no choice, where research from books vs the Internet research is a battle that is lost by books before it even starts. 

I am referring to novelty subjects such as cryptocurrencies, digital marketing, app development. Since these topics are rather recent and became popular as books decreased in popularity, chances are you’re better off searching for information / tutorials online than in a library, simply because very few (or none) books have been written about them.

As you can see, and as I mentioned earlier, there is no definitive answer for this “reading books vs Internet” debate when it comes to doing research. The topic is the most important and decisive factor.

Why Are Textbooks Better Than the Internet?

When it comes to school learning though, despite the obvious benefits of also having access to the Internet, learning from books or textbooks is essential. Why?

First of all, because all textbooks are written by professionals, not by ghost writers or content writers. If you really want to learn about statistics for example, the better choice is, obviously, to use a textbook. It is written by a statistics professor who spent his life learning and teaching this subject. 

Another important aspect of textbooks and another reason why they are a much better learning tool in school is that they were structured in a specific way that allows you to better grasp the concepts and to understand and learn the subject. 

Their authors feed you information progressively, building your knowledge from the bottom up, in a manner and a rhythm that has been optimized over decades of experience teaching that specific subject. 

No online resource can replace that. The Internet can be a great supplement though. For those who want to learn more than what’s in the textbook, the Internet could be a good place to gather additional information. 

Do We Learn More on the Internet Than From Books?

Well, nobody really knows. Over the past decades, many things shifted towards the online environment, including education. Even though most of the school learning is still done with textbooks, the ratio of Internet vs books research tends to favor the former.

If we take into consideration how often we open up a browser to search for information and compare it with how often each of us opens a book to get that same information, it’s probably safe to assume that we do most of our learning online.

That is not necessarily a good thing though. As I mentioned, we can’t always believe everything we read on the Internet and we don’t always find correct or accurate information about the topic we’re interested in. Moreover, the information about any topic we find online barely scratches the surface of that particular subject when compared to a book.

Bottom Line

All in all, there shouldn’t really be a battle of books vs the Internet. We believe that the best results when it comes to research is combining the two rather than sticking to only one. Combining book reading with online research is bound to yield the best results. And considering how easy that becomes when you use a reading tracker app like Basmo , why wouldn’t you?

Getting the best of both worlds is incredibly easy. Basmo is an app available both on iOS and Android devices, designed for book lovers who want to take their hobby further. 

Basmo allows you to:

• Take notes while reading , which is especially useful whenever you read to learn rather than for pleasure. And since the app is already on your mobile device, combining the information you find online with what you find in the books becomes extremely easy.
• Scan book pages and save important information as notes or quotes, which again can make your life a lot easier when combining online research with book reading
• Create reading lists , which makes it a lot easier to line up all the books you want to read, in the order you want or have to read them
• Analyze your time spent reading , raising your awareness in regards to your reading habits and reading speed
• Set reading goals , a schedule and reminders , allowing you to become a more organized and efficient reader, regardless whether you do it for learning or for pleasure

Ready for the world’s first AI Chatbot for books? Start a chat with any book!

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Comparing Information From Books Versus From Journal Articles: Home

Comparing information from books versus from journal articles.

When you do research, you typically search for both books and journal articles. The reason you generally need both is that they present different kinds of information, at different levels of detail, and in different ways. Here is a side-by-side comparison.

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Research Tips and Infromation

Journal or Book Chapter: Which is Better For My Research Paper?

In the labyrinthine world of academic publishing, researchers often find themselves standing at a crossroads, faced with a pivotal decision: Should they disseminate their hard-earned research findings through the pages of a research journal or as a chapter in a scholarly book? This choice, seemingly mundane at first glance, carries profound implications for the visibility, impact, and legacy of their work.

As the engines of innovation and knowledge generation continue to revolve, the landscape of academic publishing evolves in tandem, presenting scholars with an ever-expanding array of publication avenues. With each passing day, this decision becomes more complex, demanding a nuanced approach that considers multiple facets of the research, the intended audience, and the researcher’s long-term goals.

In this article, we embark on a journey to demystify this decision-making process. Drawing from the experiences of seasoned researchers, the insights of publishing experts, and the ever-evolving dynamics of the academic ecosystem, we provide a compass to guide scholars through the labyrinth of publication choices.

We understand that this decision can be a source of both excitement and trepidation. It represents the culmination of tireless research, the realization of scholarly ambitions, and the opportunity to contribute to the collective knowledge of humanity. However, it also poses questions of timing, audience engagement, and long-term impact.

To assist researchers in making informed choices, we have distilled the decision-making process into a series of critical parameters. By examining the scope and depth of your research, the target audience you wish to engage, the urgency of your findings, the potential academic impact, the peer review process, and the nuances of copyright and licensing, you will be equipped to make a decision that aligns with your research aspirations.

But this article is more than a checklist; it’s a conversation with the academic community. We present hypothetical case studies that illustrate how researchers have navigated this terrain, showcasing the diverse approaches to publication that exist within the academic tapestry.

In the end, the choice between a journal and a book chapter is not a binary one. Rather, it’s a decision that should reflect the essence of your research and your personal goals as a scholar. As we embark on this journey, we encourage you to engage with your mentors, peers, and publishers. Seek advice, ask questions, and explore the possibilities that lie before you. Your research is not only a contribution to knowledge; it’s a reflection of your academic journey. Let it shine in the publication medium that best suits its brilliance.

So, dear researcher, as we prepare to delve into the heart of this matter, remember that you are not alone in your quest to make this decision. Together, we will illuminate the path that leads to the most impactful and meaningful dissemination of your scholarly work.

Introduction

1. scope and depth of research, 2. target audience, 3. publication timeline, 4. academic impact, 5. peer review process, 6. copyright and licensing, case study 1: dr. yang, case study 2: dr. gomez, case study 3: dr. smith, case study 4 : dr. johnson.

• Before We Close...

In the realm of academic research, one of the most significant decisions a scholar faces is determining where to publish their painstakingly crafted work. This choice often boils down to two main options: research journals and book chapters. It is a decision that carries profound implications, shaping not only how their research is disseminated but also its reach, impact, and long-term legacy.

Consider the case of Dr. Smith, a dedicated researcher in the field of artificial intelligence. Dr. Smith has spent years developing a groundbreaking algorithm that promises to revolutionize machine learning. Now, Dr. Smith stands at a pivotal juncture in their academic journey, faced with the choice of sending their research to a specialized journal for the AI community or opting for a chapter in an upcoming book on cutting-edge technologies.

This article serves as a beacon for researchers like Dr. Smith who find themselves at this crossroads. It offers a comprehensive framework that takes into account various parameters to guide scholars in making an informed and strategic choice. Rather than leaving this pivotal decision to chance or gut feeling, we will delve into the key factors that should inform your decision-making process.

Parameters for Decision-Making

When considering where to publish your research, one of the paramount factors to contemplate is the scope and depth of your work. In essence, this parameter revolves around the breadth and detail of the subject matter you have investigated.

Imagine Dr. Johnson, an environmental scientist, who has dedicated several years to studying the ecological impact of deforestation in a specific tropical rainforest. Dr. Johnson’s research encompasses a multitude of aspects, including the biodiversity of the region, the effects of deforestation on local communities, and potential solutions for sustainable land use. The depth of the research lies in the extensive fieldwork, data collection, and analysis conducted.

Dr. Lee, another environmental scientist, who has focused on a more narrow aspect of the same rainforest – the behavior of a particular species of rare birds in response to deforestation. Dr. Lee’s study is highly specific, delving deep into the behaviors, habitats, and conservation strategies related to this single bird species.

Explanation:

In the case of Dr. Johnson, whose research encompasses a broad spectrum of ecological, social, and environmental factors, the comprehensiveness and depth of their work make it better suited for a book chapter. A book chapter provides the necessary space to delve into multifaceted aspects and present a holistic view of the research.

On the other hand, Dr. Lee’s focused study on a specific bird species might be more appropriately disseminated through a research journal. The narrower scope of the research aligns with the concise format of a journal article, which often requires a more targeted approach.

In summary, the scope and depth of your research should guide your decision. Comprehensive, in-depth research is often a better fit for a book chapter, where you can provide a comprehensive exploration of your findings. Conversely, narrower studies may find a more suitable home in a research journal, where brevity and specificity are valued.

Determining the appropriate publication platform hinges on identifying and understanding your intended audience. Consider who will benefit the most from your research and who you wish to engage with your findings.

Let’s consider two computer scientists: Dr. Chen and Dr. Williams.

Dr. Chen is a machine learning researcher whose work focuses on the development of a highly advanced, novel neural network architecture for natural language processing tasks. Her research involves intricate mathematical models and algorithms, and it pushes the boundaries of what’s possible in the field of machine learning. The primary audience for her work consists of other machine learning researchers, deep learning practitioners, and experts in natural language processing. These individuals are well-versed in complex algorithms and eager for the latest advancements.

Dr. Williams , on the other hand, is a computer scientist whose research revolves around the development of a user-friendly software tool for educators to enhance virtual learning experiences. His work simplifies the process of creating interactive online content for teachers and requires minimal technical expertise. Dr. Williams’ target audience includes educators, instructional designers, and professionals in the field of online education. His research aims to bridge the gap between technology and education, making it accessible to a broad range of educators and learners.

In Dr. Chen’s case, her research serves a specialized audience of machine learning experts who are best reached through a research journal. The technical depth and complexity of her work align with the expectations of this niche community, and a journal provides the appropriate platform for detailed dissemination.

For Dr. Williams, whose research has broader implications for educators and the field of online education, a book chapter or a publication in an educational technology magazine may be more suitable. It allows for a more accessible and comprehensive discussion of his software tool, which can engage educators and instructional designers without deep technical backgrounds.

In summary, the choice between a research journal and a more accessible publication platform should reflect your intended audience. If your work targets a specialized audience of experts and addresses a specific technical gap, a journal is likely the right choice. However, if your research has broader applications and can benefit a wider audience, a book chapter or a publication in an industry-specific magazine may be the better option.

The publication timeline is a critical factor in deciding whether to publish your research in a journal or as a book chapter. Journals typically have faster publication turnaround times compared to books. This parameter revolves around assessing how time-sensitive your research is and whether it can accommodate the longer publication process of a book.

Example 1 – Dr. Anderson:

Dr. Anderson is a computer scientist who has developed a novel cybersecurity algorithm that can detect previously unknown malware in real-time. Given the rapidly evolving nature of cybersecurity threats, Dr. Anderson’s research is highly time-sensitive. Cyberattacks are constantly evolving, and the sooner his algorithm can be disseminated and implemented, the better it can protect computer systems. Waiting for a book publication, which may take a year or more, is not ideal in this case. Therefore, Dr. Anderson opts to submit his research to a journal specializing in cybersecurity. The quicker publication timeline ensures that his groundbreaking work reaches the cybersecurity community promptly.

Example 2 – Dr. Roberts:

Dr. Roberts, another computer scientist, has conducted extensive research on the history and evolution of programming languages. Her work is comprehensive and spans several decades of programming language development. While her research is valuable and adds to the historical understanding of the field, it is not particularly time-sensitive. Programming languages do evolve, but not at the rapid pace of cybersecurity threats. Dr. Roberts decides that her research can wait for the longer publication process of a book, which will provide the space and depth required to present a thorough historical account.

In Dr. Anderson’s case, where the research addresses a highly time-sensitive issue like cybersecurity, a journal publication is the right choice. The quicker turnaround time of journals ensures that his research has a timely impact, potentially safeguarding computer systems from emerging threats.

Conversely, Dr. Roberts’ research, while valuable, is not constrained by time sensitivity. The longer publication process of a book is acceptable because the research focuses on a historical analysis that doesn’t depend on immediate dissemination.

In summary, the publication timeline should be evaluated concerning the urgency of your research in the field. If your research is time-sensitive and addresses rapidly evolving issues, a journal is the better option due to its quicker publication process. However, if your research is not bound by immediate time constraints, a book chapter can provide the depth and context needed for a comprehensive presentation.

