research paper final

Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

• How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

Align your conclusion’s tone with the rest of your research paper. Start Writing with Paperpal Now!  

The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

Write your research paper conclusion 2x faster with Paperpal. Try it now!

Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

By following these steps, Paperpal not only simplifies the process of writing a research paper conclusion but also ensures it is impactful, concise, and aligned with academic standards. Sign up with Paperpal today and write your research paper conclusion 2x faster .  

The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• 5 Reasons for Rejection After Peer Review
• Ethical Research Practices For Research with Human Subjects

7 Ways to Improve Your Academic Writing Process

• Paraphrasing in Academic Writing: Answering Top Author Queries

Preflight For Editorial Desk: The Perfect Hybrid (AI + Human) Assistance Against Compromised Manuscripts

You may also like, how to write a high-quality conference paper, academic editing: how to self-edit academic text with..., measuring academic success: definition & strategies for excellence, phd qualifying exam: tips for success , ai in education: it’s time to change the..., is it ethical to use ai-generated abstracts without..., what are journal guidelines on using generative ai..., quillbot review: features, pricing, and free alternatives, what is an academic paper types and elements , should you use ai tools like chatgpt for....

In a short paper—even a research paper—you don’t need to provide an exhaustive summary as part of your conclusion. But you do need to make some kind of transition between your final body paragraph and your concluding paragraph. This may come in the form of a few sentences of summary. Or it may come in the form of a sentence that brings your readers back to your thesis or main idea and reminds your readers where you began and how far you have traveled.

So, for example, in a paper about the relationship between ADHD and rejection sensitivity, Vanessa Roser begins by introducing readers to the fact that researchers have studied the relationship between the two conditions and then provides her explanation of that relationship. Here’s her thesis: “While socialization may indeed be an important factor in RS, I argue that individuals with ADHD may also possess a neurological predisposition to RS that is exacerbated by the differing executive and emotional regulation characteristic of ADHD.”

In her final paragraph, Roser reminds us of where she started by echoing her thesis: “This literature demonstrates that, as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Highlight the “so what”  

At the beginning of your paper, you explain to your readers what’s at stake—why they should care about the argument you’re making. In your conclusion, you can bring readers back to those stakes by reminding them why your argument is important in the first place. You can also draft a few sentences that put those stakes into a new or broader context.

In the conclusion to her paper about ADHD and RS, Roser echoes the stakes she established in her introduction—that research into connections between ADHD and RS has led to contradictory results, raising questions about the “behavioral mediation hypothesis.”

She writes, “as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Leave your readers with the “now what”  

After the “what” and the “so what,” you should leave your reader with some final thoughts. If you have written a strong introduction, your readers will know why you have been arguing what you have been arguing—and why they should care. And if you’ve made a good case for your thesis, then your readers should be in a position to see things in a new way, understand new questions, or be ready for something that they weren’t ready for before they read your paper.

In her conclusion, Roser offers two “now what” statements. First, she explains that it is important to recognize that the flawed behavioral mediation hypothesis “seems to place a degree of fault on the individual. It implies that individuals with ADHD must have elicited such frequent or intense rejection by virtue of their inadequate social skills, erasing the possibility that they may simply possess a natural sensitivity to emotion.” She then highlights the broader implications for treatment of people with ADHD, noting that recognizing the actual connection between rejection sensitivity and ADHD “has profound implications for understanding how individuals with ADHD might best be treated in educational settings, by counselors, family, peers, or even society as a whole.”

To find your own “now what” for your essay’s conclusion, try asking yourself these questions:

• What can my readers now understand, see in a new light, or grapple with that they would not have understood in the same way before reading my paper? Are we a step closer to understanding a larger phenomenon or to understanding why what was at stake is so important?  
• What questions can I now raise that would not have made sense at the beginning of my paper? Questions for further research? Other ways that this topic could be approached?  
• Are there other applications for my research? Could my questions be asked about different data in a different context? Could I use my methods to answer a different question?  
• What action should be taken in light of this argument? What action do I predict will be taken or could lead to a solution?  
• What larger context might my argument be a part of?  

What to avoid in your conclusion  

• a complete restatement of all that you have said in your paper.  
• a substantial counterargument that you do not have space to refute; you should introduce counterarguments before your conclusion.  
• an apology for what you have not said. If you need to explain the scope of your paper, you should do this sooner—but don’t apologize for what you have not discussed in your paper.  
• fake transitions like “in conclusion” that are followed by sentences that aren’t actually conclusions. (“In conclusion, I have now demonstrated that my thesis is correct.”)
• picture_as_pdf Conclusions

How to Write a Research Paper

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

• PDFs for all 136 Lit Terms we cover
• Downloads of 1929 LitCharts Lit Guides
• Teacher Editions for every Lit Guide
• Explanations and citation info for 40,694 quotes across 1929 books
• Downloadable (PDF) line-by-line translations of every Shakespeare play

Need something? Request a new guide .

How can we improve? Share feedback .

LitCharts is hiring!

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing a Research Paper

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

The Research Paper

There will come a time in most students' careers when they are assigned a research paper. Such an assignment often creates a great deal of unneeded anxiety in the student, which may result in procrastination and a feeling of confusion and inadequacy. This anxiety frequently stems from the fact that many students are unfamiliar and inexperienced with this genre of writing. Never fear—inexperience and unfamiliarity are situations you can change through practice! Writing a research paper is an essential aspect of academics and should not be avoided on account of one's anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the more rewarding experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many students will continue to do research throughout their careers, which is one of the reasons this topic is so important.

Becoming an experienced researcher and writer in any field or discipline takes a great deal of practice. There are few individuals for whom this process comes naturally. Remember, even the most seasoned academic veterans have had to learn how to write a research paper at some point in their career. Therefore, with diligence, organization, practice, a willingness to learn (and to make mistakes!), and, perhaps most important of all, patience, students will find that they can achieve great things through their research and writing.

The pages in this section cover the following topic areas related to the process of writing a research paper:

• Genre - This section will provide an overview for understanding the difference between an analytical and argumentative research paper.
• Choosing a Topic - This section will guide the student through the process of choosing topics, whether the topic be one that is assigned or one that the student chooses themselves.
• Identifying an Audience - This section will help the student understand the often times confusing topic of audience by offering some basic guidelines for the process.
• Where Do I Begin - This section concludes the handout by offering several links to resources at Purdue, and also provides an overview of the final stages of writing a research paper.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

7.3 – Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Revise your paper to improve organization and cohesion.
• Determine an appropriate style and tone for your paper.
• Revise to ensure that your tone is consistent.
• Edit your paper to ensure that language, citations, and formatting are correct.

Given all the time and effort you have put into your research project, you will want to make sure that your final draft represents your best work. This requires taking the time to revise and edit your paper carefully.

You may feel like you need a break from your paper before you revise and edit it. That is understandable—but leave yourself with enough time to complete this important stage of the writing process. In this section, you will learn the following specific strategies that are useful for revising and editing a research paper:

• How to evaluate and improve the overall organization and cohesion
• How to maintain an appropriate style and tone
• How to use checklists to identify and correct any errors in language, citations, and formatting

Revising Your Paper: Organization and Cohesion

When writing a research paper, it is easy to become overly focused on editorial details, such as the proper format for bibliographical entries. These details do matter. However, before you begin to address them, it is important to spend time reviewing and revising the content of the paper.

A good research paper is both organized and cohesive. Organization means that your argument flows logically from one point to the next. Cohesion means that the elements of your paper work together smoothly and naturally. In a cohesive research paper, information from research is seamlessly integrated with the writer’s ideas.

Revise to Improve Organization

When you revise to improve organization, you look at the flow of ideas throughout the essay as a whole and within individual paragraphs. You check to see that your essay moves logically from the introduction to the body paragraphs to the conclusion, and that each section reinforces your thesis. Use Checklist 12.1 to help you.

Revising for Organization – Checklist

At the essay level.

• Does my introduction proceed clearly from the opening to the thesis?
• Does each body paragraph have a clear main idea that relates to the thesis?
• Do the main ideas in the body paragraphs flow in a logical order? Is each paragraph connected to the one before it?
• Do I need to add or revise topic sentences or transitions to make the overall flow of ideas clearer?
• Does my conclusion summarize my main ideas and revisit my thesis?

At the paragraph level

• Does the topic sentence clearly state the main idea?
• Do the details in the paragraph relate to the main idea?
• Do I need to recast any sentences or add transitions to improve the flow of sentences?

If you’re not sure, continue to revise your work or contact your Professor for help.

Jorge reread his draft paragraph by paragraph. As he read, he highlighted the main idea of each paragraph so he could see whether his ideas proceeded in a logical order. For the most part, the flow of ideas was clear. However, he did notice that one paragraph did not have a clear main idea. It interrupted the flow of the writing. During revision, Jorge added a topic sentence that clearly connected the paragraph to the one that had preceded it. He also added transitions to improve the flow of ideas from sentence to sentence.

Read the following paragraphs twice, the first time without Jorge’s changes, and the second time with them.

Jorge’s draft paragraph

Insert “Over the past decade, increasing numbers of Americans have jumped on the low-carbohydrate bandwagon.” after sentence 4. Revise & combine sentences 7 and 8 to read: “Proponents of low-carb diets say they are not only the most effective way to lose weight, but also they yield health benefits such as lower blood pressure and improved cholesterol levels. Start sentence 8 with “Meanwhile,”.

Follow these steps to begin revising your paper’s overall organization.

• Print out a hard copy of your paper.
• Read your paper paragraph by paragraph. Highlight your thesis and the topic sentence of each paragraph.
• Using the thesis and topic sentences as starting points, outline the ideas you presented—just as you would do if you were outlining a chapter in a textbook. Do not look at the outline you created during prewriting. You may write in the margins of your draft or create a formal outline on a separate sheet of paper.
• Next, reread your paper more slowly, looking for how ideas flow from sentence to sentence. Identify places where adding a transition or recasting a sentence would make the ideas flow more logically.
• Review the topics on your outline. Is there a logical flow of ideas? Identify any places where you may need to reorganize ideas.
• Begin to revise your paper to improve organization. Start with any major issues, such as needing to move an entire paragraph. Then proceed to minor revisions, such as adding a transitional phrase or tweaking a topic sentence so it connects ideas more clearly.

Collaboration

Please share your paper with a classmate. Repeat the six steps and take notes on a separate piece of paper. Share and compare notes.

Writers choose transitions carefully to show the relationships between ideas—for instance, to make a comparison or elaborate on a point with examples. Make sure your transitions suit your purpose and avoid overusing the same ones. For an extensive list of transitions, see Chapter 3 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , Section 3.4 “Revising and Editing” .

Revise to Improve Cohesion

When you revise to improve cohesion, you analyze how the parts of your paper work together. You look for anything that seems awkward or out of place. Revision may involve deleting unnecessary material or rewriting parts of the paper so that the out-of-place material fits in smoothly.

In a research paper, problems with cohesion usually occur when a writer has trouble integrating source material. If facts or quotations have been awkwardly dropped into a paragraph, they distract or confuse the reader instead of working to support the writer’s point. Overusing paraphrased and quoted material has the same effect. Use the Checklist below to review your essay for cohesion.

Revising for Cohesion: Checklist

• Does the opening of the paper clearly connect to the broader topic and thesis? Make sure entertaining quotes or anecdotes serve a purpose.
• Have I included support from research for each main point in the body of my paper?
• Have I included introductory material before any quotations? Quotations should never stand alone in a paragraph.
• Does paraphrased and quoted material clearly serve to develop my own points?
• Do I need to add to or revise parts of the paper to help the reader understand how certain information from a source is relevant?
• Are there any places where I have overused material from sources?
• Does my conclusion make sense based on the rest of the paper? Make sure any new questions or suggestions in the conclusion are clearly linked to earlier material.

As Jorge reread his draft, he looked to see how the different pieces fit together to prove his thesis. He realized that some of his supporting information needed to be integrated more carefully and decided to omit some details entirely. Read the following paragraph, first without Jorge’s revisions and then with them.

Jorge’s paragraph with source integration & revisions

One likely reason for these lackluster long-term results is that a low-carbohydrate diet – like any restrictive diet – is difficult to adhere to for any extended period. Most people enjoy foods that are high in carbohydrates, and no one wants to be the person who always turns down that slice of pizza or birthday cake. In commenting on the Gardner study, experts at Harvard School of Public Health (2010) noted that women in all four diet groups had difficulty following the plan. Because it is hard for dieters to stick to a low-carbohydrate eating plan, the initial success of these diets is short-lived (Heinz, 2009). Medical professionals caution that low-carbohydrate diets are difficult for many people to follow consistently and that, in to maintain a healthy weight, dieters should try to develop nutrition and exercise habits they can incorporate into their lives in the long term (Mayo Clinic, 2008). Registered dietician D. Kwon (personal communication, August 10, 2010) comments, “For some people, (low-carbohydrate diets) are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well” (Kwon, 2010) .

Summary of revisions: Remove 2nd sentence “Most people enjoy…”. Add signal phrase with personal communication citation to last sentence. Delete the parenthetical citation from end of paragraph.

Jorge decided that his comment about pizza and birthday cake came across as subjective and was not necessary to make his point, so he deleted it. He also realized that the quotation at the end of the paragraph was awkward and ineffective. How would his readers know who Kwon was or why her opinion should be taken seriously? Adding an introductory phrase helped Jorge integrate this quotation smoothly and establish the credibility of his source.

Follow these steps to begin revising your paper to improve cohesion.

• Read the body paragraphs of your paper first. Each time you come to a place that cites information from sources, ask yourself what purpose this information serves. Check that it helps support a point and that it is clearly related to the other sentences in the paragraph.
• Identify unnecessary information from sources that you can delete.
• Identify places where you need to revise your writing so that readers understand the significance of the details cited from sources.
• Skim the body paragraphs once more, looking for any paragraphs that seem packed with citations. Review these paragraphs carefully for cohesion.
• Review your introduction and conclusion. Make sure the information presented works with ideas in the body of the paper.
• Revise the places you identified in your paper to improve cohesion.

Please exchange papers with a classmate. Complete step four. On a separate piece of paper, note any areas that would benefit from clarification. Return and compare notes.

Writing at Work

Using a consistent style and tone.

Once you are certain that the content of your paper fulfills your purpose, you can begin revising to improve style and tone . Together, your style and tone create the voice of your paper, or how you come across to readers. Style refers to the way you use language as a writer—the sentence structures you use and the word choices you make. Tone is the attitude toward your subject and audience that you convey through your word choice.

Determining an Appropriate Style and Tone

Although accepted writing styles will vary within different disciplines, the underlying goal is the same—to come across to your readers as a knowledgeable, authoritative guide. Writing about research is like being a tour guide who walks readers through a topic. A stuffy, overly formal tour guide can make readers feel put off or intimidated. Too much informality or humor can make readers wonder whether the tour guide really knows what he or she is talking about. Extreme or emotionally charged language comes across as unbalanced.

To help prevent being overly formal or informal, determine an appropriate style and tone at the beginning of the research process. Consider your topic and audience because these can help dictate style and tone. For example, a paper on new breakthroughs in cancer research should be more formal than a paper on ways to get a good night’s sleep.

A strong research paper comes across as straightforward, appropriately academic, and serious. It is generally best to avoid writing in the first person, as this can make your paper seem overly subjective and opinion based. Use Checklist 12.3 on style to review your paper for other issues that affect style and tone. You can check for consistency at the end of the writing process. Checking for consistency is discussed later in this section.

Revising for Style: Checklist

• My paper avoids excessive wordiness.
• My sentences are varied in length and structure.
• I have avoided using first-person pronouns such as I and we .
• I have used the active voice whenever possible.
• I have defined specialized terms that might be unfamiliar to readers.
• I have used clear, straightforward language whenever possible and avoided unnecessary jargon.
• My paper states my point of view using a balanced tone—neither too indecisive nor too forceful.

Word Choice

Note that word choice is an especially important aspect of style. In addition to checking the points noted on Checklist 12.3, review your paper to make sure your language is precise, conveys no unintended connotations, and is free of biases. Here are some of the points to check for:

• Vague or imprecise terms
• Repetition of the same phrases (“Smith states…, Jones states…”) to introduce quoted and paraphrased material
• Exclusive use of masculine pronouns or awkward use of he or she
• Use of language with negative connotations, such as haughty or ridiculous
• Use of outdated or offensive terms to refer to specific ethnic, racial, or religious groups

Using plural nouns and pronouns or recasting a sentence can help you keep your language gender neutral while avoiding awkwardness. Consider the following examples.

• Gender-biased: When a writer cites a source in the body of his paper, he must list it on his references page.
• Awkward: When a writer cites a source in the body of his or her paper, he or she must list it on his or her references page.
• Improved: Writers must list any sources cited in the body of a paper on the references page.

Keeping Your Style Consistent

As you revise your paper, make sure your style is consistent throughout. Look for instances where a word, phrase, or sentence just does not seem to fit with the rest of the writing. It is best to reread for style after you have completed the other revisions so that you are not distracted by any larger content issues. Revising strategies you can use include the following:

• Read your paper aloud. Sometimes your ears catch inconsistencies that your eyes miss.
• Share your paper with another reader whom you trust to give you honest feedback. It is often difficult to evaluate one’s own style objectively—especially in the final phase of a challenging writing project. Another reader may be more likely to notice instances of wordiness, confusing language, or other issues that affect style and tone.
• Line-edit your paper slowly, sentence by sentence. You may even wish to use a sheet of paper to cover everything on the page except the paragraph you are editing—that forces you to read slowly and carefully. Mark any areas where you notice problems in style or tone, and then take time to rework those sections.

On reviewing his paper, Jorge found that he had generally used an appropriately academic style and tone. However, he noticed one glaring exception—his first paragraph. He realized there were places where his overly informal writing could come across as unserious or, worse, disparaging. Revising his word choice and omitting a humorous aside helped Jorge maintain a consistent tone. Read his revisions.

Jorge’s first paragraph with academic style revisions

I. Introduction

Picture this: You’re standing in the aisle of your local grocery store when you see a chubby guy an overweight man nearby staring at several brands of ketchup on display. After deliberating for a moment, he reaches for the bottle with the words “Low-Carb!” displayed prominently on the label. (You can’t help but notice that the low-carb ketchup is higher priced.) Is he making a smart choice that will help him lose weight and enjoy better health – or is he just buying into the latest diet fad?

Summary of revisions: replace “a chubby guy” in sentence 1 with “an overweight man”. Remove 3rd sentence.

Using the Style Checklist, line-edit your paper. You may use either of these techniques:

• Print out a hard copy of your paper, or work with your printout. Read it line by line. Check for the issues noted on the Style Checklist, as well as any other aspects of your writing style you have previously identified as areas for improvement. Mark any areas where you notice problems in style or tone, and then take time to rework those sections.
• If you prefer to work with an electronic document, use the menu options in your word-processing program to enlarge the text to 150 or 200 percent of the original size. Make sure the type is large enough that you can focus on only one paragraph at a time. Read the paper line by line as described in step 1. Highlight any areas where you notice problems in style or tone, and then take time to rework those sections.

Please exchange papers with a classmate. On a separate piece of paper, note places where the essay does not seem to flow or you have questions about what was written. Return the essay and compare notes.

