essay writing conservation of agriculture

Essay on Sustainable Agriculture

Introduction: what is sustainable agriculture, importance of sustainable agriculture, population growth, per capita food consumption, sustainable agriculture and technology, green politics, conclusion of sustainable agriculture.

Bibliography

Sustainable agriculture has dominated the sociological understanding of the rural world largely. Following the enthusiasm around the concept as a means of eradication of poverty and turning the economy to a “resource-efficient, low carbon Green Economy” 1 . Global population, and consequently consumption has increased.

However, technology development has matched the demand for food in terms of food production, but the distribution of food is not evenly distributed. This has brought forth the question of the possibility of supplying adequate food to the ever-growing global population.

Further, the challenges posed by depleting non-renewable sources of energy, rising costs, and climate change has brought the issue related to sustainability of food production and the related social and economic impact of the food production into forefront. This paper outlines the meaning and technology related to sustainable agriculture and tries to gauge its impact as a possible solution to the impending food crisis.

Sustainable agriculture is a process of farming using eco-friendly methods understanding and maintaining the relationship between the organisms and environment. In this process of agriculture and animal husbandry are combined to form a simultaneous process and practice. In other words, sustainable agriculture is an amalgamation of three main elements viz. ecological health, profitability, and propagating equality.

The concept of sustainability rests on the principle of not wasting any resources that may become useful to the future generation. Therefore, the main idea of sustainability rests on stewardship of individual and natural resources. Before understanding the technology involved in sustainable agriculture, it is important to know why we need it in the first place.

The rise in population growth and urbanization of people has led to a dietary change of the world population, which now rests more on animal protein 2 . Therefore understanding the demographic changes in the world population has become an important parameter to judge the future demand for food.

As population growth rate is the key variable that affects the demand for food, therefore understanding the number of people increasing worldwide is important. According to the UNDP results, the annual population growth rate had declined from 2.2% in 1962 to 1.1% in 2010, however, this increase to indicate an increase of 75 million people 3 .

However, this increase in population is not equitably distributed as some areas such as Africa, Latin America, and Asia face a growth rate of 2% while others such as the erstwhile Soviet bloc countries have a negative rate.

According to the UNDP predictions, population worldwide is expected to increase to 9 billion in 2050 from the present 7 billion 4 . Therefore, the uncertain growth in population is expected to affect food demand and therefore food production.

Undernourishment is a prevalent problem in the developing world, wherein almost 20% of the developing world that is more than 5 billion people is undernourished.

Further, in emerging economies, food consumption is increasing with increased preference for animal protein such as meat, dairy products, and egg. Therefore, the growth of consumption of animal protein has increased the necessity of grazing of livestock, therefore, increasing further pressure on the food supply.

It is believed that the increase in the demand for food due to the increase in global population and change in dietary habit of the population. In the past, the demand for food and the rate of production has remained at par, but the unequal distribution of food has led to the major problem in food supply and starvation in various parts of the world.

Another problem that food production in the future faces is the constraint of non-renewable natural resources. The most critical resources, which are becoming scant for the future generations are –

• Land : Availability of land globally to cultivate food has grown marginally due to the increase in global population. The availability of land available per person to grow food has declined from 1.30 hectares in 1967 to 0.72 hectares in 2007 5 . Therefore, a clear dearth in agricultural land is a deterrent to future agriculture.
• Water : The world comprises of 70% freshwater resources, available from river and groundwater. Deficiency of freshwater has been growing as usage of water has increased more than twice the rate of population growth 6 . As water is required for irrigation purposes, water availability to is not equally distributed around the world. Therefore, reduced water supply would limit the per capita production of food.
• Energy : Globally, the scarcity of the non-renewable resources of energy is another concern. The global demand for energy is expected to double by 2050, consequently increasing energy prices 7 . Therefore, food production for the future will have to devise a technology based on renewable sources of energy.

The question of sustainability in agriculture arose due to some pressing issues that have limited the utilization of erstwhile processes and technologies for food production. However, it should be noted that sustainable agriculture does not prescribe any set rule or technology for the production process, rather shows a way towards sustainability 8 .

Sustainable agriculture uses best management practice by adhering to target-oriented cultivation. The agriculture process looks at disease-oriented hybrid, pest control through use of biological insecticides and low usage of chemical pesticide and fertilizer. Usually, insect-specific pest control is used, which is biological in nature.

Water given to the crops is through micro-sprinklers which help is directly watering the roots of the plants, and not flooding the field completely. The idea is to manage the agricultural land for both plants and animal husbandry.

For instance, in many southwestern parts of Florida’s citrus orchards, areas meant for water retention and forest areas become a natural habitat for birds and other animals 9 . The process uses integrated pest management that helps in reducing the amount of pesticide used in cultivation.

Sustainable agriculture adopts green technology as a means of reducing wastage of non-renewable energy and increase production. In this respect, the sustainable agricultural technology is linked to the overall developmental objective of the nation and is directly related to solving socio-economic problems of the nation 10 .

The UN report states, “The productivity increases in possible through environment-friendly and profitable technologies.” 11 In order to understand the technology better, one must realize that the soil’s health is crucial for cultivation of crops.

Soil is not just another ingredient for cultivation like pesticides or fertilizers; rather, it is a complex and fragile medium that must be nurtured to ensure higher productivity 12 . Therefore, the health of the soil can be maintained using eco-friendly methods:

Healthy soil, essential to agriculture, is a complex, living medium. The loose but coherent structure of good soil holds moisture and invites airflow. Ants (a) and earthworms (b) mix the soil naturally. Rhizobium bacteria (c) living in the root nodules of legumes (such as soybeans) create fixed nitrogen, an essential plant nutrient.

Other soil microorganisms, including fungi (d), actinomycetes (e) and bacteria (f), decompose organic matter, thereby releasing more nutrients. Microorganisms also produce substances that help soil particles adhere to one another. To remain healthy, soil must be fed organic materials such as various manures and crop residues. 13

This is nothing but a broader term to denote environment-friendly solutions to agricultural production. Therefore, the technology-related issue of sustainable agriculture is that it should use such technology that allows usage of renewable sources of energy and is not deterrent to the overall environment.

The politics around sustainable agriculture lies in the usage of the renewable sources of energy and disciplining of the current consumption rates 14 . The politics related to the sustainable agriculture is also related to the politics of sustainable consumption.

