definition of terms in term paper

Confusion to Clarity: Definition of Terms in a Research Paper

Explore the definition of terms in research paper to enhance your understanding of crucial scientific terminology and grow your knowledge.

Have you ever come across a research paper and found yourself scratching your head over complex synonyms and unfamiliar terms? It’s a hassle as you have to fetch a dictionary and then ruffle through it to find the meaning of the terms.

To avoid that, an exclusive section called ‘ Definition of Terms in a Research Paper ’ is introduced which contains the definitions of terms used in the paper. Let us learn more about it in this article.

What Is The “Definition Of Terms” In A Research Paper?

The definition of terms section in a research paper provides a clear and concise explanation of key concepts, variables, and terminology used throughout the study. 

In the definition of terms section, researchers typically provide precise definitions for specific technical terms, acronyms, jargon, and any other domain-specific vocabulary used in their work. This section enhances the overall quality and rigor of the research by establishing a solid foundation for communication and understanding.

Purpose Of Definition Of Terms In A Research Paper

This section aims to ensure that readers have a common understanding of the terminology employed in the research, eliminating confusion and promoting clarity. The definitions provided serve as a reference point for readers, enabling them to comprehend the context and scope of the study. It serves several important purposes:

• Enhancing clarity
• Establishing a shared language
• Providing a reference point
• Setting the scope and context
• Ensuring consistency

Benefits Of Having A Definition Of Terms In A Research Paper

Having a definition of terms section in a research paper offers several benefits that contribute to the overall quality and effectiveness of the study. These benefits include:

Clarity And Comprehension

Clear definitions enable readers to understand the specific meanings of key terms, concepts, and variables used in the research. This promotes clarity and enhances comprehension, ensuring that readers can follow the study’s arguments, methods, and findings more easily.

Consistency And Precision

Definitions provide a consistent framework for the use of terminology throughout the research paper. By clearly defining terms, researchers establish a standard vocabulary, reducing ambiguity and potential misunderstandings. This precision enhances the accuracy and reliability of the study’s findings.

Common Understanding

The definition of terms section helps establish a shared understanding among readers, including those from different disciplines or with varying levels of familiarity with the subject matter. It ensures that readers approach the research with a common knowledge base, facilitating effective communication and interpretation of the results.

Avoiding Misinterpretation

Without clear definitions, readers may interpret terms and concepts differently, leading to misinterpretation of the research findings. By providing explicit definitions, researchers minimize the risk of misunderstandings and ensure that readers grasp the intended meaning of the terminology used in the study.

Accessibility For Diverse Audiences

Research papers are often read by a wide range of individuals, including researchers, students, policymakers, and professionals. Having a definition of terms in a research paper helps the diverse audience understand the concepts better and make appropriate decisions. 

Types Of Definitions

There are several types of definitions that researchers can employ in a research paper, depending on the context and nature of the study. Here are some common types of definitions:

Lexical Definitions

Lexical definitions provide the dictionary or commonly accepted meaning of a term. They offer a concise and widely recognized explanation of a word or concept. Lexical definitions are useful for establishing a baseline understanding of a term, especially when dealing with everyday language or non-technical terms.

Operational Definitions

Operational definitions define a term or concept about how it is measured or observed in the study. These definitions specify the procedures, instruments, or criteria used to operationalize an abstract or theoretical concept. Operational definitions help ensure clarity and consistency in data collection and measurement.

Conceptual Definitions

Conceptual definitions provide an abstract or theoretical understanding of a term or concept within a specific research context. They often involve a more detailed and nuanced explanation, exploring the underlying principles, theories, or models that inform the concept. Conceptual definitions are useful for establishing a theoretical framework and promoting deeper understanding.

Descriptive Definitions

Descriptive definitions describe a term or concept by providing characteristics, features, or attributes associated with it. These definitions focus on outlining the essential qualities or elements that define the term. Descriptive definitions help readers grasp the nature and scope of a concept by painting a detailed picture.

Theoretical Definitions

Theoretical definitions explain a term or concept based on established theories or conceptual frameworks. They situate the concept within a broader theoretical context, connecting it to relevant literature and existing knowledge. Theoretical definitions help researchers establish the theoretical underpinnings of their study and provide a foundation for further analysis.

Also read: Understanding What is Theoretical Framework

Types Of Terms

In research papers, various types of terms can be identified based on their nature and usage. Here are some common types of terms:

A key term is a term that holds significant importance or plays a crucial role within the context of a research paper. It is a term that encapsulates a core concept, idea, or variable that is central to the study. Key terms are often essential for understanding the research objectives, methodology, findings, and conclusions.

Technical Term

Technical terms refer to specialized vocabulary or terminology used within a specific field of study. These terms are often precise and have specific meanings within their respective disciplines. Examples include “allele,” “hypothesis testing,” or “algorithm.”

Legal Terms

Legal terms are specific vocabulary used within the legal field to describe concepts, principles, and regulations. These terms have particular meanings within the legal context. Examples include “defendant,” “plaintiff,” “due process,” or “jurisdiction.”

Definitional Term

A definitional term refers to a word or phrase that requires an explicit definition to ensure clarity and understanding within a particular context. These terms may be technical, abstract, or have multiple interpretations.

Career Privacy Term

Career privacy term refers to a concept or idea related to the privacy of individuals in the context of their professional or occupational activities. It encompasses the protection of personal information, and confidential data, and the right to control the disclosure of sensitive career-related details. 

A broad term is a term that encompasses a wide range of related concepts, ideas, or objects. It has a broader scope and may encompass multiple subcategories or specific examples.

Also read: Keywords In A Research Paper: The Importance Of The Right Choice

Steps To Writing Definitions Of Terms

When writing the definition of terms section for a research paper, you can follow these steps to ensure clarity and accuracy:

Step 1: Identify Key Terms

Review your research paper and identify the key terms that require definition. These terms are typically central to your study, specific to your field or topic, or may have different interpretations.

Step 2: Conduct Research

Conduct thorough research on each key term to understand its commonly accepted definition, usage, and any variations or nuances within your specific research context. Consult authoritative sources such as academic journals, books, or reputable online resources.

Step 3: Craft Concise Definitions

Based on your research, craft concise definitions for each key term. Aim for clarity, precision, and relevance. Define the term in a manner that reflects its significance within your research and ensures reader comprehension.

Step 4: Use Your Own Words

Paraphrase the definitions in your own words to avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity. While you can draw inspiration from existing definitions, rephrase them to reflect your understanding and writing style. Avoid directly copying from sources.

Step 5: Provide Examples Or Explanations

Consider providing examples, explanations, or context for the defined terms to enhance reader understanding. This can help illustrate how the term is applied within your research or clarify its practical implications.

Step 6: Order And Format

Decide on the order in which you present the definitions. You can follow alphabetical order or arrange them based on their importance or relevance to your research. Use consistent formatting, such as bold or italics, to distinguish the defined terms from the rest of the text.

Step 7: Revise And Refine

Review the definitions for clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Ensure that they align with your research objectives and are tailored to your specific study. Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or experts in your field to further refine and improve the definitions.

Step 8: Include Proper Citations

If you have drawn ideas or information from external sources, remember to provide proper citations for those sources. This demonstrates academic integrity and acknowledges the original authors.

Step 9: Incorporate The Section Into Your Paper

Integrate the definition of terms section into your research paper, typically as an early section following the introduction. Make sure it flows smoothly with the rest of the paper and provides a solid foundation for understanding the subsequent content.

By following these steps, you can create a well-crafted and informative definition of terms section that enhances the clarity and comprehension of your research paper.

In conclusion, the definition of terms in a research paper plays a critical role by providing clarity, establishing a common understanding, and enhancing communication among readers. The definition of terms section is an essential component that contributes to the overall quality, rigor, and effectiveness of a research paper.

Also read: Beyond The Main Text: The Value Of A Research Paper Appendix

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About Sowjanya Pedada

Sowjanya is a passionate writer and an avid reader. She holds MBA in Agribusiness Management and now is working as a content writer. She loves to play with words and hopes to make a difference in the world through her writings. Apart from writing, she is interested in reading fiction novels and doing craftwork. She also loves to travel and explore different cuisines and spend time with her family and friends.

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10.6 Definition

Learning objectives.

• Determine the purpose and structure of the definition essay.
• Understand how to write a definition essay.

The Purpose of Definition in Writing

The purpose of a definition essay may seem self-explanatory: the purpose of the definition essay is to simply define something. But defining terms in writing is often more complicated than just consulting a dictionary. In fact, the way we define terms can have far-reaching consequences for individuals as well as collective groups.

Take, for example, a word like alcoholism . The way in which one defines alcoholism depends on its legal, moral, and medical contexts. Lawyers may define alcoholism in terms of its legality; parents may define alcoholism in terms of its morality; and doctors will define alcoholism in terms of symptoms and diagnostic criteria. Think also of terms that people tend to debate in our broader culture. How we define words, such as marriage and climate change , has enormous impact on policy decisions and even on daily decisions. Think about conversations couples may have in which words like commitment , respect , or love need clarification.

Defining terms within a relationship, or any other context, can at first be difficult, but once a definition is established between two people or a group of people, it is easier to have productive dialogues. Definitions, then, establish the way in which people communicate ideas. They set parameters for a given discourse, which is why they are so important.

When writing definition essays, avoid terms that are too simple, that lack complexity. Think in terms of concepts, such as hero , immigration , or loyalty , rather than physical objects. Definitions of concepts, rather than objects, are often fluid and contentious, making for a more effective definition essay.

Writing at Work

Definitions play a critical role in all workplace environments. Take the term sexual harassment , for example. Sexual harassment is broadly defined on the federal level, but each company may have additional criteria that define it further. Knowing how your workplace defines and treats all sexual harassment allegations is important. Think, too, about how your company defines lateness , productivity , or contributions .

On a separate sheet of paper, write about a time in your own life in which the definition of a word, or the lack of a definition, caused an argument. Your term could be something as simple as the category of an all-star in sports or how to define a good movie. Or it could be something with higher stakes and wider impact, such as a political argument. Explain how the conversation began, how the argument hinged on the definition of the word, and how the incident was finally resolved.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your responses.

The Structure of a Definition Essay

The definition essay opens with a general discussion of the term to be defined. You then state as your thesis your definition of the term.

The rest of the essay should explain the rationale for your definition. Remember that a dictionary’s definition is limiting, and you should not rely strictly on the dictionary entry. Instead, consider the context in which you are using the word. Context identifies the circumstances, conditions, or setting in which something exists or occurs. Often words take on different meanings depending on the context in which they are used. For example, the ideal leader in a battlefield setting could likely be very different than a leader in an elementary school setting. If a context is missing from the essay, the essay may be too short or the main points could be confusing or misunderstood.

The remainder of the essay should explain different aspects of the term’s definition. For example, if you were defining a good leader in an elementary classroom setting, you might define such a leader according to personality traits: patience, consistency, and flexibility. Each attribute would be explained in its own paragraph.

For definition essays, try to think of concepts that you have a personal stake in. You are more likely to write a more engaging definition essay if you are writing about an idea that has personal value and importance.

It is a good idea to occasionally assess your role in the workplace. You can do this through the process of definition. Identify your role at work by defining not only the routine tasks but also those gray areas where your responsibilities might overlap with those of others. Coming up with a clear definition of roles and responsibilities can add value to your résumé and even increase productivity in the workplace.

On a separate sheet of paper, define each of the following items in your own terms. If you can, establish a context for your definition.

• Consumer culture

Writing a Definition Essay

Choose a topic that will be complex enough to be discussed at length. Choosing a word or phrase of personal relevance often leads to a more interesting and engaging essay.

After you have chosen your word or phrase, start your essay with an introduction that establishes the relevancy of the term in the chosen specific context. Your thesis comes at the end of the introduction, and it should clearly state your definition of the term in the specific context. Establishing a functional context from the beginning will orient readers and minimize misunderstandings.

The body paragraphs should each be dedicated to explaining a different facet of your definition. Make sure to use clear examples and strong details to illustrate your points. Your concluding paragraph should pull together all the different elements of your definition to ultimately reinforce your thesis. See Chapter 15 “Readings: Examples of Essays” to read a sample definition essay.

Create a full definition essay from one of the items you already defined in Note 10.64 “Exercise 2” . Be sure to include an interesting introduction, a clear thesis, a well-explained context, distinct body paragraphs, and a conclusion that pulls everything together.

Key Takeaways

• Definitions establish the way in which people communicate ideas. They set parameters for a given discourse.
• Context affects the meaning and usage of words.
• The thesis of a definition essay should clearly state the writer’s definition of the term in the specific context.
• Body paragraphs should explain the various facets of the definition stated in the thesis.
• The conclusion should pull all the elements of the definition together at the end and reinforce the thesis.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How to Write a Term Paper

How to Write a Term Paper - Getting to the Basics

A term paper is generally structured with an opening introduction, followed by several body paragraphs, and culminates with a conclusion. It articulates a central thesis statement, bolstered by corroborative evidence and critical analysis. The writing is formal in nature, adheres to a designated formatting style like APA or MLA, and is complemented by accurate citations and a comprehensive bibliography.

Writing a term paper is a structured process that demands careful planning and execution. Here’s a step-by-step approach to guide you:

• Understand the Assignment : Ensure you grasp the requirements, the topic's scope, and the deadline.
• Choose a Topic : Select a topic that is interesting to you and meets the assignment's criteria. It should be narrow enough to explore fully within the paper's constraints.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Gather background information to further refine your topic, develop a thesis, and create a research question.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : This is the central argument or claim of your paper. It should be clear, concise, and arguable.
• Create an Outline : Organize your main points and supporting details into an outline. This will serve as a roadmap for your term paper.
• Conduct Detailed Research : Use credible sources to collect evidence and information that support your thesis. Take careful notes and keep track of your sources for citations.
• Write the Introduction : Start with a hook to grab the reader's interest, provide background information, and present your thesis statement.
• Write the Body : Each paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your thesis. Use evidence and analysis to back up each point.
• Write the Conclusion : Summarize your main points and restate the thesis in the context of the evidence you provided. Discuss the implications of your findings or future directions for research.
• Revise and Edit : Look for any gaps in logic or content, check for clarity and flow, and ensure each part of the paper supports your thesis. Edit for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format Your Paper : Follow the required citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) for your discipline, and ensure your paper adheres to all formatting guidelines.
• Final Review : Give your paper a final read-through, checking for coherence, structure, and formatting.
• Submit : Turn in your paper by the deadline, and ensure you have a copy saved for your records.

You always hear the word “term paper,” and in the most basic sense, it is the paper that sums up everything you have learned in a term or semester. Think of it as the ‘gate pass’ for a checkpoint in a game: you need to secure one by finishing one important challenge.

As every game requires, that particular challenge is not similar to other challenges you have encountered. Thus, you must conserve every remaining energy and time to prepare for the challenge.

Going back to our topic, term papers require your knowledge, effort, and time. You can only produce a faultless and astounding term paper once you have mastered the fundamental things you will continuously see in every paper you will be crafting in the coming semesters.

Research-Based

In a term paper, you may not want to ditch your personal experiences or observations when integrating what you have learned in a single term or semester. Most of the time, integrating salient findings and concepts from literature and other scholarly sources may be required depending on the type of paper you are asked to write.

A topic, especially if it is purely theoretical or academic, may warrant you to do a literature review and background research. Fret not, though, as this blog will guide you through making your term paper a work of research.

Since a term paper is research-based, it is almost always impossible not to involve critical thinking and analysis on a certain topic. After all, the best way to discuss a topic, especially if it is complex, is to break it down into pieces. Once disassembled, you can evaluate the evidence, examine its validity, and draw reasoned conclusions based on your findings.

Thesis Statement

You might be able to equate a term paper to an essay. They seem to get along, especially with the structure and purpose of writing. However, you can never go wrong with formulating a good thesis statement for your term paper.

As it is more similar to a research paper, a term paper can be quite long, so having a good thesis statement reinstates the main argument or purpose of your writing. It guides the entire direction of your paper and helps your reader grasp its focus– no matter how long and winding his or her experience will be.

Logical Flow

We may love a fun, creative, and often chaotic way of writing, especially when reading a narrative essay as a coursework assignment. Sorry to burst your bubbles, but a term paper may not follow the same route.

As a standard term paper is full of concepts, terms, arguments, and ideas, it deserves great attention to logic and organization. This means that each section of the paper must build up from the previous one, and transitions between paragraphs and sections should observe smoothness and coherence.

What is a Term Paper In Terms of Its Various Types and Forms

Writing a term paper entails preparation. You can only wish that you have a ton of brain cells and resources to help you finalize your paper that is good for submission– and a stellar score.

However, preparation is only one thing in the long-lasting process of term paper writing.

The term paper structure will still depend on the scope of analysis, as well as the categories of the term paper. Yes, you saw it correctly: types or categories of term papers may have different structures or, in most cases, purposes.

This part of your journey in term paper writing will acquaint you with different types of term papers according to purpose and structure. 

Analytical Paper

From the word itself, an analytical paper requires you to break down a concept, theory, or phenomenon into several parts. These parts may come in the form of elements, experiences, principles, and many other related components.

An analytical paper aims to examine these parts critically and evaluate them accordingly. Analytical papers are often found in social sciences and humanities, and they are mostly requested for a term paper writing service .

Possible topics that resemble your future topic under the mentioned fields are critiquing a philosophical theory or analyzing globalization's impact on a specific country's pop culture.

Argumentative Paper

What is a term paper without presenting a stance? In an argumentative term paper, your professor might give you a debatable or controversial topic that requires your critical thinking and persuasive skills to be utilized.

In this type of term paper, you must integrate a literature review and empirical evidence to support your stance and counter several opposing views. Argumentations are often found in several branches of the social sciences, such as law, ethics, and literature.

You may stumble upon topics like augmenting a controversial public policy or defending a particular interpretation of a literary piece.

Descriptive Paper

Fulfilling this type of term paper entails more than injecting fancy adjectives, imageries, and vivid narrations. When dealing with descriptive term papers, you must provide a detailed overview of a particular topic, event, phenomenon, or concept.

If you ask me how to format a term paper of this kind, the descriptive language used must be realistic and accurate, not just merely ornamental. This orientation would provide a seamless and truthful picture for the reader of your paper.

Although your term paper may be descriptive, objectivity should not be taken away. Descriptive term papers are mostly required in the natural sciences, such as physics, chemistry, Earth science, and biology. A perfect example is the description of the geological features of a national park. 

Comparative Papers

True to its name, this type of term paper compares and contrasts two or more theories, subjects, schools of thought, and approaches.

Upon taking the two major steps, you will need to analyze the similarities and differences between the elements, and you may formulate conclusions regarding their significance or implications. Comparative term papers are commonly seen in economics, political science, literature, sociology, and history.

A prime example might be comparing two distinct economic systems or analyzing the similarities and differences between political theories, such as Republicanism and Democracy.

Expository Papers

How to start a term paper of this type? We just have to take a hint at its name: it ‘exposes’ a piece of information. Elaborating on this, term papers adhering to this type explain or inform the prospective audience about a specific topic, concept, process, or phenomenon.

Since we are dealing with information, it has to be ensured that the latter must be accurate, truthful, and sufficient. Writing expository papers may also entail a handful of related writing tasks, such as defining key terms and organizing information according to related themes.

The fields that most likely require expository term papers are education, communication arts, journalism, and several liberal arts areas.

Grasping each type of term paper above may be quite a handful. Apart from preparing a term paper, you are confronted with a big challenge to choose a type or, in some cases, integrate one type into another.

Regardless of your writing decisions, you are always in for a treat: your term paper proposal will not be a failure if you are more than familiar with your purpose of writing one.

In addition, writing services like Studyfy let you access term paper help like no other. From your term paper outline to the final touches, an array of professional writers are present to provide personalized writing services for negotiable pricing.

What’s The Proper Term Paper Format? From the Ground Up

I am fully aware that you have been wired up with all the information you need to know about term papers, but do not falter yet, as we are just in the most needed part of this blog: formatting your term paper.

Writing a term paper will not be as polished and organized if you do not prepare your format ahead of your writing preparations. So, from conceptualizing your title to proofreading your paper, our tips and tricks will propel you to the towering heights of marks you have always aimed for.

Start Strong with Your Title Page

A well-established term paper will not be realized without a strong facade through a title page. Many students are seen as not focusing on this part of the paper, thinking that it does not hold as much importance as other parts, but if you are thinking the same, you need to change your mind.

Some instructors and professors look at the title page to check if you adhere to the formatting guidelines. If you are less likely to notice such inconsistencies, your professor might think you are not keen enough to eye important details in the rest of your paper.

Pro-Tip: As early as creating your title page, be sure to follow any specific formatting guidelines provided by your professor or academic institution, such as font size, spacing, and margin specifications.

Abstract– Concise Yet Complete

An abstract is likewise an important component of a term paper, just as in a research paper. It encapsulates the crucial pieces of information that the reader must know. It includes the background of the paper, methods, results, and implications of the findings.

While the abstract may require a specific word count that differs from one academic institution to another, it is generally preferred to keep everything short yet complete. Remember: the term paper itself will likely become wordy and extensive, so let us spare space for urgency on the paper’s abstract.

Pro-Tip : Keep everything concise and elaborate on the findings more than the background. The usual word count for an abstract is 150-200 words.

Term Paper’s Background: Where the Thesis Statement is Cleared Its Way

Term paper writing will get as fired up at this point since this part introduces the rationale or context of the paper, asking the question, “What is the topic all about?” In presenting the background, the introduction of the paper's main argument is given– the thesis statement.

This crucial part of the paper is often written as a declarative sentence or a question. To make everything clear and articulated, the paper’s background must provide an extensive exploration of the topic that could lead to formulating the thesis statement. There should be a profound connection between the rationale of the paper and its main purpose.

Pro-Tip : Term papers are more flexible than research papers and journal articles in terms of structuring their introduction. You may hook the reader's attention by putting an engaging opening sentence or anecdote.

Arranging Lit Review: To Each Its Own

Regardless of whether the literature review section of a term paper is separated or integrated into the introduction, this part must provide an extensive overview of existing research and scholarship relevant to the topic.

While one can put empirical and observational studies into the review, it is important to put a premium on reputable articles and research reports that are peer-reviewed and published in indexed journals. When no single guideline talks about a window period for acceptable literature, you may set one for yourself as a guide. 

Pro-Tip: Arrange the literature review thematically, chronologically, or topically, depending on the ways that you desire to highlight some aspects of your term paper.

To an Extensive Results and Discussion Section

Term papers will not be complete without the discussion section. This part seals the deal and is an important piece of a complex puzzle. It interprets the results in conjunction with the questions at hand and assesses their value by comparing them with previous studies according to their agreement or disagreement. 

Pro-Tip: When sourcing previous studies as points of reference for the results, always strive to find ones that both agree or disagree with them. This ensures the polarity and absence of bias in the reporting of the results.

Closing the Curtains with the Paper’s Conclusion

When concluding your term paper writing, always restate the thesis statement. It always feels right and justifiable if the main purpose of the entire term paper is reiterated in the last part of the paper. Apart from that, recommendations and final thoughts may be included in this section.