The choice between publishing in a research journal or as a book chapter can significantly influence the academic impact of your work. It’s important to understand how each option may impact the recognition, citation, and long-term influence of your research.

Example 1 – Dr. Parker:

Dr. Parker is a computer scientist who has developed a groundbreaking algorithm for optimizing database queries. This algorithm has the potential to revolutionize the field of data management. Dr. Parker is keen on achieving swift recognition and wide dissemination of his work. He chooses to publish his research in a renowned database research journal. Journal articles are known for their quick publication and wide distribution within the academic community. As a result, his research gains immediate visibility and begins to receive citations from fellow researchers. This swift recognition bolsters Dr. Parker’s academic reputation and opens up opportunities for collaboration and further research funding.

Example 2 – Dr. Miller:

Dr. Miller is also a computer scientist, but her research focuses on the broader context of human-computer interaction. She has conducted extensive research on how the design of user interfaces impacts user engagement and satisfaction. Dr. Miller believes that her work will have long-lasting relevance and should be considered foundational in the field of human-computer interaction. To maximize the long-term impact of her research, she decides to publish a comprehensive book chapter in a textbook that serves as a standard reference in the field. While her work may not receive immediate recognition in terms of citations, it becomes a staple in university courses and research libraries. Over time, as new scholars enter the field, Dr. Miller’s research is consistently cited in their literature reviews and included in reference lists and bibliographies, contributing to its enduring influence.

In Dr. Parker’s case, where the research has the potential for immediate impact, publishing in a research journal is the right choice. Journal articles are more frequently cited, and the swift recognition they offer can benefit researchers whose work has the potential to reshape their field.

Conversely, Dr. Miller’s research is more focused on long-term impact. By contributing a book chapter to a foundational textbook, her work becomes a cornerstone of the field. While it may not receive immediate attention in terms of citations, it enjoys enduring influence through its inclusion in reference lists and bibliographies, ultimately shaping the research direction of future scholars.

In summary, the choice between a research journal and a book chapter should be aligned with your goals for academic impact. Journal articles are often cited more frequently and can lead to quicker recognition, while book chapters contribute to long-term impact through their inclusion in educational resources and reference materials.

The peer review process is a crucial aspect of academic publishing. It involves the evaluation of your research by experts in the field to ensure its quality, accuracy, and credibility. The stringency of this process can vary between journals and books.

Example 1 – Dr. Roberts:

Dr. Roberts is a computer scientist who has conducted groundbreaking research in quantum computing. She believes that her research findings are a significant contribution to the field and should undergo thorough scrutiny to ensure their accuracy and reliability.

Consequently, Dr. Roberts chooses to submit her work to a reputable journal known for its rigorous peer review process. Her research goes through multiple rounds of evaluation by experts in quantum computing, who provide constructive feedback and recommendations for improvement.

After several revisions, her paper is accepted for publication. The rigorous peer review process not only enhances the credibility of her work but also ensures that any potential errors or weaknesses are addressed before publication.

Example 2 – Dr. Patel:

Dr. Patel, another computer scientist, has developed a software tool that streamlines data analysis processes for researchers. While her work is valuable, she believes that the urgency of disseminating her tool to the academic community outweighs the need for an exhaustive peer review process.

Dr. Patel decides to contribute a book chapter on her software tool to a compilation of research tools in her subfield. The peer review process for book chapters in this context is less stringent compared to journals. Her work is evaluated for relevance, clarity, and potential contributions to the book, but it doesn’t undergo the same level of in-depth technical scrutiny as a journal article. As a result, her software tool is published more quickly, allowing researchers to benefit from it sooner.

In Dr. Roberts’ case, where the research is highly technical and its accuracy is of paramount importance, submitting to a journal with a rigorous peer review process is the right choice. The comprehensive evaluation by experts ensures the quality and credibility of her work, reinforcing its significance in the field.

Conversely, Dr. Patel’s decision to contribute a book chapter is based on the urgency of disseminating her research tool. While book chapters also undergo peer review, the process is typically less stringent and focuses more on relevance and clarity. This streamlined process allows her work to reach the academic community faster.

In summary, the choice between a research journal and a book chapter should consider the stringency of the peer review process. Journals often have a more thorough review, enhancing the quality and credibility of your work. Book chapters also undergo peer review but typically have a less stringent process, which can expedite publication when time is of the essence.

Understanding copyright and licensing agreements is crucial when deciding where to publish your research. The terms and conditions regarding these agreements can significantly impact your ability to reuse, distribute, and share your work with others.

Dr. Anderson, a computer scientist, has developed an innovative software algorithm for optimizing energy consumption in data centers. He’s keen on publishing his research in a journal known for its rigorous peer review process and broad readership. However, he carefully reviews the journal’s copyright and licensing policies and discovers that they require authors to transfer full copyright to the journal. In this case, Dr. Anderson would retain limited rights to reuse or distribute his work. Recognizing the long-term value of his research and his intention to develop commercial applications based on it, he decides to explore alternative options. Dr. Anderson identifies a publisher that offers an open-access model for journal articles. This publisher allows authors to retain copyright while making their work freely available to the public. He chooses this publisher, ensuring that he maintains control over his intellectual property.

Example 2 – Dr. Martinez:

Dr. Martinez, another computer scientist, has conducted research on cybersecurity practices in small businesses. She believes her findings would be valuable to a broader audience, including educators, policymakers, and small business owners. Dr. Martinez decides to contribute a book chapter on her research to an academic book aimed at disseminating knowledge to a diverse readership. The book publisher she selects offers authors the option to retain copyright and apply a Creative Commons license to their chapters. Dr. Martinez opts for this arrangement, allowing her to keep ownership of her work while granting others the freedom to share and adapt it for educational or policy purposes.

In Dr. Anderson’s case, the journal’s policy of transferring full copyright ownership would have restricted his ability to reuse and distribute his work. Recognizing the long-term value and potential commercial applications of his research, he chose an open-access publisher that allowed him to retain copyright while making his work widely accessible.

Conversely, Dr. Martinez’s decision to contribute a book chapter allowed her to have more control over her work’s copyright and licensing terms. She chose a publisher that permitted her to retain copyright and apply a Creative Commons license , thus enabling broader dissemination and use of her research.

In summary, understanding the copyright and licensing agreements associated with journals and books is essential. Journals may require authors to transfer copyright, which can impact their ability to reuse and distribute their work. In contrast, book chapters may offer more flexible copyright and licensing options, allowing authors to maintain ownership and control over their intellectual property.

For more details on copyrights and exclusive rights visit my article on” Copyright Transfer and Granting Exclusive Rights: Key Differences for Research Authors “

Case Studies

Dr. Yang, a computer scientist, has spent years developing a groundbreaking algorithm for secure data transmission in Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Her research is comprehensive, with in-depth mathematical models, extensive simulations, and real-world testing. Dr. Yang believes her work has the potential to transform IoT security practices.

Parameters Considered:

• Scope and Depth of Research: Dr. Yang’s research is comprehensive and in-depth.
• Target Audience: She aims to reach a specialized audience of cybersecurity experts.
• Publication Timeline: The research is time-sensitive due to the rapidly evolving nature of cybersecurity threats.
• Academic Impact: Dr. Yang wants her work to have an immediate impact on IoT security practices.
• Peer Review Process: She values a rigorous peer review to ensure the credibility of her work.
• Copyright and Licensing: Dr. Yang wants to retain control over her work, including potential commercial applications.

Decision: Considering these parameters, Dr. Yang decides to publish her research in a reputable cybersecurity journal known for its rigorous peer review process. This choice aligns with her goal of quick recognition, timely dissemination, and the ability to maintain control over her intellectual property.

Dr. Gomez is a computer scientist specializing in natural language processing (NLP). His research focuses on sentiment analysis in social media data and its applications in marketing strategies. He believes his work can have long-term relevance in both the NLP and marketing fields.

• Scope and Depth of Research: Dr. Gomez’s research is specialized but can have long-term relevance.
• Target Audience: He aims to reach a broader audience, including marketers and NLP researchers.
• Publication Timeline: While timely dissemination is important, his work is not tied to immediate cybersecurity threats.
• Academic Impact: Dr. Gomez expects his research to be referenced and cited in the long run.
• Peer Review Process: He values peer review but does not require the level of scrutiny associated with cybersecurity research.
• Copyright and Licensing: Dr. Gomez wants his work to be accessible for educational and industry purposes.

Decision: Considering these parameters, Dr. Gomez decides to contribute a book chapter to an academic book that explores the intersection of NLP and marketing. This choice allows him to reach a diverse readership, retain copyright, and potentially have his work included in marketing courses and industry reports, contributing to its long-term impact.

Here’s the table with the research titles for both Dr. Yang and Dr. Gomez placed along with their respective author titles:

• Dr. Smith is a seasoned researcher in the field of solar energy, boasting a distinguished career marked by a relentless pursuit of advancing the efficiency of solar cells. With years of expertise, he has emerged as a prominent figure in the solar technology landscape, known for his groundbreaking work in photovoltaic science. Dr. Smith’s passion for sustainable energy solutions has been a driving force behind his commitment to improving solar cell performance, an endeavor that transcends mere professional interest to become a personal mission.
• Scope and Depth of Research: Dr. Smith’s research is a testament to his unwavering dedication. He embarked on a comprehensive journey, dissecting the intricate intricacies of photovoltaic technology to extract every iota of efficiency from solar cells. His work encompasses a wide spectrum, from fundamental material science to advanced engineering solutions.
• Target Audience: With his extensive knowledge and innovative insights, Dr. Smith tailors his research for a specialized audience comprising solar energy researchers and engineers. These are the individuals on the front lines of transforming solar technology from a promising concept into a tangible reality.
• Publication Timeline: In the ever-evolving realm of the solar industry, Dr. Smith recognizes the critical importance of disseminating his findings with expediency. His research directly addresses the pressing need for more efficient solar cells in a world increasingly dependent on clean energy sources.
• Academic Impact: Dr. Smith’s ambitions extend beyond personal recognition. He envisions his work as a catalyst for immediate change within the solar energy community, anticipating that his research will drive innovation and shape the trajectory of solar technology.
• Peer Review Process: Dr. Smith places immense value on the rigorous peer review process, seeing it as the crucible through which the purity and validity of his research will be confirmed. He welcomes the scrutiny of his peers, understanding that it is the linchpin of scientific credibility.
• Copyright and Licensing: When it comes to copyright and licensing, Dr. Smith is open to traditional terms, aligning his approach with industry norms while ensuring his work’s rightful protection.

Considering these parameters, Dr. Smith makes a calculated decision to publish his research in a reputable journal. This choice aligns perfectly with his overarching goal of swiftly disseminating his research within the solar energy community and contributing substantially to the ongoing advancements in solar cell technology.

• Dr. Johnson stands as an eminent figure in the realm of environmental science, recognized for his unwavering commitment to unraveling the intricate tapestry of ecological consequences stemming from deforestation in tropical rainforests. His journey as an environmental scientist has been marked by a profound dedication to understanding the complex web of interactions that define these unique ecosystems. Beyond being a researcher, Dr. Johnson is a conservationist at heart, and his work reflects a deeply ingrained sense of responsibility towards safeguarding the planet’s natural treasures.
• Scope and Depth of Research: Dr. Johnson’s research represents a tour de force in the study of deforestation. His work encompasses a broad and comprehensive exploration of diverse facets, ranging from the ecological impacts on flora and fauna to the socio-economic implications on local communities. With meticulous fieldwork, data collection, and interdisciplinary analysis, his research is a testament to the depth and breadth of his commitment.
• Target Audience: Dr. Johnson’s research isn’t confined to academic circles alone; it extends its reach to a diverse audience that includes environmental scientists, policymakers, conservationists, and even the general public. His findings hold relevance not only for the scientific community but also for those striving to make informed decisions about the future of tropical rainforests.
• Publication Timeline: In his pursuit to address the ongoing crisis of deforestation, Dr. Johnson recognizes the urgency of timely dissemination. The ecosystems he studies are under constant threat, demanding immediate attention and action.
• Academic Impact: While aiming for immediate recognition, Dr. Johnson’s aspirations transcend the here and now. He envisions his research as a cornerstone for long-term efforts aimed at preserving tropical rainforests and their rich biodiversity. His work is poised to influence not just contemporary policies but also the legacy we leave for future generations.
• Peer Review Process: While valuing peer review, Dr. Johnson recognizes that the depth of scrutiny associated with specialized technological research may not be a necessity for his work. Nonetheless, he maintains a commitment to rigorous standards to ensure the credibility of his findings.
• Copyright and Licensing: In line with his commitment to broad dissemination and education, Dr. Johnson is open to using a Creative Commons license, an approach that encourages widespread access to his research.