Though there is a growing concern over depleting food for the future and other resources, there is hardly any measure imposed by the governments of developed and emerging economies to sustain the consumption pattern of the population 15 .

The advocates of green politics believe that a radical change of the conventional agricultural process is required for bringing forth sustainable agriculture 16 . Green politics lobbies for an integrated farming system that can be the only way to usher in sustainable agricultural program 17 .

Sustainable agriculture is the way to maintain a parity between the increasing pressure of food demand and food production in the future. As population growth, change in income demographics, and food preference changes, there are changes in the demand of food of the future population.

Further, changes in climate and increasing concern regarding the depletion of non-renewable sources of energy has forced policymakers and scientists to device another way to sustain the available resources as well as continue meeting the increased demand of food.

Sustainable agriculture is the method through which these problems can be overlooked, bringing forth a new integrated form of agriculture that looks at food production in a holistic way.

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1 United Nations, Sustainable agriculture key to green growth, poverty reduction – UN officials, UN News Centre, 2011.

2 J. D. Leaver, ‘Global food supply: a challenge for sustainable agriculture’, Nutrition Bulletin , vol. 36, 2011, pp. 416-421.

3 Leaver, p. 417.

5 Leaver, p. 418.

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9 Chet Townsend, ‘Technology for Sustainable Agriculture’, Florida Gulf Coast University , 1998.

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11 United Nations, p. 17.

12 J. P. Reganold, R. I. Papendick, & J. F. Parr, ‘Sustainable Agriculture’, Scientific American , 1990, pp. 112-120.

13 Regnold et al., p. 112.

14 S. S. Batie, ‘Sustainable Development: Challenges to Profession of Agricultural Economics’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol. 71, no. 5, 1989, pp. 1083-1101.

15 S. Martens & G. Spaargaren, ‘The politics of sustainable consumption: the case of the Netherlands’, Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy , vol.1 no. 1, 2005, pp. 29-42.

16 A. Dobson, The Politics of Nature: Explorations in Green Political Theory , Psychology Press, London, 1993, p. 82.

17 C .Morris & M. Winter, ‘Integrated farming systems: the third way for European agriculture?’, Land Use Policy , vol. 16, no. 4, 1999, pp. 193–205.

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Essay on Agriculture for Students and Children

500+ words essay on agriculture.

Agriculture is one of the major sectors of the Indian economy. It is present in the country for thousands of years. Over the years it has developed and the use of new technologies and equipment replaced almost all the traditional methods of farming. Besides, in India, there are still some small farmers that use the old traditional methods of agriculture because they lack the resources to use modern methods. Furthermore, this is the only sector that contributed to the growth of not only itself but also of the other sector of the country.

Growth and Development of the Agriculture Sector

India largely depends on the agriculture sector. Besides, agriculture is not just a mean of livelihood but a way of living life in India. Moreover, the government is continuously making efforts to develop this sector as the whole nation depends on it for food.

For thousands of years, we are practicing agriculture but still, it remained underdeveloped for a long time. Moreover, after independence, we use to import food grains from other countries to fulfill our demand. But, after the green revolution, we become self-sufficient and started exporting our surplus to other countries.

Besides, these earlier we use to depend completely on monsoon for the cultivation of food grains but now we have constructed dams, canals, tube-wells, and pump-sets. Also, we now have a better variety of fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds, which help us to grow more food in comparison to what we produce during old times.

With the advancement of technology, advanced equipment, better irrigation facility and the specialized knowledge of agriculture started improving.

Furthermore, our agriculture sector has grown stronger than many countries and we are the largest exporter of many food grains.

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Significance of Agriculture

It is not wrong to say that the food we eat is the gift of agriculture activities and Indian farmers who work their sweat to provide us this food.

In addition, the agricultural sector is one of the major contributors to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and national income of the country.

Also, it requires a large labor force and employees around 80% of the total employed people. The agriculture sector not only employees directly but also indirectly.

Moreover, agriculture forms around 70% of our total exports. The main export items are tea, cotton, textiles, tobacco, sugar, jute products, spices, rice, and many other items.

Negative Impacts of Agriculture

Although agriculture is very beneficial for the economy and the people there are some negative impacts too. These impacts are harmful to both environments as the people involved in this sector.

Deforestation is the first negative impact of agriculture as many forests have been cut downed to turn them into agricultural land. Also, the use of river water for irrigation causes many small rivers and ponds to dry off which disturb the natural habitat.

Moreover, most of the chemical fertilizers and pesticides contaminate the land as well as water bodies nearby. Ultimately it leads to topsoil depletion and contamination of groundwater.

In conclusion, Agriculture has given so much to society. But it has its own pros and cons that we can’t overlook. Furthermore, the government is doing his every bit to help in the growth and development of agriculture; still, it needs to do something for the negative impacts of agriculture. To save the environment and the people involved in it.

FAQs about Essay on Agriculture

Q.1 Name the four types of agriculture? A.1 The four types of agriculture are nomadic herding, shifting cultivation, commercial plantation, and intensive subsistence farming.

Q.2 What are the components of the agriculture revolution? A.2 The agriculture revolution has five components namely, machinery, land under cultivation, fertilizers, and pesticides, irrigation, and high-yielding variety of seeds.

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Conclusions: Perspectives on Conservation Agriculture

• First Online: 21 August 2021

Cite this chapter

• Somasundaram Jayaraman 5 ,
• A. K. Naorem 6 ,
• K. M. Hati 5 ,
• Nishant K. Sinha 5 ,
• M. Mohanty 5 ,
• A. K. Patra 5 ,
• S. K. Chaudhari 7 ,
• Rattan Lal 8 &
• Ram C. Dalal 9  

823 Accesses

Feeding the increasing global population, which is projected to increase between 8.9 and 10.6 billion by 2050, there has been increasing demands for more improved/sustainable agricultural management practices that can be followed by farmers to improve productivity and maintain environmental sustainability without jeopardizing the ecosystem. About 95% of our food directly or indirectly comes from soil. It is a precious resource, and sustainable soil management is a critical socio-economic and environmental issue. South Asia (SA) has been experiencing high economic growth but still suffering from extreme rate of poverty, hunger, and deterioration of natural resources including soil. In this region, the presence of a large rainfed area with its associated challenges urgently calls for cost-effective resource conservation technologies such as conservation agriculture (CA). The Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of SA region is one of the hotspots for the adoption of no-till farming/CA. Although conventional tillage (CT)-based farming offers some important short-term benefits, long-term adoption of these practices may lead to the loss of soil organic carbon/fertility, poor soil health, and soil degradation. Conservation agriculture (CA) is being practiced globally approximately in 180 M ha of land, whereas in south Asia it remains less than 5 Mha. Thus, CA is one of the major sustainable soil/agricultural management systems that can meet the needs of farmers as well as offer numerous benefits to farmers as well as ecosystem services. CA is a multi dimensional approach that is studied not only for its positive environmental and ecological impacts but also as an alternative to reduce crop residue burning. In this chapter, issues, challenges, benefits, and future perspectives of CA have been discussed.