The conclusion section, deemed shorter than other key sections in the term paper, may come in a short paragraph or bullet format, depending on your guidelines.

Pro-Tip: New information that is not previously included in the paper is not welcome in the conclusion. You might need to write my term paper again if I committed a mistake. You may instead synthesize the key points and results and leave a lasting impression on your reader by either providing a strong closing statement or a reinforcement of the main argument of the term paper.

References and Appendices: Two Pieces That Complete

One may argue that writing term papers may not need references and appendices sections, but the material they provide may prove otherwise. Without the references, sources will not be identified nor assessed, leaving no room for integrity on the writer's part. 

Having no appendices section, on the other hand, does not provide enough context or additional information about the important plans that were executed during the creation of the paper. It is in these sections that small things matter.

Pro-Tip: Double-check the veracity of the references and appendices section. This may entail using the proper citation style for the reference titles and labeling the materials under the appendices section.

What’s a term paper? How to write a successful term paper?

A: A term paper is a type of academic paper that a student, typically from a higher academic institution such as a university, completes at the end of a semester or a term. Since it is considered a terminal requirement, writing a term paper requires one to conduct research, utilize higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, and present findings on a topic or subject by incorporating the knowledge and skills throughout the entirety of the term. 

Since a term paper qualifies as an academic paper, writing services offer custom term paper assistance whenever needed. It is only through tailor-fit writing assistance and professional guidance from seasoned writers that you can achieve a stellar grade without getting down a rough route, thanks to Studyfy.

How to write a term paper if there is a word count?

A word count may be a bummer for some, but it can motivate you to budget how you will use your words efficiently. Make sure to allocate several words strategically. It is recommended that the discussion section gets the highest allocation among all the term paper sections.

Your research and writing process can be influenced by the term paper format and word count. As academic papers often have a specific set of rules, make sure to follow them to the dot.

What is the general structure of a term paper? Is it the same as a research paper?

The universally accepted structure of a term paper is quite similar to a research report: title page, rationale/background, literature review, methodology, results and discussion, and references. An appendices section is optional but necessary for other fields of interest.

A good term paper is like a good research paper. Research papers, like other academic papers, follow the named predictable pattern; just make sure to present your own research through engaging body paragraphs and state primary and secondary sources, including other research papers you used while writing.

Are term papers similar to research papers? How similar and different is the writing process?

Term paper writing is similar to research writing in terms of structure and purpose. However, they differ in scope, audience, and length. While a term paper has a broader scope and is meant to be seen by the course instructor, a research paper has a narrower scope and is written for a wider academic audience. However, what's crucial is the thorough research process.

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Home » Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Term paper is a type of academic writing assignment that is typically assigned to students at the end of a semester or term. It is usually a research-based paper that is meant to demonstrate the student’s understanding of a particular topic, as well as their ability to analyze and synthesize information from various sources.

Term papers are usually longer than other types of academic writing assignments and can range anywhere from 5 to 20 pages or more, depending on the level of study and the specific requirements of the assignment. They often require extensive research and the use of a variety of sources, including books, articles, and other academic publications.

Term Paper Format

The format of a term paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of your professor or institution. However, a typical term paper usually consists of the following sections:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should provide an overview of your topic, the research question or hypothesis, your methodology, and your main findings or conclusions.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your topic and provide background information on the subject. You should also state your research question or hypothesis and explain the importance of your research.
• Literature review : This section should review the existing literature on your topic. You should summarize the key findings and arguments made by other scholars and identify any gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Methodology: This section should describe the methods you used to collect and analyze your data. You should explain your research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings. You can use tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate your data.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and explain what they mean in relation to your research question or hypothesis. You should also discuss any limitations of your study and suggest areas for future research.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and conclusions. You should also restate the importance of your research and its implications for the field.
• References : This section should list all the sources you cited in your paper using a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Appendices : This section should include any additional materials that are relevant to your study but not essential to your main argument (e.g., survey questions, interview transcripts).

Structure of Term Paper

Here’s an example structure for a term paper:

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the topic

B. Thesis statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of current literature on the topic

B. Discussion of key themes and findings from literature

C. Identification of gaps in current literature

III. Methodology

A. Description of research design

B. Discussion of data collection methods

C. Explanation of data analysis techniques

IV. Results

A. Presentation of findings

B. Analysis and interpretation of results

C. Comparison of results with previous studies

V. Discussion

A. Summary of key findings

B. Explanation of how results address the research questions

C. Implications of results for the field

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of key points

B. Significance of findings

C. Future directions for research

VII. References

A. List of sources cited in the paper

How to Write Term Paper

Here are some steps to help you write a term paper:

• Choose a topic: Choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your course. If your professor has assigned a topic, make sure you understand it and clarify any doubts before you start.
• Research : Conduct research on your topic by gathering information from various sources such as books, academic journals, and online resources. Take notes and organize your information systematically.
• Create an outline : Create an outline of your term paper by arranging your ideas and information in a logical sequence. Your outline should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Write a thesis statement: Write a clear and concise thesis statement that states the main idea of your paper. Your thesis statement should be included in your introduction.
• Write the introduction: The introduction should grab the reader’s attention, provide background information on your topic, and introduce your thesis statement.
• Write the body : The body of your paper should provide supporting evidence for your thesis statement. Use your research to provide details and examples to support your argument. Make sure to organize your ideas logically and use transition words to connect paragraphs.
• Write the conclusion : The conclusion should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
• Edit and proofread: Edit and proofread your term paper carefully to ensure that it is free of errors and flows smoothly. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format and cite your sources: Follow the formatting guidelines provided by your professor and cite your sources properly using the appropriate citation style.
• Submit your paper : Submit your paper on time and according to the instructions provided by your professor.

Term Paper Example

Here’s an example of a term paper:

Title : The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity

As the world becomes more digitally interconnected, cybersecurity threats are increasing in frequency and sophistication. Traditional security measures are no longer enough to protect against these threats. This paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in cybersecurity, including how AI can be used to detect and respond to threats in real-time, the challenges of implementing AI in cybersecurity, and the potential ethical implications of AI-powered security systems. The paper concludes with recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their cybersecurity strategies.

Introduction :

The increasing number of cybersecurity threats in recent years has led to a growing interest in the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve cybersecurity. AI has the ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and anomalies that may indicate a security breach. Additionally, AI can automate responses to threats, allowing for faster and more effective mitigation of security incidents. However, there are also challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for large amounts of high-quality data, the potential for AI systems to make mistakes, and the ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI in security.

Literature Review:

This section of the paper reviews existing research on the use of AI in cybersecurity. It begins by discussing the types of AI techniques used in cybersecurity, including machine learning, natural language processing, and neural networks. The literature review then explores the advantages of using AI in cybersecurity, such as its ability to detect previously unknown threats and its potential to reduce the workload of security analysts. However, the review also highlights some of the challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for high-quality training data and the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks.

Methodology :

To better understand the challenges and opportunities associated with using AI in cybersecurity, this paper conducted a survey of cybersecurity professionals working in a variety of industries. The survey included questions about the types of AI techniques used in their organizations, the challenges they faced when implementing AI in cybersecurity, and their perceptions of the ethical implications of using AI in security.

The results of the survey showed that while many organizations are interested in using AI in cybersecurity, they face several challenges when implementing these systems. These challenges include the need for high-quality training data, the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks, and the difficulty of integrating AI with existing security systems. Additionally, many respondents expressed concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in security, such as the potential for AI to be biased or to make decisions that are harmful to individuals or society as a whole.

Discussion :

Based on the results of the survey and the existing literature, this paper discusses the potential benefits and risks of using AI in cybersecurity. It also provides recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their security strategies, such as the need to prioritize data quality and to ensure that AI systems are transparent and accountable.

Conclusion :

While there are challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, the potential benefits of using these systems are significant. AI can help organizations detect and respond to threats more quickly and effectively, reducing the risk of security breaches. However, it is important for organizations to be aware of the potential ethical implications of using AI in security and to take steps to ensure that these systems are transparent and accountable.

References:

• Alkhaldi, S., Al-Daraiseh, A., & Lutfiyya, H. (2019). A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Cyber Security. Journal of Information Security, 10(03), 191-207.
• Gartner. (2019). Gartner Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2020. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartner-top-10-strategic-technology-trends-for-2020/
• Kshetri, N. (2018). Blockchain’s roles in meeting key supply chain management objectives. International Journal of Information Management, 39, 80-89.
• Lipton, Z. C. (2018). The mythos of model interpretability. arXiv preprint arXiv:1606.03490.
• Schneier, B. (2019). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-Connected World. WW Norton & Company.
• Wahab, M. A., Rahman, M. S., & Islam, M. R. (2020). A Survey on AI Techniques in Cybersecurity. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11(2), 22-27.

When to Write Term Paper

A term paper is usually a lengthy research paper that is assigned to students at the end of a term or semester. There are several situations when writing a term paper may be required, including:

• As a course requirement: In most cases, a term paper is required as part of the coursework for a particular course. It may be assigned by the instructor as a way of assessing the student’s understanding of the course material.
• To explore a specific topic : A term paper can be an excellent opportunity for students to explore a specific topic of interest in-depth. It allows them to conduct extensive research on the topic and develop their understanding of it.
• To develop critical thinking skills : Writing a term paper requires students to engage in critical thinking and analysis. It helps them to develop their ability to evaluate and interpret information, as well as to present their ideas in a clear and coherent manner.
• To prepare for future academic or professional pursuits: Writing a term paper can be an excellent way for students to prepare for future academic or professional pursuits. It can help them to develop the research and writing skills necessary for success in higher education or in a professional career.

Purpose of Term Paper

The main purposes of a term paper are:

• Demonstrate mastery of a subject: A term paper provides an opportunity for students to showcase their knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. It requires students to research and analyze the topic, and then present their findings in a clear and organized manner.
• Develop critical thinking skills: Writing a term paper requires students to think critically about their subject matter, analyzing various sources and viewpoints, and evaluating evidence to support their arguments.
• Improve writing skills : Writing a term paper helps students improve their writing skills, including organization, clarity, and coherence. It also requires them to follow specific formatting and citation guidelines, which can be valuable skills for future academic and professional endeavors.
• Contribute to academic discourse : A well-written term paper can contribute to academic discourse by presenting new insights, ideas, and arguments that add to the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.
• Prepare for future research : Writing a term paper can help prepare students for future research, by teaching them how to conduct a literature review, evaluate sources, and formulate research questions and hypotheses. It can also help them develop research skills that they can apply in future academic or professional endeavors.

Advantages of Term Paper

There are several advantages of writing a term paper, including:

• In-depth exploration: Writing a term paper allows you to delve deeper into a specific topic, allowing you to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
• Improved writing skills: Writing a term paper involves extensive research, critical thinking, and the organization of ideas into a cohesive written document. As a result, writing a term paper can improve your writing skills significantly.
• Demonstration of knowledge: A well-written term paper demonstrates your knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, which can be beneficial for academic or professional purposes.
• Development of research skills : Writing a term paper requires conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and synthesizing information from various sources. This process can help you develop essential research skills that can be applied in many other areas.
• Enhancement of critical thinking : Writing a term paper encourages you to think critically, evaluate information, and develop well-supported arguments. These skills can be useful in many areas of life, including personal and professional decision-making.
• Preparation for further academic work : Writing a term paper is excellent preparation for more extensive academic projects, such as a thesis or dissertation.

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Academic Phrasebank

Defining terms.

• GENERAL LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
• Being cautious
• Being critical
• Classifying and listing
• Compare and contrast
• Describing trends
• Describing quantities
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In academic work students are often expected to give definitions of key words and phrases in order to demonstrate to their tutors that they understand these terms clearly. More generally, however, academic writers define terms so that their readers understand exactly what is meant when certain key terms are used. When important words are not clearly understood misinterpretation may result. In fact, many disagreements (academic, legal, diplomatic, personal) arise as a result of different interpretations of the same term. In academic writing, teachers and their students often have to explore these differing interpretations before moving on to study a topic.

Introductory phrases

The term ‘X’ was first used by … The term ‘X’ can be traced back to … Previous studies mostly defined X as … The term ‘X’ was introduced by Smith in her … Historically, the term ‘X’ has been used to describe … It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by … This shows a need to be explicit about exactly what is meant by the word ‘X’.

Simple three-part definitions

General meanings or application of meanings.

X can broadly be defined as … X can be loosely described as … X can be defined as … It encompasses … In the literature, the term tends to be used to refer to … In broad terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is … Whereas X refers to the operations of …, Y refers to the … The broad use of the term ‘X’ is sometimes equated with … The term ‘disease’ refers to a biological event characterised by … Defined as …, X is now considered a worldwide problem and is associated with …

Indicating varying definitions

The definition of X has evolved. There are multiple definitions of X. Several definitions of X have been proposed. In the field of X, various definitions of X are found. The term ‘X’ embodies a multitude of concepts which … This term has two overlapping, even slightly confusing meanings. Widely varying definitions of X have emerged (Smith and Jones, 1999). Despite its common usage, X is used in different disciplines to mean different things. Since the definition of X varies among researchers, it is important to clarify how the term is …

Indicating difficulties in defining a term

X is a contested term. X is a rather nebulous term … X is challenging to define because … A precise definition of X has proved elusive. A generally accepted definition of X is lacking. Unfortunately, X remains a poorly defined term. There is no agreed definition on what constitutes … There is little consensus about what X actually means. There is a degree of uncertainty around the terminology in … These terms are often used interchangeably and without precision. Numerous terms are used to describe X, the most common of which are …. The definition of X varies in the literature and there is terminological confusion. Smith (2001) identified four abilities that might be subsumed under the term ‘X’: a) … ‘X’ is a term frequently used in the literature, but to date there is no consensus about … X is a commonly-used notion in psychology and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely. Although differences of opinion still exist, there appears to be some agreement that X refers to …

Specifying terms that are used in an essay or thesis

The term ‘X’ is used here to refer to … In the present study, X is defined as … The term ‘X’ will be used solely when referring to … In this essay, the term ‘X’ will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all … In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is ‘X’. In this dissertation, the terms ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are used interchangeably to mean … Throughout this thesis, the term ‘X’ is used to refer to informal systems as well as … While a variety of definitions of the term ‘X’ have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as …

Referring to people’s definitions: author prominent

For Smith (2001), X means … Smith (2001) uses the term ‘X’ to refer to … Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term … In 1987, psychologist John Smith popularized the term ‘X’ to describe … According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), X is ‘the maximally … This definition is close to those of Smith (2012) and Jones (2013) who define X as … Smith, has shown that, as late as 1920, Jones was using the term ‘X’ to refer to particular … One of the first people to define nursing was Florence Nightingale (1860), who wrote: ‘… …’ Chomsky writes that a grammar is a ‘device of some sort for producing the ….’ (1957, p.11). Aristotle defines the imagination as ‘the movement which results upon an actual sensation.’ Smith  et al . (2002) have provided a new definition of health: ‘health is a state of being with …

Referring to people’s definitions: author non-prominent

X is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as ‘… …’ The term ‘X’ is used by Smith (2001) to refer to … X is, for Smith (2012), the situation which occurs when … A further definition of X is given by Smith (1982) who describes … The term ‘X’ is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying … X is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures … (Smith  et al ., 1986).

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Chapter Twelve: Positing a Thesis Statement and Composing a Title / Defining Key Terms

Defining Key Terms

You are viewing the first edition of this textbook. a second edition is available – please visit the latest edition for updated information..

Earlier in this course, we discussed how to conduct a library search using key terms. Here we discuss how to present key terms. Place yourself in your audience’s position and try to anticipate their need for information. Is your audience composed mostly of novices or professionals? If they are novices, you will need to provide more definition and context for your key concepts and terms.

Because disciplinary knowledge is filled with specialized terms, an ordinary dictionary is of limited value. Disciplines like psychology, cultural studies, and history use terms in ways that are often different from the way we communicate in daily life. Some disciplines have their own dictionaries of key terms. Others may have terms scattered throughout glossaries in important primary texts and textbooks.

Key terms are the “means of exchange” in disciplines. You gain entry into the discussion by demonstrating how well you know and understand them. Some disciplinary keywords can be tricky because they mean one thing in ordinary speech but can mean something different in the discipline. For instance, in ordinary speech, we use the word  shadow  to refer to a darker area produced by an object or person between a light source and a surface. In Jungian psychology,  shadow  refers to the unconscious or unknown aspects of a personality. Sometimes there is debate within a discipline about what key terms mean or how they should be used.

To avoid confusion, define all key terms in your paper before you begin a discussion about them. Even if you think your audience knows the definition of key terms, readers want to see how  you  understand the terms before you move ahead. If a definition is contested—meaning different writers define the term in different ways—make sure you acknowledge these differences and explain why you favor one definition over the others. Cite your sources when presenting key terms and concepts.

Key Takeaways

Strategies for Conducting Literary Research Copyright © 2021 by Barry Mauer & John Venecek is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write a Term Paper: A Complete Guide With Examples

You just got your term paper assignment and have no idea what to do or how to start? This guide will navigate you through every step of the process, from idea formation to final editing and proofreading. We will start with outlining, drafting and brainstorming, and get you through the writing part in no time. So, let’s dive into the question of how to write a term paper.

If you want to know everything you will need about term papers, this guide, written by the writers at the best essay writing service will help you along.

Table of Contents

What is a term paper.

A term paper is an academic milestone more so than anything else. As a student, you are tasked with learning and then transmitting that knowledge to others. A term paper is just that, a way to show what you have learnt, and disseminate the knowledge to others. Unlike other types of academic writing , a term paper is more detailed, requires more research, and is generally seen as the hardest piece of written work aside from a thesis.

The aim of a term paper is to showcase your understanding of the subject matter and how well you handle pressure and deadlines. In this context, a term paper proves invaluable. In terms of scope, term papers may zero in on an important historical event – if you’re studying history – a scientific concept, or a contentious argument. The choice hinges on the prompt created by your academic advisor. The typical length of a term paper can stretch to five or seven pages, and is generally the prerequisite to attend end-of-semester examination. But, it is also a part of the weighted grade you’ll receive, which only adds to its importance.

For the average student, writing a term paper takes around two weeks, and is a process many do not fully understand. Term paper starts from a very basic element, a question.

Say your teacher wants you to analyze the arguments for and against US involvement in World War II. How would you start? By asking a question; something like: Why did the US enter the war? Or, why did the US waive its neutrality and entered the war.

This opens the door for you and allows you to find an article or two that then leads to the second step, and so on and so on, until you are done. The problem is many students do not know how the process works, or what skills are needed to get the job done. To write an excellent paper you need to plan carefully, adapt to new conditions, be analytical yet persuasive, and understand how referencing works. In addition, the paper has to be formatted to specifications of your chosen citation style – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard, etc. This is a lot of work!

What is the Purpose of a Term Paper

At its core, a term paper serves to test your ability to understand arguments and defend them using written constructs within a pre-determined time period. Put simply, it tests your ability to navigate complex ideas when faced with a deadline – something that comes in handy in almost every job you’ll ever have later in life. If you can understand a complex event, a scientific theory, or a debatable stance, based on the directive from your academic mentor, you can manage pretty much anything that is thrown your way.

A typical term paper will be between five to seven pages, and represents the pinnacle of writing tasks in the semester. The process of term paper writing, even when the topic is prescribed, can be an arduous and time-consuming undertaking. To succeed you need meticulous planning, good composition skills, and scrupulous analysis, structure, and edit

Doing the Basics Right Saves You Time

As Seneca famously said, “Luck Is What Happens When Preparation Meets Opportunity.” In short, prepare, prepare, prepare. To create a perfect term paper you need to know, well in advance, how it will look, what will it be about, and how will it be structured. This then allows you to simply fill in the blanks as you go. But, if you start a day before submission, you’re toast – or, you can always ask for help from us J – because the result will be Red Bull frenzy induced compilation of internet’s best hits. And trust me when I say, your teacher has those stored in memory; you’re not the first student to turn a deaf ear on old Seneca….

So, let’s see how to start your term paper:

• Select your topic – If possible choose something that you’re personally interested in. When you choose early, all the good topics are still free, so keep that in mind.
• Research your topic – Once chosen, sit at your computer and run through Google Scholar or your University Library for anything that pops up when you type in your exact topic.
• Create an outline – When you have a basic understanding of the topic, prepare an outline. It’s always going to be fairly standard, so once you get it right, you can re-use whenever you need to in the future.
• Thesis statement – Now starts the tricky part. Just kidding, this is still the Top Lane, we’re not even close to the Jungle. Thesis statements are always pretty similar. Jolt down your guiding question and then, based on what you’ve read, write a one sentence argument. For example, if writing about solar and wind, you might go with: Solar and wind power are the future of energy production because fossil fuels are unsustainable.
• Topics, topic sentences, and paragraphs – Every paragraph starts with a topic sentence that describes what the paragraph is talking about. The easiest way to understand is this. If writing a paper about wind and solar, you would need at least three topic sentences – 1)Wind 2)Solar 3)Benefits of using wind and solar. Naturally, a term paper needs much more than just three, but you get the idea.
•   Conclusion – Once you’ve written down the topic sentences and outlined the paper, note your own expectations of what you’ll find in the conclusion. This will help you understand what is happening, and when you’re actually writing the conclusion it will tell you if you were right or wrong.

Pro tip: If all of this is too much for you, there is always the possibility of asking professionals for help. Our team of term paper writers are here to help, so feel free to reach out!

Structure of a Term Paper

As you’ve probably guessed by now, every paper has to have a specific structure. In general, you can expect to have at least three parts – introduction, body, and a conclusion. However, longer papers may need several sub-sections, perhaps even an abstract or a summary, and a page dedicated to bibliography.

A typical term paper has three to five body paragraphs that form the backbone of your arguments and analytical discourse. A bibliography is always needed, even if your sources predominantly comprise course materials or excerpts from consulted textbooks. Depending on the chosen style, you will need either a Works Cited page (MLA), a Reference page (APA) or a Bibliography (Harvard, Chicago). Given its pivotal role in determining your final course grade, make sure to adhere to the highest writing and editing standards.

Term Paper Outline

• Title page – this is where you enter your name, teacher name, school, class, and date. The formatting will depend on your chosen style
• Introduction – Introduction sets the stage for your arguments. This is where you present statistics, define helpful terms, and finally present your thesis statement. IMPORTANT: Thesis statement is always the last sentence in the introduction.
• Body 1: Historical setting or development
• Body 2: Current state of knowledge about the problem
• Body 3: Main argument and potential implications
• Body 4: Argument for
• Body 5: Argument against
• Body 6: Summary
• Conclusion : Bring all of the body arguments together and restate your thesis statement.
• Bibliography : Provide references for all sources cited in the term paper using the style of your choice

Now let’s get to the nitty gritty of the writing process.

Topic Selection – In most cases teachers or instructors will provide students with a list of pre-approved topics to choose from. But, in some cases you will get the opportunity to choose for yourself. This is both a blessing and a curse, because it can lead you into a deep pit of despair if you are not careful.

Length – Every paper will have an assigned length. You should never go under the minimum or the maximum word/page count, as that will take points away from your final score. If the prompt asks for 10 pages, write that.