Editing Your Paper

After revising your paper to address problems in content or style, you will complete one final editorial review. Perhaps you already have caught and corrected minor mistakes during previous revisions. Nevertheless, give your draft a final edit to make sure it is error-free. Your final edit should focus on two broad areas:

• Errors in grammar, mechanics, usage, and spelling
• Errors in citing and formatting sources

Correcting Errors

Given how much work you have put into your research paper, you will want to check for any errors that could distract or confuse your readers. Using the spell-checking feature in your word-processing program can be helpful—but this should not replace a full, careful review of your document. Be sure to check for any errors that may have come up frequently for you in the past. Use Checklist 12.4 to help you as you edit:

Grammar, Mechanics, Punctuation, Usage, and Spelling Checklist

• My paper is free of grammatical errors, such as errors in subject-verb agreement and sentence fragments. (For additional guidance on grammar, see  “Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence?”. )
• My paper is free of errors in punctuation and mechanics, such as misplaced commas or incorrectly formatted source titles. (For additional guidance on punctuation and mechanics, see “Punctuation” .)
• My paper is free of common usage errors, such as alot and alright . (For additional guidance on correct usage, see “Working with Words: Which Word Is Right?” .)
• My paper is free of spelling errors. I have proofread my paper for spelling in addition to using the spell-checking feature in my word-processing program.
• I have checked my paper for any editing errors that I know I tend to make frequently.

Checking Citations and Formatting

When editing a research paper, it is also important to check that you have cited sources properly and formatted your document according to the specified guidelines. There are two reasons for this. First and foremost, citing sources correctly ensures that you have given proper credit to other people for ideas and information that helped you in your work. Second, using correct formatting establishes your paper as one student’s contribution to the work developed by and for a larger academic community. Increasingly, American Psychological Association (APA) style guidelines are the standard for many academic fields. Modern Language Association (MLA) is also a standard style in many fields. Use Checklist 12.5 to help you check citations and formatting.

Citations and Formatting Checklist

• Within the body of my paper, each fact or idea taken from a source is credited to the correct source.
• Each in-text citation includes the source author’s name (or, where applicable, the organization name or source title) and year of publication. I have used the correct format of in-text and parenthetical citations.
• Each source cited in the body of my paper has a corresponding entry in the references section of my paper.
• My references section includes a heading and double-spaced, alphabetized entries.
• Each entry in my references section is indented on the second line and all subsequent lines.
• Each entry in my references section includes all the necessary information for that source type, in the correct sequence and format.
• My paper includes a title page.
• The margins of my paper are set at one inch. Text is double spaced and set in a standard 12-point font.

For detailed guidelines on APA  citation and formatting, see Chapter 8 – APA Style Citations – Tutorial

During the process of revising and editing, Jorge made changes in the content and style of his paper. He also gave the paper a final review to check for overall correctness and, particularly, correct APA citations and formatting. Read the final draft of his paper.

Read Jorge’s final essay

Note: HTML/plain text & Pressbooks do not always display page layout or APA formatting such as page numbers, spacing, margins or indentation accurately. Please review APA formatting rules to ensure you meet APA guidelines with your own work. The text version is included here in HTML format for ease of reading/use. You may also want to View Jorge’s paper in PDF format .

Beyond the Hype: Evaluating Low-Carb Diets

Jorge Ramirez

       Picture this: You’re standing in the aisle of your local grocery store when you see an overweight man nearby staring at several brands of ketchup on display. After deliberating for a moment, he reaches for the bottle with the words “Low-Carb!” displayed prominently on the label. Is he making a smart choice that will help him lose weight and enjoy better health—or is he just buying into the latest diet fad?

       Over the past decade, increasing numbers of Americans have jumped on the low-carb bandwagon. As of 2004, researchers estimated that approximately 40 million Americans, or about one-fifth of the population, were attempting to restrict their intake of food high in carbohydrates (Sanders & Katz, 2004). Proponents of low-carb diets say they not only are the most effective way to lose weight but also yield health benefits such as lower blood pressure and improved cholesterol levels. Meanwhile, some doctors claim that low-carb diets are overrated and caution that their long-term effects are unknown. Although following a low-carbohydrate diet can benefit some people, these diets are not necessarily that best option for everyone who wants to lose weight or improve their health.

Purported Benefits of Low-Carbohydrate Diets

      To make sense of the popular enthusiasm for low-carbohydrate diets, it is important to understand proponents’ claims about how they work. Any eating plan includes a balance of the three macronutrients—proteins, fats, and carbohydrates—each of which is essential for human health. Different foods provide these macronutrients in different proportions; a steak is primarily a source of protein, and a plate of pasta is primarily a source of carbohydrates. No one recommends eliminating any of these three macronutrient groups entirely.

       However, experts disagree on what protein: fats: carbohydrate ratio is best for optimum health and for maintaining a healthy weight. Since the 1970s, the USDA has recommended that the greatest proportion of one’s daily calories should come from carbohydrates—breads, pastas, and cereals—with moderate consumption of proteins and minimal consumption of fats. High-carbohydrate foods form the base of the “food pyramid” familiar to nutrition students.

       Those who subscribe to the low-carb philosophy, however, argue that this approach is flawed. They argue that excess weight stems from disordered metabolism, which in turn can be traced to overconsumption of foods high in carbohydrates—especially refined carbohydrates like white flour and sugar (Atkins, 2002; Agatson, 2003). The body quickly absorbs sugars from these foods, increasing the level of glucose in the blood. This triggers the release of insulin, delivering energy-providing glucose to cells and storing some of the excess as glycogen. Unfortunately, the liver turns the rest of this excess glucose into fat. Thus, adherents of the low-carb approach often classify foods according to their glycemic index (GI)—a measurement of how quickly a given food raises blood glucose levels when consumed. Foods high in refined carbohydrates—sugar, potatoes, white breads, and pasta, for instance—have a high glycemic index.

       Dieters who focus solely on reducing fat intake may fail to realize that consuming refined carbohydrates contributes to weight problems. Atkins (2002) notes that low-fat diets recommended to many who wish to lose weight are, by definition, usually high in carbohydrates, and thus unlikely to succeed.

       Even worse, consuming high-carbohydrate foods regularly can, over time, wreak havoc with the body’s systems for regulating blood sugar levels and insulin production. In some individuals, frequent spikes in blood sugar and insulin levels cause the body to become insulin-resistant—less able to use glucose for energy and more likely to convert it to fat (Atkins, 2002). This in turn helps to explain the link between obesity and Type 2 diabetes. In contrast, reducing carbohydrate intake purportedly helps the body use food more efficiently for energy. Additional benefits associated with these diets include reduced risk of cardiovascular disease (Atkins, 2002), lowered blood pressure (Bell, 2006; Atkins, 2002), and reduced risk of developing certain cancers (Atkins, 2002).

       Given the experts’ conflicting recommendations, it is no wonder that patients are confused about how to eat for optimum health. Some may assume that even moderate carbohydrate consumption should be avoided (Harvard School of Public Health, 2010). Others may use the low-carb approach to justify consuming large amounts of foods high in saturated fats—eggs, steak, bacon, and so forth. Meanwhile, low-carb diet plans and products have become a multibillion-dollar industry (Hirsch, 2004). Does this approach live up to its adherents’ promises?

Research on Low-Carbohydrate Diets and Weight Loss

       A number of clinical studies have found that low-carbohydrate diet plans are indeed highly effective for weight loss. Gardner et al. (2007) compared outcomes among overweight and obese women who followed one of four popular diet plans: Atkins, The Zone, LEARN, or Ornish. After 12 months, the group that had followed the low-carb Atkins plan had lost significantly more weight than those in the other three groups. McMillan-Price et al. (2006) compared results among overweight and obese young adults who followed one of four plans, all of which were low in fat but had varying proportions of proteins and carbohydrates. They found that, over a 12-week period, the most significantly body-fat loss occurred on plans that were high in protein and/or low in “high glycemic index” foods. More recently, the American Heart Association (2010) reported on an Israeli study that found that subjects who followed a low-carbohydrate, high-protein diet lost more weight than those who followed a low-fat plan or a Mediterranean plan based on vegetables, grains, and minimal consumption of meats and healthy fats.2 Other researchers have also found that low-carbohydrates diets resulted in increased weight loss (Ebbeling et al., 2007; Bell, 2006; HealthDay, 2010).

       Although these results are promising, they may be short-lived. Dieters who succeed in losing weight often struggle to keep the weight off—and unfortunately, low-carb diets are no exception to the rule. HealthDay (2010) cites a study recently published in the Annals of Internal Medicine that compared obese subjects who followed a low-carbohydrate diet and a low-fat diet. The former group lost more weight steadily—and both groups had difficulty keeping weight off. Similarly, Swiss researchers found that, although low-carb dieters initially lost more weight than those who followed other plans, the differences tended to even out over time (Bell, 2006). This suggests that low-carb diets may be no more effective than other diets for maintaining a healthy weight in the long term.

       One likely reason is that a low-carbohydrate diet—like any restrictive diet—is difficult to adhere to for any extended period. In commenting on the Gardner study, experts at the Harvard School of Public Health (2010) noted that women in all four diet groups had difficulty following the plan. Medical professionals caution that low-carbohydrate diets are difficult for many people to follow consistently and that, to maintain a healthy weight, dieters should try to develop nutrition and exercise habits they can incorporate in their lives in the long term (Mayo Clinic, 2010). Registered dietician D. Kwon (personal communication, August 10, 2010) comments, “For some people, [low-carbohydrate diets] are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well”.

Other Long-Term Health Outcomes

       Regardless of whether low-carb diets are most effective for weight loss, their potential benefits for weight loss must be weighed against other long-term health outcomes such as hypertension, the risk of heart disease, and cholesterol levels. Research findings in these areas are mixed. For this reason, people considering following a low-carbohydrate diet to lose weight should be advised of the potential risks in doing so.

       Research on how low-carbohydrate diets affect cholesterol levels in inconclusive. Some researchers have found that low-carbohydrate diets raise levels of HDL, or “good” cholesterol (Ebbeling et al., 2007; Seppa, 2008). Unfortunately, they may also raise levels of LDL, or “bad” cholesterol, which is associated with heart disease (Ebbeling et al., 2007; Reuters Health, 2010). A particular concern is that as dieters on a low-carbohydrate plan increase their intake of meats and dairy products—foods that are high in protein and fat—they are also likely to consume increased amounts of saturated fats, resulting in clogged arteries and again increasing the risk of heart disease. Studies of humans (Bradley et al., 2009) and mice (Foo et al., 2009) have identified possible risks to cardiovascular health associated with low-carb diets. The American Heart Association (2010) and the Harvard School of Public Health (2010) caution that doctors cannot yet assess how following a low-carbohydrate diet affects patients’ health over a long-term period.

       Some studies (Bell, 2006) have found that following a low-carb diet helped lower patients’ blood pressure. Again, however, excessive consumption of foods high in saturated fats may, over time, lead to the development of clogged arteries and increase risk of hypertension. Choosing lean meats over those high in fat and supplementing the diet with high-fiber, low-glycemic-index carbohydrates, such as leafy green vegetables, is a healthier plan for dieters to follow.

       Perhaps most surprisingly, low-carbohydrate diets are not necessarily advantageous for patients with Type 2 diabetes. Bradley et al. (2009) found that patients who followed a low-carb or a low-fat diet had comparable outcomes for both weight loss and insulin resistance. The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (2010) advises diabetics to monitor blood sugar levels carefully and to consult with their health care provider to develop a plan for healthy eating. Nevertheless, the nutritional guidelines it provides as a dietary starting point closely follow the USDA food pyramid.

       Low-carb diets have garnered a great deal of positive attention, and it isn’t entirely undeserved. These diets do lead to rapid weight loss, and they often result in greater weight loss over a period of months than other diet plans. Significantly overweight or obese people may find low-carb eating plans the most effective for losing weight and reducing the risks associated with carrying excess body fat. However, because these diets are difficult for some people to adhere to and because their potential long-term health effects are still being debated, they are not necessarily the ideal choice for anyone who wants to lose weight. A moderately overweight person who wants to lose only a few pounds is best advised to choose whatever plan will help him stay active and consume fewer calories consistently—whether or not it involves eating low-carb ketchup.

Agatson, A. (2003). The South Beach Diet . St. Martin’s Griffin.

The American Heart Association. (2010). American Heart Association comments on weight loss study comparing low carbohydrate/high protein, Mediterranean style and low fat diets . http://americanheart.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=473

Atkins, R. C. (2002). Dr. Atkins’ diet revolution . M. Evans and Company.

Bell, J. R. (2006). Low-carb beats low-fat diet for early losses by not long term. OBGYN News , 41 (12), 32. doi:10.1016/S0029-7437(06)71905-X

Bradley, U., Spence, M., Courtney, C. H., McKinley, M. C., Ennis, C. N., McCance, D. R., McEneny, J., Bell, P. M., Young, I. S., & Hunter, S. J. (2009). Low-fat versus low-carbohydrate weight reduction diets: effects on weight loss, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular risk: A randomized control trial [Abstract]. Diabetes , 58 (12), 2741–2748. http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/early/2009/08/23/db09-0098.abstract

Ebbeling, C. B., Leidig, M. M., Feldman, H. A., Lovesky, M. M., & Ludwig, D. S. (2007). Effects of a low-glycemic load vs low-fat diet in obese young adults: A randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association , 297 (19), 2092–2102. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/297/19/2092?maxtoshow=&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=ebbeling&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT

Foo, S. Y., Heller, E. R., Wykrzykowska, J., Sullivan, C. J., Manning-Tobin, J. J., Moore, K. J….Rosenzweigac, A. (2009). Vascular effects of a low-carbohydrate high-protein diet. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of America , 106 (36), 15418–15423. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0907995106

Gardner, C. D., Kiazand, A., Alhassan, S., Kim, S., Stafford, R. S., Balise, R. R., Kraemer, H. C., & King, A. C. (2007). Comparison of the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN Diets for change in weight and related risk factors among overweight premenopausal women. Journal of the American Medical Association , 297 (9), 969–977. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/297/9/969#AUTHINFO

Harvard School of Public Health (2010). Carbohydrates: Good carbs guide the way. The Nutrition Source .  http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/carbohydrates-full-story/index.html#good-carbs-not-no-carbs

HealthDay. (2010). Low-fat diets beat low-carb regiment long term . http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_95861.html

Hirsch, J. (2004). The low-carb evolution: Be reactive with low-carb products but proactive with nutrition. Nutraceuticals World . http://www.nutraceuticalsworld.com/contents/view/13321

Mayo Clinic. (2010). Healthy lifestyle: Weight loss . https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/weight-loss/in-depth/weight-loss/art-20048466?p=1

McMillan-Price, J., Petocz, P., Atkinson, F., O’Neill, K., Samman, S., Steinbeck, K., Caterson, I., & Brand-Miller, J. (2006, July). Comparison of 4 diets of varying glycemic load on weight loss and cardiovascular risk reduction in overweight and obese young adults: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine , 166 (14), 1466–1475. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/166/14/1466

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2010). National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse: What I need to know about eating and diabetes . http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/eating_ez/index.htm

Reuters Health. (2010). Low-carb diet can increase bad cholesterol levels . http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/news/fullstory_95708.html

Seppa, N. (2008). Go against the grains, diet study suggests: Low-carb beats low-fat in weight loss, cholesterol. Science News , 174 (4), 25. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/issue/id/34757

Source: PDF/text version of the final research essay from “Developing Your Final Draft” In English Composition 2 by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 . / has been Adapted by Emily Cramer & Amanda Quibell / Created PDF/accessible format, APA style updated to 7th edition and corrections made so that in-text and reference entries match.

Key Takeaways

• Organization in a research paper means that the argument proceeds logically from the introduction to the body to the conclusion. It flows logically from one point to the next. When revising a research paper, evaluate the organization of the paper as a whole and the organization of individual paragraphs.
• In a cohesive research paper, the elements of the paper work together smoothly and naturally. When revising a research paper, evaluate its cohesion. In particular, check that information from research is smoothly integrated with your ideas with appropriate in-text citations.
• An effective research paper uses a style and tone that are appropriately academic and serious. When revising a research paper, check that the style and tone are consistent throughout.
• Editing a research paper involves checking for errors in grammar, mechanics, punctuation, usage, spelling, citations, and formatting.

Attribution & References

• Except where otherwise noted, this chapter is adapted from ” 12.2 Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper ” In Writing for Success by University of Minnesota licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 . Edits made for accessibility and visual images, updates to APA citation & references.
• Final Essay screenshots & PDF/text version of the final research essay from “Developing Your Final Draft” In English Composition 2 by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA . / Adapted by Emily Cramer & Amanda Quibell / Created accessible PDF format, APA style updated to 7th edition and corrections made so that in-text and reference entries match.

7.3 - Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper Copyright © 2022 by Jen Booth, Emily Cramer & Amanda Quibell, Georgian College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

10.9: Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 20665

• Athena Kashyap & Erika Dyquisto
• City College of San Francisco via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

Given all the time and effort you have put into your research project, you will want to make sure that your final draft represents your best work. This requires taking the time to revise and edit your paper carefully.

You may feel like you need a break from your paper before you revise and edit it. That is understandable—but leave yourself with enough time to complete this important stage of the writing process. In this section, you will learn the following specific strategies that are useful for revising and editing a research paper:

• How to evaluate and improve the overall organization and cohesion
• How to maintain an appropriate style and tone
• How to use checklists to identify and correct any errors in language, citations, and formatting

Revising Your Paper: Organization and Cohesion

When writing a research paper, it is easy to become overly focused on editorial details, such as the proper format for bibliographical entries. These details do matter. However, before you begin to address them, it is important to spend time reviewing and revising the content of the paper. It is also important to revise your content before editing for word choice and tone so that you only have to complete that more detailed level of editing once.

A good research paper is both organized and cohesive. Organization means that your argument flows logically from one point to the next. Cohesion means that the elements of your paper work together smoothly and naturally. In a cohesive research paper, information from research is seamlessly integrated with the writer’s ideas.

Revise to Improve Organization

When you revise to improve organization, you look at the flow of ideas throughout the essay as a whole and within individual paragraphs. You check to see that your essay moves logically from the introduction to the body paragraphs to the conclusion, and that each section reinforces your thesis. You also should make sure the transitions, or logical connections, between one paragraph and the next -- and especially one section and the next -- are clear. Use the following checklist to help you, but be sure the revise at the organizational level before you revise at the paragraph level.

Revision: Organization

At the essay level

• Does my introduction proceed clearly from the opening to the thesis?
• Does each body paragraph have a clear main idea that relates to the thesis?
• Do the main ideas in the body paragraphs flow in a logical order? Is each paragraph connected to the one before it?
• Do I need to add or revise topic sentences or transitions to make the overall flow of ideas clearer?
• Does my conclusion summarize my main ideas and revisit my thesis?

At the paragraph level

• Does the topic sentence clearly state the main idea?
• Do the details in the paragraph relate to the main idea?
• Do I need to recast any sentences or add transition words or sentences to improve the flow of sentences? See cohesion for more specifics about revising for this.