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ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

Somasundaram Jayaraman, K. M. Hati, Nishant K. Sinha, M. Mohanty & A. K. Patra

ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Kukma-Bhuj, Gujarat, India

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DDG, Natural Resource Management, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, KAB-II, New Delhi, India

S. K. Chaudhari

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School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

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DDG, Natural Resource Management, Indian Council of Agriculture Research, KAB-II, New Delhi, India

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Jayaraman, S. et al. (2021). Conclusions: Perspectives on Conservation Agriculture. In: Jayaraman, S., Dalal, R.C., Patra, A.K., Chaudhari, S.K. (eds) Conservation Agriculture: A Sustainable Approach for Soil Health and Food Security . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0827-8_30

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37 A Farmer’s Experience of Conservation Agriculture in the UK

Reynolds Farm

• Published: 08 August 2018
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Conservation agricultural practices have been widely adopted across the world in the past 30 years. Farmers recognized that their soils had been degraded by deep ploughing and by dependence on chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. Conservation agriculture, involving the agronomic and technological practices of no-till, cover cropping, and rotation, can be a sustainable alternative to conventional farming both economically and environmentally. While improving soil and crop health, it also has a dramatic and beneficial impact on the soil structure and on organic matter content that in turn can improve drainage and the availability of water. Costs are greatly reduced and crop yields—after an initial decline—return to former levels. Increasing interest and uptake by the global farming community shows that the system can be adapted in a variety of farming situations and significantly aid both the environment and sustainable food production.

Introduction

Farmers have been providing food production services for society for over 10,000 years. Agriculture is society’s oldest industry. Farmers also have the longest experience of any community in managing and impacting the ecosystems of water, soil, biodiversity, and the atmosphere. The production and stewardship services provided by farmers have always involved high-risk livelihoods because farmers have to contend with very uncertain natural and market systems. In the long history of farming there are a number of other constant features, such as fighting weeds and pests; coping with too much and too little rainfall; handling family and other labour; and dealing with markets, debt, and the bank.

This chapter tells a story about a farming practice adopted on farms across the temperate, Mediterranean, and tropical regions that has pulled back from conventional, intensive approaches to tillage which degrade soil and other ecosystems. Case (2016) has pointed out that scientists warn that there are only 100 harvests left in UK farm soils.

Conservation agriculture ( European Communities, 2009 ) is a method of farming that has been widely adopted—in Europe ( ECAF, 2016 , Gonzalez-Sanchez et al., 2016 ; Holland, 2004 ; Kassam, 2009 ; Soane et al., 2012 , ), in the Mediterranean region ( Kassam, et al. 2012 ), and around the globe ( Kassam, 2009 ; Kassam et al., 2015 ; Pisante et al., 2010 ). The system is also known as no-till in North America, zero-till in South America, and direct drilling in the United Kingdom. Conservation agriculture is becoming the generic term that encompasses and defines the system.

Conservation agriculture (CA) has three guiding principles:

Minimum or no soil disturbance

Plant diversity by crop rotation

Continuous soil cover by residue or crop

These practices have been beneficial in terms of crop yields, input costs, and especially in protecting the ecosystems of soil, water, biodiversity, and the atmosphere. Conservation agriculture is a form of husbandry that requires us to farm without moving the soil. Semendo (2014) has suggested that we may only have sixty harvests left in the European soils. Such statements highlight the serious problem that the degradation of soils must first be recognized, and secondly that action must be taken to reverse the degradation ( Semendo, 2014 ). A proverb, emanating from China, says ‘for all our accomplishments, we owe our existence to six inches of topsoil and the fact that it rains’. Edward Faulkner (1943) , described as the Father of No-till, analyzed the causes of the ‘Dust Bowl’ and concluded ‘there is nothing wrong with our soil except our interference’. Faulkner also said observed ‘. . . that the use of the plough has actually destroyed the productiveness of our soils’ ( Faulkner, 1943 ).

Fifteen years ago these ideas changed the way we managed our farm. I recognized that we were causing the degradation of the soil, which in the case of farming is destroying the major asset of our business.

A review of the differing methods of our husbandry all pointed to the fact that high horsepower and intrusive cultivating equipment was degrading and polluting the soil. The ‘beat the soil into submission attitude’ because we had the horse power and equipment to do it approach was senseless. To cultivate soil even when it was patently obvious we should not, because it was too wet or too dry, was also reckless.

Following a board meeting round our kitchen table—we are a farming family—we resolved to find an answer to the dilemma we were facing. The more you cultivate, the more you need to cultivate, and the more damage is done to the soil. Our search for the answer led us to find out what was happening in Europe.

In 2001–2002 when visiting farms in France, Germany, and Denmark we felt the system of conservation agriculture would be best suited to achieve the objectives we had set for our own farm. We wanted to keep the fine soil on the land by stopping ‘run-off’ and ‘blow-off’ erosion. We also wanted to restore soil health by allowing the natural soil conditioners of fungus, bacteria, and invertebrates to develop and return to sustainable levels. There is a much longer history and practice of conservation agriculture in Europe than in the United Kingdom. There was also a wealth of research knowledge. ( Tebrugge, 2001 ) We determined that we would adopt the conservation agriculture route and continue to do so today. Many things promised by European adopters did happen.

But the story has had many twists and conventional farmers in England have been very slow to join in the innovation. Unsurprising has been the cool reception by the corporates that sell equipment and chemicals. Very surprising, on the other hand, has been the cool reception by UK agricultural scientists and educators of what farmers have shown to be an ecofriendly and economically sound food producing strategy. They are on record in the science literature as being critical of conservation agriculture ( Gowing and Palmer, 2008 ; Powlson et al., 2011 , 2014 ; Sumberg and Thompson, 2012 ; ) and the programs at the agricultural colleges do not include it in their current curricula. Although at the time of writing there is evidence that steps are being taken to remedy the position. It is true to say that the adoption of conservation agriculture has been farmer-led in Europe and especially in the United Kingdom.