Sources – Consult your school library, Google Scholar, and any other database that has access to journals and books on your topic.

Simplify – While it is admirable to be able to write in a high-brow voice, it’s much better to use plain language as much as possible, but staying within the confines of academic jargon. No don’t’s, couldnt’s, or should’ve. If something is too complicated to explain simply, you do not understand it properly. Ask for clarification.

Do not be afraid to wander – Choosing a common topic may be a safe bet, but your teacher will grade you higher if you take a topic nobody else even though about. Brownie points are there for the taking. Just make sure you know what you’re talking about!

Don’t overextend – While the entire combined histories of all monastic orders may seem like an interesting topic (well, to us at least), it is waaaaaaay too broad to cover in 5 or 10 pages. Heck, that would probably take an entire compendium with multiple volumes. In short, don’t be a megalomaniac and choose a topic that fits in 5 pages.

How to Write a Term Paper: The Writing Process

Before starting your write up, the teacher will expect a proposal. This is a very short summary of the topic, your thesis statement, and a few sources. The goal is to present a topic that you can defend and ask the teacher to approve it.

So how do you write a proposal? Start by writing down your thesis statement and guiding question. Then identify three to four sources and jolt down key statistics and pieces of information that are linked to your thesis statement. The goal is to show you’ve done the work. The proposal will generally have a full outline (see above) so that the teacher knows what you are planning to do. If you explain what the topic is and why it is important in writing , the teacher will accept the proposal.

Introduction, well, Introduces the Term Paper

Your essay has to start strong, which is why 99.99%  of all introductions start with a hook that captivates the audience. A hook can be anything, a statistic (like 40% of people in the US have no savings whatsoever, which means around 140 million people are completely broke – now that’s a hook, line, and sinker).

Once you know the reader is hooked, you present a brief overview of the topic you will discuss. This is where you bring statistics, data, and broader theories or concepts that may relate.

The end of the introduction is always reserved for the thesis statement, which is the last sentence of the introduction.

Try to be concise – not more than ¾ of a page (cca 200-250 words), but detailed enough so that the reader understands what the paper is about.

Writing the Body Sections

When you are certain you can understand the concepts and arguments presented in the literature, it’s time to write your body paragraphs.

The goal is to provide the reader with enough context and argumentation to prove your point. So, if you’re writing about the advantages of nuclear energy, you have to provide evidence from the literature as well as a thorough analysis of all benefits and drawbacks. The goal is to be as objective as possible, while ensuring your results are accurate.

Do not dwell on too much detail, you cannot fit all of the information in a 5 – 10 page paper. Isolate the most important pieces of evidence, maybe 3-4 and focus on those.

As a rule of thumb, you will aim for 4 – 5 body paragraphs minimum, but in most cases you will need more. The first section should be the literature review, where you analyze state-of-the-art of the topic you are writing about.

Following the literature review is your analysis, which draws from the information you’ve collected. It’s important to note, do not try and make up new stuff, or draw conclusions in this section. Simply analyze and summarize the findings in your own voice.

The last paragraph of the body section can be your own summary, where you present a different opinion. Be concise and do not go into too much detail, simply note if you think there are any discrepancies in the literature.

Remember : Always start your paragraphs with a topic sentence and try to contain the information within the paragraph to the topic.

Writing the Conclusion

Conclusion is the most important part of the term paper, even though many do not give it enough attention. This is where you put everything you’ve written together and summarize key findings.

Important : Conclusion is not the place to add new information or knowledge!

To write a good conclusion keep in mind your initial research question and thesis statement. The goal of the term paper is to answer the question and prove your thesis statement is correct. Has your paper done this? Write it down and explain why or why not your initial proposal was correct. A thesis statement can be wrong, and you must acknowledge this in your conclusion.

In the conclusion:

• Summarize your findings
• Discuss implications for future reseasrch

Editing and Finalization

The final word of the conclusion has been written, references added and alphabetized, the paper and the title page formatted. You are finally done. Or, maybe not! Now is the time for the final edit.

Teachers, above everything else, hate reading papers with spelling mistakes and poor grammar. To make sure your paper does not annoy the teacher (you don’t want a lower grade), make sure it is completely free of any errors.

The best way to do this is by using a machine learning tool combined with close reading on your own. The machine will weed out the glaring errors, and you will finish the job.

Read through the draft carefully. Remove any fluff or excess words that add nothing to the argument. You will likely find several sentences you will want to change. Do this now. Once done, start the second read-through.

In this read-through you will hone in on the arguments. Do they make sense? Are statistics properly cited, and do you sound coherent? If the answer is no, you will want to fix the mistakes until satisfied.

Now, finally, you are done! Congratulations. Pat yourself on the back. Oh, wait, we forgot about the abstract!

Abstract Comes First, or Last

In no uncertain terms, do not write the abstract before you’ve completed the term paper. This is always the last part of the writing process, but strangely enough the one your paper starts with. Go figure.

When you do get to this stage, use our secret formula. Well, it’s not really secret but we like to think so. The abstract needs three parts to work well, the introduction, the method/procedure, and the conclusion/findings. Depending on the topic these will vary slightly but you will always find them in an abstract.

Introduce your topic and what you plan to do in two to three sentences.

Describe what method you will use – such as literature review, an experiment, or something else. Two to three sentences.

Define the results you obtained after using the method. Two to three sentences.

Remember : The abstract should be between 120 and 200 words in length, no more is needed.

No, they are not. A research paper is an original piece of writing that comes after some type of original research has been done. Maybe you’ve found a new civilization during a dig, or a new chemical element. The research paper is meant to publicize this finding so other scientists can critique, refute, or confirm its validity. A term paper is a much simpler version that requires no original research. But, a term paper is your preparation for writing a research paper later in life.

This will depend on your teacher. In many cases, you will get a pre-defined format to follow, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago. If not, we recommend using APA or Harvard, as they are relatively simple to learn and have a ton of resources to help you along.

It is important to remember you are not writing a book, so keep the topic narrow. For example, if writing about renewable energy, choose only one type of energy or just one region. Do not try to cram everything into 5-10 pages; it won’t work.

Writing a term paper is certainly a challenge, but it is also manageable if you dedicate yourself to the process. Prepare well in advance, read a lot, and do not be afraid to ask for help if you get stuck. Your teachers are paid to help you, so email them if you get stuck. Above everything, make sure you are interested in the topic, as that will make the process so much easier.

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The study is intended to describe the methods of defining terms found in the theses of the English Foreign Language (EFL) students of IAIN Palangka Raya. The method to be used is a mixed method, qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative approach was used to identify, describe the frequencies, and classify the methods of defining terms. In interpreting and explaining the types of method to be used, the writer used qualitative approach. In qualitative approach, data were described in the form of words and explanation. The findings show that there were two methods of defining terms, dictionary approach and athoritative reference.

Terminology

Blaise Nkwenti

Sead Spuzic

Eurasia Review

Mohamed Chtatou

Terminology is the field of lexicology (or the study of lexicon) that deals with specialized vocabularies and sets of terms related to particular fields (aviation terminology, medical terminology, stylistics, agriculture, etc.). Terminology as a new academic field is located at the boundary among linguistics, logic, theory of existence, information science and specialized areas of science and technology, and in the interdisciplinary area.

Erikas Kupciunas

During the past several decades, the theory of terminology has been a subject of debates in various circles. The views on terminology as a scientific discipline vary considerably. Currently, there are a number of treatments of this field and a number of debatable questions involved. Is terminology a science, or just a practice? does terminology have a status of separate scholarly discipline with its own theory or does it owe its theoretical assumptions to more consolidated disciplines?

Tomasz Michta

Chapter 1.1 of my book A Model for an English-Polish Systematic Dictionary of Chemical Terminology

Alia Channel

Claudia Dobrina

Practical Tools for Leaders and Teams

Terry Schmidt

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Lesson 21: Definition of Terms

A word or phrase used to describe a thing or to express concept, especially In a particular kind of language or branch of study.

Guidelines in defining terms:

1.     Definition of terms works like a glossary but have a different twist. It is placed on the beginning of the research paper to tell the meaning of the terms used in the said paper.

2.     Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study are defined.

3.     There are two types of definition of terms. Conceptual and Operational Terms.

Theoretical Definition are based be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper article, dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his/her sources.

Conceptual Definition are based on how the researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term define.

4.     The term should be arranged alphabetically .

5.     When the definition are taken from encyclopedias, books, magazine and newspaper articles, dictionaries and other publications, the researcher must acknowledge his sources .

Definition of terms

Theoretical Definition

Knowledge - the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association.

Conceptual Definition

Knowledge - it is a condition of being aware to a certain problem-cyberbullying.

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Glossary of Paper Terms

Abrasion resistance.

The level at which paper can withstand continuous scuffing or rubbing.

The properties within paper that cause it to absorb liquids (inks, water, etc.) which come in contact with it.

Accordion Fold

A binding term describing a method of folding paper. When unfolded it looks like the folds of an accordion.

Acetate Proof

A transparent, acetate printing proof used to reproduce anticipated print colors on a transparent acetate sheet. Also called color overleaf proof.

Paper made in a neutral pH system, usually buffered with calcium carbonate. This increases the longevity of the paper.

Degree of acid found in a given paper substance measured by pH level. From 0 to 7 is classified acid as opposed to 7 to 14, which is classified alkaline.

Against the Grain

A right angle to which the fiber direction of a piece of paper lies. Folding with, not against, the grain is recommended.

Airdried Paper

Paper that is dried by circulating hot air around it with little or no tension or restraint on the paper. This gives the paper a hard cockle finish typical of bond papers.

Alcohol/Alcohol Substitutes

Liquids added to the fountain solution of a printing press to reduce the surface tension of water.

Aluminum Plate

A metal press plate used for moderate to long runs in offset lithography to carry the image.

Announcement Cards

Cards of paper with matching envelopes generally used for social stationery, announcements, weddings, greetings, etc.

Antique Finish

A paper finish, usually used in book and cover papers, that has a tactile surface. Usually used in natural white or creamwhite colors.

Extra space at the binding edge of a foldout, usually on a French fold, which allows folding and tipping without interfering with the copy

Acid free or neutral paper that includes a minimum of 2% calcium carbonate to increase the longevity of the paper.

Artificial Parchment

Paper produced with poorly formed formation.

A general term used to describe materials prepared and readied for print.

The tops of lower case letters such as: b, d, h and t.

Back Cylinder Pressure

Additional pressure applied through the impression cylinder assisting the image transfer to the press sheet.

The back of a bound book; also called the spine.

Printing the reverse side of a sheet already printed on one side.

(1) A strip of paper, printed or unprinted, that wraps around loose sheets (in lieu of binding with a cover) or assembled pieces. (2) The operation of putting a paper band around loose sheets or assembled pieces. (3) Metal straps wrapped around skids of cartons or materials wrapped in waterproof paper, to secure the contents to the skid for shipment.

Barium Sulfate

Substance used as a standard for white, in lieu of the availability of a practical 100 percent reflecting diffuser.

Baronial Envelope

An envelope generally used with announcements.

A first color used as a background on which other colors are printed.

Manufactured paper that will be further processed as laminated, Duplex Cover, Bristol Cover, or off machine embossed papers.

In typesetting, the invisible line on which letters and numbers set.

The standard sheet size of a given grade.

Basis Weight

The weight in pounds per ream of paper cut to its basic size in inches. A metric system is used outside of North America.

Blender type machine used to pulverize pulp and for mixing additives and color to the stock.

Beater Sized

Process of adding sizing material to the pulp in the beater.

A process of perforating, folding, trimming and eventually binding a printed piece.

(1) Attaching sheets into a single unit by adhesives, sewing, stitching, metal prongs, snaps, etc. The operations that comprise collating, perforating, and folding the elements of a form into the finished product. (2) That portion or edge of a book of forms which is bound.

Binding Edge

The edge where the binding will be done.

Black Printer

In fourcolor process printing, the black plate made to give definition to neutral tones and detail.

In offset lithography, the rubbercoated fabric clamped around the blanket cylinder, which transfers the image from plate to paper.

Blanket Contamination

Unwanted matter that becomes attached to the offset blanket and interferes with print quality.

Blanket Creep

Movement of the blanket surface that comes in contact with the printing plate or paper.

Blanket Cylinder

The printing press cylinder on which the blanket is mounted.

Blanket Pull

The tack between blanket and paper.

Chemical, usually chlorine, used to whiten pulp.

Chemical treatment to brighten, whiten, purify, refine, and balance pulp fiber.

(1) In printing, printed image that runs off the edges of a page. (2) The migration of ink into unwanted areas.

Blind Embossing

A printing technique in which a design is pushed forward without foil or ink.

The sticking of piled printed sheets caused by wet ink.

Blocking Out

Eliminating portions of negatives by opaquing the image.

Enlargement from the original size.

In printing, a type of photoprint used as a proof. It can be folded to show how the finished printed product will look.

Thicker, visually heavier type vs. thin visually light type. Darker type.

Strong, durable writing paper, consisting of wood, cotton, or both, most commonly used for letterheads, stationery, business forms, etc…

Bonding Strength

The strength of the paper fibers to resistance of picking or tearing during offset printing.

A general term used to define papers that are most suitable for book manufacture.

A printed piece bound together, containing a few pages.

A technical measurement of the light reflected back from a paper.

Bristol Board

A high quality heavy weight paper, sometimes made with cotton fiber prepared or glued together, usually with a caliper thickness of 0.006" and up.

Machine trim or undesirable paper that is returned to the beaters.

Broken Carton

An open carton of paper with some of its contents removed.

Sheet thickness. High bulk sheets have fewer sheets per inch than low bulk.

Bulking Dummy

Unprinted sheets of actual paper folded in the signature size and signature number of a given job, to determine bulk.

Bursting Strength

The point to which paper can withstand pressure without rupturing.

Butted Joint

Joining two webs of paper, placing them end-to-end and pasting a strip over and under to make a continuous sheet without overlapping.

When printing, the spots of ink pigments on printing plates or press rollers, due to the vehicle carrying the ink not being able to hold the pigment in suspension.

Calcium Carbonate, CaCO 3

Chemical used as a filler.

Calender Stacks

A vertical series of steel rolls at the end of the paper machine to increase the smoothness of the paper.

Calendering

To impart a smooth finish on paper by passing the web of paper between polished metal rolls to increase gloss and smoothness.

The thickness of a sheet paper, in thousandths of an inch (points or mils).

A book bound with a hard, cover.

For paper manufacturing, the primary component of the cell walls of wood fibers.

Cellulose fiber

The fiber remaining after bleaching and pulping of wood used in making paper.

Center spread

The facing pages in the center of a bound signature.

Chain lines

The lines on laid paper parallel with the grain; also referred to as "chain marks".

Improper drying of ink. Ink vehicle has been absorbed too rapidly into the paper leaving a dry, weak pigment layer which dusts easily.

A type fonts letter, number, symbol or a blank space in typesetting.

Character count

The number of characters in a line of text, page or group of text.

Chemical Ghosting

A light duplication of a printed image on the other side of the same sheet, created by chemical reaction by the ink during the drying stages; also referred to as "Gas ghosting".

Chemical Pulp

Wood fiber cooked using chemicals producing a pulp used to manufacture numerous printing papers and paperboard products. Papers manufactured with chemical pulp are called "free-sheet" papers.

An inexpensive thick one-ply cardboard, typically made from recycled paper stock.

Chlorine and its compounds were commonly used to bleach fibers. This has been mostly eliminated. Virgin fibers are generally ECF, meaning no elemental chlorine or TCF meaning the bleaching is done with hydrogen peroxide, oxygen or ozone. Recycled fibers are generally PCF, meaning they were put back into the paper without the use of any chlorine or its compounds.

Clear Formation

Describes paper fibers that are uniformly dispersed within a sheet of paper -a characteristic of quality paper.

Close Formation

Uniform density in a sheet of paper.

Cloudy Formation

Same as cloud effect; cloudy. Opposite of close formation. Indicates unevenness and lack of uniformity of fiber structure.

Cockle Finish

A rough, uneven, hard paper finish. Most frequently manufactured in bond papers.

A color on the bluish side.

In binding, gathering sections (signatures) in sequence for binding.

Printed bars of ink colors used to monitor a print image. These bars show the amount of ink to be applied by the press, the registration, and the densities across the press sheet.

A mockup of a proposed layout used for presentations.

Color Correction

Any method to improve color rendition.

Color Fastness

The ability of dyed paper to maintain in the presence of exposure to light, heat etc.

Color Guide

Instructions attached to artwork or disc with the location, percentage, and type of color required.

Color Process Printing

Printing done using cyan, magenta, yellow, and black inks, each requiring its own negative and plate. Also called process color or four-color process.

Color Proofs

Initial printed pieces pulled off the press for final approval.

Color Scanner (electronic scanner)

A scanner that makes the color separation required in full color processing printing.

Color Separation

The method used in breaking down the primary colors needed to prepare plates for printing color work.

Commercial Match

Paper manufactured to within acceptable tolerances of a sample provided to the mill.

Commodity Papers

A classification of low-quality bond and offset papers.

Composite Image

Multiple pictures images placed together to form a single, combined picture.

Comprehensive Layout

A simulation of a layout by a designer to show how the finished art work would appear.

Comprehensive Proof

Final proof presented in the format the printed piece will take.

Condensed Face or Condensed Type

A particular typeface that allows more print per line, as though the letters were squashed at their sides.

Conditioning

Allowing paper to adjust itself to the temperature and humidity of the printing plant prior to use.

Conservation

The preservation and responsible use of our natural resources to ensure they endure.

Continuous Tone

Tonal gradation without use of halftone dots.

Company that converts paper from its original form to usable products such as envelopes, label stock, announcements etc.

Correspondence Papers

Writing papers in attractive finishes, weights or colors.

Cotton Content Paper

Papers utilizing cotton linters. Today most cotton content papers are made for letterhead applications. Papers made with cotton range from 25% to 100% cotton content.

Cotton Linters

The cotton fibers that adhere to the cottonseed used to produce pulp for cotton fiber papers. As a byproduct of the cotton industry, EPA recognizes it as recovered fiber.

On a paper making machine the equipment that helps remove excess water from the moving web of paper prior to the wet press section of a paper machine.

Cover Paper

Durable, heavier weight papers, available in a variety of finishes and colors, used for the cover of pamphlets, annual reports, business cards, etc…

Specifically placed marks attached to artwork that show the area to be printed.

Resizing original photographs or illustrations to a different size.

Cross Direction

The opposite direction of the grain of the paper.

Cross Grain Fold

A fold at a right angle to the direction of the grain in the paper.

Cross Machine Direction

A line perpendicular to the direction the paper travels through the papermaking machine. Also referred to as Cross direction or Cross grain.

Undesirable distortion or waviness occurring to the paper due to the presence of excess moisture or humidity.

Papers cut 8 ½ x 11, 8 ½ x 14, or any other size 11 x 17 or smaller.

Cut to Register

Term used for watermarked letterhead papers to indicate the watermark will be cut to appear in a predetermined position on the finished sheet. Also referred to as a localized watermark.

Cutter Dust

Paper dust resulting from cutting or trimming the paper which can transfer to printing blankets causing problems during a press run.

Cyan (process blue)

One of the four-process colors.

Double-thick" describes a sheet of paper made by bonding two thicknesses of paper together resulting in an extra-stiff sheet.

Damp Streaks

Streaks caused by uneven pressing of drying during paper manufacturing.

In lithography, cloth covered, parchment paper or rubber rollers that distribute the dampening to the press plate.

Water, gum buffered acid, and various types of etches used to keep the non-image areas of the plate moist, and preventing them from accepting ink, in the lithographic printing process; also called fountain solution.

(1) A plain roll situated above the wet web of the paper to provide a smoothing action to the top surface of the paper as it passes under the roll. (2) A watermarking dandy roll is a roll of skeletal structure, sheathed in a wire cloth that has designs, letters or figures affixed to it. As the wet paper web passes under the turning watermark dandy the designs are impressed into the paper and a permanent watermark is left in the sheet.

Trade name for inks and papers containing fluorescent pigments.

The process in which the image is recessed into the paper.

On the wet end of the paper machine the straps or deckle rulers that prevent the fiber from overflowing the sides of the machine. The deckle determines how wide the paper on a particular machine will be.

Deckle Edge

Refers to the feathered edge on paper produced when fibers flow against the deckle or edge of the web. Deliberately produced for aesthetic purposes, a deckle edge is found especially on formal stationery and announcements. A deckle edge can be created by an air jet, or also by a stream of water.

A device on a web press or sheeter used to remove paper curl.

A paper decurling station on a sheeter or web press, used to remove paper curl.

A process which removes ink, toner, coatings and most fillers from recovered paper. The environmental priority is to make this process TCF, totally chlorine free.

The average amount of dirt in a specific size of paper area. Both virgin and recycled sheets have "dirt," although recycled paper has significantly higher dirt counts. The dirt should always be small enough not to interfere with the quality of the finished printed piece.

Delamination

A separation of the paper's surface.

Area of the originating press where the freshly printed sheets are piled as they leave the impression section.

Densitometer

Reflection instrument measuring the density of colored ink to determine its consistency throughout a press run.

Identifies the weight of paper compared to the volume; it is directly related to the paper's absorbency, stiffness, and opacity.

The parts of lower case letters that extend below the baseline.

A design, letters, or pattern cut in metal for stamping, embossing or for diecutting.

Die-Cutting

Male and female dies are used to cut out paper or board in desired shapes.

Pressure vessel in which wood chips are cooked to separate fibers from each other and to remove detrimental particles.

Dimensional Stability

Characteristic of paper to retain its dimensions in all directions under the stress of production and adverse changes in humidity.

Dirt in paper consists of any imbedded foreign matter or specks, which contrast in color to the remainder of the sheet.

Concave rather than flat pile of paper. Also refers to roll ends of paper that are not flat.

Distributor

Company which purchases paper from mill for resale to printers and end-users. Usually a distributor has protected or franchised product lines and territories. Inventory, warehousing, distribution and transportation of product are among the many services offered to paper buyers. Also called a merchant.

Tabbed sheets of index or other heavy stock, used to identify and separate specific sections of a book; used in loose-leaf and bound books.

Individual element of a halftone printing plate.

Dot Etching

Handwork on engravings and lithographic screened (halftone) negatives for correcting tonal values in either black-and-white or color work.

Dot Slurring

Smearing or elongation at the trailing edges of halftone dots.

When halftone dots print larger than they were supposed to print.

Dots, Halftone

The individual subdivisions of a printed surface created with a halftone screen.

Double Burning

Combining the images on two or more films onto a single film to create a single image.

Double Varnish

Two applications of press varnish.

Double-Black Halftone Printing

A means of extending the range of density available with printing ink by printing twice with black ink, using two specially prepared halftone negatives. Also called double-black duotone.

Double-Deckle Paper

A paper having parallel deckle edges.

Double-Dot Halftone

Two halftone negatives combined onto one printing plate, having greater tonal range than a conventional halftone negatives. One negative reproduces highlight and shadows, the other middle tones. This is not to be confused with duotone or double-black printing.

Double-Thick Cover Stock

A cover stock composed of two sheets of cover stock laminated together.