To help you decide whether your essay is organized correctly, try the low-tech way or seeing what paragraph organization works best. It can be especially cumbersome to reorganize paragraphs on a computer, so sometimes doing this on paper works better. Here are the steps:

1. Print out your paper one-sided. Add in spaces between paragraphs so that no paragraphs are split between two pages.

2. Cut apart your paragraphs (but keep each paragraph together).

3. Give the cut-apart paragraphs to a friend, and see if they can figure out which order they should go in. If they decide it goes in the order you already have your paper in, your paper is probably organized well already. If they cannot figure out the order, ask them to explain to you which paragraphs they are unsure about. This should give you a clue about where you should reorganize your paragraphs, if transitions need to be added, or if there is a missing chunk of information that should be developed to improve the overall cohesion of the paper.

Revise to Improve Paragrah Cohesion

In a research paper, problems with cohesion usually occur when a writer has trouble integrating source material. If facts or quotations have been awkwardly dropped into a paragraph, they distract or confuse the reader instead of working to support the writer’s point. Overusing paraphrased and quoted material has the same effect. Use the next checklist to review your essay for paragraph cohesion. Miguel did this in the introductory paragraph of his research paper:

Writers choose transitions carefully to show the relationships between ideas—for instance, to make a comparison or elaborate on a point with examples. Make sure your transitions suit your purpose and avoid overusing the same ones.

Revision: Cohesion

• Does the opening of the paper clearly connect to the broader topic and thesis? Make sure entertaining quotes or anecdotes serve a purpose.
• Have I included support from research for each main point in the body of my paper?
• Have I included introductory material before any quotations? Quotations should never stand alone in a paragraph.
• Does paraphrased and quoted material clearly serve to develop my own points?
• Do I need to add to or revise parts of the paper to help the reader understand how certain information from a source is relevant?
• Are there any places where I have overused material from sources?
• Does my conclusion make sense based on the rest of the paper? Make sure any new questions or suggestions in the conclusion are clearly linked to earlier material.

As Miguel reread his draft, he looked to see how the different pieces fit together to prove his thesis. He realized that some of his supporting information needed to be integrated more carefully and decided to omit some details entirely. Read the following paragraph, first without Miguel’s revisions and then with them.

Follow these steps to begin revising your paper to improve cohesion.

• Print out a hard copy of your paper, or work with your printout from the first exercise on this page.
• Read the body paragraphs of your paper first. Each time you come to a place that cites information from sources, ask yourself what purpose this information serves. Check that it helps support a point and that it is clearly related to the other sentences in the paragraph.
• Be sure there is a direct connection between the idea in the sentence before the quote or paraphrase, as well as between the idea in the quote or paraphrase and the sentence that comes after it.
• Identify unnecessary information from sources that you can delete.
• Identify places where you need to revise your writing so that readers understand the significance of the details cited from sources.
• Skim the body paragraphs once more, looking for any paragraphs that seem packed with citations. Review these paragraphs carefully for cohesion.
• Review your introduction and conclusion. Make sure the information presented connects directly with ideas in the body of the paper.
• Revise the places you identified in your paper to improve cohesion.

Collaboration

Exchange papers with a classmate. On the classmate's paper, identify unnecessary information from sources that you can delete. Also, note any areas that would benefit from clarification or a clearer connection. Return and compare notes.

Writing at Work

Understanding cohesion can also benefit you in the workplace, especially when you have to write and deliver a presentation. Speakers sometimes rely on cute graphics or funny quotations to hold their audience’s attention. If you choose to use these elements, make sure they work well with the substantive content of your presentation. For example, if you are asked to give a financial presentation, and the financial report shows that the company lost money, funny illustrations would not be relevant or appropriate for the presentation.

Using a Consistent Style and Tone

Once you are certain that the content of your paper fulfills your purpose, you can begin revising to improve style and tone. Style refers to the way you use language as a writer—the sentence structures you use and the word choices you make. Tone is the attitude toward your subject and audience that you convey through your word choice. Together, your style and tone create the voice of your paper, or how you come across to readers.

Determining an Appropriate Style and Tone

Although accepted writing styles will vary within different disciplines, the underlying goal is the same—to come across to your readers as a knowledgeable, authoritative guide. Writing about research is like being a tour guide who walks readers through a topic. A stuffy, overly formal tour guide can make readers feel put off or intimidated. Too much informality or humor can make readers wonder whether the tour guide really knows what he or she is talking about. Extreme or emotionally charged language comes across as unbalanced or biased.

• Editing for Register and Tone. Authored by: Dr. Satu Manninen. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.

To help prevent being overly formal or informal, determine an appropriate style and tone at the beginning of the research process. Consider your topic and audience because these can help dictate style and tone. For example, a paper on new breakthroughs in cancer research should be more formal than a paper on ways to get a good night’s sleep, partly because the audiences are likely different.

A strong research paper comes across as straightforward, appropriately academic, and serious. It is generally best to avoid writing in the first or second person, as this can make your paper seem overly subjective and opinion based. Use the next checklist on style to review your paper for other issues that affect style and tone. You can check for consistency at the end of the writing process. Checking for consistency is discussed later in this section.

• My paper avoids excessive wordiness.
• My sentences are varied in length and structure.
• I have generally avoided using first-person pronouns, such as "I," and definitely avoided the second person, "you."
• I have used the active voice whenever possible.
• I have defined specialized terms that might be unfamiliar to readers.
• I have used clear, straightforward language whenever possible and avoided unnecessary jargon.
• My paper states my point of view using a balanced tone—neither too indecisive nor too forceful.
• I have used the simple present tense when referring to what other people did in their research.

Word Choice

Note that word choice is an especially important aspect of style. In addition to checking the points noted on the above Checklist, review your paper to make sure your language is precise, conveys no unintended connotations, and is free of biases. Here are some of the points to check for:

• Vague or imprecise terms
• Repetition of the same phrases (“Smith states…, Jones states…”) to introduce quoted and paraphrased material (For a full list of strong verbs to use with in-text quotations, see Chapter 11 .)
• Exclusive use of masculine pronouns or awkward use of he or she
• Use of language with negative connotations, such as haughty or ridiculous
• Use of outdated or offensive terms to refer to specific ethnic, racial, or religious groups

Using plural nouns and pronouns or recasting a sentence can help you keep your language gender inclusive while avoiding awkwardness. Consider the following examples:

• Gender-biased: When a writer cites a source in the body of his paper, he must list it on his references page.
• Awkward: When a writer cites a source in the body of his or her paper, he or she must list it on his or her references page.
• Inclusive: Writers must list any sources cited in the body of their paper on the references page

Keeping Your Style Consistent

As you revise your paper, make sure your style is consistent throughout. Look for instances where a word, phrase, or sentence just does not seem to fit with the rest of the writing. It is best to reread for style after you have completed the other revisions so that you are not distracted by any larger content issues. Revising strategies you can use include the following:

• Read your paper aloud. Sometimes your ears catch inconsistencies that your eyes miss.
• Share your paper with another reader whom you trust to give you honest feedback. It is often difficult to evaluate one’s own style objectively—especially in the final phase of a challenging writing project. Another reader may be more likely to notice instances of wordiness, confusing language, or other issues that affect style and tone.
• Line-edit your paper slowly, sentence by sentence. You may even wish to use a sheet of paper to cover everything on the page except the paragraph you are editing—that forces you to read slowly and carefully. Mark any areas where you notice problems in style or tone, and then take time to rework those sections.

On reviewing his paper, Miguel found that he had generally used an appropriately academic style and tone. However, he noticed one glaring exception—his first paragraph. He realized there were places where his overly informal writing could come across as unserious or, worse, disparaging. Revising his word choice and omitting a humorous aside helped Miguel maintain a consistent tone. Read his revisions.

Using the "Style" checklist, line-edit your paper. You may use either of these techniques:

• Print out a hard copy of your paper, or work with your printout from the previous exercise. Read it line by line. Check for the issues noted on the "Style" checklist, as well as any other aspects of your writing style you or your instructor have previously identified as areas for improvement. Mark any areas where you notice problems in style or tone, and then take time to rework those sections.
• If you prefer to work with an electronic document, use the menu options in your word-processing program to enlarge the text to 150 or 200 percent of the original size. Make sure the type is large enough that you can focus on only one paragraph at a time. Read the paper line by line as described in step 1. Highlight any areas where you notice problems in style or tone, and then take time to rework those sections.

Proofreading Your Paper

The following video will give an overview of some proofreading strategies.

Proofreading strategies. Authored by: Coventry University, Centre for Academic Writing. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.

After revising your paper to address problems in content or style, you will complete one final editorial review. Perhaps you already have caught and corrected minor mistakes during previous revisions. Nevertheless, give your draft a final edit to make sure it is error-free. Your final edit should focus on two broad areas:

• Errors in grammar, mechanics, usage, and spelling
• Errors in citing and formatting sources

For in-depth information on these two topics, see Chapter 11 , Chapter 12 and Chapter 13 .

Given how much work you have put into your research paper, you will want to check for any errors that could distract or confuse your readers. Using the spell-checking feature in your word-processing program can be helpful—but this should not replace a full, careful review of your document. Be sure to check for any errors that may have come up frequently for you in the past. Grammar check can also sometimes be helpful, but they may not catch grammar errors in the more complicated sentences that college students write. Be sure to do your own proofreading; however, if you want to get someone else's eyes, ask them to either circle or underline where they see a problem (but not fix it), or write an "x" next to the line with the proofreading mistake. It is then up to you to find the actual mistake. Either way, you should figure out what the mistake is and fix it yourself.

Proofreading well is essential at many workplaces. Proofreading mistakes -- even in short emails -- can give the impression that you do not pay attention to detail or that you are not knowledable. Even though it is not necessarily true that writing is a basic skill, many people in the workplace view it as such, so proofreading is a skill you should have under control when you are in the workpplace so that people don't get the wrong impression of you.

Checking Citations and Formatting

When editing a research paper, it is also important to check that you have cited sources properly and formatted your document according to the specified guidelines. There are two reasons for this. First and foremost, citing sources correctly ensures that you have given proper credit to other people for ideas and information that helped you in your work. Second, using correct formatting establishes your paper as one student’s contribution to the work developed by and and the conversation in a larger academic community.

Citations and Formatting

• Within the body of my paper, each fact or idea taken from a source (whether quoted of paraphrased) is credited to the correct source.
• Each in-text citation includes the source author’s name (or, where applicable, the organization name or source title) and page number (if there is one -- MLA format). I have used the correct format of in-text and parenthetical citations.
• Each source cited in the body of my paper has a corresponding entry in the references section of my paper.
• My references section includes a centered heading that says "Works Cited" and double-spaced, alphabetized entries.
• Each entry in my references section is indented on the second line and all subsequent lines (hanging indent).
• Each entry in my references section includes all the necessary information for that source type, in the correct sequence and format.
• The margins of my paper are set at one inch. Text is double spaced and set in a standard 12-point font.

For detailed guidelines on APA and MLA citation and formatting, see Chapter 13 .

Following APA or MLA citation and formatting guidelines may require time and effort. However, it is good practice for learning how to follow accepted conventions in any professional field. Many large corporations create a style manual with guidelines for editing and formatting documents produced by that corporation. Employees follow the style manual when creating internal documents and documents for publication.

Contributors and Attributions

CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY:

• Adapted from Writing for Success . Provided by: The Saylor Foundation. License: CC-NC-SA 3.0 .

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

What’s Included: Research Paper Template

If you’re preparing to write an academic research paper, our free research paper template is the perfect starting point. In the template, we cover every section step by step, with clear, straightforward explanations and examples .

The template’s structure is based on the tried and trusted best-practice format for formal academic research papers. The template structure reflects the overall research process, ensuring your paper will have a smooth, logical flow from chapter to chapter.

The research paper template covers the following core sections:

• The title page/cover page
• Abstract (sometimes also called the executive summary)
• Section 1: Introduction 
• Section 2: Literature review 
• Section 3: Methodology
• Section 4: Findings /results
• Section 5: Discussion
• Section 6: Conclusion
• Reference list

Each section is explained in plain, straightforward language , followed by an overview of the key elements that you need to cover within each section. We’ve also included links to free resources to help you understand how to write each section.

The cleanly formatted Google Doc can be downloaded as a fully editable MS Word Document (DOCX format), so you can use it as-is or convert it to LaTeX.

FAQs: Research Paper Template

What format is the template (doc, pdf, ppt, etc.).

The research paper template is provided as a Google Doc. You can download it in MS Word format or make a copy to your Google Drive. You’re also welcome to convert it to whatever format works best for you, such as LaTeX or PDF.

What types of research papers can this template be used for?

The template follows the standard best-practice structure for formal academic research papers, so it is suitable for the vast majority of degrees, particularly those within the sciences.

Some universities may have some additional requirements, but these are typically minor, with the core structure remaining the same. Therefore, it’s always a good idea to double-check your university’s requirements before you finalise your structure.

Is this template for an undergrad, Masters or PhD-level research paper?

This template can be used for a research paper at any level of study. It may be slight overkill for an undergraduate-level study, but it certainly won’t be missing anything.

How long should my research paper be?

This depends entirely on your university’s specific requirements, so it’s best to check with them. We include generic word count ranges for each section within the template, but these are purely indicative. 

What about the research proposal?

If you’re still working on your research proposal, we’ve got a template for that here .

We’ve also got loads of proposal-related guides and videos over on the Grad Coach blog .

How do I write a literature review?

We have a wealth of free resources on the Grad Coach Blog that unpack how to write a literature review from scratch. You can check out the literature review section of the blog here.

How do I create a research methodology?

We have a wealth of free resources on the Grad Coach Blog that unpack research methodology, both qualitative and quantitative. You can check out the methodology section of the blog here.

Can I share this research paper template with my friends/colleagues?

Yes, you’re welcome to share this template. If you want to post about it on your blog or social media, all we ask is that you reference this page as your source.

Can Grad Coach help me with my research paper?

Within the template, you’ll find plain-language explanations of each section, which should give you a fair amount of guidance. However, you’re also welcome to consider our private coaching services .

How to Write a Research Paper 

• Smodin Editorial Team
• Updated: May 17, 2024

Most students hate writing research papers. The process can often feel long, tedious, and sometimes outright boring. Nevertheless, these assignments are vital to a student’s academic journey. Want to learn how to write a research paper that captures the depth of the subject and maintains the reader’s interest? If so, this guide is for you.

Today, we’ll show you how to assemble a well-organized research paper to help you make the grade. You can transform any topic into a compelling research paper with a thoughtful approach to your research and a persuasive argument.

In this guide, we’ll provide seven simple but practical tips to help demystify the process and guide you on your way. We’ll also explain how AI tools can expedite the research and writing process so you can focus on critical thinking.

By the end of this article, you’ll have a clear roadmap for tackling these essays. You will also learn how to tackle them quickly and efficiently. With time and dedication, you’ll soon master the art of research paper writing.

Ready to get started?

What Is a Research Paper?

A research paper is a comprehensive essay that gives a detailed analysis, interpretation, or argument based on your own independent research. In higher-level academic settings, it goes beyond a simple summarization and includes a deep inquiry into the topic or topics.

The term “research paper” is a broad term that can be applied to many different forms of academic writing. The goal is to combine your thoughts with the findings from peer-reviewed scholarly literature.

By the time your essay is done, you should have provided your reader with a new perspective or challenged existing findings. This demonstrates your mastery of the subject and contributes to ongoing scholarly debates.

7 Tips for Writing a Research Paper

Often, getting started is the most challenging part of a research paper. While the process can seem daunting, breaking it down into manageable steps can make it easier to manage. The following are seven tips for getting your ideas out of your head and onto the page.

1. Understand Your Assignment

It may sound simple, but the first step in writing a successful research paper is to read the assignment. Sit down, take a few moments of your time, and go through the instructions so you fully understand your assignment.

Misinterpreting the assignment can not only lead to a significant waste of time but also affect your grade. No matter how patient your teacher or professor may be, ignoring basic instructions is often inexcusable.

If you read the instructions and are still confused, ask for clarification before you start writing. If that’s impossible, you can use tools like Smodin’s AI chat to help. Smodin can help highlight critical requirements that you may overlook.

This initial investment ensures that all your future efforts will be focused and efficient. Remember, thinking is just as important as actually writing the essay, and it can also pave the wave for a smoother writing process.

2. Gather Research Materials

Now comes the fun part: doing the research. As you gather research materials, always use credible sources, such as academic journals or peer-reviewed papers. Only use search engines that filter for accredited sources and academic databases so you can ensure your information is reliable.

To optimize your time, you must learn to master the art of skimming. If a source seems relevant and valuable, save it and review it later. The last thing you want to do is waste time on material that won’t make it into the final paper.

To speed up the process even more, consider using Smodin’s AI summarizer . This tool can help summarize large texts, highlighting key information relevant to your topic. By systematically gathering and filing research materials early in the writing process, you build a strong foundation for your thesis.

3. Write Your Thesis

Creating a solid thesis statement is the most important thing you can do to bring structure and focus to your research paper. Your thesis should express the main point of your argument in one or two simple sentences. Remember, when you create your thesis, you’re setting the tone and direction for the entire paper.

Of course, you can’t just pull a winning thesis out of thin air. Start by brainstorming potential thesis ideas based on your preliminary research. And don’t overthink things; sometimes, the most straightforward ideas are often the best.

You want a thesis that is specific enough to be manageable within the scope of your paper but broad enough to allow for a unique discussion. Your thesis should challenge existing expectations and provide the reader with fresh insight into the topic. Use your thesis to hook the reader in the opening paragraph and keep them engaged until the very last word.

4. Write Your Outline

An outline is an often overlooked but essential tool for organizing your thoughts and structuring your paper. Many students skip the outline because it feels like doing double work, but a strong outline will save you work in the long run.

Here’s how to effectively structure your outline.

• Introduction: List your thesis statement and outline the main questions your essay will answer.
• Literature Review: Outline the key literature you plan to discuss and explain how it will relate to your thesis.
• Methodology: Explain the research methods you will use to gather and analyze the information.
• Discussion: Plan how you will interpret the results and their implications for your thesis.
• Conclusion: Summarize the content above to elucidate your thesis fully.

To further streamline this process, consider using Smodin’s Research Writer. This tool offers a feature that allows you to generate and tweak an outline to your liking based on the initial input you provide. You can adjust this outline to fit your research findings better and ensure that your paper remains well-organized and focused.

5. Write a Rough Draft

Once your outline is in place, you can begin the writing process. Remember, when you write a rough draft, it isn’t meant to be perfect. Instead, use it as a working document where you can experiment with and rearrange your arguments and evidence.

Don’t worry too much about grammar, style, or syntax as you write your rough draft. Focus on getting your ideas down on paper and flush out your thesis arguments. You can always refine and rearrange the content the next time around.

Follow the basic structure of your outline but with the freedom to explore different ways of expressing your thoughts. Smodin’s Essay Writer offers a powerful solution for those struggling with starting or structuring their drafts.

After you approve the outline, Smodin can generate an essay based on your initial inputs. This feature can help you quickly create a comprehensive draft, which you can then review and refine. You can even use the power of AI to create multiple rough drafts from which to choose.

6. Add or Subtract Supporting Evidence

Once you have a rough draft, but before you start the final revision, it’s time to do a little cleanup. In this phase, you need to review all your supporting evidence. You want to ensure that there is nothing redundant and that you haven’t overlooked any crucial details.