Crop Establishment

Lincolnshire, where we farm, is an important food-producing county in the east of England. Our first challenge was to find a planter suitable for our damp soils. The conservation agriculture market has a large number of planter manufacturers with machines specifically designed for dry soils, this being the majority of the market globally. We chose a Bertini 2200 planter from Argentina and a John Deere 750A planter from America and over three or four years converted 100 percent of our farming to conservation agriculture. We had previously used a contractor with a cross slot planter from New Zealand to test the system. This was fifteen years ago.

There has been, thankfully, a much greater development of conservation agriculture planters over the last four or five years designed to deal with the generally moist and sticky European soils. The result is that there is a drill available for almost every situation. The growth of the conservation agriculture planter and drill market gives a very clear indication of the uptake overall of conservation agriculture. This change is evident at machinery shows and events that, five or six years ago, would only have had a single conservation agriculture planter on show or more generally none. In the last two years there are at least ten to fifteen machines not only on show but being sold.

In our own farming businesses over the last fifteen years we have investigated a series of conservation agriculture planters of which there are two principal types. One has vertical tine-coulters to penetrate the soil to a depth of between 4–5 cm for cereals, and 12–15 cm for leguminous seeds. The tine-coulter works well in soil that has not had any cover crop or ‘previous crop’ residue on the surface. If there are residues this equipment tends to drag on the surface as the drill moves forward and inevitably gathers up under the drill stops it working.

The second type of planter has disc-coulters or openers to provide a slot for the seed and can cut through surface residue to plant the seed. The diameters of the discs vary according to the manufacturer. They range from a diameter of about 30 centimetres down to 18 centimetres. All styles have to deal with the problem of closing the slot to cover the seed and ensure soil to seed contact. A further problem arises when the volume of previous crop residue is deep. The actions of the disc can push chopped straw into the slot, called hair-pinning, which can leave the seed surrounded with residue, not soil. In extreme cases, this outcome can seriously delay, damage, or even prevent seed germination. A new innovative planter design is now available, which turns the disc at an angle; this lifts the soil, places the seed under it, and rolls the seam flat. The advantage of this technique is that there is no slot to close and it deals with residues from the previous crop much better. We use this machine, designed by a conservation agriculture farmer, known as a GD and manufactured by Messrs Weaving & Co, along with a Great Plains Drill. Our planting is all done with a 4.8 metre Weaving GD, a 6 metre Weaving GD, and a 4 metre Great Plains drill.

From the practical angle, when converting to conservation agriculture, you must first ensure that the fields are as level as possible, because after embarking on conservation agriculture the soil will not be moved. Any ridges, dips, or undulations will stay exactly as they were. These irregular conditions can make for very uncomfortable tractor driving and machine operation over time. Both of our original planters work very well when the soil moisture is low, but become difficult as the soil moisture content becomes higher in the autumn. There comes a point where we can no longer plant the winter crops, hence the need for equipment that can cope with moist soil.

We have found over the years that conservation agriculture generally calls for planting, for winter sown crops, to commence twelve to fourteen days before ‘classic cultivator husbandry’. For spring sowing starts twelve to fourteen days later, because soils that develop after years of conservation agriculture take longer to warm up in the spring. Germination and plant emergence are very even in conservation agriculture because soil moisture is maintained at an even depth rather than being lost to evaporation in a conventional cultivation regime.

The conservation of soil moisture is the most important feature of conservation agriculture. This handbook highlights the importance of water in food production and of farmers in managing rainfed farming. A few years through our conservation agriculture journey I was amazed how significant conservation agriculture was in improving soil water conditions. We made a video comparing the infiltration qualities of a conventionally farmed field and a conservation agriculture field. The conventionally farmed soil did not allow infiltration. On the conservation agriculture plot water could not be poured fast enough to feed the capacity of the soil to take water down. Everyone who has seen the video has been converted to the conservation agriculture and especially its relevance to managing the infiltration of water and the availability of water for crop production.

A particular feature of conservation agriculture is the improvement in the soil water environment. Soil moisture loss due to evaporation, caused by cultivation, is reduced. Capillary processes are improved. Moisture rises from the subsoil up the old root fibres to irrigate the new crop from below. These processes can only operate if the previous crop root system maintains its integrity. If the root fibres are broken by ploughing, like an oil lamp with the wick cut, the flow stops. Moisture cannot jump a gap. The very positive impact of conservation agriculture on soil water movement and retention especially been recognized in the drier regions of the world ( Kassam et al., 2015 ).

This significant and very positive soil water outcome is not what those editing this volume would call a charismatic message. Soil, soil water, and farmers—to the cost of society—are uncharismatic and underappreciated ( Sposito 2017 , this volume). Farmers, in adopting and improving conservation agriculture in rainfed farming, are making a globally significant contribution to sustainable food production. Rainfed farming accounts for about 70 percent of the tonnage of food production globally and over 95 percent in the United Kingdom ( Bromwich et al., 2017 , this volume). Farmers manage water and water ecosystems. They provide production services that determine the productivity of water and water stewardship services that ensure the sustainability of farming and food production. Unfortunately, consumers, who are the society in the title of this volume, whom we farmers feed, do not get it and they do not realize that food commodity prices do not, repeat not, effectively reflect the costs of our farming services.

Soil health and soil structure more generally are immensely enhanced by conservation agriculture. Attention has to be given to the depth of planting as it is too easy to go deeper than necessary. For cereals 5–6 cm is ideal. Particular attention must be given to the closure of the slot. There are two main reasons, first is to ensure that the seed to soil contact is effective and second is to protect the seed as much as possible from pest damage, be it slug, beetle, or bird.

We produced a formula of change to seed quantity and fertilizer quantity to even out the time of conversion. We found this formula to be effective on all combinable crops. Table 37.1 shows the changes to seed rate and fertilizer rate that were introduced over a six year period of conversion to conservation agriculture on some of our fields.