(1) In printing, a press problem that generally occurs when sheets make contact with the blanket twice, once just before the impression point and the second time at the impression point, resulting in a double image. At times, with certain papers, the feeder will feed two sheets instead of one, and when pressures are extreme or out of balance, the blanket may slip at the pressure point, resulting in a slur or double image. (2) In stamping, a double impression in which the second impression or "hit" does not register perfectly over the first one.

Doughnut Hickey

A printing defect consisting of a solid printed area surrounded by an unprinted area.

Duration of an unscheduled stoppage of machines or equipment (printing presses, papermaking machines, typesetting equipment, etc.), usually caused by malfunction.

Register trouble when the dot is enlarged toward the back (nongripper edge) of the sheet. See Slur.

A term used to describe an ink chemist's method of roughly determining coating or ink. The application (by a blade or a bar) of a thin film of coating or ink to a piece of paper.

Any substance used to hasten drying of ink on paper.

Wet paper passes through these large cylindrical steam heated rolls that dry paper webs. The dry-end of the paper machine.

Piercing of stacks of papers in a precision manner with round hollow drills at high speeds. Loose-leaf notebook paper is an example of drilled paper.

In printing, halftone with no screen dots in the highlights or background. Also, color not sensed by optical reading devices. Also, ink colors which will not image a photographic plate.

The color change which occurs when ink dries.

On the paper machine, it is the section where the dryers, cutters, slitters and reels are located.

Dryer (drying oven)

Oven on web offset press through which the web of printed paper passes after it leaves the final printing unit. The drying process, standard when heat-set inks are used, heats the web to about 350 degrees Fahrenheit. Either gas or electricity dries the vehicles and air blasts drive off the volatile gases.

Drying Time

The time it takes for an ink to become rub- or tack-free.

Page or set of pages assembled in the exact position, form and style desired for the finished piece of printed work. Used as a model or sample for the printer.

Two-color halftone reproduction from black-and-white original.

Laminated paper having a different color or finish on each side.

The accumulation of loose particles from the paper on the nonimage areas of the blanket. Particles are of very small size.

An ink colorant that is soluble in vehicle or solvent.

Dye Transfer

Similar in appearance to a color photograph but different in the important respect that it is produced from a transparency by printing continuous tones of color dyes.

A stable print specially sensitized on two-sided papers for proofing.

ECF Elemental Chlorine Free

Pulp bleached without the use of elemental chlorine. Generally this is virgin fiber bleached with chlorine dioxide.

E.C.H. Will Sheeter

Continuous automatic cut-size sheeter, ream wrapper, ream labeler, ream accumulator, case packer, lidder, bander and palletizer.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, which publishes guidelines for minimum recycled product content for use by federal agencies for purchasing standards. Many state and local governments and businesses have voluntarily adopted these. The EPA is charged with most of the environmental responsibility for guidance, direction, monitoring and enforcement in the United States.

Electronic Color Scanner

High speed computer, which instantly calculates the necessary color correction by measuring the original copy.

Electronic Printing

In digital printing, any technology that reproduces pages without the use of traditional ink, water or chemistry.

Electrostatic Copying

Process using an intermediary plate or drum (like Xerography) or coated take-off sheet (like Electrofax ™ ) which is electrically charged to attract powder or liquid developer only to the image area.

Elliptical Dot

In halftone photography, elongated dots, which give improved gradation of tones particularly in middle tomes and vignettes - also called chain dots.

In composition, a unit of measurement exactly as wide and high as the point sizes being set. So named because the letter "M" in early fonts was usually cast on a square body.

Embossed Finish

A finish imparted to a web of paper through an embossing machine. The paper will take on a raised or depressed surface resembling wood, cloth, leather, or other pattern.

Impressing an image in relief to achieve a raised surface; either over printing or on a blank paper (called blind embossing).

In composition, one-half the width of an em.

Encapsulated PostScript (EPS)

In digital prepress, a file format used to transfer graphic images within compatible applications. A file containing structured PostScript code, comments and a screen display image.

End-Leaf Paper

Strong, fine quality papers, either plain or coated and sometimes colored or marbled used at both ends of a book. Also called sheets.

Printing by the intaglio process. Ink is applied to the paper under extreme pressure resulting in a printed surface being raised. Used for fine letterheads, wedding invitations, etc.

Fadeout Halftone

A general reduction in the overall contrast of a halftone, to allow type to be easily readable when printed over it.

Fake Duotone

A two-color reproduction, using single halftone negative, usually blank, and a halftone screen tint for the background, usually in color.

Continuous multiple ply form manufactured from a single wide web which is folded longitudinally.

In printing, distortion of paper on the press due to waviness in the paper caused by absorption of moisture at the edges of the paper, particularly across the grain.

Fast-Drying Ink

An ink that dries soon after printing.

Tendency of an ink image to spread with a fuzzy, "feather like" edge.

Feed Rollers

On a printing press, the rubber wheels that move the sheets of paper from the feed pile to the grippers.

The section of a printing press that separates the sheets and feeds them into position for printing.

Term expressing an individual’s impression of a paper’s finish and stiffness or suppleness.

Feet-Per-Minute

Abbreviated FPM, this term refers usually to the speed of a papermaking machine in terms of how many feet per minute the forming web of paper traverses the length of the machine.

Felt Finish

A finish applied to the paper at the wet end of the paper machine by using felts of a distinctive weave rather than standard or regular wove felts.

Top side of the paper, opposite from the wire side or underneath. The "right side of the paper".

Woven, endless belt made of wool, cotton or synthetic materials used to transport the paper web on the paper machine, during manufacture. Felts act as a conveyor while at the same time removing water from paper as it progresses through the paper machine.

Fiber Orientation

Refers to the alignment of the fibers in the sheet. The degree of alignment can be controlled in the paper making process.

The small strands of wood, cotton or other cellulose product that is used to make the paper. In the premium paper market all of the fiber is lignin free. Fiber before it is made into the finished product us referred to as pulp.

String-like elements that are loosened from the paper fibers during the beating process. They aid in the bonding processes when paper is being manufactured.

Fibrillation

Act of loosening the fibrillae during the mechanical process of beating the fibers in preparation for papermaking.

Minerals, such as clay and other white pigments, added to pulp to improve the opacity, smoothness, brightness, and printing capabilities of paper.

A condition in offset lithography where ink fills the area between the halftone dots or plugs up the type; also known as plugging or filling up.

Maximum width of paper that can be made on any given paper machine.

Fine Papers

Types of premium papers used for writing, printing, and cultural purposes.

The physical look and feel of the paper’s surface. These include smooth, felt, laid, linen and others.

Finishing Broke

Discarded paper resulting from any finishing operation.

First Color Down

The first color printed as the sheet passes through the press.

A strip of paper protruding from a roll or skid of paper. May be used to mark a splice in a roll of paper or used to mark off reams in a skid.

Flash Exposure

In halftone photography, the supplementary exposure given to strengthen the dots in the shadow areas of negatives.

Printing two or more colors without overlaying color dots (i.e. without color trap); individual color matching. This differs from process color, which is a blending of four colors to produce a broad range of colors.

Flatbed Press

A press on which plates are positioned along a flat metal bed against which the paper is pressed by the impression cylinder, as compared to a rotary press which prints from curved plates.

Flatbed Scanner

A device that scans images in a manner similar to a photocopy machine; the original art is positioned face down on a glass plate.

Flexography

Letterpress printing using a form of relief printing ; formally called aniline printing. Synthetic or rubber relief plates, special inks, presses procedures.

To reverse a negative or positive, to bring the underside out on top. A negative that must be flopped has emulsion on the wrong side.

The property of ink which causes it to level out when still a liquid; "short" inks have poor flow, and "long" inks have good flow.

Fluorescent Inks

Extremely brilliant inks containing fluorescent pigments.

Flush Cover

Cover of a book that has been trimmed to the same dimensions as the text papers.

Unprinted page that is part of a printed signature. It also can be a synonym for end-leaf.

An undesirable neutral density in the clear areas of a photographic film or paper, in which the image is either locally or entirely veiled by a deposit of silver. Fog may be due to flare, unsafe darkroom illumination, age, or processing conditions.

A tissue-like material in sheet or roll form covered on one side with a metallic coloring used for stamping.

Folding Endurance

A paper test which measures the number of double (back and forth) folds that can be made on a sheet of paper under tension, before it breaks.

A page that exceeds the dimensions of a single page. It is folded to page size and included in the book, sometimes bound in and sometimes tipped in (pasted).

Refers to sheet size 17x22 or larger. Also, page numbers.

The bottom of a page of printed information.

Refers to the uniformity or lack of it in the distribution of the fibers when manufacturing paper; can be observed by looking through the sheet; a good formation is uniform or "Close", while a poor formation is not.

Fountain Solution

In lithography, a solution of water, a natural or synthetic gum and other chemicals used to dampen the plate and keep non-printing areas from accepting ink.

The unit on a press that contains ink to be fed to the distributing system, and the part that feeds the fountain solution to the dampening system.

Four-Color Process

The four basic colors of ink (yellow, magenta, cyan, and black), which reproduce full-color photographs or art.

Fourdrinier

A paper machine developed by Louis Robert and financed by Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier that produces a continuous web of paper; also the term for the section of the paper machine, which is a continuous "wire" or belt screen, through which the first removal of water occurs. The point of formation.

Four-Sided Trim (trim 4)

After the job is printed and folded, a trim will be taken off all four sides to remove any reference or registration marks and give a clean edge to the pile of sheets.

For Position Only (FPO)

In digital imaging, typically a low-resolution image positioned in a document to be replaced later with a higher resolution version of the same image.

Paper made with pulp created in a kraft process that has removed the lignin. Freesheet paper has more longevity than groundwood which contains lignin.(Newspaper is made with groundwood)

French Fold

A sheet printed on one side and folded first vertically and then horizontally to produce a four-page folder.

The mixture of fiber and other materials that is blended in the water suspension, or slurry, from which paper or board is made; usually about 1% solid material with 99% or the balance being water.

FSC - Forest Stewardship Council

An independent, international, environmentally and socially oriented forest certification organization. It trains, accredits and monitors third-party certifiers around the world and works to establish international forest management standards.

Fuzz (fluff)

Loose fibers projecting from a paper's surface.

Gang Printing

Grouping related jobs using same paper and inks. Grouping more than one job on a single plate.

A four-page insert, having foldouts on either side of the center spread.

Graphic Arts Technical Foundation

Collating folded signatures in consecutive order.

Gray Component Replacement

Gear Streaks

In printing, parallel streaks appearing across the printed sheet at same interval as gear teeth on the cylinder.

Each succeeding stage in reproduction from original copy.

Genuine Watermark

Watermark made with a dandy roll.

Ghost Halftone

A light halftone that may be overprinted with solid copy.

Ghost images are unwanted images that reduce print value. Mechanical ghosting develops during the delivery of the printed sheet and is traceable to on-press conditions, ink starvation, form layout, and even to the blanket itself. Chemical ghosting, which occurs during the drying process of ink on paper, is especially bothersome because the condition cannot be detected until the job has been completed.

To cover the trimmed edges of a book with gold or other metallic leaf.

Brief or magnifying glass.

An ink containing an extra quantity of varnish, which gives a glossy appearance when dry.

Glued-On Cover

A cover fastened to the text with glue.

The process of applying glue to the spine of a book to be casebound, after sewing and smashing, and before trimming.

The classification given to paper due to its unique characteristics, which includes brightness, opacity, cotton content, etc…

Grain Direction

The direction of the fibers in paper.

Term used to designate that the grain of the paper is parallel to the longest measurement of a sheet of paper. The fibers are aligned parallel to the length of the sheet.

Grain Short

Opposite of grain long. Grain of the paper runs at the right angles to the longest dimension of the sheet. Fiber alignment in grain short paper parallels the sheet’s shortest dimension.

Grainy Printing

Printing characterized by unevenness, particularly of halftones.

The basis weight of paper stated in metric terms of grams per square meter and expressed as g/m 2 . Thus a sheet of paper 17 x 22 with a basis weight of 20 lbs. For 500 sheets would be expressed metrically as 75 g/m 2 . To convert from basis weight to grams per square meter (g/m 2 ), multiply basis weight by 1406.5 (a constant factor) and divide by the number of square inches in base sheet.

Graphic Designer

A person in the graphic arts who puts together art, text, and other visuals to produce professional printed results.

An intaglio printing process in which the image area is etched below the surface of the printing plate and is transferred directly to the paper by means of pressure.

Gray Balance

The dot values or densities of cyan, magenta, and yellow that produce a neutral gray.

The number of gray values that can be distinguished by a color separation filter-usually 2 8 or 256.

A strip of standard gray tones, ranging from white to black, placed at the side of original copy during photography to measure tonal range and contrast (gamma) obtained.

A row of clips that holds a sheet of paper as it speeds through the press.

Gripper Edge

Leading edge of a sheet of paper as it passes through the printing press.

Gripper Margin

Unprintable back edge of a sheet of paper on which grippers bear, usually ½ inch or less.

Paper made from pulp created in one of several processes that use virtually the whole tree. Sometimes chemical and heating process are used in the pulping. Groundwood paper retains the lignin from the trees, which causes the paper to yellow and deteriorate relatively quickly.

Gross Weight

The total weight of merchandise and shipping container.

The edge of a printed sheet at right angles to the gripper edge, which travels along a guide on the press or folder. This edge, like the gripper edge, should never be altered or mutilated between the printing and folding operations. It is the shorter edge of the sheet.

Guide Marks

A method of using crossline marks on the offset press plate to indicate trim, centering of the sheet, centering of the plate, etc.; these are sometimes called register marks .

Guide Roller

Sometimes called a cocking roller. Located on the roll stand between the roll of paper and the dancer roll . Can be cocked to compensate for certain paper roll conditions.

The side the press uses to guide the sheet to the exact side toward the operator; also known as operator or control side.

Device that is used to cut or trim stacks of paper to the desired size.

Gum Streaks

Streaks, particularly in halftones, produced by uneven gumming of plates which partially desensitizes the image.

In platemaking, the process of applying a thin coating of gum to the non-printing areas of a lithographic plate.

The blank space or inner margin on a press sheet from printing area to binding.

Hairline Register

Register within ± ½ row of dots.

In photography, a blurred effect, resembling a halo, usually occurring in the highlight areas or around bright objects.

Half Binding

A style of binding wherein the shelf-back and the corners are bound in a different material from that used on the sides.

Halftone Negative Artwork (screened negative)

The negative film produced when continuous-tone artwork is shot through a halftone screen.

Halftone Positive Artwork (screened positive)

A photographic positive containing a halftone image.

Halftone Screen

An engraved glass through which continuous tone copy is photographed and reduced to a series of dots for halftone printing.

The reprographic technique that simulates continuous tone imagery through the use of dots, varying either in size or in spacing, thus generating a gradient-like effect. "Halftone" can also be used to refer specifically to the image that is produced by this process.

Handmade Finish

Paper with a rough finish resembling handmade paper.

A halftone dot characterized by a sharp, clean cut edge.

Another term for casebound.

Hardcover (casebound, edition binding)

Nonflexible book binding made of thick, glazed board.

Paper that has been treated with a large amount of size to increase its resistance to moisture. Slack-sized is the opposite.

Wood from deciduous trees having short fibers.

The amount allowed for the top trim.

A small strip of silk or cotton used for decoration at the top of a book between the sheets and the cover. In hand binding, a real tape to which the signatures are sewn.

On a paper machine, the box that dispenses the appropriate amount of furnish (pulp) into the papermaking process.

The top of a page of text which can be a chapter heading, title line, etc…

Head-to-Head Imposition

An imposition which requires that pages be laid out with the top of a page (head) positioned across the top of the page (head) opposite it on the form.

Head-to-Tail Imposition

An imposition which requires that pages be laid out with the top of a page (head) positioned across the from the bottom (tail) of the page opposite on the form.

Heat-Set Inks

Inks used in high-speed web offset. They set rapidly under heat and are quickly chilled.

In offset, spots or imperfections in the printed image traceable to such things as dirt on the press, dried ink skin, paper particles, dust, etc…

A paper (normally book paper) specifically manufactured to retain a thickness not found in papers of the same basis weight. Frequently used to give thickness to a book with minimal amount of pages.

High Contrast

In photography, describes a reproduction in which the difference in darkness between neighboring areas is greater than in the original.

High Finish

A term referring to a paper that has a smooth, hard finish applied through calendering or other processes.

High Key Picture

A continuous tone photo made up of predominantly highlight (white) areas.

Highlight Halftone

The lightest or whitest parts in a photograph represented in a halftone reproduction by the smallest dots or the absence of all dots.

High-Speed Printer

Computer which prints in excess of 300 lines per minute.

The flexible joint where the covers of a hardbound book meet the spine, permitting the covers to open without breaking the spine of the book or breaking the signatures apart.

An impression from a stamping die.

A term referring to papers that retain much of the resinous ink components on the surface of the sheet rather than absorbing them into a fiber network. Papers with too much holdout cause problems with setoff.

In color, the main attribute of a color which distinguishes it from other colors. See Chroma.

Moisture condition of the air. Relative humidity is the percent of moisture relative to the actual amount which air at any given temperature can retain without precipitation.

Hydra Pulper

Vat with a special type of agitator used to hydrate and prepare pulp for papermaking.

A papermaking process that involves beating the pulp so as to increase its ability to hold water and produce a paper with the proper moisture content.

Hydrophilic

Describes paper with an affinity for water.

Hydrophobic

Describes paper that tends to be water repellent.

Hygroscopic

Describes paper that readily absorbs moisture.

Imitation Parchment

Paper made with irregular distribution of fibers.

In digital imaging, an imagesetter capable of outputting a film flat with 4, 8 or more pages in imposed position.

Impression Cylinder

In printing, the cylinder on a printing press against which the paper picks up the impression from the inked plate in direct printing, or the blanket in offset printing.

Pressure of type of blanket as it comes in contact with paper.

To print other information on a previously printed piece by running it through a press again.

An auxiliary printing unit, usually employing rubber letterpress plates; imprints copy on top side of web and permits imprint copy to be changed while press is running at full speed.

Mailing permit imprints that are preprinted on envelopes, mailing cartons, etc.

Ink Absorption

Extent of ink penetration into paper.

The degree with which paper will absorb ink.

Ink Dot Scum

On aluminum plates, a type of oxidation scum characterized by scattered pits that print sharp, dense dots.

A metal drum, either solid or cored; a part of an inking mechanism; used to break down the ink and transfer it to the form rollers.

Ink Fountain

In printing presses, the device which stores and supplies ink to the inking rollers.

Ink Holdout

An important printing paper quality - the ability to keep ink on top of the paper's surface. An inked image printed on paper with a high degree of ink holdout will dry by oxidation rather than absorption.

Ink Jet Printing

In digital printing, a plateless printing system that produces images directly on paper from digital data using streams of very fine drops of dyes which are controlled by digital signals to produce images on paper.

Ink Receptive

Having the property of being wet by greasy ink, in preference to water.

Ink Resistance

Resistance to the penetration of the ink vehicle; also called ink hold-out.

Inking Mechanism

On a printing press, the ink fountain and all the parts used to meter, transfer, break down, distribute, cool or heat, and supply the ink to the printing members. Also called inking system.

Denotes a production line of machinery, as required for the more or less complete manufacturing of a given product.

A printed piece prepared for insertion into a publication or another printed piece.

Type or design etched into a metal plate as opposed to raised letters as in letterpress.

The extreme strength, degree or amount of ink.

Interleaves (slip sheets)

Paper inserted between sheets as they come off the printing press to prevent transfer of wet ink from one to the other. Also, accessory sheets between parts in a form.

To align sheets of paper into a compact pile.

The flexible hinge where the cover of a casebound book meets the spine, permitting the cover to open without breaking the spine of the book or breaking apart the signatures; also called a hinge.

Proper name for the beater on the paper machine. In the Jordan, the pulp is pulverized, causing the pulp and water to mix in a uniform manner.

Junior Carton

A package of reamed sealed, cut size paper packed 8 to 10 reams per carton.

Fitting a line of type to both margins.

A method in composition of changing the spacing between type; brings the type closer together.

In color printing, the plate used as a guide for the register of other colors. It normally contains the most detail.

In artwork, an outline drawing of finished art to indicate the exact shape, position and size for such elements as halftones, line sketches, etc…

Kiss Impression

Printing performed with only slight pressure. The normal procedure for quality printing.

Kiss Pressure

The minimum pressure at which proper ink transfer is possible.

Partial cut through.

Kraft Process

A chemical pulping process that cooks down the tree to remove lignin, retaining the fibers for paper making. Free sheet papers are made in the kraft process.

Label Paper

Paper used for labeling applications. It may or may not have pressure sensitive adhesive backing added to the sheet.

Laid Dandy Roll

A dandy roll made for the purpose of imparting a laid finish to paper. It is composed of wires running parallel to the roll’s axis and attached to the frame by evenly spaced chain wires that encircle the circumference of the roll. The laid wires are affixed on top of the transverse chain wires, rather than being wove over and under them.

Term describes the finish imparted by a dandy roll which features wires parallel to its axis that impress the paper during manufacture to produce a permanent watermark. The wires which produce the laid effect are situated parallel on the dandy roll and are not interwoven with the traverse chain wires which encircle the dandy roll’s circumference, meaning the cross direction.

Paper that is developed by fusing one or more layers of paper together to the desired thickness and quality.

The slightly extended areas of printing surfaces in color plates, which make for easier registration of color.

Lap Register

A register achieved by overlaying a narrow strip of the second color over the first color, at the points of joining.

Last Color Down

The last color printed.

The drawing or sketch of a proposed printed piece. In platemaking, a sheet indicating the settings for a step-and-repeat machine.

Layout Sheet

The imposition form; it indicates the sequence and positioning of negatives on the flat, which corresponds to printed pages on the press sheet. Once the sheet is folded, pages will be in consecutive order.

In composition, rows of dashes or dots to guide the eye across the page. Used in tabular work, programs, tables of contents, etc…

The ability of an ink to flow.

Letterpress Printing

Also known as relief typographic printing, letterpress printing employs the use of type or designs cast or engraved in relief (raised) on a variety of surfaces which can include metal, rubber, and wood. Opposite of intaglio printing, in letterpress printing the ink is applied to the raised printing surface. Non-printing areas or spaces are recessed. Impressions are made in various ways. On a platen press the impressions are made by pressure against a flat area of type or plate. Flat-bed cylinder press printing uses the pressure of a cylinder rolling across a flat area of type or plate to create the impression. A rotary web press uses a plate that has been stereotyped (molded into a curved form) which presses against another cylinder carrying the paper.

The evenness of a paper determined by the fiber distribution.

Library Binding

A book bound in accordance with the standards of the American Library Association, having strong endpapers , muslin-reinforced end signatures, sewing with four-cord thread, cotton flannel backlining, and covers of Caxton buckram cloth, with round corners.

Maximum number of sheets handled by operator of guillotine cutting machine or by paper handler loading paper for printing.

Lightfastness

The degree to which a paper or printed piece will resist a change in color when exposed to light.