Many students struggle to make the required word count for an essay and resort to padding their writing with redundant statements. Instead of adding unnecessary content, focus on expanding your analysis to provide deeper insights.

A good essay, regardless of the topic or format, needs to be streamlined. It should convey clear, convincing, relevant information supporting your thesis. If you find some information doesn’t do that, consider tweaking your sources.

Include a variety of sources, including studies, data, and quotes from scholars or other experts. Remember, you’re not just strengthening your argument but demonstrating the depth of your research.

If you want comprehensive feedback on your essay without going to a writing center or pestering your professor, use Smodin. The AI Chat can look at your draft and offer suggestions for improvement.

7. Revise, Cite, and Submit

The final stages of crafting a research paper involve revision, citation, and final review. You must ensure your paper is polished, professionally presented, and plagiarism-free. Of course, integrating Smodin’s AI tools can significantly streamline this process and enhance the quality of your final submission.

Start by using Smodin’s Rewriter tool. This AI-powered feature can help rephrase and refine your draft to improve overall readability. If a specific section of your essay just “doesn’t sound right,” the AI can suggest alternative sentence structures and word choices.

Proper citation is a must for all academic papers. Thankfully, thanks to Smodin’s Research Paper app, this once tedious process is easier than ever. The AI ensures all sources are accurately cited according to the required style guide (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).

Plagiarism Checker:

All students need to realize that accidental plagiarism can happen. That’s why using a Plagiarism Checker to scan your essay before you submit it is always useful. Smodin’s Plagiarism Checker can highlight areas of concern so you can adjust accordingly.

Final Submission

After revising, rephrasing, and ensuring all citations are in order, use Smodin’s AI Content Detector to give your paper one last review. This tool can help you analyze your paper’s overall quality and readability so you can make any final tweaks or improvements.

Mastering Research Papers

Mastering the art of the research paper cannot be overstated, whether you’re in high school, college, or postgraduate studies. You can confidently prepare your research paper for submission by leveraging the AI tools listed above.

Research papers help refine your abilities to think critically and write persuasively. The skills you develop here will serve you well beyond the walls of the classroom. Communicating complex ideas clearly and effectively is one of the most powerful tools you can possess.

With the advancements of AI tools like Smodin , writing a research paper has become more accessible than ever before. These technologies streamline the process of organizing, writing, and revising your work. Write with confidence, knowing your best work is yet to come!

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Table of Contents

Research paper format is an essential aspect of academic writing that plays a crucial role in the communication of research findings . The format of a research paper depends on various factors such as the discipline, style guide, and purpose of the research. It includes guidelines for the structure, citation style, referencing , and other elements of the paper that contribute to its overall presentation and coherence. Adhering to the appropriate research paper format is vital for ensuring that the research is accurately and effectively communicated to the intended audience. In this era of information, it is essential to understand the different research paper formats and their guidelines to communicate research effectively, accurately, and with the required level of detail. This post aims to provide an overview of some of the common research paper formats used in academic writing.

Research Paper Formats

Research Paper Formats are as follows:

• APA (American Psychological Association) format
• MLA (Modern Language Association) format
• Chicago/Turabian style
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) format
• AMA (American Medical Association) style
• Harvard style
• Vancouver style
• ACS (American Chemical Society) style
• ASA (American Sociological Association) style
• APSA (American Political Science Association) style

APA (American Psychological Association) Format

Here is a general APA format for a research paper:

• Title Page: The title page should include the title of your paper, your name, and your institutional affiliation. It should also include a running head, which is a shortened version of the title, and a page number in the upper right-hand corner.
• Abstract : The abstract is a brief summary of your paper, typically 150-250 words. It should include the purpose of your research, the main findings, and any implications or conclusions that can be drawn.
• Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on your topic, state the purpose of your research, and present your research question or hypothesis. It should also include a brief literature review that discusses previous research on your topic.
• Methods: The methods section should describe the procedures you used to collect and analyze your data. It should include information on the participants, the materials and instruments used, and the statistical analyses performed.
• Results: The results section should present the findings of your research in a clear and concise manner. Use tables and figures to help illustrate your results.
• Discussion : The discussion section should interpret your results and relate them back to your research question or hypothesis. It should also discuss the implications of your findings and any limitations of your study.
• References : The references section should include a list of all sources cited in your paper. Follow APA formatting guidelines for your citations and references.

Some additional tips for formatting your APA research paper:

• Use 12-point Times New Roman font throughout the paper.
• Double-space all text, including the references.
• Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
• Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches.
• Use a hanging indent for the references (the first line should be flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines should be indented).
• Number all pages, including the title page and references page, in the upper right-hand corner.

APA Research Paper Format Template

APA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

Title Page:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Institutional affiliation
• A brief summary of the main points of the paper, including the research question, methods, findings, and conclusions. The abstract should be no more than 250 words.

Introduction:

• Background information on the topic of the research paper
• Research question or hypothesis
• Significance of the study
• Overview of the research methods and design
• Brief summary of the main findings
• Participants: description of the sample population, including the number of participants and their characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.)
• Materials: description of any materials used in the study (e.g., survey questions, experimental apparatus)
• Procedure: detailed description of the steps taken to conduct the study
• Presentation of the findings of the study, including statistical analyses if applicable
• Tables and figures may be included to illustrate the results

Discussion:

• Interpretation of the results in light of the research question and hypothesis
• Implications of the study for the field
• Limitations of the study
• Suggestions for future research

References:

• A list of all sources cited in the paper, in APA format

Formatting guidelines:

• Double-spaced
• 12-point font (Times New Roman or Arial)
• 1-inch margins on all sides
• Page numbers in the top right corner
• Headings and subheadings should be used to organize the paper
• The first line of each paragraph should be indented
• Quotations of 40 or more words should be set off in a block quote with no quotation marks
• In-text citations should include the author’s last name and year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2019)

APA Research Paper Format Example

APA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

University of XYZ

This study examines the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Data was collected through a survey of 500 students at the University of XYZ. Results suggest that social media use is significantly related to symptoms of depression and anxiety, and that the negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users.

Social media has become an increasingly important aspect of modern life, especially among young adults. While social media can have many positive effects, such as connecting people across distances and sharing information, there is growing concern about its impact on mental health. This study aims to examine the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students.

Participants: Participants were 500 college students at the University of XYZ, recruited through online advertisements and flyers posted on campus. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25, with a mean age of 20.5 years. The sample was 60% female, 40% male, and 5% identified as non-binary or gender non-conforming.

Data was collected through an online survey administered through Qualtrics. The survey consisted of several measures, including the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for depression symptoms, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) for anxiety symptoms, and questions about social media use.

Procedure :

Participants were asked to complete the online survey at their convenience. The survey took approximately 20-30 minutes to complete. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analysis.

Results indicated that social media use was significantly related to symptoms of depression (r = .32, p < .001) and anxiety (r = .29, p < .001). Regression analysis indicated that frequency of social media use was a significant predictor of both depression symptoms (β = .24, p < .001) and anxiety symptoms (β = .20, p < .001), even when controlling for age, gender, and other relevant factors.

The results of this study suggest that social media use is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety among college students. The negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users. These findings have important implications for mental health professionals and educators, who should consider addressing the potential negative effects of social media use in their work with young adults.

References :

References should be listed in alphabetical order according to the author’s last name. For example:

• Chou, H. T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117-121.
• Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-17.

Note: This is just a sample Example do not use this in your assignment.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format is as follows:

• Page Layout : Use 8.5 x 11-inch white paper, with 1-inch margins on all sides. The font should be 12-point Times New Roman or a similar serif font.
• Heading and Title : The first page of your research paper should include a heading and a title. The heading should include your name, your instructor’s name, the course title, and the date. The title should be centered and in title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
• In-Text Citations : Use parenthetical citations to indicate the source of your information. The citation should include the author’s last name and the page number(s) of the source. For example: (Smith 23).
• Works Cited Page : At the end of your paper, include a Works Cited page that lists all the sources you used in your research. Each entry should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the medium of publication.
• Formatting Quotations : Use double quotation marks for short quotations and block quotations for longer quotations. Indent the entire quotation five spaces from the left margin.
• Formatting the Body : Use a clear and readable font and double-space your text throughout. The first line of each paragraph should be indented one-half inch from the left margin.

MLA Research Paper Template

MLA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

• Use 8.5 x 11 inch white paper.
• Use a 12-point font, such as Times New Roman.
• Use double-spacing throughout the entire paper, including the title page and works cited page.
• Set the margins to 1 inch on all sides.
• Use page numbers in the upper right corner, beginning with the first page of text.
• Include a centered title for the research paper, using title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
• Include your name, instructor’s name, course name, and date in the upper left corner, double-spaced.

In-Text Citations

• When quoting or paraphrasing information from sources, include an in-text citation within the text of your paper.
• Use the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence, before the punctuation mark.
• If the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, only include the page number in parentheses.

Works Cited Page

• List all sources cited in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.
• Each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and medium of publication.
• Use italics for book and journal titles, and quotation marks for article and chapter titles.
• For online sources, include the date of access and the URL.

Here is an example of how the first page of a research paper in MLA format should look:

Headings and Subheadings

• Use headings and subheadings to organize your paper and make it easier to read.
• Use numerals to number your headings and subheadings (e.g. 1, 2, 3), and capitalize the first letter of each word.
• The main heading should be centered and in boldface type, while subheadings should be left-aligned and in italics.
• Use only one space after each period or punctuation mark.
• Use quotation marks to indicate direct quotes from a source.
• If the quote is more than four lines, format it as a block quote, indented one inch from the left margin and without quotation marks.
• Use ellipses (…) to indicate omitted words from a quote, and brackets ([…]) to indicate added words.

Works Cited Examples

• Book: Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Year.
• Journal Article: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, publication date, page numbers.
• Website: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Title of Website, publication date, URL. Accessed date.

Here is an example of how a works cited entry for a book should look:

Smith, John. The Art of Writing Research Papers. Penguin, 2021.

MLA Research Paper Example

MLA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

Your Professor’s Name

Course Name and Number

Date (in Day Month Year format)

Word Count (not including title page or Works Cited)

Title: The Impact of Video Games on Aggression Levels

Video games have become a popular form of entertainment among people of all ages. However, the impact of video games on aggression levels has been a subject of debate among scholars and researchers. While some argue that video games promote aggression and violent behavior, others argue that there is no clear link between video games and aggression levels. This research paper aims to explore the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults.

Background:

The debate on the impact of video games on aggression levels has been ongoing for several years. According to the American Psychological Association, exposure to violent media, including video games, can increase aggression levels in children and adolescents. However, some researchers argue that there is no clear evidence to support this claim. Several studies have been conducted to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels, but the results have been mixed.

Methodology:

This research paper used a quantitative research approach to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults. A sample of 100 young adults between the ages of 18 and 25 was selected for the study. The participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that measured their aggression levels and their video game habits.

The results of the study showed that there was a significant correlation between video game habits and aggression levels among young adults. The participants who reported playing violent video games for more than 5 hours per week had higher aggression levels than those who played less than 5 hours per week. The study also found that male participants were more likely to play violent video games and had higher aggression levels than female participants.

The findings of this study support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to note that the study only examined the impact of video games on aggression levels and did not take into account other factors that may contribute to aggressive behavior. It is also important to note that not all video games promote violence and aggression, and some games may have a positive impact on cognitive and social skills.

Conclusion :

In conclusion, this research paper provides evidence to support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to conduct further research to examine the impact of video games on other aspects of behavior and to explore the potential benefits of video games. Parents and educators should be aware of the potential impact of video games on aggression levels and should encourage young adults to engage in a variety of activities that promote cognitive and social skills.

Works Cited:

• American Psychological Association. (2017). Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/08/violent-video-games
• Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do Angry Birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents’ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 646-666.
• Gentile, D. A., Swing, E. L., Lim, C. G., & Khoo, A. (2012). Video game playing, attention problems, and impulsiveness: Evidence of bidirectional causality. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 62-70.
• Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 530-548.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chicago/Turabian Formate is as follows:

• Margins : Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the paper.
• Font : Use a readable font such as Times New Roman or Arial, and use a 12-point font size.
• Page numbering : Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner, beginning with the first page of text. Use Arabic numerals.
• Title page: Include a title page with the title of the paper, your name, course title and number, instructor’s name, and the date. The title should be centered on the page and in title case (capitalize the first letter of each word).
• Headings: Use headings to organize your paper. The first level of headings should be centered and in boldface or italics. The second level of headings should be left-aligned and in boldface or italics. Use as many levels of headings as necessary to organize your paper.
• In-text citations : Use footnotes or endnotes to cite sources within the text of your paper. The first citation for each source should be a full citation, and subsequent citations can be shortened. Use superscript numbers to indicate footnotes or endnotes.
• Bibliography : Include a bibliography at the end of your paper, listing all sources cited in your paper. The bibliography should be in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, and each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and date of publication.
• Formatting of quotations: Use block quotations for quotations that are longer than four lines. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, and do not use quotation marks. Single-space the quotation, and double-space between paragraphs.
• Tables and figures: Use tables and figures to present data and illustrations. Number each table and figure sequentially, and provide a brief title for each. Place tables and figures as close as possible to the text that refers to them.
• Spelling and grammar : Use correct spelling and grammar throughout your paper. Proofread carefully for errors.

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template is as folows:

Title of Paper

Name of Student

Professor’s Name

I. Introduction

A. Background Information

B. Research Question

C. Thesis Statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of Existing Literature

B. Analysis of Key Literature

C. Identification of Gaps in Literature

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Presentation of Findings

B. Analysis of Findings

C. Discussion of Implications

V. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Implications for Future Research

C. Conclusion

VI. References

A. Bibliography

B. In-Text Citations

VII. Appendices (if necessary)

A. Data Tables

C. Additional Supporting Materials

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Example

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Political Engagement

Name: John Smith

Class: POLS 101

Professor: Dr. Jane Doe

Date: April 8, 2023

I. Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives. People use social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram to connect with friends and family, share their opinions, and stay informed about current events. With the rise of social media, there has been a growing interest in understanding its impact on various aspects of society, including political engagement. In this paper, I will examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, specifically focusing on how social media influences political participation and political attitudes.

II. Literature Review:

There is a growing body of literature on the impact of social media on political engagement. Some scholars argue that social media has a positive effect on political participation by providing new channels for political communication and mobilization (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996; Putnam, 2000). Others, however, suggest that social media can have a negative impact on political engagement by creating filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue (Pariser, 2011; Sunstein, 2001).

III. Methodology:

To examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, I conducted a survey of 500 college students. The survey included questions about social media use, political participation, and political attitudes. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Iv. Results:

The results of the survey indicate that social media use is positively associated with political participation. Specifically, respondents who reported using social media to discuss politics were more likely to have participated in a political campaign, attended a political rally, or contacted a political representative. Additionally, social media use was found to be associated with more positive attitudes towards political engagement, such as increased trust in government and belief in the effectiveness of political action.

V. Conclusion:

The findings of this study suggest that social media has a positive impact on political engagement, by providing new opportunities for political communication and mobilization. However, there is also a need for caution, as social media can also create filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue. Future research should continue to explore the complex relationship between social media and political engagement, and develop strategies to harness the potential benefits of social media while mitigating its potential negative effects.

Vii. References:

• Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. Yale University Press.
• Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin.
• Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
• Sunstein, C. R. (2001). Republic.com. Princeton University Press.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Format

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Research Paper Format is as follows:

• Title : A concise and informative title that accurately reflects the content of the paper.
• Abstract : A brief summary of the paper, typically no more than 250 words, that includes the purpose of the study, the methods used, the key findings, and the main conclusions.
• Introduction : An overview of the background, context, and motivation for the research, including a clear statement of the problem being addressed and the objectives of the study.
• Literature review: A critical analysis of the relevant research and scholarship on the topic, including a discussion of any gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Methodology : A detailed description of the methods used to collect and analyze data, including any experiments or simulations, data collection instruments or procedures, and statistical analyses.
• Results : A clear and concise presentation of the findings, including any relevant tables, graphs, or figures.
• Discussion : A detailed interpretation of the results, including a comparison of the findings with previous research, a discussion of the implications of the results, and any recommendations for future research.
• Conclusion : A summary of the key findings and main conclusions of the study.
• References : A list of all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to IEEE guidelines.

In addition to these elements, an IEEE research paper should also follow certain formatting guidelines, including using 12-point font, double-spaced text, and numbered headings and subheadings. Additionally, any tables, figures, or equations should be clearly labeled and referenced in the text.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) Style Research Paper Format:

• Title Page: This page includes the title of the paper, the author’s name, institutional affiliation, and any acknowledgments or disclaimers.
• Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the paper that outlines the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. It is typically limited to 250 words or less.
• Introduction: The introduction provides a background of the research problem, defines the research question, and outlines the objectives and hypotheses of the study.
• Methods: The methods section describes the research design, participants, procedures, and instruments used to collect and analyze data.
• Results: The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and charts where appropriate.
• Discussion: The discussion section interprets the results, explains their significance, and relates them to previous research in the field.
• Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main points of the paper, discusses the implications of the findings, and suggests future research directions.
• References: The reference list includes all sources cited in the paper, listed in alphabetical order by author’s last name.

In addition to these sections, the AMA format requires that authors follow specific guidelines for citing sources in the text and formatting their references. The AMA style uses a superscript number system for in-text citations and provides specific formats for different types of sources, such as books, journal articles, and websites.

Harvard Style

Harvard Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date of submission.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should outline the main points of your research and highlight your findings.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your research topic, provide background information, and outline your research question or thesis statement.
• Literature review: This section should review the relevant literature on your topic, including previous research studies, academic articles, and other sources.
• Methodology : This section should describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including any data collection methods, research instruments, and sampling techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, graphs, and other visual aids if necessary.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and relate them to the broader research question or thesis statement. You should also discuss the implications of your research and suggest areas for future study.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and provide a final statement on the significance of your research.
• References : This is a list of all the sources you cited in your paper, presented in alphabetical order by author name. Each citation should include the author’s name, the title of the source, the publication date, and other relevant information.

In addition to these sections, a Harvard Style research paper may also include a table of contents, appendices, and other supplementary materials as needed. It is important to follow the specific formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or academic institution when preparing your research paper in Harvard Style.

Vancouver Style

Vancouver Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The Vancouver citation style is commonly used in the biomedical sciences and is known for its use of numbered references. Here is a basic format for a research paper using the Vancouver citation style:

• Title page: Include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your research paper, usually no more than 250 words.
• Introduction : Provide some background information on your topic and state the purpose of your research.
• Methods : Describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including the study design, data collection, and statistical analysis.
• Results : Present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables and figures as needed.
• Discussion : Interpret your results and explain their significance. Also, discuss any limitations of your study and suggest directions for future research.
• References : List all of the sources you cited in your paper in numerical order. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the article or book, the name of the journal or publisher, the year of publication, and the page numbers.