Soil Health

We have found over time that as the system develops the benefits become more defined. We found that that the oft quoted view that it takes a lifetime to change the nature of soil is not true. It is amazing how fast the soil responds to being left alone. The main driver of fertility is soil organic carbon; the higher the better. High levels of soil organic carbon are the feedstock of bacteria, fungus, and invertebrates ( FAOa, 2008 ; McConkey, 2000 ). They condition, mold, and alter the soil structure from the lifeless growing medium that modern agriculture has produced to one that is alive, nutrient-rich, and productive. Well-structured and productive soils exist in old pastures that, by definition, have undisturbed, mostly rich, and fertile soils. Conservation agriculture restores soil fertility, which also enables water storage and water movement that promote crop health and productivity. It also plays a beneficial role in mitigating climate change ( FAO 2008b ).

The main factor in determining the rate of soil change is its clay content. The higher the clay content, 50 percent plus, the longer it takes the soil flora to build up. We found some fields adapt with no noticeable reduction in yield. With low clay content soils the change is very fast—3 to 4 years. Again the lower the clay content the faster the build-up of soil organic carbon (SOC). Figure 37.1 demonstrates the build up to SOC on a part of our farm that has a clay content of 35 percent.

So how does the change in the soil manifest itself? Firstly, we find the improvement is measurable in the increase of soil organic carbon; secondly, in the increase in the population of worms. It is not a straight line increase, but an accelerating line over time. We have conducted worm counts a number of times. The outcome is best demonstrated by comparison of a field recently purchased, adjoining our conservation agriculture fields. (2016) took 8 sample blocks of soil from each field. The July 2016 samples were 25 cm x 25 cm x 10 cm deep, and the worm count table is as follows:

These data show the very low worm count on conventionally farmed land with 128 worms per square metre compared with 672 worms per square metre on the conservation agriculture field. As the sample blocks were only 10 cm deep, the large Lob worms ( Lumbricus terrestris ) were too far down in the soil to be caught. We estimated that 50 percent of the worms were immature and the majority were of the Allolobophora chlorotica and Lumbricus rubellus species. The results of this current work are supported by a study conducted by Tebrugge in 2001 (Fig. 37.2 )

Worms make the soil more friable and less prone to waterlogging. The natural drainage improves levels of soil organic carbon which increase as the worms pull organic matter down and the old root fibres are broken down by the fungus and bacteria. After a few years of conservation agriculture soil begins to have the appearance, colour, and texture of soil dug from old pastures or from under hedgerows that have not been moved for years.

Clay content and average soil organic carbon (SOC) and the increasing SOC on our own farm for a given clay content.

Link between soil tillage methods, earthworm populations and their activity.

We should remember there is no such thing in nature as a plough and the idea that one cannot produce food without one is entirely false. In the natural world a plant produces seed which when ripe drops on the soil and grows; it is not magic, it is the natural way of things. Conservation agriculture reproduces these conditions. Soil is receptive to conservation farming. Natural processes slowly release nutrients as the soil organic carbon rotting down contributes to the productiveness of the following crop.

A feature of conservation agriculture soils that becomes more apparent over the years is how the working of the soil becomes progressively easier. To date, the longer conservation agriculture tehniques have been deployed the better the soil structure and crop growth. We have continuous arable crop fields on which we have not spread phosphate (P), potassium (K), or lime in the last ten years. We sample and test every hectare every four years to give us information on the state of our soils. We are not sure why the requirement for P&K and lime has gone down to this degree. Traditionally, we used to spread P&K every year and lime every third year, when the soil will again require us to add more. Time will tell. All of this experience demonstrates that fundamental changes happen when the soil is allowed to be soil again, not subject to our interference, as Edward Faulkner put it. It also smells sweet.

From the farming point of view the soil is better structured, more fertile, and more productive in the conservation farming system. Our yields are now generally higher than they were before we converted to conservation agriculture. The value of the holding has increased rather than being degraded, both in cash and productivity terms.

Faced with the increase in global population and increased demand for food and for the water to produce it the global food system depends on how farmers manage their soil and water resources. Agriculture needs to double its output if there is to be a chance of feeding 11 billion ( UN-DESA, 2015 ) people by the end of the century. Conservation agriculture will surely play an important role in addressing this challenge.

Cover Crops and Crop Rotation and Conservation Agriculture

Conservation agriculture has three elements—first, no-till, secondly, cover cropping, and thirdly, rotation. The impact of no till has been emphasized in the discussion thus far. In this section I shall identify the ways that cover cropping and crop rotation also contribute to the soil stability and the health of our soils.

Cover cropping is important. It is important both on fields that are growing an economic crop and between the rows with row crops, horticultural crops, and vines and orchard crops. The impact of rainfall can seriously damage soil ( Dent, 2017 , this volume). It can erode the soil and can further degrade the already damaged soil profiles of conventional farming.

Planting cover crops does involve additional costs but they also have beneficial impacts in improving soil health and the value of the soil. Legume cover crops, such as clover, which naturally fixes nitrogen, enhance the fertility of the soil as well as well as vey effectively protecting it ( Dent, 2017 , this volume).

The rotation of crops is important in all systems of husbandry, and is the very important third element of the conservation agriculture system. Cover cropping is integral to the rotations of conservation agriculture. The beneficial effects on the soil are numerous and very significant.

On our farms the rotation is as follows:

40% First Wheat

20% Wheat after Wheat

20% Oilseed Rape (Canola)

20% Spring Crops

The spring crops are selected from:

Porridge Oats

The land for spring drilling is planted with ‘cover crops’ after harvest, taking into account the amount of crop residue remaining on the soil surface. The intention is to maintain soil cover over the winter. Where cover crops are grown they are selected for their root mass qualities and for their capacity to fix nitrogen and protect the soil. They also benefit the following crop with the release of nitrogen and also benefit the soil fauna and structure through their root development.

We use a mixture of rye, oilseed radish, phacilia, mustard, and vetches. We also plant individual species of these crops according to the perceived need of the particular field or soil or both.

Prior to planting, the field may be treated with a contact spray chemical such as glyphosate if there is an abundance of volunteer plants or weeds present. This weed problem diminishes over time as we are only dealing with weed seed that is close to the surface. Application after planting of chemical and fertilizer treatments remains the same as for classic husbandry, both pre- and post-emergence. Over time the fertilizer requirement has fallen as the quality of the soil improves. The chemical spray requirement will change to a contact chemical base away from more persistent types of spray chemicals. We have found that there is an overall reduction of these inputs is a feature of conservation agriculture ( Friedrich, 2005 ).