Considering these parameters, Dr. Johnson makes a well-informed decision to contribute a book chapter. This choice aligns seamlessly with his overarching mission to address the ongoing crisis of deforestation in tropical rainforests, allowing his research to reach a broader audience and contribute to the dialogue surrounding environmental conservation and policy-making.

This expanded description provides a deeper understanding of Dr. Johnson’s background and research, shedding light on the motivations and goals that lead him to choose a book chapter as the medium for his work.

These examples showcase how researchers in different domains make publication decisions based on the nature of their research, their intended audience, timeline considerations, academic impact goals, the peer review process, and copyright and licensing preferences. Dr. Smith opts for a journal publication to quickly reach the solar energy community, while Dr. Johnson chooses a book chapter to contribute to the long-term conservation dialogue.

Before We Close…

If you are planning to publish your research work as a journal then the following articles will help you to publish your article in reputed journals.

Writing an Effective Research Paper with 11 Major Sections

Avoiding Predatory Conferences and Journals: A Step-by-Step Guide for Researchers

How to Choose Right Journal Quartile (Q1/Q2/Q3/Q4) for My Research Paper?

In the intricate realm of academic publishing, the choice between disseminating research findings via journal articles or book chapters rests on a multifaceted interplay of parameters.

Researchers like Dr. Smith, grappling with rapidly evolving domains, might find journals to be conduits for swift recognition and immediate impact. In contrast, scholars like Dr. Johnson, investigating topics with enduring significance, might opt for book chapters to contribute to the collective knowledge over time.

The scope, audience, timeline, academic impact, peer review process, and copyright considerations significantly influence this critical decision. The journal’s rigorous peer review process ensures the credibility of research, while book chapters offer flexibility in copyright terms for broader distribution.

Ultimately, researchers must weigh these factors against their research’s unique attributes and objectives to determine the most fitting avenue for dissemination. Whether in the pages of a journal or a book chapter, the essence of research lies in its contribution to the ever-expanding tapestry of human knowledge, a testament to the evolving landscape of academia.

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The Case for Paper: Books vs. E-Readers

Why a good old-fashioned book is better for your mental health..

Posted February 2, 2024 | Reviewed by Monica Vilhauer

• Research suggests that comprehension is six to eight times better with physical books than e-readers.
• Physical books help readers absorb and recall content more effectively.
• Turning pages as we read creates an “index” in the brain, mapping what we read visually to a particular page.
• Research shows that, despite the prevalence of technology, most people still prefer print books to e-readers.

Screens are replacing paper when it comes to nearly every aspect of communication, but is it good for our mental health? Research proves the countless mental health benefits of reading , but still most people are choosing screen-time over picking up a book when it comes to entertainment.

Even in schools, gone are the days of buying those stretchy book covers for your heavy textbooks; digital modalities of learning are taking precedence, lightening backpacks but burdening young minds with the challenge of staying on-task in a sea of digital distractions. Reading short blurbs on social media as we scroll inhibits not only our attention span, making lengthy books more arduous for our dopamine -addicted brains to digest, but often waters down the language, using more informal, conversational-style writing that offers much less exposure to rich, brain-boosting vocabulary and concepts.

Research suggests that comprehension is six to eight times better with physical books than e-readers (Altamura, L., Vargas, C., & Salmerón, L., 2023). Though many people find they can read faster on a device, the distractions, like social media scrolling, advertisements, and email notifications, often hinder memory retention. Physical books provide an immersive experience, resulting in readers who absorb and recall the content more effectively.

Holding the weight of a book in your hand, turning the pages, and even highlighting your favorite passages are all experienced in the body. In fact, according to researchers, turning pages as we read creates an “index” in the brain, mapping what we read visually to a particular page, (Rothkopf, Ernst Z.,1971). This is part of what allows the brain to retain the information better when read from a physical book.

From the way you position your body when holding a book, to the way your head and eyes adjust to scan the pages as they turn, there are distinct differences in the way our bodies experience reading a good old-fashioned book. “Print books and the substrate of paper lend an obvious physicality to individual texts, while e-books are not tangible volumes and are differently touched, held, carried and navigated,” wrote Mangen, A., and van der Weel, A. in “The evolution of reading in the age of digitisation: an integrative framework for reading research,” (2016, p. 116–124). “The haptic feedback of a touch screen is different from a paper book, and the implications of such interactions warrant empirical investigations. Studies in experimental psychology and neuroscience show that object manipulation provides spatial information which is crucial for building coherent mental representations of the manipulated object.”

In addition to improving comprehension and providing an immersive, embodied experience, reading physical books offers a uniquely social experience that e-readers miss out on. Whether you’re perusing the shelves at the bookstore, coffee in hand, asking your local librarian for recommendations from their collection, or passing along your copy of a favorite book to a friend, interacting with fellow book lovers is one of the aspects of reading that people most enjoy. Downloading books onto your e-reader bypasses these opportunities for connection.

Perhaps what is most salient is the undeniably strong preference most people have for reading printed books. In one study, 92 percent of students reportedly preferred print books over e-books (Baron, N. S., 2015). There’s something special about holding a book in your hand, admiring the cover art, even appreciating the way your bookmark visually advances with time spent turning the pages.

Altamura, L., Vargas, C., & Salmerón, L. (2023). Do New Forms of Reading Pay Off? A Meta-Analysis on the Relationship Between Leisure Digital Reading Habits and Text Comprehension. Review of Educational Research, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543231216463

Baron, N. S. (2015). Words onscreen: The fate of reading in a digital world. Oxford University Press.

Mangen, A., and van der Weel, A. (2016) The evolution of reading in the age of digitisation: an integrative framework for reading research. Literacy, 50: 116–124. doi: 10.1111/lit.12086 .

Rothkopf, Ernst Z. (1971) Incidental memory for location of information in text. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. Volume 10, Issue 6: Pages 608-613. ISSN 0022-5371, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80066-X .

Heather Rose Artushin, LISW-CP, is a child and family therapist passionate about the power of reading.

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• The Brain Facts Book

Reading on Paper Versus Screens: What’s the Difference?

• Published 28 Jul 2020
• Author Kerry Benson
• Source BrainFacts/SfN

During the coronavirus pandemic, students worldwide shifted from the classroom to remote, online learning. Many swapped hard copy textbooks and worksheets for websites and other digital resources. Digital books have been with us for a decade — but how well are we absorbing it all?

Turns out print is easier to comprehend than digital text.

“[Print reading] is kind of like meditation — focusing our attention on something still,” says Anne Mangen, a literacy professor at the University of Stavanger in Norway. “And it’s a whole different kind of immersion than responding to [digital] stimuli. I think it’s healthy for us as human beings to sit down with something that doesn’t move, ping, or call on our attention.”

Print is visually less demanding than digital text. It provides spatial and tactile cues to help readers process words on a page. Mindset may also be a factor. If people associate screen time with casual web-surfing they may rush through without fully absorbing the text.

Do you think you’re the exception? Most people do. Studies found digital reading breeds overconfidence.

“We read digital [text] more quickly, [so] we think we must understand it better,” explains Lauren Singer Trakhman, who studies reading comprehension at the University of Maryland, College Park. “It’s one of the best parts of our digital world — everything is at our fingertips and we can get the headlines in a second — but it may also be one of the pitfalls. Everything’s so quick and accessible that we may not be truly digesting [what we read] anymore.”

Both scientists agree digital is fine to scan news headings for main ideas, but longer, complicated texts are best read in print, especially to retain the details.

TL;DR: Digital Reading Equals Shallower Processing

In 2016, Singer Trakhman examined undergraduates’ reading comprehension after they read digital and print versions of articles. Format didn’t affect their grasp of the main idea, but students missed details when reading on screens.

Digital reading impairs comprehension, particularly for longer, more complex texts, says Mangen. This may be because of the shallowing hypothesis — constant exposure to fast-paced, digital media trains the brain to process information more rapidly and less thoroughly.

“There’s not much [neuroscientific research] on the reading of actual texts,” Mangen says. However, existing research does offer some clues. In a 2009 study , the marketing research company Millward Brown found the brain processes physical and digital materials differently. Participants viewed advertisements on a screen and on a printed card while undergoing an fMRI scan. Print materials were more likely to activate the medial prefrontal cortex and cingulate cortex , both involved in processing emotions. Reading print also generated more activity in the parietal cortex , which processes visual and spatial cues.

Keep Scrolling or Turn the Page?

Scrolling through digital text may impair comprehension by creating spatial challenges. A 2017 study found participants’ reading comprehension suffered when they scrolled through a comic book’s individual panels instead of seeing them all at once. When we read, our brains construct a cognitive map of the text, like recalling that a piece of information appeared near the top, left-hand page of a book. But imagine drawing a map of something with constantly moving landmarks, like a webpage. It’s harder to map words that aren’t in a fixed location, because we lose important “visual placeholders,” says Singer Trakhman.

Scrolling demands more from our working memory, she adds. “In our working memory, we can hold about seven items at a time, so the goal when reading is to take away as many demands as possible. When we have to remember what we just read and we don’t have spatial [cues] to help, that’s taking some of our bandwidth.”

In addition, the LED screens’ constant flickering glow creates more work for our eyes, causing visual and mental fatigue.

However, e-readers, like Kindles, don’t require scrolling and reduce eyestrain with e-ink technology. Those are likely superior to other digital-text formats, Mangen says. But they lack an important aspect of the reading experience: turning the page.

In one of Mangen’s studies , participants read a story either on a Kindle or in print and then underwent comprehension tests. The texts were identical, but Kindle readers pressed a button to progress through the book, while print readers turned pages. Print readers were more likely to accurately recall the story’s chronological order. Mangen says this may be because print provides sensorimotor cues that enhance cognitive processing. When holding a book, we receive reminders of how many pages we’ve read and how many remain. We can flip pages to reread text as needed. Some research suggests we process information more effectively when we recruit multiple senses, and multiple brain areas, during task learning — seeing the words, feeling the weight of the pages, and even smelling the paper.

What Happens Next?

Instead of getting better at digital reading, we may be getting worse. A study examining reading comprehension research between 2000 and 2017 indicates it’s harder to comprehend digital text. The researchers found print’s advantages are greater now than in 2000. In other words, this digital-reading problem isn’t going away.

“This [finding may] have to do with the shallowing hypothesis,” Mangen says. “The habits that we acquire when we read on screens are spilling over, and we’re trying to cope by reading faster and more superficially.”

Mangen and Singer Trakhman agree we shouldn’t ditch digital reading; instead we should consider the situation when choosing our reading medium.

“I’ll never say that everyone should be reading print all the time,” says Singer Trakhman. “People are always shocked to hear that I have a Kindle, and I love my Kindle. But I only use it when I’m reading for pleasure.”

To retain on-screen text information, Singer Trakham and Mangen suggest slowing down and handwriting main takeaways. (Typing works, but handwriting is likely a superior memory tool.) 

When you need a break from the digital world, don’t underestimate the power of paper and ink. Consider turning off your electronic devices, getting a book, and curling up to turn the page.

About the Author

Kerry Benson

Kerry Benson is a writer and neuroscience enthusiast who received a neuroscience degree from Connecticut College in 2016 and a master’s in science writing from Johns Hopkins University in 2018.