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The American Chemical Society (ACS) Style is a citation style commonly used in chemistry and related fields. When formatting a research paper in ACS Style, here are some guidelines to follow:

• Paper Size and Margins : Use standard 8.5″ x 11″ paper with 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Font: Use a 12-point serif font (such as Times New Roman) for the main text. The title should be in bold and a larger font size.
• Title Page : The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the date of submission. The title should be centered on the page and written in bold font. The authors’ names should be centered below the title, followed by their affiliations and the date.
• Abstract : The abstract should be a brief summary of the paper, no more than 250 words. It should be on a separate page and include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the text of the abstract.
• Main Text : The main text should be organized into sections with headings that clearly indicate the content of each section. The introduction should provide background information and state the research question or hypothesis. The methods section should describe the procedures used in the study. The results section should present the findings of the study, and the discussion section should interpret the results and provide conclusions.
• References: Use the ACS Style guide to format the references cited in the paper. In-text citations should be numbered sequentially throughout the text and listed in numerical order at the end of the paper.
• Figures and Tables: Figures and tables should be numbered sequentially and referenced in the text. Each should have a descriptive caption that explains its content. Figures should be submitted in a high-quality electronic format.
• Supporting Information: Additional information such as data, graphs, and videos may be included as supporting information. This should be included in a separate file and referenced in the main text.
• Acknowledgments : Acknowledge any funding sources or individuals who contributed to the research.

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title Page: The title page of an ASA style research paper should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, and the institutional affiliation. The title should be centered and should be in title case (the first letter of each major word should be capitalized).
• Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of the paper that should appear on a separate page immediately following the title page. The abstract should be no more than 200 words in length and should summarize the main points of the paper.
• Main Body: The main body of the paper should begin on a new page following the abstract page. The paper should be double-spaced, with 1-inch margins on all sides, and should be written in 12-point Times New Roman font. The main body of the paper should include an introduction, a literature review, a methodology section, results, and a discussion.
• References : The reference section should appear on a separate page at the end of the paper. All sources cited in the paper should be listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the date of publication.
• Appendices : Appendices are optional and should only be included if they contain information that is relevant to the study but too lengthy to be included in the main body of the paper. If you include appendices, each one should be labeled with a letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) and should be referenced in the main body of the paper.

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title Page: The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, the name of the course or instructor, and the date.
• Abstract : An abstract is typically not required in APSA style papers, but if one is included, it should be brief and summarize the main points of the paper.
• Introduction : The introduction should provide an overview of the research topic, the research question, and the main argument or thesis of the paper.
• Literature Review : The literature review should summarize the existing research on the topic and provide a context for the research question.
• Methods : The methods section should describe the research methods used in the paper, including data collection and analysis.
• Results : The results section should present the findings of the research.
• Discussion : The discussion section should interpret the results and connect them back to the research question and argument.
• Conclusion : The conclusion should summarize the main findings and implications of the research.
• References : The reference list should include all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to APSA style guidelines.

In-text citations in APSA style use parenthetical citation, which includes the author’s last name, publication year, and page number(s) if applicable. For example, (Smith 2010, 25).

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Research Paper Title – Writing Guide and Example

Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and...

Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and...

Resources: Discussions and Assignments

Module 8 assignment: research paper final draft.

• Rubric. Provided by : University of Mississippi. Located at : https://hub.cwr.olemiss.edu/en/latest/alib/writing/writ102.html#rubrics . License : CC BY: Attribution

Final Research Sample

Recommended

More related content, what's hot, what's hot ( 20 ), viewers also liked, viewers also liked ( 20 ), similar to final research sample, similar to final research sample ( 20 ), more from cocolatto, more from cocolatto ( 20 ).