Some strange problems have arisen since we started conservation agriculture that we do not see in conventional agriculture. In fields alongside woodland we have volunteer trees growing; whilst the combine harvester cuts them short, agrochemicals do not affect them. We find some perennial weeds that are not controlled by glyphosate, of which the Rosebay Willowherb is one that is becoming a challenge. A new problem seems to appear every year; it is quite a learning curve, and managing the farm also is to say the least exciting.

We have found that as we converted each farm to the conservation agriculture regime—we have three farms whose areas total 260 hectares, 400 hectares, and 650 hectares—a pattern emerged. In year one, the output remained the same as previously, but savings on establishment costs were felt immediately. In year two, the output was usually reduced by 5 to 10 percent, but the reduced income was covered by the cost savings. Year three can be worrying as the output can still reduce, in some soils, to a level not covered by the cost saving. We were aware that we faced a major decision. We decided to press on. In year four, yields began to return to past levels and the benefit to the soil structure had become very obvious. Output was in line with year two. In year five we observed soil organic carbon increase beginning to have an effect and output was back at year one levels. The cost savings of course, have continued.

The costs of converting to conservation agriculture are manageable. The only specialist equipment required was a CA planter/drill. We now have a list of approximately 20 manufacturers available in Europe. They can supply equipment from 3 metres to 12 metres wide and the cost ranges from £10,000 per metre to £30,000 per metre. In our experience the most expensive is definitely not the best. Much care should be taken on selecting the most suitable drill for the particular farm. We have found the best aid to selection is to arrange for the particular drill to be demonstrated on the land in question, or in fact several drills at the same time. Timing is important as the soil conditions can vary—very quickly—and a comparison trial is only relevant if the conditions are the same.

It is becoming more feasible to employ a contractor to start the conversion to conservation agriculture as we now have a number of contractors offering this service. A note of caution with the use of contractors. They have the equipment, but some are unused to the practical applications of conservation agriculture and tend to plant as if into a cultivated soil. Generally they plant too deep. It is without question that the increasing uptake of conservation agriculture is driving the demand for specialist services in the sector, from machinery supply to contractor availability and specialist advice on agronomy.

In practice the investment in the conservation agriculture planter/drill is expensive, but the expense can be offset by the sale of the now redundant cultivating equipment and high horsepower tractors. The number of tractors as well as their size is much reduced by the introduction of conservation agriculture.

The operational costs of conventional agriculture compared with conservation agriculture for crop establishment are greatly reduced as shown in Table 37.3 .

Whilst conventional crop establishment techniques may not use all of the above operations it is typical to have several passes with individual cultivators. The result of this reduction is best demonstrated by the reduction in arable fuel usage. We found that whilst conventional arable agriculture uses, for all operations, 90 to 95 litres per hectare of diesel fuel, conservation agriculture consumes, again for all operations, some 42 to 45 litres per hectare—a 50 percent reduction. This reduction of field ‘traffic’ also has an extremely positive action on the soil, reducing compaction completely on the main areas and dramatically on the ‘tramlines’ and headlands contributing a great deal of the improvement to the soil that conservation agriculture brings with it.

On average conservation agriculture practices bring a 75 percent reduction in the cost of establishment.

Sustainable Environments and Conservation Agriculture

Conservation agriculture has significant beneficial environmental impacts ( Reicosky, 2001 ). The increase in the worm population has brought about a tenfold increase in the birds that eat the worms. We have a massive increase in the birds that eat the worms. We are not so keen on having so many of them. The surrounding farms are turned brown by cultivation and all the wildlife that can walk or fly comes onto our land. We offer food and cover because the soil is not disturbed, and the previous crop residue and stubble remain. It is great to see that the population of starlings has increased by 60% to 80% and they number about 1000 now. We also have skylarks in abundance and a breeding population of lapwings. A downside is a number of foxes and badgers that cover the fields at night hunting for worms and mice that can cause seed damage.

On a wider scale, conservation agriculture has been shown to lower greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions, for instance Gonzalez-Sanchez et al. (2016) cite Eurostat (2010) figures that indicate that there could be a reduction of 101.45 million tons of CO 2 per year in emissions if 30 percent of European arable land were to be converted to conservation agriculture.

Farmer Uptake of Conservation Agriculture

FAO statistics tell us that conservation farming currently covers 156 million hectares globally and the uptake runs currently at an increase of about 10 to 12 million hectares per year. This area is 2.5 times the total UK arable area ( Derpsch and Friedrich, 2015 ). In the United Kingdom the estimate of conservation agriculture percentages for the last six years of the arable area are:

One of the unexpected outcomes is that we now receive hundreds of visitors each year on the farm. The visitors include other farmers, and students and faculty from agricultural colleges in UK universities. They are interested in the system or have already adopted it and are looking for guidance. A number of neighbouring farmers have also made the move towards less cultivation after seeing ‘over the fence’ the savings that can be made whilst still achieving respectable yields. A number of research students and academics are carrying out studies every year on the farm where conservation agriculture has been practised for a significant period of time. When we first adopted the system, the industry in general was incredibly skeptical of conservation agriculture and how effective it could be. We find now that conservation farming is commonly mentioned in industry reports and advice sheets and is looked upon more favourably.

Agriculture is facing sustainable environmental and sustainable productivity challenges, including the urgent need for soil protection and improvement. The optimal and the nonpolluting utilization of fertilizers and pesticides is essential as is the sustainable management of water. If farmers adopt conservation agriculture they will increase soil fertility and productivity. They will have the biggest, by far, impact on the volumes of water consumed by consumers and national economies and on the nutritional quality of the commodities they produce. In addition, these changes will lead to an improved ability to adapt to, and mitigate, climate change (FAO, 2008), as well as significantly reduce soil erosion and the diverse pollution of soil and water. The European Conservation Agriculture Federation (ECAF) has accumulated a wealth of knowledge on conservation agriculture. It lobbies on behalf of conservation agriculture practitioners. ECAF operates across Europe and demonstrates how conservation agriculture techniques mitigate a wide range of problems. In semiarid areas they have shown how better use can be made of scarce water while at the same time reducing the cost of production. Conservation agriculture has a lot to offer and we expect the rate of uptake to accelerate in the United Kingdom.

This chapter provides a progress report using evidence from our own farms in England. It is not a scientific analysis, more an account of on farm experience. Like all farmers we have to cope with economic and environmental volatility and risks. Adopting a new farming system that is not aligned with the current conventional intensive farming served by powerful manufacturers of equipment and inputs is not a trivial thing. However, it is not by any means the first farmer-led movement that has confronted such challenges. It is one of the first that has put soil and water health very high on the agenda.