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BrainFacts/SfN

Discussion Questions

1) What are the advantages of print reading over digital?

2) What areas of the brain respond when we read print text?

3) Why do researchers think it’s getting harder to comprehend digital text?

Delgado, P., Vargas, C., Ackerman, R., & Salmerón, L. (2018). Don’t throw away your printed books: A meta-analysis on the effects of reading media on reading comprehension. Educational Research Review, 25 , 23–38. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003

Garland, K. J., & Noyes, J. M. (2004). CRT monitors: Do they interfere with learning? Behaviour & Information Technology, 23 (1), 43–52. doi: 10.1080/01449290310001638504

Hou, J., Rashid, J., & Lee, K. M. (2017). Cognitive map or medium materiality? Reading on paper and screen. Computers in Human Behavior, 67 , 84–94. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.10.014

Lauterman, T., & Ackerman, R. (2014). Overcoming screen inferiority in learning and calibration. Computers in Human Behavior, 35 , 455–463. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.046

Mangen, A., Olivier, G., & Velay, J.-L. (2019). Comparing Comprehension of a Long Text Read in Print Book and on Kindle: Where in the Text and When in the Story? Frontiers in Psychology, 10 , 38. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00038

Mangen, A., Walgermo, B. R., & Brønnick, K. (2013). Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: Effects on reading comprehension. International Journal of Educational Research, 58 , 61–68. doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2012.12.002

Mayer, K. M., Yildiz, I. B., Macedonia, M., & von Kriegstein, K. (2015). Visual and Motor Cortices Differentially Support the Translation of Foreign Language Words. Current Biology, 25 (4), 530–535. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.11.068

Millward Brown Case Study—Using Neuroscience to Understand. (2009). Retrieved from https://www.millwardbrown.com/docs/default-source/insight-documents/case-studies/MillwardBrown_CaseStudy_Neuroscience.pdf

Singer Trakhman, L., & Alexander, P. (2016). Reading Across Mediums: Effects of Reading Digital and Print Texts on Comprehension and Calibration. The Journal of Experimental Education . doi: 10.1080/00220973.2016.1143794

Smoker, T. J., Murphy, C. E., & Rockwell, A. K. (2009). Comparing Memory for Handwriting versus Typing. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53 (22), 1744–1747. doi: 10.1177/154193120905302218

Yan, Z., Hu, L., Chen, H., & Lu, F. (2008). Computer Vision Syndrome: A widely spreading but largely unknown epidemic among computer users. Including the Special Issue: Internet Empowerment, 24 (5), 2026–2042. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2007.09.004

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Reading on Screen vs. Print: New Analysis Thickens the Plot on Promoting Comprehension

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The pandemic has increased the amount of reading young children do in digital formats, and a new research analysis suggests parent and teacher behavior can mean the difference in whether e-books help or hinder reading skills in the long run.

All else being equal, children 8 years old and younger comprehend storybooks better when they are in print rather than digital form, according to an analysis of 39 experimental studies published in the Review of Educational Research.

But print wasn’t an end-all, be-all, they found. Researchers also found that most of the commercially published e-books explored in the studies didn’t enhance the text in ways that focused children’s attention as adults naturally would when reading a story to a child, such as pointing out main story elements, asking questions, and focusing children’s attention on the chain of events in a story. The electronic books that did use these elements tended to outperform print books in children’s comprehension.

“We need to have a more nuanced language about when reading digitally or print is beneficial and when not,” said Natalia Kucirkova, the corresponding author and a professor of reading and early-childhood development at the University of Stavanger in Norwayand the Open University in the United Kingdom.

Co-author Adriana Bus, professor of language and literacy at Leiden University in Amsterdam, agreed. “Digital devices may always be distractive, thus predicting adverse effects of digital reading. However, our study also shows that books with digital enhancements can benefit and result in better comprehension than paper books if the enhancements support comprehension,” she said.

More reading time during the pandemic

Children have been reading more during the pandemic, including in electronic formats, according to the latest census by Common Sense Media , a nonprofit that studies children and media. The group found that in 2020, children ages 8 and under spent on average, 32 minutes a day reading or being read to, up from 29 minutes a day in 2017.

Both print and e-reading increased overall, but e-reading rose particularly for some groups of students. Black students in that age group, for example, have gone from reading 28 minutes a day, including 8 minutes of e-reading and 20 minutes of print in 2017, to 48 minutes a day in 2020, including 33 minutes of print and 15 of e-reading. Similarly, students in families who earn less than $30,000 a year doubled their e-reading from 5 minutes a day to 10 minutes during that time.

Kucirkova said she expects wide variation in how children respond to e-reading during the pandemic, “attributable to the uneven quality of home schooling. I am particularly concerned about children who come from low-resource backgrounds with little history of reading and who do not have the supportive adult at home, who would be interpreting, and at times supplementing, teachers’ instruction,” she said. “The crucial influencing factor for these children is going to be the quality of the reading materials they accessed.”

The research analysis suggested children’s comprehension improved when adults read to them—but adults tended to read digital texts with children differently than print texts.

“Reading to children via Zoom has been happening in many families during the pandemic but anecdotal evidence shows that this was mostly for the most privileged children,” such as those with highly educated parents or grandparents or family members who could afford to spend more time reading with them,” Kucirkova said in an online message. She suggested teachers can help model for parents by holding videoconferenced reading sessions using both print and digital books.

The researchers analyzed the results of studies of more than 1,800 children from birth to age 8, comparing their comprehension and vocabulary learning when reading on paper versus on screens. The researchers also looked at the effects of common e-book enhancements, including spoken narration accompanying the text, design enhancements, and in-book dictionaries.

Some of the most commonly used enhancements didn’t add much to students’ comprehension. For example, Bus noted that audio narration of e-books did little, particularly for children who needed the most reading practice.

“They were the children who closed their eyes and just listened,” she said. In one eye-tracking experiment, for example, “not surprisingly, we found that good readers focus on the text while listening, thus benefiting from this experience. The poor readers did not look at all at the text, just at the illustrations.”

The researchers also found dictionaries did not improve children’s comprehension, but did build students’ vocabularies.

The analysis also found digital texts tended to be less effective than print ones in classroom settings. In part, Kucirkova said, this could be because the group-based reading used in schools may make less use of the interactive elements in digital books.

In videotaped lessons, Bus noted, “teachers [are] reading in small groups, and you can see that children are eager to interact with the book where possible in competition with their peers. However, looking for an opportunity to interact takes so much attention that they cannot concentrate on the story. So teachers have to organize sessions so that children can be sure of their share in the interaction with the story.”

A version of this article appeared in the August 18, 2021 edition of Education Week as Reading on Screen vs. Print: New Analysis Thickens the Plot on Promoting Comprehension

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Books Vs Internet Research (What’s Better?)

The internet has always been our go-to source for fast information. The internet provides information at the appropriate time, unlike books that'll require you to search thoroughly. The internet experience cannot be compared to reading books. Books are a slow process compared to the internet. You tend not to forget anything because you visualize ideas as you read.

Reading books and the internet has their different rewards. It is determined by the topic, the time frame you have to spend, and how deep the research is.

Reading Books for Research

Books are known as learning tools. Students in colleges must read books to support their research. The following are the advantages of reading books:

• Books cover the topic you intend to find on the internet. There is no subject area you're researching that books don't cater to.
• Books don't stress your eyes. You don't have to squint your eyes as you do on the internet. You can spend more time researching, and yet you won't get tired.
• Books are convenient. You can pick it up any day and anytime without worrying.

The disadvantages of books over the internet include:

• Books take a long time during the book research process.
• You might spend more using books. It all depends on the topic you're targeting.
• You might not be free to take books everywhere you go. Books are inconvenient.
• Research books are tasking. On the other hand, the internet is a fast means of doing research.

Reading the Internet for Research

• The internet is cheaper, and you have the opportunity to explore.
• The internet is faster. It only requires an internet connection .

The disadvantages of the internet over book research are

• Not everything on the internet is worthwhile. As a student, the internet has information that shouldn't be believed. There are usually different schools of thought.
• The information online is usually quick and not well-structured.

 The means to use for your research as a college student depends on how deep your research is.

Why is book research better than Internet Research ?

In a contest between books and the internet, books will always prevail. Although it may be quicker and less expensive, the internet also has the potential to lead people astray. For instance, if you search for "how to start a company idea," the results on the internet will vary. There will be a variety of information in the search results from various blogs. However, they won't go into great detail about what you want to understand.

Experts write books in the field you're trying to learn from. Professionals with a wealth of knowledge write them. All information in books is of great value and is carefully written.

Professional content writers usually write information on the internet. They spend time doing research and coming up with content. Online content is optimized for readability. The contents might not be information-rich.

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World's leading professional association of Internet Research Specialists - We deliver Knowledge, Education, Training, and Certification in the field of Professional Online Research. The AOFIRS is considered a major contributor in improving Web Search Skills and recognizes Online Research work as a full-time occupation for those that use the Internet as their primary source of information.

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Articles, Books, and . . . ? Understanding the Many Types of Information Found in Libraries

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Academic Journals

Magazines and trade journals, conference papers, technical reports, anthologies.

• Documents and Reports
• Non-Text Content
• Archival Materials

Because of their short length, articles often exclude background info and explanations, so they're usually the last stop in your research process, after you've narrowed down your topic and need to find very specific information.

The main thing to remember about articles is that they're almost always published in some larger work , like a journal, a newspaper, or an anthology. It's those "article containers" that define the types of articles, how you use them, and how you find them.

Articles are also the main reason we have so many databases . The Library Catalog lists everything we own, but only at the level of whole books and journals. It will tell you we have the New York Times, and for what dates, but it doesn't know what articles are in it. Search in UC Library Search using the "Articles, books, and more" scope will search all the databases we subscribe to and some we don't. If you find something we do not own, you can request it on Interlibrary Loan.

Physical Media

While newer journals and magazines are usually online, many older issues are still only available in paper. In addition, many of our online subscriptions explicitly don't include the latest material, specifically to encourage sales of print subscriptions. Older newspapers are usually transferred to microfilm.

Scholarly Sources

The terms academic or scholarly journal are usually synonymous with peer-reviewed , but check the journal's publishing policies to be sure. Trade journals, magazines, and newspapers are rarely peer-reviewed.

Primary or Secondary Sources

In the social sciences and humanities, articles are usually secondary sources; the exceptions are articles reporting original research findings from field studies. Primary source articles are more common in the physical and life sciences, where many articles are reporting primary research results from experiments, case studies, and clinical trials.

Clues that you're reading an academic article

• Abstract at beginning
• Footnotes or endnotes
• Bilbliography or list of references

Articles in academic (peer-reviewed) journals are the primary forum for scholarly communication, where scholars introduce and debate new ideas and research. They're usually not written for laymen, and assume familiarity with other recent work in the field. Journal articles also tend to be narrowly focused, concentrating on analysis of one or two creative works or studies, though they may also contain review articles or literature reviews which summarize recent published work in a field.

In addition to regular articles, academic journals often include book reviews (of scholarly books ) and letters from readers commenting on recent articles.

Clues that you're reading a non -academic article

• No abstract, footnotes or endnotes
• Decorative photos
• Advertisements

Unlike scholarly journals, magazines are written for a mainstream audience and are not peer-reviewed. A handful of academic journals (like Science and Nature ) blur the line between these two categories; they publish peer-reviewed articles, but combine them with news, opinions, and full-color photos in a magazine-style presentation.

Trade journals are targeted toward a specific profession or industry. Despite the name, they are usually not peer-reviewed. However, they sometimes represent a gray area between popular magazines and scholarly journals. When in doubt, ask your professor or TA whether a specific source is acceptable.

Newspapers as Primary Sources

Though usually written by journalists who were not direct witnesses to events, newspapers and news broadcasts may include quotes or interviews from people who were. In the absence of first-person accounts, contemporary news reports may be the closest thing to a primary source available.

Of all the content types listed here, newspapers are the fastest to publish. Use newspaper articles to find information about recent events and contemporary reports of/reactions to historic events.