• 1. GEND489: Research Essay in Gender and Women's Studies. “What Effect Does Colonisation and Western Influences and Culture Have on Thai Society, Women and Organizations” Win Singphatanakul 300066606 Supervisors: Adjunct Professor Prue Hyman and Dr. Alison Laurie 1
• 2. CONTENTS 1: INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................3 2: METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................................................5 2.1). Purpose of the Study................................................................................................................5 2.2). The Nature of the Study...........................................................................................................5 2.3). What Theoretical Lens Will I Use?..........................................................................................6 3: LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................................................7 3.1). Language Barriers and Western Literature............................................................................7 4: DISCUSSION OF MY FINDINGS..................................................................................................20 4.1). Statistical Facts.....................................................................................................................20 4.2). Thai Social Norms and the West Social Norms.....................................................................22 4.3). Multinational Companies .....................................................................................................26 4.4). Socio-Economic Status..........................................................................................................29 4.5). Education...............................................................................................................................32 4.6). Western Literature on Discrimination...................................................................................35 4.7). Western Standard of Living (GDP) vs. Eastern Standard of Living (GNH).........................38 4.8). Limitation...............................................................................................................................40 5: FUTURE RESEARCH.....................................................................................................................42 6: CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................43 APPENDIX 1..........................................................................................................................................45 Table 1: Female Employment Rate................................................................................................45 Table 2: Number and Percentage of Employed Persons Aged 15 Years and Over by Industry and Sex (in millions).............................................................................................................................46 Table 3: Number of Employed Persons Over 15 Years of Age in a 1-Year Period by Sex (in millions) .........47 Table 4: Average Monthly Total Income and Current Income by Region: 2006..........................47 Table 6: Number of Male and Female Students by Educational Level for Academic Year 2000 ........................................................................................................................................................49 Table 7: Number of Employees by Level of Wages/Salary and Sex...........................................49 APPENDIX 2 ........................................................................................................................................50 Figure 1: Thai Woman Mahout (Elephant Driver). ......................................................................50 Figure 2: Gender Statistics in “The Key Statistics of Thailand 2007”.........................................51 Figure 3: The 10th National Economic and Social Development Plan for the years 2007-2011. 51 Figure 4: The Philosophy of Sufficiency Economy........................................................................52 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................53 2
• 3. 1: Introduction This study is about the position of women in Thailand. My research question addresses whether Thai women can be regarded as ‘colonised’ and whether they can legitimately be regarded as oppressed and subservient. I will argue that Western feminist theory positions itself as a universal authority, which is not always applicable to non-Western cultures and circumstances. In order to address my research question, I have conducted a small study of published reports on the economic position of Thai women, generalising from Western culture to Thai culture. I argue that the differences of language and of interpretation can mislead researchers into assuming it is a universal position for all women. My report also debates on whether the socio-economic status is a greater indicator of inequality than gender in the Thai environment. In addition, I will also argue that equality can be achieved through the ‘Gross National Happiness’ (GNH) policy. GNH is unlike the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which concentrates on capital value that does not reflect the quality and happiness of individuals. Many countries use GDP as shorthand for the well-being of a nation. However, GNH, unlike GDP, does not only consider economic growth but also consider the general happiness of people (Mustafa, 2005; Rodsuthi, 2007). There is substantial literature on the GHP policy, in particular regarding its application in Bhuatan, but it is beyond the scope of this research to discuss the Bhutan situation. Thus, I will focus my discussion on the situation in Thailand. A research objective is to look at the effect colonisation has played in South-East Asia. The culture, history and language of Thailand have been, over time, influenced 3
• 4. by neighbouring colonised countries. However, Thailand itself has escaped actual colonisation by Western powers. Thai culture and history therefore remain traditional with little influence from the West. Nevertheless, the effect of colonisation has relatively affected Thai society and shaped Thai women’s lives according to some postcolonial literature, which suggests that Thailand developed a semi-colonial status. Since there is little literature written by Thai scholars on Thailand, and with most of it written in English by Westerners, it is difficult for Thai people to understand and translate. Therefore, the effect of the English language as part of colonisation will be discussed below showing how it shapes Thai society and women’s lives in Thailand. In addition, since Western literature seems to portray Thailand as one of their colonised countries, gender issues in Thailand are also being observed through the Western theoretical lens. This research will explore the understanding of Thai women and gender issues from the Western point of view and whether their analysis is reliable or not. Furthermore, this research will look at Thai women’s participation in the workforce and analyse what causes gender discrimination in Thailand because literature on gender studies from the West emphasise gender equality through economic achievements. This research will also investigate the claim from Western scholars about the effects of colonisation, whether there is input from the substantial influences from Western culture and value in Thai society and organisations. 4
• 5. 2: Methodology This section looks at how data was obtained and includes questions related to sampling, research design and data collection methods (Cavana, Delahaye, & Sekaran, 2001). 2.1). Purpose of the Study This research will be conducted as an exploratory study because there is limited literature on the effect of colonisation on Thailand and the issue that the study is examining has been the subject of very few research projects. In addition, I am interested in exploring the situational factors so as to understand the characteristics of colonisation in a non-colonial country. For this particular study, I am trying to understand the relationship between colonisation and Thai women’s lives. I use women’s participation in the workforce in Thailand as one of the examples to answer my research question “What effect does colonisation and Western influences and culture have on Thai society, women and organizations” 2.2). The Nature of the Study The research question asks questions that involve human behaviour. Thus, I initially wanted to collect the data through interviews but due to the inevitable limited scope of an honours research paper I will not be conducting any interviews that involve human subjects. Instead, this research will be exploratory only, consisting of a literature review using secondary resources such as newspaper articles, academic articles and 5
• 6. statistical data, together with my discussion of these resources based on theoretical readings and my own experience. This material will be compared and contrasted to answer the research question. First, and foremost, articles on Thai women written by Westerners and Thai people will be discussed and compared. Statistical data will be obtained from the Thailand country report to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) available online and used as back-up evidence of the claim I will be making in the Discussion chapter. Post-colonial theory will be used to help with the analysis. The analysis and interpretation will be mainly based on my experiences as a Thai person. Thus, it is, inevitably, a subjective interpretation of the situation and literature. In order to develop my argument, it is important for me to differentiate fact from opinion. 2.3). What Theoretical Lens Will I Use? My aim is to understand the effects of colonisation in a non-colonised country. In this research, my study will be focused on Thailand. How does colonisation affect Thai women and their participation in the workforce? After gaining much information though international databases and internet, I have found that most literature is derived from European writers. Obviously, gender development and gender studies are influenced by the West. Therefore, in this research I will turn the tables around and look at how Western literature shape and influence Thai women at work and home. Post-colonial theory will be used as an analysis tool to encounter the western literature. In addition, it should be noted that in this study there are a few studies which are written in the English language that look at gender issues in Thailand from an Asian point of view. 6
• 7. 3: Literature Review 3.1). Language Barriers and Western Literature Thai is the predominant member of the Thai family of languages which includes around 60 languages spoken throughout Southeast Asia. Thai languages are difficult to place linguistically but are usually linked to either the Sino-Tibetan or Austronesian language families (Wood, 1993). Standard Thai is written in the Thai alphabet which is derived from the Indian Devanagari script, and characterized by the use of five tones, whereas English is classified as an Indo-European language and is part of the Germanic subfamily (Baugh & Cable, 2001). The English language is also believed to be constructed by dominant males, for instance, the word God usually refers to a man not a woman, because God is seen as a father figure with a strong personality, and women are viewed as inferior to men who are passive, dependent and emotional. In addition, English derogatory words used for women such as “whore” and “bitch” are often more sexualised than derogatory words for men (Penelope, 1990; Spender, 1985). English-related languages include Dutch, Flemish and the low German dialects and, more distinctly, modern German. The English language is the primary language of the majority of people who live in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and other former colonies of Britain, and in the United States. It is also an official or semi-official language of many countries with a colonial past such as India, Nigeria, Pakistan, and South Africa (Microsoft Encarta, 2007). 7
• 8. According to Said (1978) the English language in Western literature has played a major role in influencing world intellectuals and their understanding about the world. The fact is, that much feminist literature is derived from the West, and is written in Western languages. Cameron’s work (1988) suggest that these writings would not be applicable to the Thai situation - because to understand the Thai worldview on gender and sex traditions and practices, and in order to understand any country’s culture, one must first understand that country’s language (Cameron, 1998). Cameron’s research is derived from the famous controversial hypothesis which was developed by Sapir (1949) and Whorf (1976) back in the 19th century “our worldview is determined by the structures of the particular language that we happen to speak”. Authors, such as Jackson and Cook (1999), label Western feminist literature and ideas as misleading because the terms sex and gender are not applicable in the Thai language as Thai indigenous language does not differentiate between sex and gender (Thanprasertsuka et al., 2005). However, feminist western theory and languages distinguish sex and gender as a separate matter (Jackson & Cook, 1999). Professor Jumnong Thongprasirt classified the terms sex and gender into a singular matter (The Royal Institute, 2006). Discursive terms such as biological sex, gender, and sexual expressions are referred to as a single term in the Thai language. He explains the word ‘phet’ as the most problematic loanword from the Sanskrit language and it is not a clear single word that can be interpreted as either sex or gender. The official Thai language institution describes the word ‘phet’ as either a physical look or behavioural expression which distinguishes man and woman (The Royal Institute, 2006). Scholars, such as Esterik (2000) and Jackson (1999) comment that the word ‘phet’ is one of the most multivalent and polysemic words in the Thai language. In the official 8
• 9. Thai-English dictionary from the Thailand National Electronic and Computer Technology Centre (2007), ‘phet’ is a single complex meaning of sex and gender combined and quite often the word ‘phet’ usually simply means sex appearance. As a result, the international terms and concepts ‘feminist’ and ‘gender’ are difficult to translate and understood in Thai because the English term ‘gender’ is itself a loanword from the Norman Conquest-era Middle French. This, in turn, originated from Latin (The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). In the East, most of the languages are not influenced by Latin but instead by the Sanskrit language where gender and sex are hard to distinguish (Muecke, 2004). This is despite the fact that both Sanskrit and Latin are Indo-European languages as these languages and cultures developed differently between the West and the East. When comparing the literature, we can see the differences between the Thai gender/sex system and the West gender/sex system. Esterik (2000) explains that there is a clear-cut gender asymmetry and identity-based sexual polarities in Euro- American but, in Thailand, the gender system is based upon shape of the body and physiology that goes to make up the human form. Jackson and Cook (1999) believe that applying the theories and literatures from the West might not be applicable in evaluating Thai’s social phenomena because of its differences in values, beliefs, and culture. This is supported by Spivak’s research (1988) which points out that the West’s attempts at understanding the Orient from its own point of view places itself as the subject of the study rather than the Orient. In this case, the literature is not an asset but rather a deficit. As Menon (2006) explains, “the flow of books had always been from west to east – mainly from the native English-speaking world to the rest of the world, simply put, from the colonisers to the colonised”. 9
• 10. Jackson and Cook (1999) suggest that the difference between Thailand and the other countries around the region is that there are no traditions of colonial scholarship in Thailand that examine gender relations comparable to the rest of Southeast Asia. Muecke (2004) proposed that there is hardly any well-known literature on sexuality in Thailand that is inclusively authored by Thai scholars. Most of the literature is conducted by non-Thai scholars, some of whom do not speak Thai at all. On this matter, Hongladarom (1996) indicated that gender issues in Thailand cannot be understood with indigenous meanings because without the Thai community, scholars, and feminists reflecting upon themselves, Thai people would remain locked within its self-imposed ‘prison of tradition’. This is due to the fact that the Thai language has received little influence from the English language. However, Esterik (2000) has developed the term “semi-colonised” in his famous book “Materializing Thailand”. He argues that Thailand has been colonised economically from the West. He states that Thailand has created two unique myths in the field of gender studies. The first myth is that Thailand is culturally homogenous with a single language and a single religion. The second myth being there is little involvement from Western philosophers and scholars in Thailand on gender issues. On the other hand, American scholars Jackson and Cook (1999), who reside in Thailand and teach at Thai University, see Thailand as a non-colonised country. 3.2). Semi-Colonisation: Women’s Participation in the Workforce Although Thailand has always been a male dominated country, traditionally Thai men have respected women’s participation in the workforce and especially at war. As evidence has shown in 1548, Queen Suriyothai tells the epic history of a Thai woman. 10
• 11. Queen Suriyothai, who valiantly died in a battle against Burmese invaders when taking her elephant before the Burmese king. She sacrificed herself to save the life of her husband, King Chakrapat, and his kingdom. This story was also made into a film in 2001 to remind the Thai people of the Thai heroine. In comparison in the West, there was a strong feeling against such feminine militancy and on many occasions women volunteers were sent back to their homes during wars (Anonymous, 1914). However, 300 years later, patriarchal perception evidently influenced Thai society. There is evidence that King Vajiravud (1910-1926) travelled to France and brought back with him ideas on how to develop Thailand - such as improving transportation and bringing in western lifestyles. As a result, Thai women stopped chewing Betel nuts because it was seen as a non-civilised and unacceptable thing for women to do from a Western point of view. This may have been the first development of a semi- colonial status in Thailand. Scholars like Jackson (1999), Esterick (2000), and Iwananga (2005) have now resided in Thailand for some years observing and absorbing Thai gender and sex culture (an ethnographical approach). Their studies pointed out that the term ‘beauty’ has had an influenced Thai women to wear their hair longer and to dress in stylish western fashion because many countries in Europe saw Thailand as a non-civilised country where Thai women had short hair, black teeth from Betel nut chewing, and wore clothes that were not attractive according to Western standards. Although Siam was not colonised, the country nevertheless selectively borrowed from Western gender understanding. 11
• 12. Semi-colonial status was further developed in the early 1990s by a feminist movement in Thailand when Thai women who were educated overseas began showing their influence through political parties and education (Esterick, 2000). Their understanding of gender equality was largely due to the Western tertiary education system (Somswasdi, 2003). During that time, the government began to pay more attention to women’s rights issues. Thus, in 1994, the National Statistics Office in Thailand released its first report on women’s participation in the workforce to raise issues of gender differences in an aim to reduce gender and sex bias because of mounting pressure arising from the movement. It was stated in the report that women's contribution to the national socio-economic development is crucial for Thai society (Thailand National Statistics Office, 1996-1998). However, the latest report from Social Statistics Division (2000) describes the failure of women’s participation in the workforce from 1994 to 1998 as ineffective and a waste of money, because people are not aware of gender issues in Thailand. The feminist movement in Europe and America in the late twentieth century had created a significant change in Western society. Second-wave feminists were concerned with gaining full social and economic equality, having already gained some of the important legal equality (voting, for example) in most western nations in the late twentieth century (Smith, 1999). Somswasdi (2003), a Thai woman scholar who graduated from Yale University, stated that the movement was ineffective in Thailand because self-directed assertive Thai women did not see the value of gender equality or women’s equality and did not associate themselves with the movement. Muechke (2004) explains that Thai women 12
• 13. found feminist movements from the West overly academic and obsessed with Western views and image. Iwanaga (2005) states that the most explicit feminist movement occurred when Thailand reformed its constitution and called it “The People’s Constitution”. It provided a significant enabling framework for gender rights. This constitution aimed to bring equal employment opportunities to men and women, as well as enhance women’s equality and equity in the workforce. The positive outcome of this constitution is evident in the The Globalist (2006) research which highlights Thailand has one of the highest rates of female labour force participation in East Asia at 65.1 percent. The country ranks are well ahead of any other Asian nations such as the Philippines (50.2 percent), South Korea (49.9 percent), and Japan (48.2 percent). Nevertheless, the number of women participants in the workforce should not be the only gender equality measurement per se. As Siengthai and Leelakulthanit (1994) pointed out, by considering only the rate of participation by women in the workforce, it would be suggested that Thailand does not discriminate against women. Nor is it suggested that managerial denial of gender discrimination does not exist, for indeed it does. This is supported by Somswasdi’s (2003) research which indicates Thai women might be able to enjoy equal opportunities in entering the workforce but still find it hard to gain equal access to a good salary as do men in Thailand, and women’s sexuality continues to be under the control of men. This is confirmed by statistical data from Thailand National Statistics Office (1996-1998) which show that women are largely employed in subordinate roles such as administration, reception, and accountancy. 13
• 14. Furthermore, there are more Thai women working in rural areas due to high seasonal demand in agriculture who still account for a very small part of the total employment in the areas of administrative, executive, or managerial positions (Thailand National Statistics Office, 1996-1998). Thus, serious gender-based inequalities persist in Thailand and the role of women participation in the labour force should be accountable in gender equity and equality issues. The gender equality issues become much clearer in the late twentieth century, when more Western multinational companies began to trade goods and invest in Thailand, and specific research by Tzeng (2006) points out that Western companies have played a major role in creating gender inequality in the country offices. They create labour positioning and a pay gap between men and women. Several studies (Cheng & Liao, 1993; International Labour Organization, 1998; Jacobs, 1995) note that statistics for female managers in most countries have inflated and, in Asia, gender inequality appears to be a much greater issue than in most other Western countries. This is because Asian women are seen as indirect, unable to cope with pressure, and inferior to European women. These suggestions are confirmed by Thailand National Statistics Office (2007) showed that Thai women are still seen as inferior especially in the labour force in both the public and private sectors. Tzeng’s (2006) and Iwanaga’s research (2005) explain that gender inequality happens in multinational companies’ offices, because multinational companies overlook the power of Asian women, as they judge Asian women according to local norms, that is, as weak and unprofessional in female behaviour. In addition, Korabik’s research (1993) in “Managerial Women in the PRC" and Giacobbe-Miller, Miller and Zhang 14
• 15. (1997) in “Equity, Equality and Need as Determinant of Pay Allocations” show that international organizations are advantaged by employing young, highly-replaceable female labour in short-term positions with few opportunities, and has often used the observance of cultural and social norms for its defence. For instance, businesses may argue that they are unable to provide promotional prospects for women because, to do so, would require women completing after-hours training which, in turn, would impinge on social expectations of the women’s primary responsibility to family and community (Stockman, Banney, & Xuemen, 1995). A substantial amount of Western literature also refers to women’s primary responsibility as non-paid work. They show that gender-based inequalities happen because married women or women with partners are being encouraged to enter into non-economic characteristics such as participating in housework and childrearing (G.- S. Lim & Ng, 1998; Torr, 2005). A similar suggestion is expressed in the Women’s Empowerment and Reproductive Health Research (1999) throughout the world women continue to bear primary responsibility for childcare and housework. This unpaid work remains economically invisible. Furthermore, apart from being a housewife completing household chores, married women are constrained by the mothering role (Hock, Morgan, & Hock, 1985). This is supported by the Inglehart and Norris research (2002) which shows that throughout history, women, in virtually all societies, have had their life options restricted to the roles of wife and mother. The impact of the mothering role, pregnancy and care for young children also impede women’s opportunities for employment (Women’s empowerment and reproductive health, 1999). Appelbaum 15
• 16. (1981) and Sorensen (1983) identified patterns of difficulty in women’s labour force participation. Both agreed that married women tend to quit their jobs because they have no time outside the house as they are obliged to manage the household and look after children. Dex (1987) concurs that women experience different work patterns from men and have less time to complete their work and less energy. The latest research also suggests that it is common in many societies for the proportion of women participants in the workforce to be lower than men, especially married women, even though the married women labour force has increased over the last 50 years (Engemann & Owyang, 2005). 3.3). Post Colonial Theory Back in 1978, Edward W. Said suggested that the Orient’s way of life had been influenced by Europe where materialism is central to the way of life. Colonisers did not try to understand the Orient and integrated their education, language, colonial bureaucracies and colonial styles explicitly into the Oriental way of life. A similar perspective is expressed by Slemon (1994), suggesting that the Western theories created the Eastern culture and continue to create complexity into the society in a subjective way. Alan Bishop (1995) describes the Orient culture as a Western construction, like mathematical ideas that are humanly constructed. He further explains that mathematical ideas from the West have become universal and superior over any indigenous mathematical systems and culture. As well as the English language, the production of the West and colonialism has overpowered many indigenous languages around the world (Smith, 1999). Pennycook (1999) explains in his book, “English and the Discourses of Colonialism”, that Europeans use the English language as a force to promote and exercise its power and culture in colonised 16
• 17. countries, meaning the language helps to spread European knowledge to the colonial creating an obedient workforce for colonial capitalism. Similarly, Smith (1999) further describes colonialism as not only meant for the imposition of Western authority over indigenous lands, law, government and indigenous modes of production, but for the imposition of Western authority over all aspects of indigenous knowledge, languages, and cultures. Bushra Shahid (2005) expresses that not only colonial countries are forced to learn and use English, but countries in Asia require the English language as an important tool for social mobility. Many scholars such as Penelope (1990) and Spender (1985) believe that languages such as English, not only represent the Western worldview but, more significantly, a male worldview. It also renders women invisible. The famous studies on the Subaltern by Spivek (1988) revealed that the white male worldview is seen as a production of colonization where the white European male has power in politics, sciences, and education. She suggests that the colonised subaltern has no history and cannot speak, and, of course, the Subaltern as female is even more deeply embedded in shadow. Annette Hamilton (2002), professor of Anthropology at Macquarie University, stresses there is a need to develop different types of theories underpinning sexuality and gender studies for the West because post-colonial theory is created through a referential world rooted outside Thailand which does not represent indigenous Thai society (Jackson & Cook, 1999; Muecke, 2004). The West aims at creating a greater awareness of one’s own culture (Bishop, 1995)and the only way that they can implement it is through their power, domination, and varying degrees of a complex hegemony (Said, 1978, p. 89). Besides, contemporary feminist research concentrates 17
• 18. on women, not gender, and that creates an assumption that fails to promote feminists’ intellectual, political agenda and employment opportunities, because it falls short in examining women’s experiences and contrasting them with those of men (Peletz, 1995). In addition, the idea of gender equality from the West is to achieve through economic opportunity (capitalism). According to Said (1978, p.87), “the Orient is an integral part of European material civilisation and culture.” Said’s suggestion is supported by Slemon (1994) who expressed that the Occident sees materialism as important, because the nature of the Occident, or the West, is an economy of cross-cultural domination. The idea of gender equality as linked only to capitalist achievement and the possession of money can clearly be seen in today’s world where post-industrial society has given, primarily, opportunities to women to compete in the economic race (Inglehart & Norris, 2002). Materialism and money transforms women’s lives dramatically and it is argued, will move them from narrow subordination towards full equality. This contradicts the Buddhism philosophy where materialism is seen as sin. This argument is supported by Inglehart and Norris (2002) saying that “during the late twentieth century, the shift from survival to self-expression values, and from religious to secular values, has accelerated throughout advanced industrial societies” (chapter 7, p.3), and that includes Thailand. 18
• 19. Although Thailand has never been colonised, it has undoubtedly been affected by what Semali and Kincheloe (1999) refers to as Western cultural diseases. “Regardless of what area of the world it is found in, indigenous knowledge has been produced by people facing diseases brought by European cultures, attempts at genocide, cultural assimilation and education as a colonial tool” (p.32). 19
• 20. 4: Discussion of my Findings The literature suggest that few studies on gender development in Thailand have been conducted. Very few scholars pay attention to researching gender issues in Thailand. As Yukongdi (2005) points out, there is a scarcity of empirical research examining women in management in Thailand, and as much of the literature was conducted in the 1980s and 1990s, it is now out of date. Nevertheless, some literature states that European influences have affected all Asian countries to some extent. This is because European colonialism covered a large portion of Southeast Asian history, and for a long time dominated economic relations in the South East Asia region (Constance, 2007). Thus, though Thailand has never been colonised, economic relationships from the West have influenced Thai society. In this chapter, I will apply the framework from Fagenson (1993) which suggests that in order to understand the experiences, actions, and the status of women, several analysis levels are mandatory, such as individual, organizational, and social norms. Therefore, I will explore the nature of Thai women’s employment conditions, the relationship between multinational companies and female workers, the quality of women’s lives between women who work in multinational companies and women who work in rural areas, and the expected appropriate behaviours of women and men in Thailand. 4.1). Statistical Facts A significant part of the success of Thailand's economic development can be attributed to work completed by women according to UNIFEM (2000). The Thai National Statistics Office (2007) has revealed that 63.2% of Thai women participated 20
• 21. in the workforce in 2006 (see Table 1). Out of 35.4 million people in the labour force in 2007, based on the January survey, 16.7 million or 47 percent were women, with 5.5 million women or around 34 percent of women’s employment in agriculture, and 10.7 million women employed outside the agriculture field in manufacturing and services (see Table 2). Participation rates of 63.2% may be the highest in South-East Asia and it may be legitimate to say that the equality issue in Thailand is well developed. Yet, there is no indication from the latest survey from the National Statistics Office Thailand (2007) that, out of 63% of women, how many of them have senior or management jobs in the 1 workforce . This type of statistic is extremely critical because the proportion of women in higher status positions is a key indicator of equity (Appold, Siengthai, & D.Kasarda, 1998). Research conducted by Lim (1990) and Salaff (1990) in South-East Asia has shown that Thailand’s economic growth is due, to a large extent, on its ability to mobilise women’s labour into low skills tasks, with women’s status possibly even declining with development. This is supported by the recent report from The World Bank (2007) in “Thailand Economic Monitor: April 2007” which indicates that total exports topped US$130 billion in 2006, with exports of agriculture and machinery manufacturers growing robustly. This evidence has shown that two-thirds of Thailand’s GDP comes from agriculture where low-skill employment, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade are combined. Unfortunately, agricultural work is largely 2 done by women according to UNIFEM studies (2000) and have gone unnoticed, 1 http://web.nso.go.th/eng/en/stat/lfs_e/lfse.htm 2 http://www.unifem-eseasia.org/resources/others/gendev/sectionb2.htm 21
• 22. because people who make up this large economic section of the population still live sub-standardly with little money. It is quite common that women in rural Thailand work hard on the farm to raise money for the family. Statistics from UNIFEM Asian Regional office in Gender and Development in Thailand (2000) show that there are very high rates of approximately 75 percent workforce participation by women who work in rural areas in Thailand due to high seasonal demands in agriculture. 3 On the other hand, the Synovate research has shown that 22.2 percent out of 100% of women’s participation in the workforce of Thai women are employed in administrative and management occupations. Only 6.38% of women are in senior management positions and, unsurprisingly, 8.8% are in middle-management roles (see Table 3), (Siripunyawit, 2007). Despite the low percentage of women’s participation in high status employment in Thailand which are due to social and cultural conditions, it would seem to be against such achievements. Katherine Hutchings, a lecturer at Queensland University of Technology, disagrees. She indicates that Thailand has developed a system through its traditional culture allowing women to receive the same employment levels, promotion prospects and a share of economic wealth as their male counterparts (Hutchings, 2000). 4.2). Thai Social Norms and the West Social Norms Some studies suggest that Thai women have fared much better in opportunities in the workforce than other countries in the South East Asia region. In Malaysia and the 3 Synovate Co has been established in Thailand for 16 years as a research consulting specialist and employ 138 staff. It has offices worldwide, in 52 countries 22
• 23. Philippines, the women’s main responsibility is to stay at home due to their religious beliefs and social norms (Horton, 1996). In addition, in Indonesia, women are protected by law so they do not have to work at night or in positions that are dangerous to their ethics (Batubara, 1991; Stockman et al., 1995). Such constraints do not affect Thailand, which means that Thai women have the freedom to receive training, work at night, and do much the same work as men (Batubara, 1991; Stockman et al., 1995). Although Thailand does not have a law to promote gender equality similar to laws in the West, substantial literature suggest that its either because there is little awareness of gender discrimination issues in Thailand in the mindset of Thai people (Hutchings, 2000) or it may be the case that such regulations exist in those countries because gender discrimination exists there to a high degree (Jackson & Cook, 1999). I am not arguing that gender discrimination does not exist at all in Thailand, but it is interesting to consider why Thailand does not have any regulations of this kind to prevent discrimination. Moreover, it appears that the majority of Thai people do not seem overly concerned about discrimination issues, at least as is evidenced in the focus of official records and statistics. There is a lack of organised campaigns to raise the awareness of gender discrimination which may suggest that Thai women perhaps feel content with the laws and social norms that exist in the society and do not consider it to be discrimination (Yukongdi, 2005). One possible explanation is that men and women appear to treat each other with consideration and respect in Thailand which is probably due to the strong relationship between Buddhism and Thai society. Nearly 95% of Thailand's population practice 23