Conservation farming has been taken up by farmers in northern Europe without the support of government agencies or agricultural research scientists. This experience is not unique. The farmer-led adoption of low-till dryland farming in the 1950s in Australia was resisted for decades. Farmers had to design and manufacture the equipment needed to operate their low-till dryland farms ( Chatterton, 2007 ).

What have we learned about conservation farming? We know how you do it based upon our own experience. The equipment we need is now easily available. After 15 years experimenting with conservation agriculture we can answer a number of important questions. Would we do it again? Yes. Will we continue to do it? Yes, without question. We have a better farm and a better standard of living. In general, the pluses from conservation agriculture far outweigh any problems of costs. There are new challenges almost every year. It all makes for a very exciting time on the farm.

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Essay on Soil Conservation

Students are often asked to write an essay on Soil Conservation in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Soil Conservation

Introduction.

Soil conservation is the process of preventing soil erosion and maintaining its fertility. It is crucial for our environment and food production.

Importance of Soil Conservation

Soil is a vital resource that supports plant life. Conserving it ensures food security and protects biodiversity.

Methods of Soil Conservation

There are several ways to conserve soil. These include contour ploughing, terrace farming, and using cover crops to protect the soil surface.

In conclusion, soil conservation is essential for sustainable agriculture and a healthy environment. We all should contribute to it.

250 Words Essay on Soil Conservation

Soil conservation is a critical aspect of sustainable agriculture and environmental preservation. It refers to the practices employed to prevent soil degradation, which is primarily caused by erosion and nutrient loss.

The Importance of Soil Conservation

Soil is a non-renewable resource that serves as the lifeblood of the biosphere, supporting plant growth and acting as a habitat for billions of organisms. Soil degradation, therefore, threatens biodiversity, food security, and climate regulation.

Several techniques are employed in soil conservation. Contour plowing, for instance, involves plowing along the contour lines of a hill to create a water break and prevent soil erosion. Similarly, crop rotation helps maintain soil fertility by alternating the types of crops planted, reducing the risk of pest and disease outbreaks.

Challenges and Future Directions

Despite the known benefits of soil conservation, implementation remains a challenge due to factors such as lack of awareness, financial constraints, and climate change. For effective soil conservation, there is a need for concerted efforts by farmers, policymakers, and researchers. Future directions should focus on innovative conservation techniques and policies that incentivize their adoption.

In conclusion, soil conservation is an urgent priority for sustainable agriculture and environmental preservation. As we face the challenges of a growing population and climate change, it is more important than ever to protect this vital resource.

500 Words Essay on Soil Conservation

Soil conservation is a critical environmental concern that has far-reaching implications for the sustainability of our planet. It encompasses the strategies and methods used to prevent soil erosion, maintain soil fertility, and protect the soil from degradation. This essay delves into the importance of soil conservation, the methods employed, and the role of individuals and institutions in this vital endeavor.

Soil is the lifeblood of the earth, serving as the primary medium for plant growth, a habitat for numerous organisms, a water filtration system, and a crucial component of the carbon cycle. However, human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, and unsustainable farming practices have led to the degradation of soil worldwide, threatening biodiversity, food security, and climate stability. Soil conservation, therefore, is not just about preserving soil, but also about safeguarding our ecosystems and our future.

Various methods have been developed to conserve soil, each suitable for different scenarios. These include agronomic, mechanical, and vegetative measures.

Agronomic methods involve crop rotation, contour plowing, and the use of cover crops, which improve soil structure and prevent erosion. Mechanical methods, such as terracing and the construction of bunds, physically alter the landscape to reduce the velocity of water, thus minimizing soil erosion.

Vegetative measures are those that use plants to protect the soil. Agroforestry, for instance, integrates trees into crop and animal farming systems to enhance soil fertility, prevent soil erosion, and increase biodiversity.

The Role of Individuals and Institutions

Individuals play a significant role in soil conservation. Simple practices like composting organic waste, planting trees, and reducing the use of chemical fertilizers can contribute to soil health. On a larger scale, farmers can adopt sustainable farming practices like organic farming, permaculture, and conservation agriculture.

Institutions, both governmental and non-governmental, play a pivotal role in soil conservation. They formulate policies, enforce regulations, conduct research, and raise awareness about the importance of soil conservation. For instance, the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) runs a Global Soil Partnership that promotes sustainable soil management worldwide.

Soil conservation is an urgent and important task that requires collective effort. Through a combination of sustainable practices, informed policy-making, and public awareness, we can protect our soil and, by extension, our planet. As we continue to deepen our understanding of soil and its role in our ecosystems, it is crucial that we translate this knowledge into action. After all, the health of our soil is inextricably linked to the health of our world.

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• Agricultural Studies

Sample Essay on Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable and Resilient Agriculture (Australia)

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Over half of the land surface in Africa, Arabian and Asian regions are considered arid or semi-arid hence not suitable for Agriculture. This geographical disposition has been a challenge to many developing nations in achieving food security for their ever-growing lower and middle class population. Furthermore, there is clear evidence that climate change is occurring with such dry areas becoming drier the notion having enough food for a population keeps becoming distant to these developing nation areas. In reaction to this threat many global developing nations have resorted to adapting to agricultural systems highly reliant on monoculture, mechanization, chemical pesticides and fertilizers, biotechnology, and government subsidies, to try make food abundant and affordable. In the process, these farming classifications also caused various forms of environmental hazards. However with the introduction of sustainable agricultural systems has offered to enable these developing countries achieve high agricultural productivity without causing damage to their surroundings. This paper is a report examining how the perspective of agricultural sustainability is situated in Australia.

Contemporary or industrial farming: Sustainable and Resilient Agriculture

Contemporary or industrial farming systems differ from farm to farm as well as from region to another in regards to culture and resource. Nevertheless, they share many similar characteristics for example use of rapid technological improvement, large capital intensive funding, large-scale farming, single crops grown continuously over several planting seasons,similar high-yield hybrid yields, extensive use of pesticides, fertilizers, as well asmachinery,plus a highreliance on agribusiness. These systems are basically set to produce high amount of food produce in order to improve food security, for the high population of the lower class citizens mostly in developing countries. Similarly, these intensive farming systems are encouraged to ensure that the surging demand for meat, fruits, as well as other groceries by the rapidly increasing middle class numbers in developing nations is met.             However, these conventional farming systems have had an adverse effect on the environment particularly on the surface soil of the earth that may trigger regressive ration in terms of future farm returns. In addition to decrease in future farm returns the extensive use of artificial agrochemicals in fertilizers as well as pesticides holds a big threat for instance air and water pollution, soil depletion, diminishing biodiversity, as well as fish die-offs.The increase in capital investment in farming has seen the greater increase in deforestation as more land is being set for agriculture. This in turn means conventional farming is less environmentally friendly though it meets its primary objectives of providing constant food and fuel for its population.