The "glue" that binds the cells of the tree and creates its structure. This product is removed in the kraft process. Approximately one third of the tree is lignin.

Likesidedness

Noticeably similar side-to-side color and finish of a sheet of paper.

Any copy suitable for reproduction without using a halftone screen.

Line Drawing

A drawing containing no grays or middle tones. In general, any drawing that can be reproduced without the use of halftone techniques.

Line Negative

A negative made from line copy.

Linear Paper

A watermarked sheet with lines to guide the user.

Linen Finish Paper

A paper embossed to have a surface resembling linen cloth.

The material which is pasted down on the backbone (spine) of a book to be casebound, after it has been sewn, glued off, and then rounded. It reinforces the glue and helps hold signatures together.

Small fuzzy particles in paper.

The allowance for overlap of one-half of the open side edge of a folded section, needed for sewn and saddlestitch binding, for feeding the sections; also called lap.

Lithographic Image

An ink-receptive image on the lithographic press plate; the design or drawing on stone or a metal plate.

Lithographic Papers

See offset papers

Lithography

A generic term for any printing process in which the image area and the nonimage area exist on the same plane (plate) and are separated by chemical repulsion.

Localized Watermark

Achieved by arranging the design on the dandy roll to leave a watermark at a predetermined place on the sheet.

A mark or symbol created for an individual, company, or product that translates the impression of the body it is representing into a graphic image.

Paper made with the machine direction in the longest sheet dimension.

An ink that has good flow on ink rollers of a press. If the ink is too long, it breaks up into filaments on the press, and causes flying as on a newspaper press.

Degree of permanence.

To fold a sheet lengthwise in the direction of the grain.

A popular style of binding, in which the spine binding material is not glued to the binding edge of the sheets.

Loose Register

Color that fits "loosely"; positioning (register) is not critical.

Refers to papers somewhat thinner than the usual papers of the same weight, having a smooth surface, and which is a "thin" sheet.

Low-Key Picture

A continuous tone photo made up of predominantly shadow areas of the same tone.

Symbol in the paper industry designating 1,000. Usually used to designate 1,000 sheets or two reams of fine paper.

Machine Direction

Establishes the grain direction, which is always parallel with the travel of the paper over the wire.

Machine Dried

Process of drying paper on the paper machine as opposed to air drying the paper after removal from the machine.

Machine Finish

Finish that is obtained while the paper is on the paper machine. Expressed as M.F. Different finishes are obtained by the number of times paper is passed through the rollers, either dry or wet.

Hue of a subtractive primary and a 4-color process ink. It reflects or transmits blue and red light and absorbs green light.

Magenta Screen

A dyed contact screen, used for making halftones.

In printing presses, all work done prior to running; adjusting the feeder, grippers, side guide, putting ink in the fountain, etc. Also, in letterpress, the building up of the press form, so that the heavy and light areas print with the correct impression.

Making Order

A paper that is not available off the supplier’s shelf, but they will produce it when ordered. Making orders for special sizes, colors and weights of paper are subject to small minimums.

The unprinted area around the edges of a page. The margins as designated in book specifications refer to the remaining margins after the book has been trimmed.

In color separation photography, an intermediate photographic negative or positive used in color correction. In offset lithography, opaque material used to protect open or selected areas of a printing plate during exposure.

Mechanical Pulp

In papermaking, groundwood pulp produced by mechanically grinding logs or wood chips. It is used mainly for newsprint and as an ingredient of base stock for lower grade publication papers.

Metallic Inks

Ink containing metal substances, used to produce special printed output.

The tonal range between highlights and shadows of a photograph or reproduction.

Paper which is brand-named by the manufacturer as opposed to the merchant house, which is known as a "private brand".

Mixed Office Waste

Wastepaper generated from offices, such as letters, memos, invoices, etc. which are collected and sorted for paper qualities. This is the major source of post consumer fiber used in recycled papers.

Geometric pattern caused when two screened images are superimposed at certain angles. Occurs when making a halftone from a halftone image.

Moisture Content

Refers to the amount of moisture found in a sheet of paper. Average amount ranges from 5 to 8%. This figure varies from sheet to sheet since paper will emit or absorb moisture according to the condition of the surrounding atmosphere. Moisture loss is realized in the form of shrinkage, which begins at the edges of the paper and moves across the grain causing the sheet to tighten and curl.

Printed in one color only.

In Artwork, several photographs combined to form a composite illustration.

Mottled Finish

Finish, which exhibits high and low spots, or glossy and dull areas on the printed sheet.

Mullen Tester

Device that measures the bursting strength of paper. Sometimes referred to as the pop test or pop tester.

In photography, film containing an image in which the values of the original are reversed so that the dark areas in the subject appear light on the film and vice versa.

Offset papers manufactured with a pH of 6.0 to 8.0 on a scale of .0 to 14.0. Neutral pH factors are built into paper as a minimum value, to increase stability and improve permanence for use in printing of archival records.

Nominal Weight

Refers to the basis weight of the paper. Unless otherwise stipulated by the mill and customer, a tolerance of plus or minus 5% is allowed when calculating the nominal weight.

Non-Impact Printers

Forms an image without impact.

In binding, a booklet bound on the short dimension.

Pertaining to equipment not under direct control of the central processing unit.

Off-Press Proofs

Proofs made by photomechanical or digital means in less time and at lower cost than press proofs.

See set-off. In printing, the process of using an intermediate blanket cylinder to transfer an image from the image carrier to the substrate. Short for offset lithography.

Offset Lithography (photolithography, offset)

The most common form of lithographic printing in which the image area and the nonimage area exist on the same plane (plate), separated by chemical repulsion. To print, the ink is "offset" (transferred) from the plate onto a rubber blanket and then to the paper.

Offset Paper

Coated or uncoated paper specifically for offset printing.

Offset Press (sheet fed)

Indirect rotary press with plate cylinder, blanket cylinder and an impression cylinder.

Offset Printing

Process of printing utilizing a lithographic plate on which the images or designs are ink receptive while the remainder of the plate is water receptive. Ink is transferred from the plate to a rubber blanket on the printing press and this rubber blanket transfers the image to paper. It is sometimes referred to as offset lithography or photo-offset.

One-Up, Two-Up, etc

Printing one (two, three, etc.) impressions of a job at a time.

A lightweight, cockle finish paper used for making copies of correspondence.

Pertaining to equipment under direct control of the central processing unit of a computer.

The amount of "show through" in a sheet from one side to the other. The higher the opacity the less likely that the printing on one side will be visible from the other side.

The more opaque a sheet of paper is, the less transparent it is. High opacity in printing papers is a good characteristic as print from the other side of a printed leaf has less "show-through".

An ink that conceals all color beneath it.

Open End Envelope

An envelope that opens on the short dimension.

Optical Brightness

Optical brighteners or fluorescent dyes are extensively used to make high, bright blue-white papers. They absorb invisible ultraviolet light and convert to visible light, falling into the blue to violet portion of the spectrum, which is then reflected back to our eyes.

Optical Whitener

A dye that is added to the fiber stock or applied to the paper surface at the size press to enhance its brightness.

Orange Peel

A granular surface on coated or printed paper that looks like orange peel.

Out-of-Register

(1) Descriptive of pages on both sides of the sheet which do not back up accurately. (2) Two or more colors are not in the proper position when printed; register does not "match."

Out-of-Round Rolls

Paper rolls that are not suitable for the web offset press because they are not perfectly round and will cause uneven feeding tension.

Out-of-Square

Refers to paper that has been trimmed improperly thus causing the corners to be less or more than 90 degrees. This leads to difficulty during the printing process and often results in misregister of the printed piece. Also called off-square.

Outline Halftone (silhouette halftone)

A halftone image which is outlined by removing the dots that surround it.

Overhang Cover

A cover larger in size than the pages it encloses.

Describes printing when too much ink has been used, resulting in heavy print that tends to blur toward the back of the press sheet.

Overpacking

Packing the plate or blanket to a level that is excessively above the level of the cylinder bearer.

Overpressure

Too much pressure, causing ink to tend to plug letters, especially halftone dots.

Overprinting

Double printing; printing over an area that already has been printed.

Quantity of paper that is manufactured beyond the quantity specified. In printing, copies printed in excess of the specified quantity.

A chemical reaction which hardens the ink vehicle and makes the film of ink reasonably rub-proof . The process of combining with oxygen.

In printing presses, the paper or other material used to underlay a press blanket or plate, to bring the surface to the desired height; the method of adjusting squeeze pressure.

Packing Gauge

a device for determining the relationship between the height of the plate or blanket, and the cylinder bearers.

Padding Glue

A flexible glue used in padding loose sheets.

The number of flexes a book page can withstand before loosening from the binding.

Page Makeup

In stripping, assembly of all elements to make up a page. In digital imaging, the electronic assembly of page elements to compose a complete page with all elements in place on a video display terminal and on film or plate.

Page Proofs

Initial impression of a page pulled for checking purposes before the entire job is run.

Pages-Per-Inch (ppi)

In book production, the number of pages contained in a one-inch stack of paper.

In computerized typesetting, the process of performing page makeup automatically.

The collection of colors or shades available to a graphic system or program.

A wooden platform with stringers wide enough to allow a fork lift to drive into it and lift; used to pack cartons for shipment, if specified by the customer. Pallets are usually not reusable.

Pantone Matching System

Paper machine.

Machine on which paper is manufactured, dried, wound on rolls and slit to appropriate lengths.

Paper Surface Efficiency

Measure of the printability of a sheet of paper which is dependent upon the amount of ink the paper absorbs, the smoothness of its surface, and the evenness of its caliper.

A paper-covered book; also called paperback or soft cover.

A paper used for greeting cards, stationery, etc…which is distinctive from regular stock in that special watermarks and embossing may be used.

Paraded Watermark

(See watermark).

Parallel Fold

Any series of folds in sequence, made in parallel fashion.

Paste Drier

In inkmaking, a type of dryer, usually a combination of drying compounds.

Pasted grades are those grades of paper or paperboard made up of layers pasted together. The process is machine operation used to combine sheets of the same or different papers into a single thickness.

PCF - Process Chlorine Free

Our 100% post consumer recycled papers are manufactured from sustainable raw materials and are processed using chlorine-free practices.

Quick-Set Inks

Those inks that set-up faster and dry faster, usually from top to bottom. These inks are used when sheets have to be sent back through the press faster than normal drying time will allow.

Printing with four half-tone images at different screen angles using four different colors. Usually the four colors would have a color slant or cast towards a selected tone or color; for example a sepia-tone or overall brown slant or cast.

Quarter Tone

In printing, a printing dot that has a percentage that is close to the 25% printing dot size.

Today it is usually referred to as cotton fiber paper. It is made from cotton cuttings and linters.

Pulp made by disintegrating new or old cotton or linen rags and cleaning and bleaching fibers.

Random Watermark

Five hundred sheets of printing paper.

Ream Marked

Pile of paper is ream marked by the insertion of small slips of paper or "ream markers" at intervals of every 500 sheets.

Ream Marker

Piece of rectangular shaped paper used to mark off the reams in a stack of paper.

Ream Weight

Weight of a given ream of paper.

Ream Wrapped

Paper which has been separated into reams and individually packaged or wrapped.

Scrap paper collected for remanufacturing into recycled paper. EPA’s definition for recovered is the most widely accepted and does not include scrap paper created in the initial papermaking process, but does include scrap created in a mill after the paper comes off the paper machine. Printing waste and envelope trip are also recovered fiber.

Recycleable

This means the product can be recycled. This applies to most paper even if it is coated, waxed or other wise treated.

Paper made at least in part from recovered fibers. There is no universally acceptable definition so requirements vary by specific circumstances. EPA requires post consumer content in recycled papers purchased by federal agencies. But the FTC does not require post-consumer content in papers labeled recycled. Most US governments and companies use the EPA standards, but there is no requirement. In Canada most companies use the terra-choice definition for recycle which does require minimum levels of post-consumer fiber.

In printing inks, varnishes, solvents, oily or greasy compounds used to reduce the consistency for printing. In photography, chemicals used to reduce the density of negative or positive images or the size of halftone dots (dot etching).

The mechanical treatment of pulp fibers to develop their papermaking properties.

Reflection Copy

In photography, illustrative copy that is viewed and must be photographed by light reflected from its surface. Examples are photographs, drawings, etc…

In printing, register is the placement of two or more images on the same paper in such a manner as to make them in perfect alignment with each other. When a printing job is in exact register succeeding forms or colors can be printed in the correct position relative to the images already printed on the sheet.

Register Mark

Mark placed on a form to assist in proper positioning of after-printing operations. Two short lines at right angles are called an angle mark. Also, bulls-eye marks placed on camera-ready copy to assist in registration of subsequent operations.

Registration

Alignment of one element of a form in relation to another. Also, alignment of printed images upon the same sheet of paper.

Relative Humidity (RH)

The amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere expressed as a percentage of the maximum that could be present at the same temperature.

Repeatability

The ability to keep photo film and the images thereon in proper register. Repeatability is usually measured in micrometers.

A term referring to printing again from standing negatives.

Chemicals that slow setting time of printing inks.

When the background is completely printed, and the design area is left unprinted.

Equipment which slits and rewinds paper webs into smaller rolls.

Right Side of Paper

The felt side of a sheet, also the side on which the watermark, if any, may be read.

Right-Angle Fold

Term used for two or more folds that are at 90 degree angles to each other.

Right-Read Image

Image similar to the original or intended final copy.

Stiffness, resistance to bending.

Web of paper. Paper wound around a core or shaft to form a continuous roll or web of paper.

Roller Stripping

In lithography, a term denoting that the ink does not adhere to the metal ink rollers on a press.

A size added to paper to make it water resistant.

Rotary Press

Printing press in which the plate is wrapped around a cylinder. There are two types, direct and indirect. Direct presses print with a plate cylinder and an impression cylinder. Indirect rotary presses (sheet-fed offset presses) combine a plate cylinder, a blanket cylinder and an impression cylinder.

Rotogravure

Intaglio process. The image is below the surface of the plate. (Letterhead image is raised the offset image is flat)

1) Ink on printed sheets, after sufficient drying, which smears or comes off on the fingers when handled. (2) Ink that comes off the cover during shipment and transfers to other covers or to the shipping carton or mailer; also called Scuffing.

In printing, an ink that has reached maximum dryness and does not mar with normal abrasion.

Rule Weight

Thickness of lines; hairline rule; medium rule (½ point); heavy rule (1 point).

Runnability

Paper’s performance on a press and its ability to withstand the stresses of a running press unaltered. Not the same as printability.

Saddle Stitch

Binding process for pamphlets or booklets, which works by stapling through the middle fold of the sheets (saddle wire).

Saddle Wire Binding

To fasten a booklet by wiring the middle fold of the printed sheets of paper.

Absence of the short cross line at the ends of the stroke of a Roman letter.

Optical scanner, also electric device used in making color separation.

Point-by-Point electronic scanning of color separations under computer control.

Schopper's Tester

An instrument for testing the folding endurance of paper.

Score/Scoring

The process and the resulting line or crease mechanically impressed in the paper to facilitate folding while guarding against cracking of paper and board. Scoring is essential when heavyweight papers are to be folded.

The ruling used to determine the dots per unit area in developing tonal values in the printed piece. Screens from which letterpress halftones of photographs are made range from 60 lines-per-inch for printing on newsprint to 300 lines for printing on coated paper and premium uncoated paper. Offset halftones for printing on most surfaces range from 133 lines to 200 lines.

Screen Angles

In color reproduction, angles at which the halftone screens are placed with relation to one another, to avoid undesirable moire patterns. A set of angles often used is: black 45°, magenta 75°, yellow 90°, cyan 105°.

Screen Process Printing

This printing process uses a screen of fine-mesh silk (thus the common name silk screen printing) taughtly stretched across a frame. A squeegee drawn across the screen forces ink through the open image areas which are cut-out by hand using lacquered tissue prior to its adherence to the silk. Special photographic negatives are adhered to the screen when faithful reproduction of intricate designs are sought.

Screen Range

The density difference between the highlight and shadow areas of copy that a halftone screen can reproduce without a flash exposure.

Screen Ruling

The number of lines or dots per inch on a halftone screen.

Screened Print

A print made from continuous-tone copy that was screened during exposure.

A halftone film having a uniform dot size over its area, and rated by its approximate printing dot size value, such as 20 percent, 50 percent, etc.; also called screen tint.

See rub-off, The disrupted appearance of an ink film as a result of abrasion to either the wet or dry ink film.

A term referring to the press plate picking up ink in the nonprinting areas for a variety of reasons, basically due to spots or areas not remaining desensitized.

Term often applied to cut size sheets which are packaged "ream sealed", 500 sheets to the package.

Process of allowing paper to adjust to atmospheric conditions of the plant in which it will be used.

Secondary Fiber

A term used for wastepaper, also referred to as paper stock.

A cover that matches the inside text pages.

Semi-Concealed Cover

A cover for mechanical binding that is a single piece scored and slotted or punched for combining with the mechanical binding device, formatting a closed backbone on bound units.

Sensitivity Guide

A narrow, calibrated continuous tone gray scale with each tone scale numbered.

Short cross line at the ends of the stroke of a Roman letter.

In platemaking, the distance from the front edge of the press plate to the image area, to allow for clamping to the cylinder and also for the gripper margin.

The undesirable transfer of ink from freshly printed sheets of paper to another. (Also called off-set).

Set-Up Sheet

A sheet drawn in Plate Prep on the Craftsman table from computer specifications; used as a master for the layout and positioning of pages on the job for which it was drawn.

A popular style of bookbinding; in which the signatures are gathered in sequence and then sewn individually in 8s, 16s, or 32s. The sewing threads are visible at the center of each signature.

Sewn-On Tapes

Strips of reinforcing cloth sewn to the spine of the book sections and extending slightly past the edge of the spine; used to strengthen the binding of a casebound book.

The darkest parts in a photograph, represented in a halftone by the largest dots.

To decrease in color strength, as when halftone dots become smaller; opposite of dot spread or dot gain.

A photographic term for perfectly defined detail in an original, negative and reproduction.

To cut a slight trim from bound books or paper, printed or blank.

Term which may be applied to a single sheet, a grade of paper, or a description of paper, i.e. coated, uncoated, offset, letterpress, etc.

Sheet Delamination

Directly related to poor surface strength in that if the sheet has poor surface strength, delamination will occur in the printing process. Sheet delamination could also create a problem of a blanket smash. If the delamination is large enough and thick enough, as the press continues to run, it will create a depression in the blanket, so that when the delamination buildup is removed from the blanket the depression will remain, rendering the blanket unusable. These defects pertain to both sheet-fed and web-fed equipment.

In paper manufacture, rotary unit over which the web of paper passes to be cut into sheets. In printing, rotary knife at the delivery end of web press that slices press lengths.

Any printing press requiring paper in a sheet form as opposed to printing in rolls.

The process of cutting a roll or web of paper into sheets.

To print one side of a sheet of paper with one plate, then turn the sheet over and print the other side with another plate using same gripper and opposite side guide.

(1) A slip case for holding bound volumes of a set. (2) The copper (or nickel) duplicate of type or engravings produced in the plating tanks on impressions in wax or other molding mediums.

Sheridan Saddle Stitcher-Trimmer

A machine used to gather, cover, stitch, and trim saddle stitch books.

Undercooked wood particles that are removed from the pulp before manufacture of paper begins. Sometimes shives will appear as imperfections in the finished sheets.

Short-Grained Paper

Paper in which the predominant fiber orientation is parallel to the shortest sheet dimension.

Show-Through

In printing, the undesirable condition in which the printing on the reverse side of a sheet can be seen through the sheet under normal lighting conditions.

Decrease in the dimensions of a sheet of paper or loss incurred in weight between the amount of pulp used and paper produced.

On sheet-fed presses, a guide on the feed board to position the sheet sideways as it feeds into the front guides before entering the impression cylinder.

A method of binding in which the folded signatures or cut sheets are stitched with wire along and through the side, close to the gutter margin. Pages cannot be fully opened to a flat position; also called side wire.

Section of book obtained by folding a single sheet of printed paper in 8, 12, 16 or 32 pages.

Halftones from which the screen around any part of the image has been removed.

Silk-Screen

Print from a stencil image maker where the ink is applied by squeegee through a silk screen.

Silk-Screen Printing

Another name for screen process printing

Size or Sizing

Additive substances applied to the paper either internally through the beater or as a coating that improves printing qualities and resistance to liquids. Commonly used sizes are starch and latex.

Part of the paper machine, near the end, where sizing agents are added.

Container holding sizing material during the tub sizing process.

(1)A reusable platform support, made of wood, on which sheets of paper are delivered, and on which printed sheets or folded sections are stacked. Also used to ship materials, usually in cartons which have been strapped (banded) to the skid. (2)A quantity of paper, usually about 3000 lbs., skid-packed.

A paper that is slightly sized and therefore will be somewhat water resistant.

Slip-Sheeting

Placing pieces of paper between folded sections prior to trimming four sides, to separate completed books.

A sharp disk which cuts a paper into pre-determined widths.

Cutting printed sheets into two or more sections by means of cutting wheels on a folder.

Slur-Gauge (The GATF Slur Gauge)

A combination dot gain and slur indicator supplied in positive or negative form. It is a quality control device that shows at a glance dot gain or dot loss. It also demonstrates whether the gain or the loss occurs in contacting, platemaking, proofing or on the press.

The smearing or elongation of halftone dots or type and line images at their trailing edges.

Watery suspension of pigments, etc…which is used in coating or papermaking.

Smashed or Weak Blanket

An area of a blanket that is no longer firm and resilient, and that gives a light impression in the center of a well printed area. Usually caused by physical damage of the blanket at impression.

Smashing (nipping, compressing)

The binding operation following sewing in which the folded and sewn sheets are compressed to tighten the fold free of air to make the front and back of the sheets the same thickness.

A press condition in which the impression is slurred and unclear, because too much ink was used or sheets were handled or rubbed before the ink was dry.

Smooth Finish

A finish on paper that has been made smooth by passing through various rollers.

Smoothing Press

Prior to reaching the driers, the paper web is smoothed, if necessary, by two rolls working together.

The flatness of a sheet of paper, which generally determines the crispness of the image printed upon it.

Smyth Sewing

A method of fastening side-by-side signatures so that each is linked with thread to its neighbor, as well as saddlesewn through its own centerfold. Smyth-sewn books open flat. The stitching is on the back of the fold.

A camera term describing halation or fringe around the edge of a dot which is excessive and almost equals the area of the dot itself.

A term that describes the consistency of lithographic inks.

Another term for paperback or paperbound books.

Wood from coniferous trees having long fibers.

An area completely covered with ink, or the use of 100% of a given color. In composition, type set without space ( leading ) between the lines.

Intervals between lines of type.

Spec'd (specified)

Spec'd copy gives details of items such as paper, bindery techniques, type, etc., which have been determined for a given job.

Specialty Papers or Boards

Paper or board that is manufactured, or subsequently converted, for a specific use. These grades usually cannot be used for anything other than their intended special purpose.

The designer or printing production worker who determines the types of paper to be used under various circumstances.

Spectrophotometer

Sophisticated instrument that measures color across a visible spectrum and produces data describing the color of a given sample in terms of the three parameters in color space.