• 24. 4 and believe in Buddhism . There is no doubting the influence of religion on understanding the present position of women in Thailand according to Yukongdi (2005). Buddhism teaches that all people should be treated as equals, in other words, to walk the middle line. Kohn (1991) indicates that Thai people tend to follow the 5 “middle way or middle path ” which effectively prevents most extremism. This is unlike other religions such as Islam and Christianity where the status of women is suppressed by men. Although a study of the Bible and Koran are beyond the scope of this essay, there are some statements made in the Judeo-Christian Bible and the Koran which distinguish men and women explicitly and unfavourably, such as the Adam and Eve creation story and the proscriptions on women’s dress. This is the difference between Thailand and other countries where feminism seems focused on individual pursuits and confrontation. Influence in Thailand from colonisation is not as strong as in other colonised countries because of this very important aspect, religion. Influence from the West, such as other religious beliefs and gender values, clearly distinguish men and women, for example, religions of the Middle East, Judeo-Christianity, and Islam. This appears to have had little popular effect in Thailand. This view is supported by Boon (2003), who is a Managing Director at Global TMC International Management Training and Consulting. She points out that Thai society is not a male dominated preserve society, rather it’s an equal society, unlike the dominant prevalent male in European countries who create obvious inequality. 4 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html 5 In Theravada Buddhism, the Middle Way crystallizes the Buddha's Nirvana-bound path of moderation away from the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification and towards the practice of wisdom, morality and mental cultivation (Kohn, 1991). 24
• 25. Historic evidence has shown that Thai women performed what could be regarded as exclusively male tasks, such as women elephant drivers (see Figure 1) and women managers. Alec Gordon and Napat Sirisambhand (2002) point out that Thai women were in charge of time management and the recruiting process on a painting in a temple during 1770-1780. This shows that Thai women were performing male tasks at least since the 1770s. However, some literature on Thai women does not offer any insightful evidence. Much of the Western literature and European people appear to believe that Thai woman are primarily responsible for non-paid work such as being a housewife compared to Western practices (G.-S. Lim & Ng, 1998; Torr, 2005). They based their analysis on their generic and universal understanding of gender development based on Western culture. Gender discrimination appears to have existed in the West for many centuries. The word “feminist” or “feminism” was used in France in 1880s, Great Britain in the 1890s, and the United States in 1910. The feminist movement arose in the 19th century to remedy the worst excesses of this discrimination. The first feminist movement, the Suffragettes, (the first wave), happened during early 19th century through to the early 20th century. During the 1970s and 1980s, second wave feminism dealt with the inequality of laws, as well as cultural inequalities. The third wave of feminism (1990s-current) is seen as both a continuation and a response to the perceived failures of the second-wave (Charlotte, 2000). In addition, evidence from Western literature emphasises equal employment opportunities, gender equity and equality and has argued that European women are 25
• 26. under the suppression of men. However, I do not think that this assumption can be extended to Thailand due to the differences in religious values and lifestyle. For this reason, the Western concept and meaning of discrimination from the West can be argued as irrelevant in Thailand (Yukongdi, 2005). The word “discrimination” itself does not have an equivalent to the Thai language and currently there is no legal definition of discrimination. Substantial literature (Jackson & Cook, 1999; Thanprasertsuka et al., 2005) also agrees that the gender concept in Thailand is hard to define. This may partly explain why there is little involvement in the feminist movement and gender development in Thailand, because in the mindset of many Thai people there is no discrimination in society and organisational practices. Perhaps that is the reason why there are few studies on Thai gender development, especially from domestic scholars. 4.3). Multinational Companies I have revealed that some of the research has indicated that within Thai firms, 30% of Thai women are employed in a senior management role without having any anti- discrimination regulations (Appold et al., 1998). On the other hand, in Europe and the U.S., there are several programmes designed to help women compete with men in organisations, such as positive assertiveness and management trainee programmes to encourage women to stand up for themselves. One of the main factors could be that European women are more likely to be stereotyped in organisations, thus they make themselves “invisible” by allowing men to see them as a non-potential leader (Boon, 2003; Goffee & Jones, 2001). 26
• 27. From this, one can deduce that gender discrimination in the workforce in Europe is clearly defined and in need of attention. The term “Glass Ceiling” is commonly used in Western literature and government reports when women experience a barrier from promotion and recognition (International Labour Office, 2004). Anti-discrimination programmes and support groups for women is, therefore, essential because it creates an awareness of discrimination in Western society. It creates and provides positive policies and benefits to women such as paid maternity leave, equal employment opportunities, childcare and so forth. When multinational companies invest in South East Asia, literature suggests that they usually bring with them their own set of values and impose their equity policies to promote the recruitment and promotion of women in the South East Asia Region (Boon, 2003). However, the findings from Coyle and Kwong (2000) contradicts some of the literature’s suggestions. The findings state that multinational organisations based in Thailand do not provide training for women or adopt the equal employment opportunity practice. Many of them do not have formal policies relating to equal employment opportunities and anti-discrimination programmes. One might ask why that is? The answer, based on Thai culture, history, and literature, is that Thai society and gender discrimination does not co-exist. As I have discussed before in the previous chapters, the word discrimination is relatively new or does not exist in Thai society. Gender and sex have the same definition in the Thai language, and social class seems to be far more important than gender differences (Hutchings, 2000). All these factors affect multinational organisational structures and operations that are based in 27
• 28. Thailand. They need to apply different methods to fit in with Thai society. For example, research from Manusphaibool (1993) indicates that multinational organisations in Thailand do not employ men just because they are men; rather they base their selection on seniority, experience, education, knowledge, hard work and reliability. According to this research, if women show less interest in gaining a promotion they will be treated differently. Researchers have argued that this is, therefore, not discrimination, rather it is a rational judgement based on the quality and usefulness of that person to the organisation (Susan & Leonard, 2001). What happens when women have children in the workforce? The laws do not make their life any easier like the West laws do for their women. Multinational organisations in Thailand expect women to have support at home during the time of raising children. This is because it is common for married women with children to seek assistance from parents and relatives in Thailand, thus having children is not the key determinant of a woman’s career prospects (Siengthai & Leelakulthanit, 1994). Social networks are therefore vital in Thai society. If they would receive support from family and relatives, Thai women are more likely to be successful in an organisation in Thailand. If not, they will need to take full-time leave, leaving them with little promotion opportunity, thus showing she cannot fully commit herself to the company (Boon, 2003). The situation is different in New Zealand. New Zealand society does not expect new parents to receive as much help from family networks as working people in Thailand. Therefore, there are needs for substantial benefits such as longer maternity leave period for new mothers to be able to take care of their own children by themselves. 28
• 29. From my point of view, those regulations are there to reduce the sense of inequality and are there to help women enter the workforce. For that reason, gender discrimination in the West can be categorised by looking at the legal system and its regulations. Evidently, influence from Western organisations does not have a significant impact on the social norms and overall organisational structure in Thailand. 4.4). Socio-Economic Status In the previous chapter, I discussed the fact that gender discrimination ideas and concepts are hard to define in Thai society and how international companies comply with Thai culture. So what is it that stops Thai women from achieving the same economic success as men if it is not the gender issue? Literature during the 1970s to the 1990s describes Thai women as supportive and subservient to men (Sukumolnant, 1989) and became the stereotype of Thai women. However, when there was a rapid expansion due to an economic boom in the early 1990s, there was a high demand in the job market. Thai women have experienced better opportunities in employment since then. Research by Appold, Siengthai and Kasarda (1998) showed that women accounted for 30 percent in senior management roles within Thai firms which had two or three times as many women in upper management than in Japan and the U.S. This research indicates that either Thai women are not oppressed in employment as are Japanese or American women, or that they are better educated than many Thai men and therefore recruited into managerial positions. 29
• 30. Many scholars argue that gender does not determine opportunities of individuals in Thai society - what does determine opportunities in Thailand is class (Boon, 2003; Dunn & Sheehan, 1993; Hutchings, 2000). Women who have a higher socio- economic status and are close to family members are believed to experience a much better opportunity in pursuing their careers and achieving high status occupations. Furthermore, the close relationship within a Thai family household is one of the factors that help Thai women compete in the workforce. However, this only applies to women who have middle to high socio-economic status. For example, a family that has some money put aside are able to give their children a good education. These women usually leave their children with their grandparents to look after. This is quite common for women who are from a middle socio-economic class. In addition, women who come from a high socio-economic or a middle socio- economic status tend to receive more support than a woman from a low socio- economic class and usually employ babysitters to help out with their children and a housecleaner (Hutchings, 2000). This, in return, allows them to compete in the workforce the same as their male counterparts (Sheehan, 1995). This is largely due to expectations from their husbands and families, in that it is expected that women will go back to work and remain in the workforce after having children (Boon, 2003) and the affordable babysitting cost in Thailand. A recent survey from Synovate Company shows that today, only 17% of Thai women are housewives while more than half of them are employed in full-time jobs. Only 4% hold part-time positions (Siripunyawit, 2007). 30
• 31. In Thailand, there are at least a million illegal immigrants from its poorer neighbours Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam. These people do not receive a good education and have no professional skills. They are mostly employed in the service sector, caregivers, babysitters, and in manufacturing with little salary. The report from the Thai labour campaign in 2001 showed that immigrant workers get paid around 60-80 baths (NZ$3) per day which is 50% less than the minimum wage (Yimprasert & Hummel, 2001). This is an example of the cheapness of immigrant labour, and how Thai society exploits people for the benefit of Thai citizens. Since an average income in New Zealand is relatively high, the cost for a babysitter and housecleaner is not cheap. Therefore, it is not possible for New Zealanders to find cheap housecleaners or babysitters because the minimum wage makes it quite expensive for many people to pay for such help. That being the case, it forces many New Zealand women to look after their house and children on their own. It constrains New Zealand women from having a life outside the house. My experience with my own child in New Zealand forces me to extend my studies for a longer period of time and the need for my partner to work part-time. This is mainly due to the high cost of a babysitter. I have tried to search for a housecleaner and babysitter here in New Zealand. Not surprisingly, I have not been able to find academic articles on this topic. It may be possible that there are illegal immigrants doing this type of work, as is the case in the United States and Thailand, for low salaries. However, since New Zealand is an island, it is more difficult for illegal immigrants from poor countries such as Burma, Laos, Philippines, and Cambodian to work in New Zealand. On the other hand, whether there are illegal migrants in New 31
• 32. Zealand from the Pacific Islands working as babysitters and housekeepers is beyond this paper to examine. Socio-economic status is perhaps a more important factor than gender in Thailand. It determines opportunities in education and work prospects for both Thai men and women. This is because people in a low socio-economic status in Thailand still face difficulties in employment and promotion because of their work at home and the responsibility of looking after their children. Unfortunately, the gap between the rich and the poor in Thailand is relatively large (see Table 4) due to the starting salary (Siengthai & Leelakulthanit, 1994). For clerical staff it is 10 times less than a manager’s salary compared to other countries such as South Korea, Australia and New Zealand where managers are paid three times more the earnings of their clerical staff (Anonymous, 2007). The majority of Thai women are in a socio-economic status where household chores can clearly be seen as women’s main responsibility (Yukongdi, 2005) due to their economic status, not their gender. Nevertheless, although I propose that socio-economic class is more important than gender, there is a relationship between the two factors which needs to be examined in future research. This is because I cannot deny the fact that both gender and class are factors in discrimination. 4.5). Education In the previous chapter, I explored the significance of social class which plays a role in employment opportunities. This, in turn, gives access to education which is not available for the majority of Thai people. A study from Cruz-Siy (1989) showed that 32
• 33. women who receive an education from overseas, especially from the U.S. and England are often employed in senior management positions in Thailand. However, many Thai women do not have such access. This is purely based on socio-economic status not gender because, after 1997 when the CEDAW report came out, Thailand allowed women and men to have equal opportunities in every institution including the military and police that used to be exclusive to men. This also enhanced women’s opportunities to study the subjects that used to be only within the male domain. The recent report shows that Thai women are interested in studying computing and management (see Table 5) more than their male counterparts. Subjects that used to be male orientated no longer reflect huge differences. The public tertiary education system in Thailand is relatively cheap with a wide range of scholarships and allowances, as about 25% of national budget goes towards the education system (Ziderman, 2003); compared to a relatively high cost of tertiary education in New Zealand where student debt is over NS$7 billion dollars (Fitzsimons, 2004). This indicates that the Thailand public universities and the government aid both Thai men and women to experience equal opportunities to gain the education that they want (Asian Development Bank, 1998). Thai women who are lower down on the economic scale can still find themselves studying in higher education at the University and in vocational education. Statistics also show there is a higher rate of female graduates than male graduates except in Doctoral degrees (see Table 6). Furthermore, in CEDAW’s (2007) report it indicates that there are more women receiving scholarships than men, which goes to show the equality of access in Thai education. 33
• 34. After completing their studies in Thailand people will have very little debt and interest to pay off, because the payback system is spread over 15 years after graduation with 1 percent interest (Ziderman, 2003), which means people can begin saving straight away. Although the New Zealand student loan system allows interest- free for students while they study, they have to start paying this amount off when they begin earning over a certain amount in their place of employment. However, the relatively high tertiary educational fees force students to work more years to pay off their debt. One of the researcher’s friends has a debt of NZ$40,000 dollars and that it will take him at least 5-8 years to clear. The Green Party Education’s spokesperson, Metiria Turei (2007), indicated that “We cannot have a sustainable economy when young people enter into the workforce with a collective debt of $9 billion. The long term impacts are beginning to be felt, with many graduates unable to purchase a house till much later in their working careers. Many are even avoiding having families because they start their adult lives with such an enormous debt burden.” As a Thai person, I think that the education system in Thailand has not yet been influenced by capitalist ideas from the West, at least for now, and it is open to everyone. Furthermore, close family networks in Thailand help young women to enjoy the opportunity to concentrate on their study and work, for example, the parents usually pay for their children tuition fees and according to the loan system, it does not matter if your parents’ income is high, Thai people can still apply for the loan (Ziderman, 2003), whereas many women in the West do not have the same social support networks (Hutchings, 2000). 34
• 35. Nevertheless, as mentioned above, women who gain a higher education from overseas tend to enjoy a better occupation overall. This may be because multinational companies and Thai firms highly value Western education and the English language and it becomes an important aspect for an executive position. Therefore, many of the private universities in Thailand offer international tertiary curriculum using English as the main teaching language. This allows women who are from a middle socio- economic status to be able to achieve an education which is equivalent to overseas. International universities are clearly the result of multinational companies that require an employee to be able to communicate in English. 4.6). Western Literature on Discrimination I have used a Thai theoretical lens to analyse the gender issues in Thailand from the beginning of this report and, in order to understand gender difficulties in Thailand, I will use a Western theoretical approach in this chapter to analyse gender issues in Thailand. By using the Western approach and finding the number of regulations that promote women, women’s employment rates, and the salary gap approaching on Thai gender issues, this would indicate that there is a high rate of gender discrimination in Thailand. New Zealand is considered a Western country as it was colonised by the British and many European immigrants arrived in the country centuries ago. If we take a look at New Zealand laws and regulations, we will notice that gender equality issues are very sensitive. For example, there are several laws that strive to promote gender equality such as Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO), the Civil Union Bill, and anti- discrimination laws. 35
• 36. Statistics are also important, because statistics are the most reliable hard data that are 6 tangible and legitimate to make a claim. According to Bascand (2007) , statistics are collected and studied because they are an indicator of people’s well-being and whether or not there should be a change in policy to make a better society. Statistics New Zealand (2005) has a specific report on women called “Focusing on Women” which looks at the demographic, social and economic characteristics of women in New Zealand. The report provides an overview of the changing status of New Zealand women. This report is comprehensive, ranging from how much time goes into unpaid work, the type of unpaid work that people do and how this varies for different groups. In contrast, the Thailand statistics department only issued a particular gender statistic report during the period of 1996-1998 which can be retrieved from their official 7 website (Social Statistics Division, 2001) . The lack of information on important statistics such as how many women work at home, what type of work they do, and what type of unpaid jobs they are doing are not included in the Key Statistics of Thailand in 2007. The report is created by the Thailand National Statistics Office (2007) and aims to collect important statistical data which are related to economics, society and environment. One section is dedicated to gender statistics. However, there are only three statistical tables (see Figure 2). They are a percentage of population by labour force status, population of migrants by sex, and population of people 15 years and over who desire to develop by education. Some of the statistics that should have been under the Gender Statistics section are randomly allocated in 6 Statistics New Zealand (2005). Focusing on Women 2005. Wellington. http://www.stats.govt.nz/about-us/who-we-are/government-statistician.htm 7 http://web.nso.go.th/eng/en/stat/gender/gender.htm 36
• 37. the report. If I simply compare Thai statistics to New Zealand statistics, one can argue that Thailand does not place much emphasis on women; therefore, gender discrimination is obvious. Seen from the Western point of view, I would agree. Said (1978) argues that materialism is integrated into Western society where everyone is trying to dominate through economic wealth. Therefore, when women earn less than men, discrimination issues in the workforce can be targeted. It should be noted that women tend to earn less than men around the globe, on average about three- fourths of wages received by males for the same work in both developed and developing countries (Boon, 2003). This also applies to Thailand where the proportion of women earning high wages is less than men, about three-fourths of the pay, while the proportion of women earning low salary is higher than that of men (see Table 7) (The Government of Thailand, 2006). In this case, Thailand can be seen as a gender discriminated country because women earn less than men, but where in the world do women earn more than men? There is no doubt that there is high concern for gender inequality issues in Thailand if we base it on the Western theoretical approach. However, it is not applicable to base the analysis on whether there is gender discrimination or not on numbers, especially the employment rate and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rate. Employment rate could be one of the indicators of gender discrimination in the West because of its materialism and capitalism culture. Although capitalism stabilises the economy in many developed countries, there are various side-effects such as instability, income disparity, economic inequality and environmental impacts, with the most critical one, economic inequality in poor countries (Tanomsup, 2006). The 1996 economic crisis 37
• 38. in South-East Asia, especially in Thailand, is a prime example of how capitalism creates instability and chaos in society (Hewison, 1999). Wealth became a priority. Thai people became selfish and their main purpose in life contradicted Buddhism philosophy (Bangprapa, 2005). 4.7). Western Standard of Living (GDP) vs. Eastern Standard of Living (GNH) While capitalism takes over Thai people’s lives, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measurement becomes the indicator of how well the country is doing so the previous Thai Government took the GDP onboard to measure the standard of living in the country (Kittiampon, 2007). GDP was widely used in Europe in the early 1950s but was not recognised internationally until 1993 when it was first introduced in the System of National Accounts to the International Monetary Fund, European Union, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations and World Bank (United Nations Statistics Division, 1993) to set an international standard on GDP. These organisations are mainly organized by the developed countries mainly from the West. GDP per capita is often used as an indicator of standard of living in an economy when it was first introduced. GDP is being used in almost every country in the world allowing for simple comparisons between the standard of living giving the world confidence that comparisons are being measured in each country (Hicks, 1997). However, the major disadvantage of using GDP as an indicator of the standard of living is that it is not a measure of the standard of living and does not reflect the happiness of the people, the equality amongst its people, and the quality in society due to its assumption that the standard of living tends to increase when GDP per capita 38
• 39. increases (Bergh, 2007). Nothing about the definition of GDP suggests that it is necessarily a measure of the standard of living. For instance, in an extreme example, a country which exported 100 per cent of its production and imported nothing would still have a high GDP, but a very poor standard of living (Summers & Heston, 1995). Feminist sociologists such as Marilyn Waring criticise GDP because there is no imputation made in the accounts for the economic value of unpaid housework or for unpaid voluntary labour (Marilyn, 1988). This obscures the reality that market production depends, to a large extent, on non-market labour being performed. In contrast, the ‘Gross National Happiness’ (GNH) was first introduced in Bhutan by His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck. It is largely influenced by Buddhist philosophy that the ultimate purpose of life is inner happiness (The Centre of Bhutan Studies, 2004). Thailand took the GNH idea from Bhutan and included it in The 10th National Economic and Social Development Plan for the years 2007-2011 (see Figure 3) of Thailand. The plan aimed to encounter capitalism and GDP measurement, create social harmony or “a green and happy society” (Thailand Investment Review, 2007) and to define quality of life in more holistic terms than Gross National Product (Kittiampon, 2007). Five strategies were developed. The first strategy looked at social conditions and human development through improved education and health care, morals and ethics, as well as the safety of the individual and of property. The second strategy was to develop a strong community. The third strategy dealt with the national economy. The fourth strategy focused on environmental issues, and the last strategy aimed to develop good governance (Thailand Investment Review, 2007). 39
• 40. Evidently, national economic development is not the main priority of this national plan. Happiness of the people of Thailand is not based on how much money they have. Richard Easterlin, economics professor at the University of Southern California also agreed that people have been misled to believe that if they are consuming more apples and buying more cars they will be happier than someone who does not consume as many apples or have as many cars as they have (Mustafa, 2005). This is also a Buddhist psyche which teaches people that happiness is contentment. People should be happy with what they have. As a little Bhutanese girl explained, “If you know you are happy with your own limitations, that is basic happiness” (Sherr, 2005). The first two strategies deal directly with happiness in a family unit, the happiness within society, the quality of lives, good social networks, good education, the sense of happiness in society, harmony in society, satisfaction with personal relationships, employment, and meaning and purpose in life. These factors have a weak relationship to capitalism and materialistic values (Thailand Investment Review, 2007). The GNH policy aims to eliminate ego, corruption, depression, and competition that create tension within society, by promoting what is called the “sufficient economy” (see Figure 4) to solve inequalities and unhappiness and ways to combat new forms of inequality (Tanomsup, 2006). 4.8). Limitation This research only uses secondary resources to conduct the analysis, thus there is a need for further research to conduct an intensive interview to prove the research findings. In addition, the literature on Thai gender is limited and mainly written by foreign scholars who do not understand the sensitive and unique culture in Thailand. As a result, several theories and findings from Western literature cannot be applied in 40
• 41. Thai settings. The statistics data from the recent Thailand National Statistics report (2007) are not comprehensive enough nor up-to-date to generate reliable findings and results. Significantly, there is a limited time to conduct this study, which may have influenced the result. Furthermore, I am Thai, it is my understanding that gender discrimination does not exist in Thailand in the same way as in the West. Based on my experience as a scholar studying in New Zealand, I am not able to express the meaning of gender and gender discrimination in the Thai language. I found that ideas about gender are easier to explain in English. 41
• 42. 5: Future Research I cannot deny the fact that Western literature is the first step of understanding Thai gender studies because without this it might not be possible to understand gender issues in Thailand. However, it is important to take a look at Thai culture and history as part of the analysis. There is a need for the local researchers to conduct their research in Thailand due to the fact that Thai people are the people who best understand their traditional culture and language. In addition, I believe that research on the relationship between socio-economic status and gender should take place. The effect of colonisation is still a new concept as some of the books refer to Thailand as having a semi-colonial status. Therefore, future research would benefit from observing Thailand’s history and the relationship between the West and Thailand. However, this, I feel, should be completed by Thai scholars mainly because most of the historical literature is written in traditional Thai language which can be hard to understand and translate. Finally, this research finding can be beneficial to both Thai and Western scholars in developing a further study on a non-colonised country and its culture and lifestyle that play a major role in gender development. My future research will be on the “Gross National Happiness” or GNH. How GNH can raise the efficiency within an organisation. This principle will argue that, for all workers, happiness and enjoyment should come first. 42
• 43. 6: Conclusion This study is therefore interpreted from a Western stance, which may be considered inappropriate when applied in the Thai society. From the perspective of the GNH are Thai men and women happier than Western men and women? Many Thai men and women may own less commodities than Western people, but Thai social lifestyle may bring them far more peace and contentment. The effect of colonisation has influenced South-East Asia in many ways. Research has shown that the culture and social norms from the West have shaped the Asian people’s lifestyle and way of thinking. Traditional values are being distorted and have more or less disappeared. Their history is being written by scholars from the West and interpreted by Western understanding. Gender development is one of the studies that is largely influenced by Western scholars. Concepts such as gender and discrimination might be understood by the people who understand the Western culture and language to some extent. However, Thailand itself has never been colonised and has found difficulty in understanding Western literature and concepts on gender and discrimination. Some of the Western scholars conducted their gender studies in Thailand, a country that has never been colonised. Nevertheless, their understanding is limited, as they do not fully understand Thai culture and its unique Thai language, especially when the literature is in English. The meanings and interpretations can be confusing for Thai people as some of the words such as gender and discrimination cannot be translated with a proper understanding into Thai language. Therefore, Western literature might not be applicable in understanding Thai culture and gender. Although the West might influence Thailand economically, research findings show that multinational companies highly respect 43
• 44. Thai culture. They do not impose their culture in Thailand, rather they are accepting and applying Thai culture in their organisational practices. Buddhism is part of Thai people’s everyday lives. A practice which is strongly embodied within Thai culture, has made Thailand one of the most unique countries in the world that has its own distinct culture and customs. The middle path culture, a phenomenon in Thailand, has shown that Thai people do not like conflict, which is the reason why we have never been colonised, never had a major conflict between men and women, and has also allowed gay men and women to express themselves freely in the country. Nevertheless, I am not saying that there is no feminist movement, actually, there is. However, there is only a small proportion of Thai women who raise gender issues because they have received an education from overseas and are aware of the issues. In other words, they are influenced by the West’s culture and education on gender issues. In conclusion, gender might not be a major problem in Thailand because the majority of Thai people still do not understand the meaning of gender, and people appear to be happy living their lives. However, socio-economic status is important to Thai women’s lives and social networks are part of the Thai society that aids women and men to experience opportunities when pursuing their careers and dreams. Gender discrimination is less influenced by individuals than by the system and social norms, which undoubtedly discriminate against women implicitly. 44
• 45. Appendix 1 Table 1: Female Employment Rate Table Labour Force Seaso Round nally People Particip Unemplo / Inacti not in ation yment Year Empl Unemp Quart Total ve Labour Rate Rate er oyed loyed Force (%) (%) Labou r Force Quart 14,583 9,4 3 er 1 15,297.2 .9 457.5 255.9 41.6 61.8 .0 Quart 14,991 9,2 2 er 2 15,699.0 .7 402.9 304.4 12.0 63.0 .6 2004 Quart 16,012 8,6 1 er 3 16,251.1 .6 224.7 13.8 99.1 65.1 .4 Quart 15,972 8,6 1 er 4 16,288.9 .9 241.1 74.9 84.2 65.2 .5 Quart 15,029 9,3 2 er 1 15,603.1 .6 373.1 200.5 94.2 62.4 .4 Quart 15,313 9,1 2 er 2 15,878.9 .4 311.4 254.1 42.6 63.5 .0 2005 Quart 16,795 8,6 1 er 3 17,030.3 .2 205.5 29.7 52.5 66.3 .2 Quart 16,515 9,0 1 er 4 16,780.8 .0 226.1 39.7 28.2 65.0 .4 Quart 15,647 9,7 1 er 1 16,126.3 .6 303.2 175.5 48.5 62.3 .9 Quart 16,068 9,4 1 er 2 16,536.9 .8 276.0 192.1 12.0 63.7 .7 2006 Quart 16,706 9,0 1 er 3 16,943.1 .3 190.2 46.7 80.7 65.1 .1 Quart 16,653 9,1 1 er 4 16,907.9 .7 187.8 66.4 89.7 64.8 .1 Quart 15,909 9,8 1 er 1 16,291.8 .5 215.3 167.0 81.6 62.3 .3 2007 45 1 Quart 16,137 9,6 .5 er 2 16,582.9 .1 244.1 201.6 68.4 63.2
• 46. Source: Report of the Labour Force Survey, National Statistical Office, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology Table 2: Number and Percentage of Employed Persons Aged 15 Years and Over by Industry and Sex (in millions) 46
• 47. Table 3: Number of Employed Persons Over 15 Years of Age in a 1-Year Period by Sex (in millions) Table 4: Average Monthly Total Income and Current Income by Region: 2006 47
• 48. Table 5: Population 15 Years and Over who Desire to Develop by Course and Sex: 2006-2007 48
• 49. Table 6: Number of Male and Female Students by Educational Level for Academic Year 2000 Table 7: Number of Employees by Level of Wages/Salary and Sex 49
• 50. Appendix 2 Figure 1: Thai Woman Mahout (Elephant Driver). Source: Gordon, A., & Sirisambhand, N. (2002). Evidence for Thailand's Missing Social History: Thai Women in Old Mutal Paintings 50
• 51. Figure 2: Gender Statistics in “The Key Statistics of Thailand 2007”. Source: The Key Statistics of Thailand (2007) Figure 3: The 10th National Economic and Social Development Plan for the years 2007-2011 Goals of the 10th plan Quality of life • Increase average years of education from 8.5 to 10 years • Increase skilled labor as a percent of workforce from 39.8% to 60% • Increase number of researchers from 6.7/10,000 to 10/10,000 • Increase life expectancy to 80 years • Reduce the rate of illness for the top 5 diseases • Reduce crime by 10% Community • Reduce incidence of poverty from 16.3% in 2005 to 4% by 2011 development and • Implement participatory community plan for all communities poverty reduction Economic • Ratio of SME/GDP to increase from restructuring 39.4% in 2005 to no less than 40% for balance and • Inflation of 3.0-3.5% competitiveness • Total Factory Productivity Growth (TFPG) of 3% • Energy Elasticity of 1:1 • Q5/Q1 not to exceed 10 times • Ratio of public debt/GDP of less than 50% • Ratio of domestic economy/external sector to 75% from 71.3% in 2001-2005 Source: Thailand Investment Review. (2007) . 51
• 52. Figure 4: The Philosophy of Sufficiency Economy Source: Kittiampon, A. (2007) 52
• 53. References 53