• News by UCLA Library Last Updated Apr 1, 2024 4068 views this year

Reviews are a type of article that can appear in any of the categories above. The type of publication will usually determine the type of review. Newspapers and magazines review movies, plays, general interest books, and consumer products. Academic journals review scholarly books.

Note that a review is not the same as scholarly analysis and criticism! Book reviews, even in scholarly journals, are usually not peer-reviewed.

Conference papers aren't always published and can be tricky to find . Recent conference papers are often online, along with the PowerPoint files or other materials used in the actual presentation. However, access may be limited to conference participants and/or members of the academic organization which sponsored the conference.

In paper formats, all of the papers from a certain conference may be re-printed in the conference proceedings . Search for Proceedings of the [name of conference] to find what's available, or ask for help from a librarian. But be aware that published proceedings may only include abstracts or even just the name of the presenter and the title of the presentation. This is especially true of poster presentations , which really are large graphic posters (which don't translate well to either printed books or computer monitors).

As the name implies, most technical reports are about research in the physical sciences or engineering. However, there are also technical reports produced in the life and social sciences,

Like conference papers , some technical reports are eventually transformed into academic journal articles , but they may also be released after a journal article to provide supplementary data that didn't fit within the article. Also like conference papers, technical reports can be hard to find , especially older reports which may only be available in microfiche . Ask for help from a librarian!

Anthologies are a cross-over example. They're books that contain articles (chapters). Anthologies may be collections of articles by a single author, or collections of articles on a theme from different authors chosen by an editor. Many anthologies reprint articles already published elsewhere, but some contain original works.

Anthologies are rarely peer-reviewed, but they still may be considered scholarly works, depending on the reputation of the authors and editors. Use the same criteria listed for scholarly books .

Of course, reprints of articles originally published in peer-reviewed journals retain their "scholarly" status. (Note that most style manuals have special rules for citing reprinted works.)

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• Last Updated: Mar 1, 2024 10:55 AM
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Books vs. screens: what does the latest research say, digital texts can be useful for teaching certain foundational skills, but they do not equally develop cognitive patience and slower, deeper processes in the brain that serve comprehension, retention and focus..

WHICH IS BEST FOR COMPREHENSION, SCREENS OR BOOKS?

Hooked on computer phonics, preserving deep reading.

Books and Journals in the Social Sciences: Publication Process

• Differences in Uses

Publication Process

Peer Review Process: Explanation

Peer Review: Articles that have been reviewed by other experts so the reader can be reasonably assured that the article contains valid information.

This process often takes months and involves the authors who did the research submitting their finished article to a journal, the journal editor will anonymize the article and have three anonymous reviewers (researchers who work and publish in the same field as the article's authors) read the article and judge its credibility and thoroughness - they will recommend if the article should be published, or if it needs changes. The editor will share the feedback from the reviewers with the authors - no one but the editor knows the identity of the author and the reviewers. 

Article Retraction : 

Peer-reviewed articles are not infallible and are sometimes "retracted". This is when an already published article is removed from a journal. This decision may be made by the journal's editor and/or editorial board. Retractions do not happen because of small editorial errors. An article would be corrected in this case. Retractions reflect more serious issues with an article.

Retractions may occur because of

• errors in the research
• issues with reproducibility of the research
• falsification of data or results
• fabrication of data or results
• copyright infringement
• failure to disclose conflict of interest
• no institutional review board approval for research on human subjects or animals
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Are Audiobooks As Good For You As Reading? Here’s What Experts Say

E ven for people who love books, finding the opportunity to read can be a challenge. Many, then, rely on audiobooks, a convenient alternative to old-fashioned reading. You can listen to the latest bestseller while commuting or cleaning up the house.

But is listening to a book really the same as reading one?

“I was a fan of audiobooks, but I always viewed them as cheating,” says Beth Rogowsky, an associate professor of education at Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania.

For a 2016 study , Rogowsky put her assumptions to the test. One group in her study listened to sections of Unbroken , a nonfiction book about World War II by Laura Hillenbrand, while a second group read the same parts on an e-reader. She included a third group that both read and listened at the same time. Afterward, everyone took a quiz designed to measure how well they had absorbed the material. “We found no significant differences in comprehension between reading, listening, or reading and listening simultaneously,” Rogowsky says.

Score one for audiobooks? Maybe. But Rogowsky’s study used e-readers rather than traditional print books, and there’s some evidence that reading on a screen reduces learning and comprehension compared to reading from printed text. So it’s possible that, had her study pitted traditional books against audiobooks, old-school reading might have come out on top.

If you’re wondering why printed books may be better than screen-based reading, it may have to do with your inability to gauge where you are in an electronic book. “As you’re reading a narrative, the sequence of events is important, and knowing where you are in a book helps you build that arc of narrative,” says Daniel Willingham, a professor of psychology at the University of Virginia and author of Raising Kids Who Read . While e-readers try to replicate this by telling you how much of a book you have left, in a percentage or length of time to the end, this doesn’t seem to have the same narrative-orienting effect as reading from a traditional book.

The fact that printed text is anchored to a specific location on a page also seems to help people remember it better than screen-based text, according to more research on the spatial attributes of traditional printed media. All this may be relevant to the audiobook vs. book debate because, like digital screens, audiobooks deny users the spatial cues they would use while reading from printed text.

The self-directed rhythms associated with reading may also differentiate books from audiobooks.

“About 10 to 15% of eye movements during reading are actually regressive—meaning [the eyes are] going back and re-checking,” Willingham explains. “This happens very quickly, and it’s sort of seamlessly stitched into the process of reading a sentence.” He says this reading quirk almost certainly bolsters comprehension, and it may be roughly comparable to a listener asking for a speaker to “hold on” or repeat something. “Even as you’re asking, you’re going over in your mind’s ear what the speaker just said,” he says. Theoretically, you can also pause or jump back while listening to an audio file. “But it’s more trouble,” he adds.

Another consideration is that whether we’re reading or listening to a text, our minds occasionally wander. Seconds (or minutes) can pass before we snap out of these little mental sojourns and refocus our attention, says David Daniel, a professor of psychology at James Madison University and a member of a National Academy of Sciences project aimed at understanding how people learn.

If you’re reading, it’s pretty easy to go back and find the point at which you zoned out. It’s not so easy if you’re listening to a recording, Daniel says. Especially if you’re grappling with a complicated text, the ability to quickly backtrack and re-examine the material may aid learning, and this is likely easier to do while reading than while listening. “Turning the page of a book also gives you a slight break,” he says. This brief pause may create space for your brain to store or savor the information you’re absorbing.

Daniel coauthored a 2010 study that found students who listened to a podcast lesson performed worse on a comprehension quiz than students who read the same lesson on paper. “And the podcast group did a lot worse, not a little worse,” he says. Compared to the readers, the listeners scored an average of 28% lower on the quiz—about the difference between an A or a D grade, he says.

Interestingly, at the start of the experiment, almost all the students wanted to be in the podcast group. “But then right before I gave them the quiz, I asked them again which group they would want to be in, and most of them had changed their minds—they wanted to be in the reading group,” Daniel says. “They knew they hadn’t learned as much.”

He says it’s possible that, with practice, the listeners might be able to make up ground on the readers. “We get good at what we do, and you could become a better listener if you trained yourself to listen more critically,” he says. (The same could be true of screen-based reading; some research suggests that people who practice “screen learning” get better at it.)

But there may also be some “structural hurdles” that impede learning from audio material, Daniels says. For one thing, you can’t underline or highlight something you hear. And many of the “This is important!” cues that show up in text books—things like bolded words or boxed bits of critical info—aren’t easily emphasized in audio-based media.

But audiobooks also have some strengths. Human beings have been sharing information orally for tens of thousands of years, Willingham says, while the printed word is a much more recent invention. “When we’re reading, we’re using parts of the brain that evolved for other purposes, and we’re MacGyvering them so they can be applied to the cognitive task of reading,” he explains. Listeners, on the other hand, can derive a lot of information from a speaker’s inflections or intonations. Sarcasm is much more easily communicated via audio than printed text. And people who hear Shakespeare spoken out loud tend to glean a lot of meaning from the actor’s delivery, he adds.

However, a final factor may tip the comprehension and retention scales firmly in favor of reading, and that’s the issue of multitasking. “If you’re trying to learn while doing two things, you’re not going to learn as well,” Willingham says. Even activities that you can more or less perform on autopilot—stuff like driving or doing the dishes—take up enough of your attention to impede learning. “I listen to audiobooks all the time while I’m driving, but I would not try to listen to anything important to my work,” he says.

All that said, if you’re reading or listening for leisure—not for work or study—the differences between audiobooks and print books are probably “small potatoes,” he adds. “I think there’s enormous overlap in comprehension of an audio text compared to comprehension of a print text.”

So go ahead and “cheat.” Your book club buddies will never know.

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Print books vs. e-books: which is better for what.

Our recent e-reading report has received a lot of attention over the past week , and one section in particular that seemed to spark conversation was our “print vs. e-books” showdown :

We asked people who read both print books and e-books in the past year which format they thought was better for a variety of situations. We found that people prefer e-books when they need a book quickly, when they want a wide selection, or when they want to read “on-the-go” while commuting or traveling. Print, meanwhile, is the preferred format for “social reading,” such as sharing books with others or reading with a child.

And when it comes to the time-honored tradition of reading in bed? The verdict was split: 45% say e-books are best here, while 43% prefer print.

Here are more links to interesting discussions we’ve noticed around the web:

• E-book revolution: We’re reading more than ever [The Christian Science Monitor’s Chapter & Verse blog]
• Rise in E-Book Readership Is Good News for Reading Over All, Report Says [Wired Campus, The Chronicle of Higher Education]
• E-books spur reading among Americans, survey shows [CNN.com]
• Per the Latest Pew Study, the Most Social Way to Read Is Still in Print [The Atlantic]

What do you think? If you’re a “dual-format reader,” when does print win out over e-books (and vice versa?) How have e-books changed your reading habits—if at all? Hop over to our Facebook page and let us know!

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Audiobooks or Reading? To Our Brains, It Doesn’t Matter

Stories stimulate the brain in the same way, regardless of whether they're read or heard..

If you don’t have time to sit and read a physical book, is listening to the audio version considered cheating? To some hardcore book nerds, it could be. But new evidence suggests that, to our brains, reading and hearing a story might not be so different.

In a study published in the Journal of Neuroscience , researchers from the Gallant Lab at UC Berkeley scanned the brains of nine participants while they read and listened to a series of tales from “The Moth Radio Hour.” After analyzing how each word was processed in the the brain’s cortex, they created maps of the participants’ brains, noting the different areas helped interpret the meaning of each word.

They mapped out the results in an interactive diagram, which is due to be published on the Gallant Lab website this week.

Looking at the brain scans and data analysis, the researchers saw that the stories stimulated the same cognitive and emotional areas, regardless of their medium. It’s adding to our understanding of how our brains give semantic meaning to the squiggly letters and bursts of sound that make up our communication.

This is Your Brain on Words

In 2016, researchers at the Gallant Lab published their first interactive map of a person’s brain after they listened to two hours of stories from “The Moth.” It’s a vibrant, rainbow-hued diagram of a brain divided into about 60,000 parts, called voxels.

Coding and analyzing the data in each voxel helped researchers visualize which regions of the brain process certain kinds of words. One section responded to terms like “father,” “refused,” and “remarried” — social words that describe dramatic events, people or time.

But the most recent study, which compared brains when they were listening and reading, showed that words tend to activate the same brain regions with the same intensity, regardless of input.

It was a finding that surprised Fatma Deniz, a postdoctoral researcher at the Gallant Lab and lead author of the study. The subject’s brains were creating meaning from the words in the same way, regardless if they were listening or reading. In fact, the brain maps for both auditory and visual input they created from the data looked nearly identical.

Their work is part of a broader effort to understand which regions of our brains help give meaning to certain types of words.