The complete range of colors in the rainbow, from short wavelengths (blue) to long wavelengths (red).

Backbone of a book.

Spiral Binding

Wires in a spiral form inserted through specially punched holes along the binding edge.

An overlapping joint used to join the ends of webs together.

Tab or marker giving the location of a splice.

Split Fountain

A technique for simultaneously printing two colors from the same ink fountain.

Smallest visible point that can be displayed or printed. The smallest diameter of light that a scanner can detect, or an image-setter or printer can image. Dot should not be confused with spot.

Spot Varnish

Press varnish applied to a portion of the sheet, as opposed to an overall application of the varnish.

Spotting Out

Fine opaquing such as in removing pinholes or other small transparent defects in a negative; also called Opaquing.

Spray Powder

A powder used at press to prevent setoff (offset) of wet ink; also called anti-offset spray.

Square Halftone (square-finish halftone)

A halftone whose four sides are straight and perpendicular to one another.

Square Sheet

A sheet which is equally strong and tear resistant with and against the grain.

A term used to describe paper that has been seasoned so that the moisture content is the same as the air surrounding it.

Device attached to delivery conveyor to collate, compress and bundle signatures.

Pressing a design onto a book cover using metal foil, colored foil, or ink, applied with metal dies.

Standards (paper)

Terms used to indicate the manufactured specifications of a paper. Includes color, basis weight, sheet dimensions, and grain direction.

Material used as a sizing agent for paper. Usually made from corn.

Static Electricity

An electrical charge frequently found in paper which is too dry or which has been affected by local atmospheric conditions.

Static Neutralizer

In printing presses , an attachment designed to remove the static electricity from the paper to avoid ink setoff and trouble with feeding the paper.

Steel Engraving

An engraved plate used in relief printing.

Step-and-Repeat

Technique of affixing multiple images on a film or plate to extremely close tolerances.

In multiple imposition on a lithographic press plate, the procedure of repeating the exposure of a flat by stepping it along the gripper edge; side-by-side exposure.

In multiple imposition on a lithographic press plate, the procedure of repeating the exposure of a flat by stepping it back from the gripper edge of the plate; up-and-down exposure.

An ink with too much body.

Property of paper and paperboard to resist bending.

Stitched Book

A popular method of sewing the signatures of a book together by stitching all the sheets at one time, either through the center of the inserted sheets or side-stitched from front to back. A very strong style of binding but not flexible as compared with sewing.

Use of wire fastenings as a permanent fastening for continuous forms.

Stochastic Screening

A digital screening process that converts images into very small dots (14-40 microns) of equal size and variable spacing. Second order screened images have variable size dots and variable spacing. Also called Frequency Modulated (FM) screening.

General term with many meanings. (1) Paper or board that is on hand in inventory. (2) Paper or board that has been designated for a particular use and only awaits the printing or converting process. (3) Pulp which has been processed to a state where dilution is the only step necessary for it to be made into paper or board. (4) At any stage in manufacture wet pulp is referred to as stock. (5) Wastepaper.

Stock Sizes

Standard sizes of paper or board.

Stock Weights

Weights of papers stocked by mills and merchants.

Stocking Items

Papers manufactured in popular sizes, weights, colors, etc. on a regular basis to maintain adequately stocked inventories in mill warehouses.

Stocking Merchant

Paper distributor that stocks in his own warehouse facilities enough paper to immediately fill anticipated orders in the market. This eliminates the delay of ordering from the paper manufacturer, taking delivery, and delivering to the customer.

Stopping Out

An application of opaque to photographic negatives; also the application of special lacquer to protect areas in positives in dot etching; staging of halftone plates during relief etching; protecting certain areas of deep-etched plates so that no ink will be deposited on the protected areas.

Stream Feeder

A type of press feeder that keeps several sheets of paper, overlapping each other, moving toward the grippers.

Describes the "give" of a sheet of paper when it is subjected to tensile pressure.

Stretch Resistance

Stretch properties are essential for paper to fold well and to resist stress in use. Stretch resistance is measured on tensile testing instruments.

Penetration of printing ink into a sheet of paper.

Strike-Through

Penetration of printing ink through a sheet of paper.

String and Button Envelope

An envelope made with two reinforced paper buttons, one on the flap and the other on the back of the envelope. To close, a string which is locked under the flap button is wound alternately around the two buttons.

Substance Weight

Same as basis weight .

A rubber suction cup on machine feeding devices.

Suction Box

Device that removes water from the paper machine by a suction action located beneath the wire at the wet end.

Suction Feed

A term applied to suction grippers which feed paper.

Alkaline process of cooking pulp also known as the kraft process. Wood chips are cooked to a high brightness without fiber degradation in a substance of sodium sulfate and sodium sulfide.

Acid process of cooking pulp. Wood chips are cooked in a solution of bisulphite.

Super Calender

Off machine calender rolls that heat and iron paper to provide a high gloss finish.

Super Calendering

Alternating rolls of highly polished steel and compressed cotton in a stack. During the process the paper is subjected to the heated steel rolls and "ironed" by the compressed cotton rolls. It imparts a high, gloss finish to the paper. Super calender stacks are not an inherent part of the paper machine whereas the calender rolls are.

Surface Plate

One of the two basic types of lithographic press plates; a colloid image is formed on the light-sensitized metal plate by the action of actinic light passing through photographic negatives.

Surface Sized

Term applied to paper that has been sized by applying a sizing agent when the web of paper is partially dry. Purpose is to increase resistance to ink penetration.

Surface Texture

The relative roughness, smoothness or unevenness of the paper surface.

An additional printing over the design areas of previously printed matter to produce such overprints as "Sale," "$1.98" "Sample," etc. Also called overprint.

Same as sample book. A grouping of papers, usually in bound form, that displays the weights, colors, finishes and other particulars of a collection of papers to aid in the selection of grades.

Abbreviation indicating that the paper has been guillotine trimmed on all four sides. Literal translation: trimmed four sides.

During binding, the cutting or adhering of tabs on the edges of pages.

The pulling power or separation force of ink causing picking or splitting of weak papers.

Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)

A file format for graphics suited for representing scanned images and other large bitmaps. TIFF is a neutral format designed for compatibility with all applications. TIFF was created specifically for storing grayscale images, and it is the standard format for scanned images such as photographs-now called TIFF/IT.

A test to determine the tearing resistance of paper.

TCF - Totally Chlorine Free

Includes both virgin and post-consumer fibers that are bleached without any chlorine containing compounds.

Tearing Strength

The ability of a paper to resist tearing when subjected to rigorous production demands of manufacturing, printing, binding and its conversion from flat sheets into envelopes, packaging materials, etc.

Tensile Strength

Tensile strength relates to the stress and strain to which paper is subjected in its many end use applications. It is defined as the maximum force required to break a paper strip of a given width under prescribed laboratory conditions. Tensile strength is usually defined as pounds-per-inch width of the testing strip, or as kilograms per 15-millimeter width. Tensile strength is measured in both the grain and cross-grain directions, however, it is always greater in the grain direction.

A general term applied to various grades of printing paper designed for deluxe printed booklets, programs, announcements and advertising.

Thermography

Letterpress printing in which a special ink, while still wet, is dusted with a resinous powder. Then the sheets are baked fusing the powder with the ink, giving it a raised effect.

Thermomechanical Pulp

Made by steaming wood chips prior to and during refining, producing a higher yield and stronger pulp than regular groundwood.

Measurement in thousandths of an inch.

Shading of an area in a form.

Printing plate with customized surfaces to print solid colors or patterns, stipple line or dot arrangements in tints of inks. Tint blocks are also used to deepen colors in an illustration.

An all-over color tint on the press sheet in the nonimage area of the sheet, caused by ink pigment dissolving in the dampening solution.

Titanium Dioxide

Chemical substance used as loading or coating material to increase the whiteness and brightness of a sheet and contribute to its opacity.

Permissible degree of variation from a pre-set standard.

Characteristic of paper. A slightly rough paper which permits acceptance of ink readily.

Designates the felt side of a sheet of paper. The top side of a sheet is the side not against the wire during manufacture. (2) In paperboard, the top is the side that exhibits the best quality.

Tub sizing of paper which has previously been beater sized.

Translucency

Allowing light, but not detailed shapes, to pass through; semitransparent.

Translucent Papers

Papers that will allow information to be seen through them but not totally clear like acetate.

Transparency

Photographic positive mounted in a clear or transparent image.

Transparent Ink

A printing ink which does not conceal the color beneath. Process inks are transparent so that they will blend to form other colors.

The ability to print a wet ink film over previously printed ink. Dry trapping is printing wet ink on dry paper or over dry ink. Wet trapping is printing wet ink over previously printed wet ink.

Excess of the paper allowed a printed sheet for gripper and bleed.

Trim Margin

The margin of the open side, away from the bind; also called thumb, face or outside margin.

In printing, marks placed on the copy to indicate the edge of the page where to cut or trim.

The final size of a printed piece after trimming.

Trimmed Size

The final size of a printed piece after all bleeds and folds have been cut off.

Machine equipped with a guillotine blade that can cut paper to the desired size.

Tub-Sized (surface-sized)

Sizing added to the surface of paper by passing a web through a tub or bath of sizing, removing the excess, and drying.

Head to foot printing.

Twin-Wire Machine

A paper machine with two wires instead of one producing paper with less two-sidedness.

Two-Sheet Detector

In printing presses, a device for stopping or tripping the press when more than one sheet attempts to feed into the grippers.

Two-Sidedness

In paper, the property denoting difference in appearance and printability between its top (felt) and bottom (wire) sides.

Printing the same page or group of pages from two sets of plates, thereby producing two impressions of the same matter at one time.

Two-Up Binding

Printing and binding in such a way that two books are bound as one, then cut apart into separate books.

A design of letters of the alphabet intended to be used in combination.

Paper not treated to bleaching; it has a light brown hue.

Paper that has not been coated.

Undercolor Removal

To improve trapping and reduce ink costs in the process color web printing, color separation films are reduced in color in areas where all three colors overprint and the black film is increased an equivalent amount in these areas.

Term refers to an order produced or delivered that is less than the quantity specified by the customer. Allowances are permitted in trade practices for under-runs.

Undertrimmed

Trimmed to a size smaller than the specified trim size.

Being uniform in the structure of the paper, the color and finish.

Refers to the combination of inking, plate and impression operations to print each color. A 4-color press has 4 printing units each with its own inking, plate and impression functions.

Ultra Violet radiation method of drying process color inks on high-speed multicolor offset presses.

The drying of UV inks by a light reaction, rather than by heat and/or oxidation.

In printing, solventless inks that are cured by UV radiation. They are used extensively in screen printing, narrow web letterpress and flexographic printing.

Thin, protective coating applied to a printed sheet of paper for protection or improved appearance.

The liquid part of an ink that gives it flow, enabling it to be applied to a surface.

Term usually applied to a paper finish that exhibits a toothy surface which is very similar to eggshell or antique finishes. A vellum finish is relatively absorbent to provide good ink penetration.

Vellum Paper

Very strong, good quality cream colored or natural paper made to impersonate calfskin parchment. Also, the term is often applied to the finish of paper rather than a grade of paper. Stationery is often referred to as vellum. Also, translucent paper used by architects and artists are often referred to as Velum.

Halftone whose background gradually fades away to blend with the surface of the paper.

Paper made from the fibers in their first use, usually from wood pulp.

Virkotyping

Another name for thermography or raised printing.

Broad term that encompasses the properties of tack and flow as applied to inks.

Deterioration of part of image area on plate during printing.

Color of ink falling in the red-orange-yellow family.

Operation between ink/color changes. Time required between ink color changes.

Water Ball Roller

A roller which runs in the fountain solution pan.

Water Fountain

The metal trough on a lithographic press which holds the dampening solution.

Water in Ink

A press condition of too much water, which breaks down ink.

Water Resistance

Quality of a sheet of paper to resist penetration by water from one surface to the other.

Waterless Plate

In platemaking, printing on a press using special waterless plates and no dampening system.

A term referring to the impression of a design, pattern or symbol in a sheet while it is being formed on the paper machine wire. It appears in the finished sheet as either a lighter or darker area than the rest of the paper. Two types of watermarks are available. A shaded watermark is produced by a dandy roll located at or near the suction box on the Fourdrinier. The desired design is pressed into the wire covering the surface of the dandy roll similar to an intaglio engraving. As the wet pulp moves along the web the dandy roll presses down and creates an accumulation of fibers, thus the watermark is seen as being darker than the rest of the sheet.   The second type of watermark, called a wire mark, is accomplished by impressing a dandy roll with a raised surface pattern into the moving paper web in a similar manner to the shaded mark. This creates an area with less fiber making it lighter and more translucent.   Watermarks come in a variety of placement styles. Random, the least expensive to create, is a watermark that appears repetitively throughout the sheet in no particular order. A localized watermark is one that appears in a predetermined position on each sheet. Paraded watermarks appear in a line, either vertically or horizontally on each sheet. A staggered watermark pattern consists of several watermarks on each sheet in a predetermined fashion. (See dandy roll)

Characteristic of a pile of sheets when the outer edges retain more moisture from the air than the center does or when the center retains more moisture then the outer edges do. It is a form of paper curl.

A warping, "wave like" effect in paper which is the result of the edges of the sheet having picked up moisture and expanded to a larger size.

Roll of paper used in web or rotary presses and most often folded, pasted and converted in one continuous form. Also a ribbon of paper as it unwinds from a roll and threads through the press.

Break in a roll of paper while it is on the machine during manufacturing or while on the printing press during production.

Web Offset Paper

Paper that is made to be printed in a continuous manner from a roll. It can be coated or uncoated and must be strong enough to withstand the rigors of web offset printing at high speeds.

An offset press that uses web paper as opposed to sheet fed paper.

Web Tension

Amount of pull applied in direction of the travel of a web of paper by the action of a web-fed press.

Weight Tolerance

Acceptable degree of variation in a paper's shipped weight, usually within 5 percent of the paper's nominal weight.

Well-Closed Formation

Bonding of fibers in a sheet that provides an overall uniformity. Opposite of wild.

Hard sized.

Water or dampness on the edge of the roll can weld or bond the paper together, which will then break on the infeed, a problem easily determined by the press crew.

Wet Rub Test

A test of the moisture resistance of paper.

Wet Strength

The strength retained by a sheet when completely wetted with water; generally, tensile strength.

The beginning of a paper machine that involves a slurry of fibers, fillers, and other additives and is most likely the most critical process area for successful production of the high quality and consistent end product.

Wet-End Finish

Category of finishes such as antique, eggshell, vellum applied to the wet paper web by machine rolls and the presses at the wet end of the papermaking machine.

Wet-Strength

Wet strength is measured most accurately as the percentage ratio of wet-tensile strength to dry-tensile strength. Example: a paper containing 30% wet strength actually possesses 30% of its original dry-tensile strength.

Wet-Strength Papers

Once wet, ordinary papers lose most of their original dry-strength properties. Wet strength papers possess properties that resist disintegration and rupture when saturated with water. Papers are classified wet strength when they retain 15% or more of their dry-tensile strength. Superior quality wet strength papers may retain as much as 50% or more dry strength following immersing in water. Wet strength papers range in weight from tissue to paperboard.

Wetting Agent

A material capable of lowering the surface tension of water and water solutions and increasing their wetting powers.

Whiteness of pulp and paper is generally indicated by its brightness.

Water that has been used in the papermaking process that is milky in color.

(See Distributor)

Unit at the end of the paper machine that takes the paper web from the reel, trims it, winds it into rolls and slits it to make smaller rolls if desired.

At the wet end of the paper machine, a copper, bronze or synthetic screen that receives the suspension of water and fiber from the head-box. The wire moves the suspension along to the dry end of the machine. The wire terminates at the couch roll at which point the paper web is 90% water and can be transferred to the wet felt. In business forms, to stitch or fasten sheets to form a book or fastened set; may be side or saddle wired.

Wire Binding

A continuous double series of wire loops running through punched slots along the binding side of a booklet.

On the bottom or wire side of the paper, these are impressed traces of the machine wire.

Opposite of felt side, this is the side of the paper that was against the wire during manufacture. A watermark will read backward from this side of the sheet.

With the Grain

Parallel to the direction in which the paper fibers lie.

Woodfree Pulp

Chemical pulp.

Work and Turn

To print one side of a sheet of paper then turn the sheet over from left to right and print the second side. The same gripper and plate are used for both sides.

Work and Tumble

To print one side of a sheet of paper, then turn it over from gripper to back using the same side guide and plate to print the second side.

Finish characterized by the impressions of a felt dandy roll covered in woven wire and without laid lines.

A dandy roll without a watermarked design.

(1) Creases in paper occurring during printing or folding. (2) In inks, the uneven surface formed during drying.

Writing Paper

A general term applied to papers used for writing purposes.

Wrong-Read Image

A mirror image such as that appearing on the blanket in offset printing.

Copying process that uses a selenium surface and electrostatic forces to form an image.

Yankee Dryer

A device that dries paper as it comes off the wet end of the papermaking machine by pressing one side against a cylinder that steam-heats it and imparts a glazed finish at the same time.

Hue off a subtractive primary and a 4-color process ink. It reflects red and green light and absorbs blue light.

Describes a transformation inherent to all vegetable fibers which is caused by aging. Paper made of vegetable fibers will turn various degrees of yellow as its environment couples with aging to produce this phenomenon. Yellowing is very evident in groundwood papers and only a few hours in direct sunlight is enough to yellow newspaper.

Zig-Zag Folding

Folding used with continuous forms with alternating position (head and foot). Commonly used to convert roll paper to easily managed flat-back.

Definition of Terms

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The term has categories such as ambiguous or unambiguous, clear or unclear, vague or exact.

If we can give a precise definition, many ambiguities in the client’s mind remove. Then, clients can think more clearly. For example, terms such as failure, success, and happiness are vague in the client’s thoughts.

I will introduce methods for defining terms in this chapter. We try definition to be coextensive. In Socratic dialogue, we can use violation examples to delineate terms. Using violation examples helps to have a neither limited nor extended definition.

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We apply the word mode in schema therapy.

In this case, if I analyze the client logically, I will corrupt the rapport. However, since we had many dialogues about modes and the client was aware of her schema modes, my interpretation helped empathize with the client. She found out that I had realized her mental status.

I do not validate aggressive behavior, but I verify the feelings of the client.

Microbes have some subclasses, such as bacteria and viruses. However, it is not required to explain this classification to the client.

Hurley, P. J., & Watson, L. (2016). A concise introduction to logic (13th ed.). Cengage Learning.

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The Changing Meanings of Political Terms and Their Reflection in Dictionaries

• Andrejs Veisbergs University of Latvia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6107-2348

When observing media texts, one cannot help but notice that some political terms are used with a meaning widely different from that offered by mainstream middle-size dictionaries, which generally stick to the initial, sometimes etymological senses. Corpora analysis confirms the shift in senses and divergence of use. The aim of this paper is to analyse the meaning and use of two terms ubiquitous in the public sphere: fascist / fascism and liberal / liberalism , their original meanings, and subsequent changes in meaning and use. Though the limited space available for defining terms in a general explanatory dictionary makes it extremely difficult to reflect all ideological tinges and meanings, where a frequently used political term seems to have developed stable, different, even opposite meanings, this should be reflected by introducing ideological polysemy in dictionary definitions.

Author Biography

Andrejs veisbergs, university of latvia.

Andrejs Veisbergs (Prof., Dr. Habil. Philol.) works at the University of Latvia. He is a Consultant of Oxford English Dictionaries and an accredited European Union interpreter. His research interests include lexicography, idioms, language contacts, translation and interpreting.

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Article Contents

The positioning of bame, methodology, unpacking the discourse around bame, data availability.

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“ We are no longer using the term BAME: ” a qualitative analysis exploring how activists position and mobilize naming of minority ethnic groups in Britain

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Sim Gill, “ We are no longer using the term BAME: ” a qualitative analysis exploring how activists position and mobilize naming of minority ethnic groups in Britain, Communication, Culture and Critique , Volume 17, Issue 1, March 2024, Pages 9–16, https://doi.org/10.1093/ccc/tcae004

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In early 2021, the term BAME (Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic) was commonly used by the government, public bodies, and the mass media to describe minority ethnic groups in Britain. However, this usage faced fierce criticism, particularly due to complex tensions surrounding racial and ethnic identity, solidarity, and history. This article critically evaluates these tensions and the meaning behind BAME through 10 interviews with activists working in the field of British race relations. My principle focus amid this debate revisits the foundations of the term BAME, which, I argue, is rooted in the rise and fall of Political Blackness. Additionally, I examine the broader strategic purposes of BAME as well as emphasize the importance of colorism within our discussions of racialization in Britain. Ultimately, this discussion seeks a richer account of our current climate around ethnic identification that considers both the potential and the limits of the term BAME.

Naming can operate on multiple levels, but in all instances, the term BAME (Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic) has provided visibility to Black and Asian minority ethnic groups in the UK public sphere. As a form of discursive identification and structuring, the term has attracted little attention from academic scholars. However, it has been legitimated, sustained, and circulated by British society through its inclusion within government and public bodies, media, and activist groups since the early 2000s. More recently, the term has seen a proliferation of mentions. Indeed, according to Google Trends (2021), BAME hit a peak in search inquiries in 2020.

Amidst this growth followed a debate on whether BAME could be an appropriate term to categorize Black and Asian minority ethnic groups in the UK. A crucial component of this conversation concerned the essentializing of ethnic identity that (re)inscribed a Western (normatively White) form of authority for the classification of the other. This form of categorization contributes to an ontological exchange between cultures and as such the salience of this positioning has mutually implicated societal impacts on how individuals navigate themselves throughout British society. Critically here, the terminology used by the state versus descriptors chosen by individuals outside of these formal institutions is significant. Often seen as a point of contention, how communities may choose to refer to themselves as opposed to labels assigned by organizations presents us with important questions when engaging with questions around terminology and belonging.

It is demeaning to be categorized in relation to what we are not, rather than what we are: British Indian, British Caribbean, and so on. The BAME acronym also disguises huge differences in outcomes between ethnic groups. This reductionist idea forces us to think that the principal cause of all disparities must be majority versus minority discrimination. It also allows our institutions and businesses to point to the success of some BAME people in their organization and absolve themselves of responsibility for people from those minority groups that are doing less well. Like the UK’s White population, ethnic minority groups are far from monolithic in their attitudes towards British social norms and their inclusion in different walks of life. ( CRED, 2021 , pp. 32–33)

Fittingly, the paragraph concludes with a key argument often put forward by opponents of this racialized expression. Within this paragraph, we see how BAME fails to accurately capture authentic notions of identity that reflect the multiplicity of lived experiences in the UK. Put another way, this sentence is significant in drawing attention to the heterogeneity of the UK’s White population in relation to minority ethnic communities. Here the presumed normativity of Whiteness alongside conditions of class are emphasized to liberate individuals from engaging structurally with performances of British race and racism. By this I mean, that in implying the need to acknowledge and recognize specific ethnic identities rather than being lumped into broad categories, the paragraph above criticizes BAME for its erasure of complexities and diverse experiences within different ethnic communities. By supporting this sentiment with the fact that differences in outcomes may be affected by other factors (some of which have indeed led to diverse opportunities amongst the British White population), the report underscores the need to articulate individuality and unique experiences of ethnic minorities rather than the structural conditions that have historically privileged epistemological, normative Whiteness.