• Election 2024
• Entertainment
• Newsletters
• Photography
• Personal Finance
• AP Investigations
• AP Buyline Personal Finance
• AP Buyline Shopping
• Press Releases
• Israel-Hamas War
• Russia-Ukraine War
• Global elections
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East
• Election Results
• Delegate Tracker
• AP & Elections
• Auto Racing
• 2024 Paris Olympic Games
• Movie reviews
• Book reviews
• Personal finance
• Financial Markets
• Business Highlights
• Financial wellness
• Artificial Intelligence
• Social Media

Giuliani becomes final defendant served indictment among 18 accused in Arizona fake electors case

FILE - Former Mayor of New York Rudy Giuliani speaks during a news conference outside the federal courthouse in Washington, Dec. 15, 2023. Arizona attorney general Kris Mayes says Giuliani has been served an indictment in the state’s fake elector case alongside 17 other defendants for his role in an attempt to overturn former President Donald Trump’s loss to Joe Biden in the 2020 election. Mayes posted the news regarding the Trump-aligned lawyer on her X account late Friday, May 17, 2024. (AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana, File)

• Copy Link copied

Arizona’s attorney general says former New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani has been served an indictment in the state’s fake elector case alongside 17 other defendants for his role in an attempt to overturn former President Donald Trump’s loss to Joe Biden in the 2020 election.

Arizona Attorney General Kris Mayes posted the news regarding the Trump-aligned lawyer on her X account late Friday.

“The final defendant was served moments ago. @RudyGiuliani nobody is above the law,” Mayes wrote.

The attorney general’s spokesman Richie Taylor said in an email to The Associated Press on Saturday that Giuliani faces the same charges as the other defendants, including conspiracy, fraud and forgery charges.

Giuliani’s political adviser, Ted Goodman, confirmed Giuliani was served Friday night after his 80th birthday celebration as he was walking to the car.

“We look forward to full vindication soon,” Goodman said in a statement Saturday.

The indictment alleges that Giuliani “pressured” Arizona legislators and the Maricopa County Board of Supervisors to change the outcome of Arizona’s election and that he was responsible for encouraging Republican electors in Arizona and six other contested states to vote for Trump.

Taylor said an unredacted copy of the indictment will be released Monday. He said Giuliani is expected to appear in court Tuesday unless he is granted a delay by the court.

Mark Meadows , Trump’s former chief of staff, is among others who have been indicted in the case.

Neither Meadows nor Giuliani were named in the redacted grand jury indictment released earlier because they had not been served with it, but they were readily identifiable based on descriptions in the document. The Arizona attorney general’s office said Wednesday, May 1, that Meadows had been served and confirmed that he was charged with the same counts as the other named defendants, including conspiracy, fraud and forgery charges.

With the indictments, Arizona becomes the fourth state where allies of the former president have been charged with using false or unproven claims about voter fraud related to the election.

Giuliani faces other legal proceedings, and a bankruptcy judge this past week said he was “disturbed” about the status of the case and for missed deadlines to file financial disclosure reports. Giuliani filed for bankruptcy after being ordered to pay $148 million to two former election workers for spreading a false conspiracy theory about their role in the 2020 election.

Giuliani was also indicted last year by a grand jury in Georgia , where he is accused of spearheading Trump’s efforts to compel state lawmakers in Georgia to ignore the will of voters and illegally appoint pro-Trump electoral college electors.

Among the defendants are 11 Arizona Republicans who submitted a document to Congress falsely declaring that Trump won in Arizona in the 2020 presidential election — including a former state GOP chair, a 2022 U.S. Senate candidate and two sitting state lawmakers. The other defendants are Mike Roman, who was Trump’s director of Election Day operations, and four attorneys accused of organizing an attempt to use fake documents to persuade Congress not to certify Biden’s victory: John Eastman, Christina Bobb, Boris Epshteyn and Jenna Ellis.

Trump himself was not charged but was referred to as an unindicted co-conspirator.

The 11 people who had been nominated to be Arizona’s Republican electors met in Phoenix on Dec. 14, 2020, to sign a certificate saying they were “duly elected and qualified” electors and claiming that Trump carried the state. A one-minute video of the signing ceremony was posted on social media by the Arizona Republican Party at the time. The document was later sent to Congress and the National Archives, where it was ignored.

Biden won Arizona by more than 10,000 votes.

Eastman, who devised a strategy to try to persuade Congress not to certify the election, became the first person charged in Arizona’s fake elector case to be arraigned on Friday. He pleaded not guilty to conspiracy, fraud and forgery charges .

Eastman made a brief statement outside the courthouse, saying the charges against him should have never been filed.

“I had zero communications with the electors in Arizona (and) zero involvement in any of the election litigation in Arizona or legislative hearings. And I am confident that with the laws faithfully applied, I will be fully be exonerated at the end of this process,” Eastman said. He declined to make further comment.

Arraignments are scheduled May 21 for 12 other people charged in the case, including nine of the 11 Republicans who had submitted a document to Congress falsely declaring Trump had won Arizona.

The Arizona indictment said Eastman encouraged the GOP electors to cast their votes in December 2020, unsuccessfully pressured state lawmakers to change the election’s outcome in Arizona and told then-Vice President Mike Pence that he could reject Democratic electors in the counting of electoral votes in Congress on Jan. 6, 2021.

Associated Press writers Jacques Billeaud and Jonathan J. Cooper in Phoenix and Nomaan Merchant in Washington contributed to this report.

Rudy Giuliani served with Arizona fake electors indictment after 80th birthday party

Giuliani had bragged he couldn't be found to be served the papers.

Rudy Giuliani was served Friday night with notice of his indictment related to efforts to overturn the 2020 presidential election results in Arizona after his 80th birthday party and after boasting on social media that he had avoided being served.

"The final defendant was served moments ago. @RudyGiuliani nobody is above the law," Arizona Attorney General Kris Mayes posted on X, replying directly to a post from Giuliani earlier Friday night taunting Mayes with a photo from his 80th birthday party for failing to deliver his indictment.

MORE: Giuliani, Meadows indicted in Arizona fake elector scheme; Trump unindicted co-conspirator

Giuliani, in a since-deleted tweet, wrote, "If Arizona authorities can't find me by tomorrow morning: 1. They must dismiss the indictment; 2. They must concede they can't count votes."

Mayes shared a screenshot of the post even after it was deleted.

Giuliani was served with the indictment after his birthday party, which was hosted in Palm Beach, Florida, by GOP consultant Caroline Wren, had ended and as he was walking to a car, according to his spokesman Ted Goodman.

Similar Stories

Giuliani becomes final defendant served indictment among 18 accused in Arizona fake electors case

• May 18, 4:48 PM

Attorney John Eastman pleads not guilty to felony charges in Arizona’s fake elector case

• May 17, 11:52 AM

WABC Radio suspends Rudy Giuliani

• May 10, 7:14 PM

"He was unfazed and enjoyed an incredible evening with hundreds of people, from all walks of life, who love and respect him for his contributions to society. We look forward to full vindication soon," Goodman said.

When the indictment was announced in late April, an adviser to Giuliani said, "The continued weaponization of our justice system should concern every American, from Arizona to Michigan and everywhere in between, as it does permanent, irrevocable harm to the country."

Giuliani is scheduled to be in court Tuesday for his arraignment.

Former White House chief of staff Mark Meadows, Trump adviser Boris Epshteyn, and former Trump lawyers Jenna Ellis, John Eastman and Christina Bobb were among the others to be indicted on charges including fraud, forgery, and conspiracy.

Related Topics

• Rudy Giuliani

Missouri senators, not taxpayers, will pay potential damages in Chiefs rally shooting case

• May 20, 4:31 PM

Alice Stewart, CNN political commentator and veteran political adviser, dies at 58

• May 18, 7:11 PM

ABC News Live

24/7 coverage of breaking news and live events

Rudy Giuliani Served With Legal Papers For Arizona Fake Electors Plot During His 80th Birthday Bash

D uring his 80th birthday party, former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani was served with a legal notice from Arizona Attorney General Kris Mayes ‘ office. On Friday, Giuliani celebrated his birthday at the home of Caroline Wren in Palm Springs, California. The party hosted around 200 guests.

Outside Wren’s home, two officials from Mayes’ office approached Giuliani with a notice of his indictment. Giuliani was involved in an alleged ploy to overturn Arizona’s 2020 presidential election results. The event caused panic among some guests. Some screamed while a woman cried. Giuliani, however, appeared calm during the ordeal.

Ted Goodman , spokesperson for Giuliani, stated, “The mayor was unfazed by the decision to try and embarrass him during his 80th birthday party. He enjoyed an incredible evening with hundreds of people who love him—from all walks of life—and we look forward to full vindication soon.”

Before Giuliani was served, the former mayor posted to X taunting the DA’s office. “If Arizona authorities can’t find me by tomorrow morning: 1. They must dismiss the indictment; 2. They must concede they can’t count votes.”

Mayes replied to the now-deleted post. “The final defendant was served moments ago. Nobody is above the law.”

Last week, Giuliani was booted from his radio show , The Rudy Giuliani Show for violating the station’s policy that content cannot “state, suggest or imply that the election results are not valid.”

The radio show was the bankrupt lawyer’s main source of income. After filing for bankruptcy, Giuliani claimed his net monthly income was only $2,308 . Giuliani sparked backlash from his creditors for arguing that he should not have to sell his $3.5 million Florida penthouse to cover the jury award.

Source: uInterview

The post Rudy Giuliani Served With Legal Papers For Arizona Fake Electors Plot During His 80th Birthday Bash appeared first on uInterview .

• CBSSports.com
• Fanatics Sportsbook
• CBS Sports Home
• Triple Crown 
• Champions League
• Motor Sports
• High School

Football Pick'em

College Pick'em

Fantasy baseball, fantasy football, fantasy basketball, fantasy hockey, franchise games, 24/7 sports news network.

• CBS Sports Golazo Network
• PGA Tour on CBS
• UEFA Champions League
• UEFA Europa League
• Italian Serie A
• Watch CBS Sports Network
• TV Shows & Listings

The Early Edge

A Daily SportsLine Betting Podcast

With the First Pick

NFL Draft recap

• Podcasts Home
• The First Cut Golf
• Beyond the Arc
• We Need to Talk Now
• Eye On College Basketball
• NFL Pick Six
• Cover 3 College Football
• Fantasy Football Today
• My Teams Organize / See All Teams Help Account Settings Log Out

Knicks vs. Pacers schedule: Where to watch Game 7, TV channel, predictions, odds for NBA playoff series

A spot in the eastern conference finals is up for grabs sunday.

The New York Knicks and Indiana Pacers have renewed their playoff rivalry in the 2024 NBA postseason, as their latest clash has met all the expectations. The Pacers protected their home court  on Friday to force a do-or-die Game 7, slated for Sunday at Madison Square Garden. The Knicks are trying to get to the Eastern Conference finals for the first time since 2000. The Pacers have not had an ECF appearance since 2014.

Pascal Siakam finished with 25 points and seven rebounds in Game 6, Myles Turner added 17 points and eight rebounds, and Indiana turned the tables on New York with a 116-103 victory. Tyrese Haliburton and Andrew Nembhard each scored 15 points, with Nembhard pulling down six rebounds and dishing out six assists.

For the Knicks, Jalen Brunson finished with 31 points and five assists but he missed his final 11 shots in the first half. Deuce McBride added 20 points and Donte DiVincenzo had 17. But the short-handed Knicks may have suffered yet another blow when Josh Hart left in the fourth quarter with what the Knicks called abdominal soreness.

The good news for the Knicks is they don't have to return to Indiana, where they've lost nine straight playoff games. New York is one win away from reaching its first conference final since 2000. Indiana hasn't played in the conference finals since 2014.

Here's everything you need to know as the Knicks and Pacers continue their renewed rivalry in Game 7.

Knicks vs. Pacers schedule, scores

All times Eastern | * If necessary

• Game 1: Knicks 121, Pacers 117 -- New York leads 1-0
• Game 2: Knicks 130, Pacers 121 -- New York leads 2-0
• Game 3:  Pacers 111, Knicks 106 -- New York leads 2-1
• Game 4:  Pacers 121, Knicks 89 -- Series tied 2-2
• Game 5: Knicks 121, Pacers 91 -- New York leads 3-2
• Game 6: Pacers 116, Knicks 103 -- Series tied 3-3
• Game 7: Sunday, May 19 -- Pacers at Knicks, 3:30 p.m., ABC/ fubo

Knicks vs. Pacers, Game 7

Where to watch.

Time : 3:30 p.m ET |  Date : Sunday, May 19 Location : Madison Square Garden -- New York TV channel : ABC |  Streaming:   fubo  (try for free)

Knicks: The Knicks are expected to have both Josh Hart (abdomen) and OG Anunoby (hamstring) on Sunday. Hart took a hit to the midsection in the first quarter of Game 6, and while he still managed 31 minutes of action, it wasn't without some laboring. He also didn't return to the game after checking out at the 9:53 mark of the fourth quarter and shortly after, was ruled out for the remainder of the game with abdominal soreness. Hart is New York's Iron Man, and up to Friday night was averaging nearly 43 minutes a game in the postseason. Anunoby, meanwhile, has not played since hurting his hamstring in Game 2. The Knicks are 26-5 with Anunoby in the lineup since acquiring him in a midseason trade.

Pacers:  Indiana quite literally out-bullied the Knicks on Friday. Who knew that was possible? They out-rebounded New York and didn't turn the ball over nearly as much as they did in Game 5, two key difference makers in their win to force a Game 7. If they can carry that over to Sunday afternoon, especially as the Knicks continue to deal with a litany of injuries, the Pacers will have a fair shot of shocking the Knicks at Madison Square Garden and advancing to the Eastern Conference finals for the first time since 2014.

I think the Pacers found a formula in Game 6. In addition to shooting nearly 54% from the field, they were the more aggressive team, which is a difficult thing to do against a Tom Thibodeau-coached team. Combine that with Josh Hart's status up in the air -- even if he does play he may not be 100% -- and I think the Pacers walk out of Madison Square Garden with a win.  The pick: Pacers +2.5

Our Latest NBA Stories

Celtics vs. Cavaliers odds, NBA picks, Game 1 bets

Cbs sports staff • 3 min read.

Celtics vs. Pacers: How to watch, schedule, prediction

Jasmyn wimbish • 3 min read.

Conference finals bold predictions: Ant, Tatum, more

Brad botkin • 3 min read.

Wembanyama, Holmgren highlight NBA All-Rookie Team

Jasmyn wimbish • 1 min read.

Expert picks for NBA conference finals: Who moves on?

Brad botkin • 5 min read.

Ex-NBA referee slams Chris Paul, defends Scott Foster

Isabel gonzalez • 2 min read, share video.

Knicks vs. Pacers: How to watch Game 7, predictions

Bold predictions for NBA conference finals

Expert picks for conference finals

What's next for Nuggets after exit?

Banged-up Knicks couldn't keep up

Wemby, Chet highlight NBA All-Rookie Teams

Report: LeBron not involved in Lakers coaching search

C's Porzingis expected to miss first two games of ECF

Next for Thunder? It's time for OKC to go for it