More Work Ahead

Deniz wants to take the experiment even further by testing on a broader range of subjects. She wants to include participants who don’t speak English, speak multiple languages or have auditory processing disorders or dyslexia. Finding out exactly how the brain makes meaning from words could fuel experiments for years.

“This can go forever … it’s an awesome question,” she says. “It would be amazing to understand all aspects of it. And that would be the end goal.”

For now, Deniz says the results of this study could make a case for people who struggle with reading or listening to have access to stories in different formats. Kids who grow up with dyslexia, for example, might benefit from audiobooks that are readily available in the classroom.

And if listening to audiobooks is your preferred method of storytelling, you might not be cheating at all. In fact, it seems you’re not losing anything by downloading books on your phone — you’re just being a smart reader, er, listener.

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Evidence increases for reading on paper instead of screens

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Virginia Clinton prefers to read on a screen. Her love affair with digital texts began when she was a new mother, juggling the workload of a young academic with diapers and feedings. “I have warm, fuzzy memories of rocking my babies to sleep and reading one-handed on my phone,” Clinton said.

As an assistant professor of education at the University of North Dakota, Clinton had encouraged her students to save money on textbooks and buy cheaper digital versions or use free materials online. Her research specialty was reading comprehension. According to theories she learned in graduate school, she recalled, there should be no difference between reading on paper and reading on a screen.

But many of her education students told her they preferred paper, she said. Clinton decided to delve into at all the studies published since 2008 about reading on screens. She compiled results from 33 high-quality studies that tested students’ comprehension after they were randomly assigned to read on a screen or on paper and found that her students might be right.

The studies showed that students of all ages, from elementary school to college, tend to absorb more when they’re reading on paper than on screens, particularly when it comes to nonfiction material. “Sometimes you should print it out, especially if it’s long,” said Clinton.

Clinton now tells her students to order the book if they prefer reading paper. “It’s enough of a benefit that it’s worth the paper and ink and the cost of the book,” she said.

Related: A textbook dilemma: Digital or paper?

The benefit for reading on paper was rather small, after averaging the studies together, Clinton said. But 29 of the 33 laboratory studies found that readers learned more from text on paper.

Clinton’s analysis , published earlier in 2019, is now at least the third study to synthesize reputable research on reading comprehension in the digital age and find that paper is better. It was preceded by a 2017 review by scholars at the University of Maryland and a 2018 meta-analysis by scholars in Spain and Israel. The international analysis arrived at nearly the same numerical conclusion as Clinton’s study. Paper beat screens by more than a fifth of a standard deviation. (Scholars argue over how to interpret these statistical units. For controlled laboratory studies like these, it’s a small advantage.)

The mounting research evidence against screens is important because it clashes with textbook publishers’ long-term plans to emphasize digital texts. Pearson, the largest textbook publisher in North America, announced in July 2019 that it was moving to a “ digital first” strategy . Books will still be available to rent but students will be discouraged from buying them by higher prices, fewer updates and limited availability.

This reading research also runs counter to well-intended advice for students to save money. A July 2019 report from the National Association of College Stores shows a record high 22 percent of college students are using free online course materials, up from 3 percent in 2015. Thanks to free online texts, overall spending on materials has decreased.

For proponents of digital texts, there is plenty to quibble about in the current research. The studies that Clinton included in her analysis didn’t allow students to take advantage of the extra bells and whistles that digital texts can potentially offer. Some argue that these add-ons — such as pop-up quizzes in the middle of a reading passage to check for comprehension or instant definitions of unfamiliar words  — are what give digital text an edge. In Clinton’s underlying studies, students could only interact with a digital text as they do on paper. That pretty much restricted students to highlighting and note taking.

“My findings weren’t fair to screens because the screens couldn’t offer everything they could,” Clinton said. “They were really just a shiny piece of paper.”

Still, there isn’t yet convincing proof that the digital add-ons improve reading comprehension or even match the reading comprehension that students can achieve with text on paper. Well-designed studies to test this don’t exist.  Clinton is planning to study reading comprehension with digital add-ons in her laboratory to see if digital texts will get better results.

Why students don’t read as well on screens is a fascinating question. Some experts think the glare and flicker of screens tax the brain more than paper. Others argue that spatial memory for the location of a passage or a chart on a physical paper page can help a student recall information. Digital distraction and the temptation to browse or multi-task is an obvious problem in the real world. But internet browsing or app checking wasn’t allowed in the controlled conditions of these laboratory studies.

The Maryland researchers who conducted the 2017 review thought that people were reading too fast on screens. But in Clinton’s collection of studies, she didn’t find any difference in reading time between the two formats.

Instead, Clinton suspects that the problem might be one of rampant self-delusion by screen readers. In many of the lab studies, readers answered questions on how well they thought they had performed in the experiment. Screen readers consistently overestimated their reading comprehension. Paper readers were more accurate in their self-judgments.

The excessive confidence of screen readers is important, Clinton said, because people who overestimate their abilities are likely to put in less effort. The less effort a person puts into a reading passage, the less they are likely to comprehend. That’s because reading comprehension, like all learning, isn’t easy and requires work.

Genre also matters. When Clinton separated out the studies that had students read narrative fiction, there was no benefit to paper over screens. (So, go ahead and read Jane Austen on a Kindle.) But for nonfiction information texts, the advantage for paper stands out.

What does this mean for teachers and parents? That depends a bit on the student’s age, Clinton said. For college students, she advises picking the format they personally prefer. For most students, that will be paper.

But increasingly, there won’t always be a paper version. And this is where Clinton recommends that professors take extra time to show students how to read a digital text more effectively by, for example, periodically self-checking for comprehension.

Usually elementary and high school teachers don’t have the flexibility to offer a text both ways. When forced to teach with a digital text, Clinton advises teachers to have students “explain more what they’re reading.”

“Ideally, I would like to see both [paper and digital] in the classroom,” she said. “That way kids are developing screen and technology skills and they’re also learning and getting the help of paper for developing reading skills.”

Her advice to parents is to remember that any reading — screen or paper — is good for children. Clinton says her own children like the games they can play as rewards as they move through an e-book series. Those kind of rewards can sometimes motivate kids to read more. “But if you have a child who has a hard time focusing when they’re reading — that complaint is common with screens — then paper might be helpful,” she said.

Clinton said both parents and teachers need to teach children how to manage and regulate their behavior on screens in order to benefit from them.

In the meantime, the researcher herself remains a screen reader. “I don’t like paper,” Clinton said, “because I keep losing it.”

This story about paper vs. digital reading was written by Jill Barshay and produced by The Hechinger Report , a nonprofit, independent news organization focused on inequality and innovation in education. Sign up for the  Hechinger newsletter .

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You can not imagine how many times I have argued this point in meetings, workshops, and conversations with younger teachers boasting “paperless classrooms” as the newest wave in education!!! Reading comprehension is just not there for most children reading on screens!!!! And students continue to need paper and pen to organize ideas for writing essays! Keep the evidence coming in support of paper learning along with the newest technologies!

I am a research and have to read thick technical books all the time. I absolutely agree with Riposta because using digital books are no different to turning on a computer while studying. The amount of distraction just made me turn off my computer so I can stay focused because there are so much information online. Reading technical information on paper with highlighters and pencil allows me to visualize the theory into diagrams while reading and this becomes logic to solutions just by looking at the problems. Reading digitally is no different from reading off internet but the advantage of digital book is people can copy and paste from digital books to word processors instead of highlighting to condense a book into personal notes. The screen really is taxing brain power to focus on materials like reading insurance details and legal documents.

I think that the glass is half full and not half empty. A number of meta-analyses and literature reviews have found that there is no negative effect for the reading of (long ) narrative texts. Meanwhile, for K-12 students reading of narrative texts (fiction) is associated with a number of better outcomes, including higher PISA scores. For adolescents the conclusion might equally be ”Read more fiction and don’t worry about the medium”.. or as the they say – Take care of the pennies and pounds will take care of themselves.

I highly value reading on hard paper, but I am not sure if it is because I am a product of the 90s and grew up in a paper-only educational environment. Today, when I have to read anything over 10 pages, I absorb it so much better on printed paper. I like to highlight, use my pen to guide my way through the sentences, turn the page, write notes on the side…it is much less stressful and overwhelming than seeing a tiny slider on the side of my screen showing how little progress I’ve made, and how much more eye strain I must endure. I’ve also noticed my attention span is significantly slimmer when reading on a screen versus paper. I have wondered if there is more to it neurologically, if some minds respond adversely to screens and therefore, it is a deterrent to meaningful learning. I don’t think paper versions of texts should die out, but stay as a method for those of us who prefer it!

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Two key brain systems are central to psychosis, Stanford Medicine-led study finds

When the brain has trouble filtering incoming information and predicting what’s likely to happen, psychosis can result, Stanford Medicine-led research shows.

April 11, 2024 - By Erin Digitale

People with psychosis have trouble filtering relevant information (mesh funnel) and predicting rewarding events (broken crystal ball), creating a complex inner world. Emily Moskal

Inside the brains of people with psychosis, two key systems are malfunctioning: a “filter” that directs attention toward important external events and internal thoughts, and a “predictor” composed of pathways that anticipate rewards.

Dysfunction of these systems makes it difficult to know what’s real, manifesting as hallucinations and delusions. 

The findings come from a Stanford Medicine-led study , published April 11 in  Molecular Psychiatry , that used brain scan data from children, teens and young adults with psychosis. The results confirm an existing theory of how breaks with reality occur.

“This work provides a good model for understanding the development and progression of schizophrenia, which is a challenging problem,” said lead author  Kaustubh Supekar , PhD, clinical associate professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences.

The findings, observed in individuals with a rare genetic disease called 22q11.2 deletion syndrome who experience psychosis as well as in those with psychosis of unknown origin, advance scientists’ understanding of the underlying brain mechanisms and theoretical frameworks related to psychosis.

During psychosis, patients experience hallucinations, such as hearing voices, and hold delusional beliefs, such as thinking that people who are not real exist. Psychosis can occur on its own and isa hallmark of certain serious mental illnesses, including bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is also characterized by social withdrawal, disorganized thinking and speech, and a reduction in energy and motivation.

It is challenging to study how schizophrenia begins in the brain. The condition usually emerges in teens or young adults, most of whom soon begin taking antipsychotic medications to ease their symptoms. When researchers analyze brain scans from people with established schizophrenia, they cannot distinguish the effects of the disease from the effects of the medications. They also do not know how schizophrenia changes the brain as the disease progresses. 

To get an early view of the disease process, the Stanford Medicine team studied young people aged 6 to 39 with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, a genetic condition with a 30% risk for psychosis, schizophrenia or both. 

Kaustubh Supekar

Brain function in 22q11.2 patients who have psychosis is similar to that in people with psychosis of unknown origin, they found. And these brain patterns matched what the researchers had previously theorized was generating psychosis symptoms.

“The brain patterns we identified support our theoretical models of how cognitive control systems malfunction in psychosis,” said senior study author  Vinod Menon , PhD, the Rachael L. and Walter F. Nichols, MD, Professor; a professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences; and director of the  Stanford Cognitive and Systems Neuroscience Laboratory .

Thoughts that are not linked to reality can capture the brain’s cognitive control networks, he said. “This process derails the normal functioning of cognitive control, allowing intrusive thoughts to dominate, culminating in symptoms we recognize as psychosis.”

Cerebral sorting  

Normally, the brain’s cognitive filtering system — aka the salience network — works behind the scenes to selectively direct our attention to important internal thoughts and external events. With its help, we can dismiss irrational thoughts and unimportant events and focus on what’s real and meaningful to us, such as paying attention to traffic so we avoid a collision.

The ventral striatum, a small brain region, and associated brain pathways driven by dopamine, play an important role in predicting what will be rewarding or important. 

For the study, the researchers assembled as much functional MRI brain-scan data as possible from young people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, totaling 101 individuals scanned at three different universities. (The study also included brain scans from several comparison groups without 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: 120 people with early idiopathic psychosis, 101 people with autism, 123 with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and 411 healthy controls.) 