Moreover, while acknowledging and appreciating the mounting importance of naming and identity politics, we must remember that this is not the first time Britain has encountered such a debate. Rather one should note that race and racism are not static products but are reflections of a history and a politics. As such, it is correct that amid this discussion that we revisit the foundations of BAME, which is rooted in the rise and fall of Political Blackness. As such, it is not by happenstance that we find the focus of our contemporary conversation to have reignited similar criticisms that ultimately led to the decline in the use of the umbrella term Black. Certainly, at a moment when many British conservative MPs are willing the public towards a post-racial society, the use of identity politics here supports a global trend that views phrases like BAME as inert if not threatening.

Therefore, this article is organized into three main parts. The first section critically reviews existing literature on Positioning theory, Political Blackness, and Critical Race Theory (CRT). My focus is to underscore the historical considerations related to the terms Black and Political Blackness that draw parallels between these discussions and the emergence of the term BAME. The second section introduces the methodology used in this article, which focuses on interviewing activists. Activism plays a crucial role in social and political movements and serves as an important avenue for political participation in representative democracies ( Dahl, 1989 ). This is important because activists generate theory largely outside of academic circles, which directly impacts our understanding of the epistemology of race and racism in Britain. Thus, by interviewing activists, this article aims to understand how they position themselves and engage with the discursive category of BAME, as well as what this construction signifies for the naming of minority ethnic groups in Britain.

The final section discusses the key findings derived from the interviews. Here, I outline the need for greater consideration of colorism in order to fully understand the process and structures of racialization in Britain. I then note how the overarching purpose of BAME is to highlight structural failings and promote accountability rather than focusing solely on the personal identity of ethnic groups. More directly, I conclude by arguing that future theorizing should consider constructing race and racism in the plural, recognizing that the naming of minority ethnic groups should be explained alongside the structures of normative Whiteness. Ultimately this discussion seeks out a deeper understanding of our current climate around identity and race that considers both the potential and the limits of naming.

At its core, the term BAME has often provided visibility to ethnic minority groups in British society. As a means to position this group within a broader social and ideological hegemony, BAME acts as a signifying practice that attests to structures of power, discourse, and linguistics. The significance of this discursive frame can also be discussed through positioning theory, which within the social sciences was a concept first prominently introduced by Holloway (1984) in her feminist critique of gender differentiation in discourses. With particular attention to the embodiments of masculine and feminine attributes, a significant point Holloway’s work emphasizes is how subject positions are produced within discourses. In this context, a subject position refers to the momentary clusters of rights and duties that embody a particular way of thinking, acting, and speaking.

Building on this foundation, Harré’s ( Harré & Langehove,1999 ; Harré & Moghaddam, 2003 ) work helped shape positioning theory more formally. Indeed, a central idea of interest for Harré ( Harré’s & Langehove, 1999 ; Harré & Moghaddam, 2003 ) outlines positioning as a discursive practice, whereby individuals exchange meaning concerning their social world by tactically positioning themselves throughout a dialogue. As such, individuals emerge from the process of social interaction, not as a fixed product, but as active agents whose subjectivity is constantly being negotiated: being made and remade within discursive practices that the subject engages. Positioning is, therefore, a dynamic construction as well as an essential feature of social interaction. This understanding can be extended to frame our understanding of culture or to put it more concisely, practices of culture: whereby we may argue that individuals, such as those captured by BAME, do not harness a fixed set of monolithic values/essences but instead are subject to dynamic construction of positions that shape the way in which their practices of culture can be embodied. These subject positions provide agency and meaning to individuals as well as allow us to note signifiers of acceptance, othering, and even stigmatization. Reflecting some criticisms noted by the CRED report, positioning theory helps delineate how positions such as BAME can be taken for granted as if they were just the natural order.

These dynamic theoretical concepts provide a vocabulary to help navigate our understanding of the world and, as such, are widely applied across various other academic disciplines, especially within discussions of identity and power. Subsequently, for my research, positioning theory is a primary source of inspiration and will be drawn upon throughout this article.

A brief history of Political Blackness

Black Power in its American usage has often dominated public perception, from its association with the early 1850s Black leader Frederick Douglass to its more prominent use by activists and scholars Carmichael and Hamilton (1967) . However, while the mobilization of Black Power in Britain has drawn inspiration from this established movement, Political Blackness in Britain has often contrasted with that of its American counterpart. Certainly, despite being overlooked in mainstream culture, there is an extensive and rich scholarship covering Political Blackness in Britain ( Ambikaipaker, 2018 ; Gilroy, 1987 ; Shukra, 1998 ).

Starting with the 1950s, due to changing economic conditions, post-war Britain saw its internal boundaries substantially altered. As a result, the minority ethnic population increased rapidly in size, with many workers and their families migrating from outside of Europe—predominantly from countries with a history of colonialism, including Jamaica, Barbados, India, and Pakistan ( Winant, 2001 ). These new immigrants of Commonwealth origin, of both West African and South Asian descent, were to be grouped as Black by White Britons, irrespective of other forms of categorization and distinction.

Alternatively, and quite rationally, many of these Commonwealth migrants did not position themselves as a single entity of Black people. They saw their differences. However, by the late 1960s, economic and social discrimination against Black communities reached a significant point of tension. Indeed, Virdee (2014) exemplifies the effects of this division by drawing attention to the creation of informal color bars in workplaces and racial discrimination in areas such as housing and policing during this period. This discrimination was often accompanied by overt instances of physical violence in the name of “nigger hunting” or “Paki bashing.” 1 Certainly, in direct contrast to historically established idioms of anti-Black hate speech in the US, in Britain, this rhetoric included South Asians. Tying all this together, the spectacle of anti-Black hostility became acutely confined under the banner of the neofascist National Front ( Solomos, 1989 ). In short, these experiences forced many activists to re-evaluate how they positioned their struggles and identities ( Shukra, 1998 ). Instead, the interaction between racism experienced by the new Commonwealth immigrants and the rise of Black Power in the US inspired a distinct culture of Black solidarity in Britain.

In other words, adopting a Black identity did not denote ascribing to a descriptive category or cultural association between Asian, African, and Caribbean communities. On the contrary, as Hall (1991 , 1997 ) echoes, the strategic consequences of this position could be spelled out as a function for anti-racism and a form of solidarity politics offering many instrumental benefits, including resource mobilization, resilience-building against ordinary examples of normative Whiteness, and what Shilliam has called a diasporically educated and committed “global infrastructure of anti-colonial connectivity” ( 2015 , p. 3). Ultimately, then, as a theoretical weapon, Political Blackness was a form of racial analysis that tried to understand, challenge, and present strength among multiple forms of racism that were nonetheless interlocked in the politics of the state and society.

Multiculturalism, BAME & the rise of what about me

Political Blackness articulated a specific social vision that was broadly agreed upon within British scholarship of the 1950s and 1960s. However, much of this vision was lost in scholarship and activism that emerged during the late 1980s. As Gilroy (1987 , p. 36) laments, this period progressed several significant epistemological shifts that moved away from “political definitions of Black based on the possibility of Afro-Asian unity and towards more restricted alternative formulations, which ultimately confined the concept of Blackness to people of African descent.” In Ambalavaner Sivananda’s words, “Black lost its political culture and became a cultural color” (1988, cited in Shukra, 1998 , p. 62).

This particular discourse revolved around the politics of recognition and was notably championed by scholar Modood (1994 , 1999 ). Principally, Modood argued that the term Black could not appropriately or sufficiently serve Asian communities because it was rooted in Pan-Africanist/Black power influence, which he considered as an acceptance by Asians of an Afro-political leadership. Broadly speaking, these criticisms extended into debates around gender and (briefly) colorism as well as discussions around the ontological experience of non-Whiteness. Each component of this debate against the umbrella term Black provides an almost identical reflection of contemporary discourse concerning BAME. However, given the length of this article, and for succinctness, I will focus my attention on what primarily drives much of these historical discussions: chiefly, the increased fissionability of multiculturalism.

As scholars Lauren Berlant and Michael Warner (cited in Goldberg, 1994 , p.107) write, the promise ushered by multiculturalism was to make “political cultures open and responsible,” but its development has instead helped to spotlight a politics of difference. Within this politics of difference, the success of multiculturalism predicates identity and perceptions of identity as commodities that grant or deny resources. These resources include self-worth, visibility, and better (more targeted) educational and employment opportunities. This discourse moves us away from transforming society towards a neoliberal discourse that Ambikaipaker describes as “getting a bigger portion for ourselves” (2018, p. 183). In short, this discourse encouraged debates centered on emerging identity politics and a cultural preoccupation with individual selfhood, intricately intertwined with the social and economic conditions of capital, prompting a recognition of calls for “ What about me ?” Consequently, this attractive neoliberal framing of multiculturalism inevitably contributed to abandoning Black, and a shift towards the term BME or “Black and Minority Ethnic” which first made its appearance in 1987. Indeed, in 1988, the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) decided to cease its recommendation that the ethnic monitoring category Black encompass Asians. This directly influenced the Population Census in 1991, where Britons were first presented with a question on ethnicity, which included four main categories: White, Black, Asian, and any other race or ethnic group. The eventual transition from BME to BAME followed shortly after in the early 2000s.

BAME and the current moment

While there is an abundance of scholarly work utilizing BAME, it is noteworthy that there is a lack of research specifically examining how these texts employ the terminology and its significance in discourses that surround British race relations. It has most often been used by academics to either align their research with government policy or because the label is largely recognized by the target audience of the publishing journal (see also, Howells et al., 2018 ). Equally, some scholars, such as Opara et al. (2020) , choose to adopt BAME due to personal preferences over substitute umbrella terms, including visible minorities or people of color. Quite simply, this lack of engagement with the term BAME has also meant there is a lack of clarity on how the wider British public responds to such positioning. Altogether, these literature gaps make it difficult to understand the wider socio-political debate around naming minority ethnic groups, as well as the political and economic motivations behind CRED’s recommendation. This is particularly noteworthy when we consider the different dimensions of naming and dialectic tensions between how individual communities, grassroots activists, and/or media and formal governmental institutions utilize racial terminology.

Nevertheless, the symmetry between the discourse concerning Political Blackness and BAME suggests that the wider issues of naming are not problems that can just disappear. Rather unsettling critiques of naming require thorough engagement with those whose lives are both produced and reduced by such a terminology. With the hope, then, to not repeat our past debates under slightly different names, this present research seeks to outline what BAME means for British activists as a means to build forward a new path for future literature concerning racial and ethnic identities in Britain.

The key question addressed by this article seeks to understand how activists position and work with the discursive category of BAME and what the construction of this discursive category signifies for the naming of minority ethnic groups in Britain. Drawing from Robinson’s (2014) comprehensive guide on sampling in qualitative research, I established criteria for my interviewee selection based on my research question’s focus, which was inclusive of individuals over 18 residing in England and affiliated with activist organizations. 2

I employed LinkedIn advertisements for participant recruitment in my study, aligning with established practices in research ( Bhutta, 2012 ; Ritchie et al., 2014 ). Certainly, in leveraging the flexibility offered through social media, I was able to share my research materials more widely for over a two-month period. These materials explicitly communicated my affiliation with the BAME community and articulated the research’s objective: to explore individuals’ perceptions of the term “BAME,” its historical significance, and their aspirations of naming ethnic minority groups in the British context. Initially, eight individuals responded to the calls, and the remaining participants were recruited through snowball sampling. The choice to interview only 10 activists stemmed from constraints in time, budget, and resources. Additionally, the decision aimed to strike a balance by prioritizing depth over breadth, allowing for a detailed exploration of participants’ experiences, perceptions, and motivations. The interviewing lengths varied from 48 minutes to 80 minutes, with interview details shown in Table 1 .

Interviewee information and interview details

Coding framework, reflexivity & analysis

My intention for analysis is not to present a homogenous or authentic voice for activists because I maintain that no such voice exists. However, in accordance with Fereday and Muir-Cochrane (2006) , thematic analysis unearths themes prominent in interviewees’ accounts that capture their experiences and perceptions of the social world. The recognition of such themes distinguished my categories for analysis.

In total, I produced 11 interpretive codes: defining BAME, accountability, alternatives to BAME, the year 2020, experiences of racism, gender, religion, class, what type of society do we want to live in, present future classification, and acceptance. While this coding process involved several iterations, the stages of thematic analysis enabled recurrent and distinctive features of interviewees’ accounts to be understood and compared. These features highlighted what interviewees had in common as well as where they diverged and meaningfully contributed to developing three overarching themes, which will be presented in the next section of this article.

Pausing briefly, I would like to draw attention to the fact that qualitative researchers have different philosophical approaches to understanding how meaning is created. Traditionally, interviews have been seen as one-sided, with the interviewer gathering information from the interviewee who is seen as the unilateral source of facts ( Holstein & Gubrium, 1995 ). However, this view oversimplifies the interview process as a mere source of knowledge. Many researchers, especially feminists, criticize the idea of value-free and objective interviewing ( Ellis & Berger, 2003 ). They argue that researchers should recognize their personal, political, and professional biases that influence the meaning-making process. Thus, amongst these different epistemological contentions, I follow a philosophical position broadly in line with contextualism ( King et al., 2019 ). I have chosen this approach due to the emphasis placed on the role of reflexivity. The recognition of my position is crucial to underscore how my background may influence responses elicited by my interviewees. This background may also affect how I interpret responses. Moreover, my positionality must also be considered in parallel with the positions of the activists I interview. As Blee (2013) notes in her paper “Interviewing Activists,” it is almost inevitable that researchers will have some opinion about the value or assessment of political work in which activist interviewees are implicated. As such, these political and moral judgments needed to be considered within the interviewing process as well as in the development of my codes and discussion. This was particularly noticeable when, for instance, in two of my interviews, the interviewees positioned me within their responses, stating: “You know how it is as an Indian.” To some degree, my background as a British Indian implicates me as an insider in the community being researched ( Adler & Adler, 1987 ). The recognition of this position underscores how identity may influence responses elicited by interviewees. In order to omit any judgment in my responses, so my interviewees could express their thoughts clearly without damaging the rapport or flow of the conversation, I relied on reflexivity. Specifically, by keeping a research journal I recorded the dates and times of interviews, a summary of the discussion and my reflections on certain responses, as well as brief notes of what was occurring socially and politically. This level of detail was crucial given the liveliness of public debate on my research topic.

Furthermore, discussions on race and belonging produce different outcomes and illustrate how racism is not felt equally, nor is it recognized uniformly by all those who experience it. Instead, these discourses communicate the sociality of racialization as a process. Therefore employing reflexivity within all stages of the methodological process ensures that such nuances are captured and showcases the interview as a methodological space where subject positions are constantly being negotiated.

What BAME actually means

I began each interview by discussing the activists’ identities, which extended to the affiliations of the organizations they represented, and how they defined the term BAME. In accordance with GOV.UK (2018), BAME provides cover to Black and Asian minority ethnic groups in Britain and excludes Mixed, Other, and White ethnic minority groups. However, among my interviewees, there was confusion and disagreement regarding its definition. Some saw BAME as a term for non-White individuals, while others considered it as an umbrella term for all minority ethnic backgrounds in Britain. The only point of agreement was the inclusion of individuals from mixed backgrounds.

I am a woman of color, but I also benefit from light-skinned privilege, and I'm also White assumed a lot (…) I used White assumed because it’s quite complex for people to ascribe you as White passing when you don't feel in your heart that you are. (P8)

Like I'm white, my dad and brother aren’t. We’re a family that came out in different shades (…) and actually I could walk around and unless they knew who my brother and dad were, and what my heritage was, I would get away with it. I could pass (…) (P10)

P10’s notion of passing draws on the privileges of colorism. At its simplest, colorism involves a prejudiced preference for lighter skin tones. It is a form of bias that has created a global market for skin-lightening, currently valued at US$8bn with projections for growth of US$13.7bn by 2025 ( CNN, 2022 ). This evaluation is predicated on the belief that light skin is awarded larger material wealth, class, and prospects of matrimony in comparison to those with darker shades. In some ways, this discourse corresponds with French Sociologist Bourdieu’s (1997) notion of symbolic capital, whereby the aesthetics of the body informs a practice of commoditization that is associated with value as well as perceived and constructed identity. If we develop this further, we may see colorism as a manifestation of racism and racialization that complicates our relationship with BAME. Therefore, how we position BAME and who it captures becomes a somewhat different story when discussing color.

Accountability, but for whom?

To speak of a BAME community within the nation state is to speak metaphorically. Somewhat inevitably, most individuals of a BAME background are strangers to one another. But even if we can't agree on what or who BAME stands for, many people will share a rough idea of what is distinctive about BAME from the national (normatively White) character. This point proved particularly salient when uncovering the value of BAME.

Indeed, the COVID-19 pandemic significantly highlights the popularity and perception of BAME, as evidenced by its search trends on Google. During this period, we also see the British Government publicly stating that being from a BAME background was a risk factor for COVID-19 ( BBC News, 2020 ). Despite numerous reports circulating within the British academic and public sphere that substantiate findings of institutional racism, this counterviewpoint persists. In fact, in reference to these reports, a rather topical example was raised by P5, who is an advocate of anti-racism within education. Reciting an investigative story first broken by the British newspaper The Guardian , P5 grievously details how in 1968, the Queen’s advisers, including her chief financial manager, had informed civil servants that it was not a part of their correct practice to appoint “colored immigrants” to clerical roles within the royal household: “That was based not on merit, that was based on the color of your skin” (P5).

As discussed, CRT scholars argue racism is so deeply ingrained in society that its existence is often denied, unless it manifests in extreme acts ( Bonilla-Silva, 2003 ). This narrow definition of racism overlooks the pervasive effects of structural and institutional racism. An example of such consequences is highlighted by P5, whose father faced challenges in having his educational qualifications recognized in the UK when he immigrated in the late 1960s. This kind of racism not only affects self-esteem and self-worth but also alters career paths, as P5 continues: “My dad ended up working in the factories for 30 years, never being a teacher. We have similar issues now. So, people coming from various countries, their qualifications are not recognized. Now, they’re not on merit, these are political decisions.” Such findings are not uncommon even now ( Institute for Fiscal Studies, 2022 ).

Similarly reflecting on this, P1, a former advocate at an anti-racist think tank and current worker in diversity and inclusion in higher education, emphasizes the disparities in economic activity, social networks, unemployment rates, wage rates, and healthcare benefits between White individuals and minority ethnic individuals: “And there’s evidence to suggest that, if you’re from a minority ethnic minority group, sometimes, like you know, you won't be recruited as much, you won't be shortlisted and things like that” (P1).

“Adam gets called to interview three times more than Mohammed and gets asked by recruitment agencies twice as much. All over one simple thing, the name Adam” (P9) “If you’re a white person whose surname is Watson, you’re applying for a job and thinking, is it good enough, did I get my grammar correct, are they hiring, do they have enough spaces? You’re not thinking, oh, are they even going to look at it because my name is Mohammad!” (P6)

You know the murder of George Floyd (…) that was part of a continuum of the racism and the brutality against the Black community. (P9) It’s not BAME, we’re talking about Black people. (P6)

However, a crucial difference between discourses of the 1980s and our present moment is the activist origins that distinguish Black and BAME. Similar to the inception of Political Blackness, it’s undeniable that the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement holds significant power. Its conceptual positioning has proven to be valuable in theoretical, political, and ideological terms. As a movement, it carries a deeply grassroots-led political impetus that strengthens the call for racial justice ( Lowery, 2016 ). As activists P7 and P8, who focus on educational research and decolonization in higher education, respectively, point out, BAME is widely seen as a state-sanctioned label: Indeed, in other words, P8 notes “The term BAME, was never designed to have that kind of political force. The term BAME is a monitoring term (…) it was a state term.”

Relatedly, P8 details the internal politics of activism and the terms they use depending on the audience: “Now I don't view people of color as being a particular political term, but there are a lot of people who do view it that way. And so, if I'm in a certain room I might use BAME on purpose to try and endear that person to me so that they won't think of me as a radical in the same way.” Consequently, the association of BAME with the state influences my interviewees’ day-to-day activism, leading many to express great apathy towards it. The gap between grassroots community activism and institutional grassroots activism, then, is evidenced by the rejection of BAME as an identity. As P1 colorfully asserts, “I’ve never heard anyone run around saying I’m BAME, I’m BAME, I’m BAME”—the identity of BAME is not conceived at the individual level.

While the significance of BAME diminishes when speaking of the practicalities of day-to-day activism, it is essential to note that all but three of my interviewees expressed a reluctance to dispense with the term altogether. Many interviewees also pointed out that relying solely on individual ethnic groups would create similar problems by obscuring some details and emphasizing others, with P7 noting that “if you only look to individual ethnic groups, you'd also lose something of the bigger picture of racialization in our society.”

Crucially, the point is not to take rigid sides between individual ethnic identities and umbrella terms. Instead, we need to understand where terms such as BAME are seen as a valuable tool for connecting and providing accountability for wider racialized institutional and structural failures.

What type of society do we want to live in?

From Politically Black to BAME, the evolution of umbrella terms reveals how individuals are positioned and repositioned by local circumstances, changing migration patterns, new experiences of racism, generational shifts, and unstable geopolitical conditions. Thus, to articulate the future trajectory of naming ethnic minorities in Britain, I concluded all my interviews by asking my interviewees to describe their hopes for our future society. The analysis of the responses proved engaging and thought-provoking from the outset. The narratives were a blend of humor, moments of sadness, and occasional contradictions. But overall, the accounts generated tended to be predominantly optimistic.

Specifically, this question prompted answers that naturally gravitated towards two main theoretical and conceptual frames: the first of which continued a discourse on a post-racial Britain. P3 articulates that amongst this discourse, he hopes that “knowledge of the different strands of diversity are commonplace, so we don't need an organization like ours to have to explain to people what it means to be a Black person or an Asian person in the community.” Sensing the sadness underlying this sentiment, these accounts insisted on a layering of traditional multicultural understanding of differences, whereby diversity is celebrated and recognized; but the overall category of race remains benign, in that it does not limit an individual’s access to opportunities or project feelings of othering and extreme violence.

I think at the moment, a lot of White people, and some people of color as well, are very keen on the idea of a diverse and inclusive society. I'm interested in equity, justice, decolonization, and reparations (…) a world where the truth about our history is taught in schools and universities. And there’s a free exchange of ideas and forms of knowledge production between different countries across the world. (P8)

As P8 continues, “deconstructing whiteness and deconstructing how Western viewpoints and Western structures, etc., have governed the way that we learn, the way that people are perceived, the way that we’re kind of rewarded for things or even criticized for others.” Rather, against our current normative view of history, we divide our complex world into such simple dichotomies of good and bad, that privilege those who have had certain affordances, such as their race or Whiteness. It is within such a simple understanding that we may uncover the spatial and time-bound layers of meaning behind history that contribute to our present understanding of progress, representation, and world-making. Under this narrative, it is fundamental that we bridge the gaps between finding the meaning of memory and doing/living memory. In short, and quite crucially, despite these distinctive responses, there was an overwhelming agreement, that in any of these futures, there would remain some form of umbrella term for minority ethnic groups at a grassroots and institutional level.