The genetic condition, characterized by deletion of part of the 22nd chromosome, affects 1 in every 2,000 to 4,000 people. In addition to the 30% risk of schizophrenia or psychosis, people with the syndrome can also have autism or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, which is why these conditions were included in the comparison groups.

The researchers used a type of machine learning algorithm called a spatiotemporal deep neural network to characterize patterns of brain function in all patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome compared with healthy subjects. With a cohort of patients whose brains were scanned at the University of California, Los Angeles, they developed an algorithmic model that distinguished brain scans from people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome versus those without it. The model predicted the syndrome with greater than 94% accuracy. They validated the model in additional groups of people with or without the genetic syndrome who had received brain scans at UC Davis and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, showing that in these independent groups, the model sorted brain scans with 84% to 90% accuracy.

The researchers then used the model to investigate which brain features play the biggest role in psychosis. Prior studies of psychosis had not given consistent results, likely because their sample sizes were too small. 

Vinod Menon

Comparing brain scans from 22q11.2 deletion syndrome patients who had and did not have psychosis, the researchers showed that the brain areas contributing most to psychosis are the anterior insula (a key part of the salience network or “filter”) and the ventral striatum (the “reward predictor”); this was true for different cohorts of patients.

In comparing the brain features of people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and psychosis against people with psychosis of unknown origin, the model found significant overlap, indicating that these brain features are characteristic of psychosis in general.

A second mathematical model, trained to distinguish all subjects with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and psychosis from those who have the genetic syndrome but without psychosis, selected brain scans from people with idiopathic psychosis with 77.5% accuracy, again supporting the idea that the brain’s filtering and predicting centers are key to psychosis.

Furthermore, this model was specific to psychosis: It could not classify people with idiopathic autism or ADHD.

“It was quite exciting to trace our steps back to our initial question — ‘What are the dysfunctional brain systems in schizophrenia?’ — and to discover similar patterns in this context,” Menon said. “At the neural level, the characteristics differentiating individuals with psychosis in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome are mirroring the pathways we’ve pinpointed in schizophrenia. This parallel reinforces our understanding of psychosis as a condition with identifiable and consistent brain signatures.” However, these brain signatures were not seen in people with the genetic syndrome but no psychosis, holding clues to future directions for research, he added.

Applications for treatment or prevention

In addition to supporting the scientists’ theory about how psychosis occurs, the findings have implications for understanding the condition — and possibly preventing it.

“One of my goals is to prevent or delay development of schizophrenia,” Supekar said. The fact that the new findings are consistent with the team’s prior research on which brain centers contribute most to schizophrenia in adults suggests there may be a way to prevent it, he said. “In schizophrenia, by the time of diagnosis, a lot of damage has already occurred in the brain, and it can be very difficult to change the course of the disease.”

“What we saw is that, early on, functional interactions among brain regions within the same brain systems are abnormal,” he added. “The abnormalities do not start when you are in your 20s; they are evident even when you are 7 or 8.”

Our discoveries underscore the importance of approaching people with psychosis with compassion.

The researchers plan to use existing treatments, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation or focused ultrasound, targeted at these brain centers in young people at risk of psychosis, such as those with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome or with two parents who have schizophrenia, to see if they prevent or delay the onset of the condition or lessen symptoms once they appear. 

The results also suggest that using functional MRI to monitor brain activity at the key centers could help scientists investigate how existing antipsychotic medications are working. 

Although it’s still puzzling why someone becomes untethered from reality — given how risky it seems for one’s well-being — the “how” is now understandable, Supekar said. “From a mechanistic point of view, it makes sense,” he said.

“Our discoveries underscore the importance of approaching people with psychosis with compassion,” Menon said, adding that his team hopes their work not only advances scientific understanding but also inspires a cultural shift toward empathy and support for those experiencing psychosis. 

“I recently had the privilege of engaging with individuals from our department’s early psychosis treatment group,” he said. “Their message was a clear and powerful: ‘We share more similarities than differences. Like anyone, we experience our own highs and lows.’ Their words were a heartfelt appeal for greater empathy and understanding toward those living with this condition. It was a call to view psychosis through a lens of empathy and solidarity.”

Researchers contributed to the study from UCLA, Clinica Alemana Universidad del Desarrollo, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, the University of Oxford and UC Davis.

The study was funded by the Stanford Maternal and Child Health Research Institute’s Uytengsu-Hamilton 22q11 Neuropsychiatry Research Program, FONDEYCT (the National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development of the government of Chile), ANID-Chile (the Chilean National Agency for Research and Development) and the U.S. National Institutes of Health (grants AG072114, MH121069, MH085953 and MH101779).

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A digital book ban? High schoolers describe dangers, frustrations of censored web access

Their schools block information about abortion, suicide prevention and lgbtq+ resources like the trevor project. here's what students say..

This article was copublished with The Markup , a nonprofit, investigative newsroom that challenges technology to serve the public good.

There’s a common complaint among high school students across the country, and it has nothing to do with curfews or allowances: Internet filters are preventing them from doing online research at school. Records obtained by The Markup from districts across the country show just how broadly schools block content, forcing students to jump through hoops to complete assignments and even keeping them from resources that could support their health and safety.

School districts must block obscene or harmful images to qualify for federally-subsidized internet access under the Children’s Internet Protection Act, passed by Congress nearly 25 years ago. But the records, from 16 districts across 11 states, show they go much further. Schools are limiting not only what images students can see, but what words they can read.

Some of the censorship inhibits students’ ability to do basic research on sites like Wikipedia and Quora. Students have also been blocked from visiting websites that web-filtering software categorizes as “education,” “news,” or “informational.” But even more concerning for some students are blocks against sex education, abortion information, and resources for LGBTQ+ teens—including suicide prevention.

Investigation: Schools are censoring websites for suicide prevention, sex ed, and even NASA

Virtually all school districts buy web filters from companies that sort the internet into categories. Districts decide which categories to block, sometimes allowing certain websites on a case-by-case basis. 

The records show that such filters do sometimes keep students from seeing pornographic images, but far more often they prevent them from playing online games, browsing social media, and using the internet for legitimate academic work. Records show that filters in the 16 districts collectively logged over 1.9 billion blocks in just a month. This includes blocks that students wouldn’t necessarily notice, such as parts of a page, like an ad or an image. 

Students told The Markup their schools block so many websites they have trouble doing their homework. Beyond that, some of them described problems accessing resources related to pregnancy and sexual and gender identity.

In their own words, here’s what high schoolers—in California, Michigan, and Texas—have dealt with.

Abortion care in Texas

While Texas student Maya Perez was conducting a Google search about abortion access for a presentation, she found many results were blocked. 

Searching for a workaround

Michigan student Sana Schaden uses her cell phone’s hotspot to avoid school web filters altogether.

Web filtering and remote learning

California student Ali Siddiqui noticed his district’s web filter seemed to get more aggressive when he was engaged in remote learning during the early stages of the pandemic.

A petition to unblock LGBTQ+ resources

While researching news sites for a digital arts class, Texas student Cameron Samuels ran into a block on “The Advocate,” an LGBTQ+ news source.

Samuels later tried to access a range of sites that offer resources for LGBTQ+ people. All were blocked.

During senior year of high school, Samuels petitioned the district administration and then the school board to unblock these sites—and won. They are now accessible to high schoolers in the district.

This article was copublished with The Markup , a nonprofit, investigative newsroom that challenges technology to serve the public good. Sign up for its newsletters  here .

A history of hypochondria wonders why we worry

In ‘a body made of glass,’ caroline crampton writes about the ways in which society has thought about diagnosis and delusion.

In the late 14th century, a spate of patients scattered across Europe developed an unusual delusion: They came to believe that their bodies were made of glass. Those suffering from this bizarre affliction were terrified of shattering — at least one of them insisted on sleeping in heaps of straw so as to prevent any mishaps. But to modern-day hypochondriacs, this archaic phobia might represent both a fear and a perverse fantasy. A glass person would be perilously breakable, but her condition would also be blissfully transparent.

The journalist Caroline Crampton often wishes that she could see her own insides. She is as desperate for knowledge of the darkest corners of her anatomy as she is terrified of her fragility. “I am a hypochondriac,” she writes in her new book, “ A Body Made of Glass: A Cultural History of Hypochondria .” “Or, at least, I worry that I am, which really amounts to the same thing.” She has suffered from this secondary malady since she was diagnosed with the primary malady of Hodgkin’s lymphoma as a teenager. After months of treatment, her doctors assured her that she was in remission — but a year later, the disease returned. Crampton beat it again, but her anxiety lingers to this day. Is her apprehension irrational?

“A Body Made of Glass” proposes that it is and it isn’t. On the one hand, Crampton often experiences symptoms that she later recognizes to be psychosomatic; on the other, her hyper-vigilance after her supposedly successful first cancer treatment enabled her to spot a suspicious lump the second time. “My fears about health are persistent and at times intrusive,” she concedes, “but they are not necessarily unwarranted.” She concludes that “diagnosable illness and hypochondria can coexist.” Although “we tend to think of hypochondria as shorthand for an illness that’s all in your head,” the people most worried about their health are very often the people who have the most reason to be.

Unfortunately, many of us have cause to brood on the indignities of embodiment. Crampton writes that “a serious illness is much easier to cope with if it can be slotted into a familiar structure with a beginning, middle, and end,” but she knows that the comforts of recovery and resolution are denied to the ever-increasing number of patients with chronic or autoimmune conditions. Like those conditions, hypochondria is “a plotless story.”

“Without a firm diagnosis for my unreliable symptoms, I am stuck in the first scene of the drama, endlessly looping around the same few lines of dialogue,” Crampton writes. “The compulsion to narrativize this experience is always there, but always thwarted.” There is no satisfying ending, no definitive interpretation of a vague pain or a mysterious twinge.

Indeed, there is no absolute agreement about what qualifies as diagnosis and what qualifies as delusion. In a society riddled with biases, credibility is not apportioned equally, and marginalized populations are often dismissed as hysterical. A host of studies have demonstrated that doctors are less likely to listen to women and non-White people, and Crampton knows that she is “taken more seriously in medical examinations” because she is White and upper middle class. The prejudice cuts both ways: Patients, too, rely on “irrelevant details like confidence, carriage, and body language” to determine whether a physician is trustworthy.

And of course, sickness itself — and therefore hypochondria — is a culturally specific construct that is always subject to revision. The catalogue of medically reputable diseases expands and contracts as research advances and outdated theories are debunked. “It is now possible to test for conditions that were previously undetectable,” Crampton writes. The novelist Marcel Proust was regarded by his contemporaries (and even his father) as deranged because he took such strenuous precautions to avoid fits of coughing, but contemporary medicine might have vindicated his concerns. One century’s hypochondriac is another’s confirmed patient.

In 1733, the physician George Cheyne described hypochondria as a “disease of civilization.” According to Crampton, he meant that it was “a consequence of the excesses of an imperial and consumerist society that had abandoned the simplicity of earlier human existence in favor of an indulgent diet and inactive lifestyle,” but hypochondria is also a disease of civilization because it increases as our knowledge does. The more we understand about the myriad ways our bodies can fail, the more we have to fear.

Because the boundaries delineating hypochondria from verifiable sickness are not fixed, it is difficult to pin down either notion with precision. Crampton acknowledges that her topic of choice “resists definition, like oil sliding over the surface of water.” She is right that hypochondria is a shifting target, but her refusal to venture even a provisional characterization can make for frustrating reading.

“A Body Made of Glass” is a product of impressively thorough research, but it is sometimes circuitous and digressive to the point of frenzy. It blends memoir and literary criticism with micro-histories of subjects of varying relevance, among them the emergence of quack medicine and the medieval theory of the humors.

“Hypochondria” is an old word but a relatively new concept, and it is not always clear whether Crampton’s book traces the history of the phenomenon or the history of the term. Sometimes, her concern is etymological: She informs us that the word first appeared in the Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of medical tracts produced and disseminated in ancient Greece, where it referred to “the place where hard ribs give way to soft abdomen.” Elsewhere, however, Crampton discusses not language but terror in the face of mortality. Her wide-ranging reflections touch on such eminences as John Donne, Molière and Charles Darwin, all of whom had both palpable ailments and debilitating anxiety about their palpable ailments. (It’s difficult to have the former without the latter, it turns out.)

Still, “A Body Made of Glass” is full of fascinating forays. If it is hard to read for its claims or conclusions, it can still be read for its many sobering observations about sickness — a misfortune that will eventually befall even the heartiest among us. After all, as Crampton darkly notes, “hypochondria is merely the human condition with the comforting fictions stripped away. Whether we choose to think about it all the time or not, we are all just one freak accident away from the end.”

Becca Rothfeld is the nonfiction book critic for The Washington Post and the author of “All Things Are Too Small: Essays in Praise of Excess.”

A Body Made of Glass

A Cultural History of Hypochondria

By Caroline Crampton

Ecco. 321 pp. $29.99

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UFC 300 -- Alex Pereira vs. Jamahal Hill: Results, highlights, fight card, winners, bonuses, complete guide

Saturday night proved to be one for the record books as ufc gave fans all they could have asked for.

UFC 300 somehow exceeded its own lofty expectations. The milestone event delivered some of the most thrilling finishes in recent years and dramatic action in Las Vegas with all 13 fights giving fans something to talk about. 

The main event saw Alex Pereira make quick work of Jamahal Hill to retain his light heavyweight crown. Pereira, who previously held the middleweight title, is hoping for a quick turnaround to fight on UFC 301 in Brazil next month. Plus, women's strawweight champion Zhang Weili retained her title with a decision over Yan Xiaonan. That fight saw some dramatic swings as Zhang appeared to finish Yan twice in the first two rounds only for Yan to rally in the middle rounds and give the champ all she could handle.

But the highlight of the night had to be Max Holloway. "Blessed" battered former lightweight title challenger Justin Gaethje over five rounds before delivering a brutal knockout that left Gaethje out cold with one second left on the clock. The former featherweight king hopes to get a shot at either the featherweight or lightweight titles next. 

After UFC CEO Dana White promised to bump up the performance bonuses from $50,000 to $300,000 at Thursday's press conference, fighters went all out to capture the extra money. Holloway did just that as he earned both Performance of the Night and shared Fight of the Night with Gaethje. The other Performance of the Night award went to Jiri Prochazka for his rally to TKO Aleksandr Rakic on the prelims.

CBS Sports was with you throughout fight week with the latest news, in-depth features and betting advice to consider. Thanks for stopping by and we'll see you at UFC 301 in Brazil.

UFC 300 fight card, odds

• Alex Pereira (c) def. Jamahal Hill via first-round knockout (punch)
• Zhang Weili (c) def. Yan Xiaonan via unanimous decision (49-45, 49-45, 49-45)
• Max Holloway def. Justin Gaethje via fifth-round knockout (punch)
• Arman Tsarukyan def. Charles Oliveira via split decision (28-29, 29-28, 29-28)
• Bo Nickal def. Cody Brundage via second-round submission (rear-naked choke)
• Jiri Prochazka def. Aleksandar Rakic via second-round TKO (punches)
• Aljamain Sterling def. Calvin Kattar via unanimous decision (30-27, 30-27, 30-27)
• Kayla Harrison def. Holly Holm via second-round submission (rear-naked choke)
• Diego Lopes def. Sodiq Yusuff via first-round TKO (punches)
• Renato Moicano def. Jalin Turner via second-round TKO (punches)
• Jessica Andrade def. Marina Rodriguez via split decision (29-28, 28-29, 29-28)
• Bobby Green def. Jim Miller via unanimous decision (30-27, 30-25, 29-26)
• Deiveson Figueiredo def. Cody Garbrandt via second-round submission (rear-naked choke)

UFC 300 countdown

• Staff predictions and expert picks for the main event
• Mahjouri: Pereira not motivated by revenge for Teixeira vs. Hill
• Brookhouse: Best bets to consider on the main card
• Campbell: Where UFC stands ahead of milestone event
• Mahjouri: Fight-by-fight breakdown for Saturday
• Mahjouri: Gaethje says he wants title shot in November if successful vs. Holloway
• Campbell: Five biggest storylines to watch at milestone event

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6 in 10 U.S. Catholics are in favor of abortion rights, Pew Research report finds

Jason DeRose

Pope Francis remains popular among U.S. Catholics, with 75% having favorable views of him, according to a Pew Research report. But many self-identified Catholics disagree with various teachings of their church. Andrew Medichini/AP hide caption

Pope Francis remains popular among U.S. Catholics, with 75% having favorable views of him, according to a Pew Research report. But many self-identified Catholics disagree with various teachings of their church.

Catholics in the U.S., one of the country's largest single Christian groups, hold far more diverse views on abortion rights than the official teaching of their church.

While the Catholic Church itself holds that abortion is wrong and should not be legal, 6 in 10 U.S. adult Catholics say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, according to a newly released profile of Catholicism by Pew Research .

Catholic opinion about abortion rights, according to the report, tends to align with political leanings: Fewer Catholic Republicans favor legal abortion than Catholic Democrats. And Pew says Hispanic Catholics, who make up one-third of the U.S. church, are slightly more in favor of legal abortion than white Catholics.

Despite church prohibitions, Catholics still choose IVF to have children

Pew found that 20% of the U.S. population identifies as Catholic, but only about 3 in 10 say they attend mass regularly. Opinions about abortion rights appear to be related to how often someone worships — just 34% of Catholics who attend mass weekly say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, whereas that number jumps to 68% among those who attend mass monthly or less.

Most U.S. Catholics are white (57%), but that number has dropped by 8 percentage points since 2007, according the new report. About 33% identify as Hispanic, 4% Asian, 2% Black, and 3% describe themselves as another race.

Pew Research also found that as of February, Pope Francis remains highly popular, with 75% of U.S. Catholics rating him favorably. However, there is a partisan divide, with Catholic Democrats more strongly supporting him.

About 4 in 10 U.S. Catholics view Francis as a major agent of change, with 3 in 10 saying he is a minor agent of change.

Catholic Church works to explain what same-sex blessings are and are not

Pew reports that many U.S. Catholics would welcome more change. Some 83% say they want the church to allow the use of contraception, 69% say priests should be allowed to get married, 64% say women should be allowed to become priests, and 54% say the Catholic Church should recognize same-sex marriage.

In December 2023, the Vatican issued guidance to priests that they may bless people in same-sex relationships. But the church insists those blessings not be construed in any way to be a form of marriage or even take place as part of a worship service.

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Why is looking at a solar eclipse dangerous without special glasses? Eye doctors explain.

By Sara Moniuszko

Edited By Allison Elyse Gualtieri

Updated on: April 8, 2024 / 8:54 AM EDT / CBS News

The solar eclipse will be visible for millions of Americans on April 8, 2024, making many excited to see it — but how you watch it matters, since it can be dangerous for your eyes. 

A  solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the sun and Earth, blocking the sun's light . When the moon blocks some of the sun, it's a partial solar eclipse, but when moon lines up with the sun, blocking all of its light, a total solar eclipse occurs,  NASA explains . Either way, you need eye protection when viewing.

"The solar eclipse will be beautiful, so I hope that everyone experiences it — but they need to experience it in the right way," said Dr. Jason P. Brinton, an ophthalmologist and medical director at Brinton Vision in St. Louis.

Here's what to know to stay safe.

Why is looking at a solar eclipse dangerous?

Looking at the sun — even when it's partially covered like during an eclipse — can cause eye damage.

There is no safe dose of solar ultraviolet rays or infrared radiation, said  Dr. Yehia Hashad , an ophthalmologist, retinal specialist and the chief medical officer at eye health company Bausch + Lomb.

"A very small dose could cause harm to some people," he said. "That's why we say the partial eclipse could also be damaging. And that's why we protect our eyes with the partial as well as with the full sun."

Some say that during a total eclipse, it's safe to view the brief period time when the moon completely blocks the sun without eye protection. But experts warn against it. 

"Totality of the eclipse lasts only about 1 to 3 minutes based on geographic location, and bright sunlight suddenly can appear as the moon continues to move," notes an eclipse viewing guide published in JAMA , adding, "even a few seconds of viewing the sun during an eclipse" can temporarily or permanently damage your vision. 

Do I need special glasses for eclipse viewing?

Yes.  Eclipse glasses are needed to protect your eyes if you want to look at the eclipse.

Regular sunglasses aren't protective enough for eclipse viewing — even if you stack more than one. 

"There's no amount of sunglasses that people can put on that will make up for the filtering that the ISO standard filters and the eclipse glasses provide," Brinton said.

You also shouldn't look at the eclipse through a camera lens, phone, binoculars or telescope, according to NASA, even while wearing eclipse glasses. The solar rays can burn through the lens and cause serious eye injury.

Eclipse glasses must comply with the  ISO 12312-2 international safety standard , according to NASA, and should have an "ISO" label printed on them to show they comply. The American Astronomical Society  has a list  of approved solar viewers.

Can't find these, or they're sold out near you? You can also  make homemade viewers ,   which allow you to observe the eclipse indirectly — just don't accidentally look at the sun while using one.

How to keep kids safe during the solar eclipse

Since this eclipse is expected to occur around the time of dismissal for many schools across the country, it may be tempting for students to view it without the proper safety precautions while getting to and from their buses. That's why some school districts are  canceling classes early so kids can enjoy the event safely with their families.

Dr. Avnish Deobhakta, vitreoretinal surgeon at New York Eye and Ear Infirmary at Mount Sinai, said parents should also be careful because it can be difficult for children to listen or keep solar eclipse glasses on. 

"You want to actually, in my opinion, kind of avoid them even looking at the eclipse, if possible," he said. "Never look directly at the sun, always wear the right eclipse sunglasses if you are going to look at the sun and make sure that those are coming from a reliable source."

Brinton recommends everyone starts their eclipse "viewing" early, by looking at professional photos and videos of an eclipse online or visiting a local planetarium. 

That way, you "have an idea of what to expect," he said. 

He also recommends the foundation  Prevent Blindness , which has resources for families about eclipse safety.

What happens if you look at a solar eclipse without eclipse glasses?

While your eyes likely won't hurt in the moment if you look at the eclipse without protection, due to lowered brightness and where damage occurs in the eye, beware: The rays can still cause damage .

The harm may not be apparent immediately. Sometimes trouble starts to appear one to a few days following the event. It could affect just one or both eyes.

And while some will regain normal visual function, sometimes the damage is permanent. 

"Often there will be some recovery of the vision in the first few months after it, but sometimes there is no recovery and sometimes there's a degree to which it is permanent," Brinton said. 

How long do you have to look at the eclipse to damage your eyes?

Any amount of time looking at the eclipse without protection is too long, experts say. 

"If someone briefly looks at the eclipse, if it's extremely brief, in some cases there won't be damage. But damage can happen even within a fraction of a second in some cases," Brinton said. He said he's had patients who have suffered from solar retinopathy, the official name for the condition.

Deobhakta treated a patient who watched the 2017 solar eclipse for 20 seconds without proper eye protection. She now has permanent damage in the shape of a crescent that interferes with her vision. 

"The crescent that is burned into the retina, the patient sees as black in her visual field," he said. "The visual deficit that she has will never go away."

How to know if you've damaged your eyes from looking at the eclipse

Signs and symptoms of eye damage following an eclipse viewing include headaches, blurred vision, dark spots, changes to how you see color, lines and shapes. 

Unfortunately, there isn't a treatment for solar retinopathy.

"Seeing an eye care professional to solidify the diagnosis and for education I think is reasonable," Brinton said, but added, "right now there is nothing that we do for this. Just wait and give it time and the body does tend to heal up a measure of it."

Sara Moniuszko is a health and lifestyle reporter at CBSNews.com. Previously, she wrote for USA Today, where she was selected to help launch the newspaper's wellness vertical. She now covers breaking and trending news for CBS News' HealthWatch.

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