At its simplest, then, umbrella terms can offer a sense of familiarity, acceptance, and shared heritage that many, quite reasonably, would be unwilling to dispose of. However, what this ideal umbrella term would look like and how it would operate and interact with systems of capitalism and normative Whiteness remained unimagined. Perhaps, so much so, to suggest that the ideal terminology does not matter as much as grasping the negotiated and often contested conditions that reproduce race and racism in Britain.

The motivation for this research stemmed from the very sobering conclusions from the COVID-19 pandemic; indeed, the year 2021 brought about a very rare instance where both BAME and BAME communities have been thrust into the spotlight of our public sphere. Consequently, unpacking the effects of this discourse has been at the heart of this article.

Yet equally this is not the first time we have encountered this debate, with a historical consideration towards the term Black and Political Blackness, we can see the symmetry between the two discussions that ultimately led us to BAME. Quite notably, then my findings suggest the need for greater attention and openness toward discussing the discourse of colorism to fully understand British race and race relations. Equally, my interviewees emphasized that while the political impetus of BAME may be weaker than other terms like BLM, the primary value of BAME lies in its ability to draw attention to the unconscious or subconscious systemic disparities that exist within our society. Indeed, the purpose of BAME positions structural failings against the larger national picture: thus, accountability, not personal identity, is its raison d'être .

Taken together, the narrating of what we call ourselves now, or what umbrella term we choose to call ourselves next, is not the end but only a means to an end. Accordingly, future theorizing should emphasize the need to construct race and racism in the plural, recognizing that any future naming of minority ethnic groups must be explained alongside structures of Whiteness. Discussing terms like BAME under this more complex, structural lens would move us away from a zero-sum, binary approach. This would also underscore the social construction of naming, with the hope that we address new frameworks for looking at systemic issues that lay underneath terms such as BAME, rather than reissue them under slightly different names. Ultimately, this article attempts to contribute to this hope.

Funding support for this article was provided by the This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

The participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly, so due to the sensitive nature of the research supporting data is not available.

Conflict of interest : None declared.

I consciously use the terms “nigger hunting” and “Paki bashing” in their entirety to appropriately reflect the evolution of social attitudes towards race. In an effort to support critical thinking, our language and how it has (and is) evoked to communicate racism is crucial to understand and reflect on if we are to overcome practices that maintain racism.

While the definition of who is an activist and what counts as activism is far-reaching and not universally agreed upon in contemporary social science debates, I have included individuals from think-tanks, charities, networks, and support groups within my sampling frame.

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Gluten: A Benefit or Harm to the Body?

The quick answer is that it can be either, but it all depends on the individual.

What is Gluten?

Gluten is a protein naturally found in some  grains  including wheat, barley, and rye. It acts like a binder, holding food together and adding a “stretchy” quality—think of a pizza maker tossing and stretching out a ball of dough. Without gluten, the dough would rip easily.

Other grains that contain gluten are wheat berries, spelt, durum, emmer, semolina, farina, farro, graham, khorasan wheat, einkorn, and triticale (a blend of wheat and rye). Oats—though naturally gluten free—often contain gluten from cross-contamination when they are grown near, or  processed in the same facilities as the grains listed above. Gluten is also sold as wheat gluten, or seitan, a popular vegan high-protein food. Less obvious sources of gluten include soy sauce and modified food starch, however gluten-free options of these products are available and labeled as such to comply with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s gluten-free labeling rule.

Gluten and Health Benefits

Gluten is most often associated with wheat and wheat-containing foods that are abundant in our food supply. Negative media attention on wheat and gluten has caused some people to doubt its place in a healthful diet. There is little published research to support these claims; in fact published research suggests the opposite.

In a 2017 study of over 100,000 participants without celiac disease, researchers found no association between long-term dietary gluten consumption and heart disease risk. [1] In fact, the findings also suggested that non-celiac individuals who avoid gluten may increase their risk of heart disease, due to the potential for reduced consumption of whole grains.

• Many studies have linked whole grain consumption with improved health outcomes. For example, groups with the highest intakes of whole grains including wheat (2-3 servings daily) compared with groups eating the lowest amounts (less than 2 servings daily) were found to have significantly lower rates of heart disease and stroke, development of type 2 diabetes, and deaths from all causes. [2-5]

Gluten may also act as a prebiotic, feeding the “good” bacteria in our bodies. Arabinoxylan oligosaccharide is a prebiotic carbohydrate derived from wheat bran that has been shown to stimulate the activity of bifidobacteria in the colon. These bacteria are normally found in a healthy human gut. Changes in their amount or activity have been associated with gastrointestinal diseases including inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer, and irritable bowel syndrome. [6,7]

When Gluten Is a Problem

What’s not great about gluten is that it can cause serious side effects in certain individuals. Some people react differently to gluten, where the body senses it as a toxin, causing one’s immune cells to overreact and attack it. If an unknowingly sensitive person continues to eat gluten, this creates a kind of battle ground resulting in inflammation. The side effects can range from mild (fatigue, bloating, alternating constipation and diarrhea) to severe (unintentional weight loss, malnutrition, intestinal damage) as seen in the autoimmune disorder celiac disease . Estimates suggest that 1 in 133 Americans has celiac disease, or about 1% of the population, but about 83% of them are undiagnosed or misdiagnosed with other conditions. [8,9] Research shows that people with celiac disease also have a slightly higher risk of osteoporosis and anemia (due to malabsorption of calcium and iron, respectively); infertility; nerve disorders; and in rare cases cancer. [10] The good news is that removing gluten from the diet may reverse the damage. A gluten-free diet is the primary medical treatment for celiac disease. However, understanding and following a strict gluten-free diet can be challenging, possibly requiring the guidance of a registered dietitian to learn which foods contain gluten and to ensure that adequate nutrients are obtained from gluten-free alternatives. Other conditions that may require the reduction or elimination of gluten in the diet include:

• Non-celiac gluten sensitivity, also referred to as gluten sensitive enteropathy (GSE) or gluten intolerance —An intolerance to gluten with similar symptoms as seen with celiac disease, but without the accompanying elevated levels of antibodies and intestinal damage. There is not a diagnostic test for GSE but is determined by persistent symptoms and a negative diagnostic celiac test.
• Wheat allergy —An allergy to one or more of the proteins (albumin, gluten, gliadin, globulin) found in wheat, diagnosed with positive immunoglobulin E blood tests and a food challenge. Compare this with celiac disease, which is a single intolerance to gluten. Symptoms range from mild to severe and may include swelling or itching of the mouth or throat, hives, itchy eyes, shortness of breath, nausea, diarrhea, cramps, and anaphylaxis. People who test negative for this condition may still have gluten sensitivity. This condition is most often seen in children, which most outgrow by adulthood.
• Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) —A skin rash that results from eating gluten. It is an autoimmune response that exhibits itself as a persistent red itchy skin rash that may produce blisters and bumps. Although people with celiac disease may have DH, the reverse is not always true.

It is important to note that gluten is a problem only for those who react negatively to it, or test positive for celiac disease. Most people can and have eaten gluten most of their lives, without any adverse side effects.

Does gluten cause brain fog?

But does this side effect occur in people without a true gluten intolerance, and can the reverse be suggested in that the avoidance of gluten might sharpen the mind? A large cohort study disagrees. Almost 13,500 middle-aged women from the Nurses’ Health Study II without celiac disease were followed for 28 years to observe any potential links between gluten intake and mental ability. [15]   No significant differences were found in cognitive scores (measuring reaction time, attention, memory, etc.) comparing women with the highest and lowest gluten intakes. The lack of association remained even after excluding women with a dementia or cancer diagnosis.

Unless a person has diagnosed celiac disease, a wheat allergy, or a gluten sensitivity, current evidence does not support that eating gluten increases inflammation in the brain or negatively affects brain health.

What Is a “Gluten-Free Diet”?

This is essentially a diet that removes all foods containing or contaminated with gluten . However, since gluten-containing whole grains contain fiber and nutrients including B vitamins , magnesium , and iron , it’s important to make up for these missing nutrients. Along with consuming naturally gluten-free foods in their whole form like fruits , vegetables , legumes, nuts , seeds, fish, eggs , and poultry, the following whole grains are also inherently gluten-free:

• Brown, black, or red rice
• Gluten-free oats

It’s also key not to rely on processed gluten-free foods that may be high in calories, sugar, saturated fat, and sodium and low in nutrients, such as gluten-free cookies, chips, and other snack foods. Often, these foods are made with processed unfortified rice, tapioca, corn, or potato flours.

The gluten-free food industry has grown 136% from 2013 to 2015 with almost $12 billion in sales in 2015. Interestingly, studies show that people who do not have celiac disease are the biggest purchasers of gluten-free products. [11] Consumer surveys show that the top three reasons people select gluten-free foods are for “no reason,” because they are a “healthier option,” and for “digestive health.” [12] For those who are not gluten-intolerant, there is no data to show a specific benefit in following a gluten-free diet, particularly if processed gluten-free products become the mainstay of the diet. In fact, research following patients with celiac disease who change to a gluten-free diet shows an increased risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome. This could be partly due to improved intestinal absorption, but speculation has also focused on the low nutritional quality of processed gluten-free foods that may contain refined sugars and saturated fats and have a higher glycemic index. [13,14]

• Diet Review: Gluten-Free for Weight Loss
• Whole Grains
• Lebwohl B, Cao Y, Zong G, Hu FB, Green PHR, Neugut AI, Rimm EB, Sampson L, Dougherty L, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Sun Q, Chan AT. Long term gluten consumption in adults without celiac disease and risk of coronary heart disease: prospective cohort study.  BMJ . 2017 May 2;357:j1892.
• Liu S, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB, et al. Whole-grain consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: results from the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr . 1999;70:412-9.
• Mellen PB, Walsh TF, Herrington DM. Whole grain intake and cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis . 2008;18:283-90.
• de Munter JS, Hu FB, Spiegelman D, Franz M, van Dam RM. Whole grain, bran, and germ intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study and systematic review. PLoS Med . 2007;4:e261.
• Johnsen, N.F., et al. Whole-grain products and whole-grain types are associated with lower all-cause and cause-specific mortality in the Scandinavian HELGA cohort. British Journal of Nutrition , 114(4), 608-23.
• Neyrinck, A.M., et al. Wheat-derived arabinoxylan oligosaccharides with prebiotic effect increase satietogenic gut peptides and reduce metabolic endotoxemia in diet-induced obese mice. Nutr Diabetes . 2012 Jan; 2(1): e28.
• Tojo, R., et al. Intestinal microbiota in health and disease: role of bifidobacteria in gut homeostasis. World J Gastroenterol . 2014 Nov 7;20(41):15163-76.
• Beyond Celiac. Celiac Disease: Fast Facts https://www.beyondceliac.org/celiac-disease/facts-and-figures/ Accessed 4/1/2017.
• Riddle, M.S., Murray, J.A., Porter, C.K. The Incidence and Risk of Celiac Disease in a Healthy US Adult Population. Am J Gastroenterol . 2012;107(8):1248-1255.
• N., Freeman, H.J., Thomson, A.B.R. Celiac disease: Prevalence, diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment. World J Gastroenterol . 2012 Nov 14; 18(42): 6036–6059.
• Topper A. Non-celiacs Drive Gluten-Free Market Growth. Mintel Group Ltd. Web. http://www.mintel.com/blog/food-market-news/gluten-free-consumption-trends . Accessed Mar 27, 2017.
• Reilly, N.R. The Gluten-Free Diet: Recognizing Fact, Fiction, and Fad. The Journal of Pediatrics. Volume 175, August 2016, pages 206–210.
• Tortora, R., et al. Metabolic syndrome in patients with celiac disease on a gluten-free diet. Aliment Pharmacol Ther . 2015 Feb;41(4):352-9.
• Kabbani, T.A., et al. Body mass index and the risk of obesity in coeliac disease treated with the gluten-free diet. Aliment Pharmacol Ther . 2012 Mar;35(6):723-9.
• Wang Y, Lebwohl B, Mehta R, Cao Y, Green PHR, Grodstein F, Jovani M, Lochhead P, Okereke OI, Sampson L, Willett WC, Sun Q, Chan AT. Long-term Intake of Gluten and Cognitive Function Among US Women. JAMA Netw Open. 2021 May 3;4(5):e2113020. Disclosures: B Lebwohl reported receiving personal fees from Takeda and Kanyos outside the submitted work. OI Okereke reported receiving royalties from Springer Publishing outside the submitted work and receiving honoraria from the AARP for participation at the Global Council on Brain Health meetings. AT Chan reported receiving personal fees from Pfizer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bayer Pharma, and Zoe Global outside the submitted work.

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What Is National Debt?

Understanding national debt, government spending, the growing national debt, government borrowing, managing national debt.

• The Public's Debt

Consequences of National Debt

The bottom line.

• Government & Policy

National Debt: Definition, Impact, and Key Drivers

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The term "national debt" refers to the outstanding financial obligation of a country. The national debt is what the federal government owes its creditors. It's made up of different types of debt, such as that which is held by the public and federal government trust funds.

The national debt represents the sum of past annual budget deficits. U.S. national debt totaled $34.63 trillion as of April 1, 2024.

Key Takeaways

• The national debt is the total amount of money that a country owes creditors. It represents the sum of past deficits.
• Economists focus on the ratio of debt to a nation’s gross domestic product as an indicator of its sustainability.
• The federal government’s annual budget deficit, or its fiscal deficit, differs from the national debt.
• Federal debt is held primarily by the American public, followed by foreign governments and U.S. banks and investors.

Debt is a financial obligation that one entity owes to another. Individuals, businesses, and governments take on debt to support themselves, make purchases, or invest in future growth. Consumer debt includes credit cards, loans, and mortgages. Corporations can take out debt in the form of lines of credit and corporate loans among other sources.

Government debt is known as national debt or as federal or public debt. It's money borrowed by the government to pay for its expenses. The national debt in the U.S. is primarily held by the public, followed by foreign governments, banks, and investors.

America's national debt in dollars is generally viewed as less important than its proportion to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) or the debt-to-GDP ratio because a country’s tax base grows alongside its economy. It increases revenue that the government can raise to service the debt. The U.S. national debt-to-GDP was 121.62% at the close of the fourth quarter of 2023.

The federal government’s annual budget deficit differs from the national debt. The deficit occurs when spending throughout the year exceeds government revenue from sources that include taxes on personal income, corporate income, and payroll earnings.

The U.S. government spent more than it collected during the 2023 fiscal year. The total bill for the year was $6.13 trillion and this created a deficit. Federal spending equaled 22.8% of the total GDP in 2023. The government funds goods, programs, and services each year that support the United States and the interest it's incurred on outstanding federal debt.

The U.S. spends more than other wealthy nations on healthcare relative to the size of its economy and population. U.S. healthcare spending of 17.8% of GDP is more than Germany’s 12.8% and the United Kingdom’s 11.9%. These are 2021 numbers, the latest available for comparison. Annual U.S. military spending exceeds that of the next 10 highest spenders combined. The top categories and percentages of federal spending as of FYTD 2024 include:

• Social Security: 22%
• National Defense: 14%
• Health: 14%
• Net Interest: 13%
• Medicare: 12%
• Income Security: 10%
• Veterans Benefits and Services: 5%
• Commerce & Housing Credit: 3%
• Education, Training, Employment, and Social Services: 3%
• Transportation: 2%

The U.S. incurred debt during the American Revolutionary War and it grew until 1835 with the sale of federally-owned lands and cuts to the federal budget. The debt grew over 4,000% during the Civil War, increasing from $65 million in 1860 to $2.7 billion shortly after the war ended in 1865.

Sabrina Jiang / Investopedia

The debt grew steadily into the 20th century and further into the 21st century. Events that triggered large spikes in debt include the Afghanistan and Iraq Wars, the 2008 Great Recession , and the COVID-19 pandemic. Certain programs and activities strain government funding and add to the growing debt.

Since the peak of debt-to-GDP of 133% in Q2 2020, the national debt-to-GDP has decreased, sitting at 121.62% as of Q4 2023.

Social Security and Medicare

Deficits are expected to increase as baby boomer retirements swell the ranks of Social Security recipients. Four trust funds house Social Security and Medicare program income. The reserves held in the trust funds and program income from financing sources, such as the payroll tax, are used to pay benefits.

The Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) Trust Fund that supports Social Security payments can sustain 100% of total scheduled benefits until 2033. The Disability Insurance (DI) Trust Fund is projected to pay 100% of total scheduled benefits through 2097.

Medicare spending is 12% of total federal spending as of FYTD 2024. The Hospital Insurance (HI) Trust Fund for Medicare recipients will be able to pay 100% of scheduled benefits until 2031. The Supplemental Medical Insurance Trust Fund is financed into the indefinite future because its financing sources include premiums on beneficiaries and Treasury contributions.

Tax cuts, stimulus programs, increased government spending, and decreased tax revenue caused by widespread unemployment account for sharp rises in the national debt.

Tax cuts passed by Congress have historically played a large part in the growth of the national debt. The Bush tax cuts  of 2001 and 2003 had a combined estimated 10-year cost of about $1.7 trillion. The American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 made the bulk of the tax cuts passed in 2001 and 2003 permanent.

Democrats on the Senate Budget Committee estimated the annual cost of those tax cuts as $488 billion in 2018. The Tax Cuts and Job Act (TCJA)  of 2017 is expected to increase budget deficits by a cumulative $1.9 trillion through 2028, according to Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates.

Periods of economic growth tend to increase the demand for government bonds. Public borrowing accommodates the net savings of households and corporations, meeting their demand for safe assets or debt securities that are expected to hold their value over time.

The U.S. government borrows by issuing Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities (TIPS) and Floating Rate Notes (FRNs) in addition to selling Treasury bills, notes, and bonds. Its borrowing instruments also include savings bonds, as well as government securities that represent intergovernmental debt.

Other nations have borrowed from international organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), The World Bank, and private financial institutions.

Governed by the Constitution , lawmakers must raise the debt ceiling when the national debt approaches the limit that's periodically reset by Congress. This avoids a government shutdown and the risk that the U.S. government will default on its obligations.

The national debt in the United States is legally capped by the congressionally mandated debt ceiling that requires Congress to approve borrowing above the limit notwithstanding its prior approval of the appropriations responsible for the debt ceiling breach.

Conventional strategies for reducing the national debt focus on a combination of reduced spending and policies to promote economic growth or radical solutions undertaken by governments struggling with unsustainable debt. They include a formal debt restructuring, debt monetization, or default.

The Public's Debt

The ratio of debt held by the public relative to GDP fluctuated from less than 15% just before the Great Depression to more than 100% in the wake of World War II. It went back down to roughly 25% ratio of debt during the 1970s. The ratio rose to nearly 48% by 1993 before falling to 31.5% by 2001. It has since risen at an accelerating pace, propelled higher by the consequences of the Great Recession, the TCJA, and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Voters may dislike the national debt but the debt-to-GDP ratio makes for a lackluster rallying point in practice. Even economists can’t agree on what percentage is high. Americans profess to be concerned about the national debt when they're polled even as they overwhelmingly support defense spending and outlay for Social Security and Medicare and oppose tax increases.

You can determine debt per capita or the national debt per person by dividing the U.S. national debt of about $34.63 trillion as of April 1, 2024, by an estimated U.S. population of 336 million. This yields a national debt per capita of about $102,900.

Rising debt imposes higher interest costs. The CBO expects the U.S. government’s net interest costs to triple over the next decade, reaching $1.2 trillion annually by 2032. This will force lawmakers to decide between running even larger deficits just to keep spending and revenue constant or some combination of spending cuts and revenue increases.

Bond buyers might require higher yields to compensate them for the resulting increase in risk if the choice is even larger deficits. Or they may not if slowing economic growth prompts investment flows into fixed income amid expectations of lower interest rates.

Are the National Debt and the Budget Deficit the Same Thing?

No. The deficit and the national debt are different , although they're related. The national debt is the sum of a nation’s annual budget deficits, offset by any surpluses. A deficit occurs when the government spends more than it raises in revenue. The government borrows money by selling debt obligations to investors to finance its budget deficit.

Who Decides How Much Interest the U.S. Pays on Its Debt?

Supply and demand make the decision. The government sells securities in an auction when it needs to raise debt financing. Bidders offer to buy the debt for a specific rate, yield, or discount margin and all successful bidders receive the discount that the Treasury accepts. Government debt buyers can include central banks although their goal is typically to foster sustainable economic growth rather than to finance deficit spending.

What Is Modern Monetary Theory?

Economists use Modern Monetary Theory (MMT) to argue that government borrowing can improve economic outcomes if it fosters public investment that expands the economy’s productive potential.

How Does the U.S. Fund the Annual Deficit?

The U.S. Treasury finances the deficit by issuing Treasury bills, notes, and bonds when annual congressional appropriations exceed federal revenue. Treasury products are purchased by investors such as individuals, pension funds, banks, insurers, other financial institutions, the Federal Reserve, and foreign central banks.

The national debt of a country represents the sum of past annual deficits and the total that it owes its creditors. Economists use the ratio of debt to a nation’s gross domestic product as an indicator of a country's financial sustainability. The national debt in the United States is primarily held by the American public, followed by foreign governments, U.S. banks, and investors.

Treasury.gov. “ Debt to the Penny .”

Treasury.gov. " What is the national debt? "

St. Louis Fed, FRED. “ Federal Debt: Total Public Debt as Percent of Gross Domestic Product .”

Treasury.gov. " Joint Statement of Janet L. Yellen, Secretary of the Treasury, and Shalanda D. Young, Director of the Office of Management and Budget, on Budget Results for Fiscal Year 2023 ."

The Commonwealth Fund. " U.S. Healthcare From a Global Perspective, 2022: Accelerating Spending, Worsening Outcomes ."

Peter G. Peterson Foundation. “ U.S. Defense Spending Compared to Other Countries .”

Treasury.gov. " How Much Has the U.S. Government Spent This Year? "

Treasury.gov. " Understanding the National Debt ."

Social Security Administration. " Status of the Social Security and Medicare Programs ."

Social Security Administration. " A Summary of the 2023 Annual Reports ."

The White House, President George W. Bush. “ President Bush Helped Americans Through Tax Relief .”

U.S. Senate Budget Committee. “ GOP Policies Caused the Deficit ,” Page 1.

Congressional Budget Office. “ Additional Information About the Effects of Public Law 115-97 on Revenues .”

Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget. “ Q&A: Everything You Should Know About the Debt Ceiling .”

The White House. " Federal Borrowing and Debt ," Page 23.

Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget. “ New Poll Finds Americans Worry About the Debt and Want the Budget More Balanced Between Generations .”

U.S. Census Bureau. “ U.S. and World Population Clock .”

Peter G. Peterson Foundation. “ Interest Costs on the National Debt Set to Reach Historic Highs in the Next Decade .”

TreasuryDirect. “ How Auctions Work .”

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