The above-mentioned facts clearly suggest the need for a more environmentally-friendly farming in developing nations, one that is considered as ‘sustainable agriculture’. Sustainable agriculture does not have a definite definition however, in terms of agricultural production, Ikerd described sustainability in agriculture as a farming systems that have the ability to maintain of productivity as well as usefulness to society for the foreseeable future without affecting the productivity of future generations” (1993). The concept of sustainable agriculture encompasses a number of farming techniques, comprising ofholistic, organic, low-input, free-range, as well as biodynamic. The most common employed and known concept of sustainable agricultural systems is Conservation Agriculture (CA), which encouragesthe slightest mechanical soil disruption, soil cover with cover crops as well as differentiated crop rotations, is feasible and appears a more justifiable cultivation system than that currently practised. CA cuts soil erosion, increases soil quality, lessens soil compaction, efficiently uses rainfall, regulates soil temperature, gives higher plus stable produce, uses less inputs, decreases cost of cultivation as well as aids in climate change mitigation (Machado and Silva, 2001; Kassam et al ., 2009; Hobbs and Govaerts, 2010; Lal, 2010; Jat et al ., 2012b).

The Australian community regards agriculture as a significant player in running the country’s economy. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics 2011-2012 report agriculture brings in about 39.6 billion dollars in revenue and similarly is a significant player in the manufacturing industry for national production and exports, employment and the provision of ecosystem services. This high number in revenue as well as influence of agriculture to the nation is a project started and supported by both commercial and subsistence farmers in the region as a sign of support for the long-term purposes of Caring for the future generation of the Country by making better the quality of ecosystem services brought from agricultural landscapes. In 2011–12, approximately 59 % of Australia’s surface land was privately possessed or leased for agriculture purposes (ABARE–BRS 2010). Farmers have adopted well to farming systems that are more ecologically ‘green’ and reduced the amounts of soil and water pollution, dependence on fertilizer and pesticide use while increasing output in order to contribute to sustainability plus  long-term security of food as well as fibre production.

Literature review

The concept of agricultural sustainability does not have an exact definition. However, the most well known and commonly used explanation of sustainable agricultural suggests that it is employment of agricultural techniques by the current generation in meeting its food and fuel needswithout adversely affect the environment for next generation (Thomas et al 2007). This concept of sustainable agriculture is idealized from the process of serving the lower and middle class agricultural needs while making sure that natural resources are not despoiled or damaged while using available physical and human resources in a regressive manner. In other words its employing farming methods that allow qualities such as nutrients recycling, build on biodiversity, regenerate as well as develop natural resources while limiting the use of external inputs of agro-chemicals, minerals and non-renewable energy in achieving the current generation needs. Sustainability in agriculture is a multifaceted phenomenon, where sustainability of yield, profit, soil, as well as whole agro-ecosystem is to be well thought out simultaneously.

Principles of Agricultural Sustainability

Agricultural Sustainability is founded upon offering the current generation with food security and fuel while:

• Reducing fertility due to continuous and indiscriminate use of organic fertilizers
• Reducing Imbalances in eco-systems and environment
• Reducing ecological hazards
• Reducing soil and water pollution
• Reducing destruction of flora and fauna (biodiversity)

From the above highlighted factors, it can be understood that Agricultural sustainability is all about caring for the immediate surroundings as a nation or a community gears to increase its yields. The above goals are met through various agricultural practices that include Conservation Agriculture, organic farming, and agro forestry. However of the highlighted agricultural practices the most used is Conservation Agriculture which currently covers over 115 million ha in all continents and various ecologies, including the semi-arid southern hemisphere environment which is a major concern in this paper. Australia has over 24million Ha under CA farming systems and is the most widely used farming practice in the nations.

Australia’s is regarded as a southern hemisphere climate characterized by irregular dry and wet seasons through the calendar year. The climate experienced in most parts of the continent is somewhat dry and highly variable from year to year with draughts being more prevalent. These characteristics, highly weathered, arid soils, and low as well as variable perspiration, have been a major threat to Australia’s agricultural sector. Additionally apart from the traditional physical and climatic constraints the county’s challenge of agricultural sustainability has currently been intensified by climate change, water shortage, deprivation of ecosystem services as well as introduction of international agricultural commodity prices, coupled with a low level of economic aid from the government stand as a true potential in food shortage for its people. The above-mentioned reasons stand reminiscent to the factors that pulled the leaders in sustainable agriculture in adopting alternative farming systems from conventional practices.

Conservation Agriculture in Australia

As a continent on its own Australia practices different agricultural practices that as monitored by Agricultural Bureau movement created in 1888. From its initiation, the bureau has indicated that different regions of the country suffer from different agricultural sustainability features. For instance, Western Australia is faced by problems of acidity in soils as the southern part is basically disadvantage agriculturally due to poor soils. According to the Agricultural Bureau finding, a singular farming scheme to cope with these dissimilarities was impractical; however, Conservation Agriculture in the form of Non-tillage or zero tillage schemes provided such a solution

CA in Western Australia and New South Wales : Soil presents a significant environmental and economic concern in both the New South Wales region and Western Australia. A report by the ABS suggest that over 60% of Australian agricultural land in the above mentioned regions or over 60 million ha of land in this places have surface pH value of less than 5.5. This in turn means the land used for growing crops has a low optimal level PH to prevent subsoil acidification. This condition if unchecked would increase soil acidity, which is considered more difficult and expensive to ameliorate. It should be noted that despite a reduction in agricultural products or even a lack of crop diversity in this regions, acidic soils tend to pollute water as well which is dangerous for both human and livestock lives. CA practiced in these regions is placed on reducing the lands acidity through the use of the non-tillage scheme where the cover crops planted tend to add use up the lands acidity and forming it into other chemical components for instants legumes have been used to fashion Nitrogen from acidic land.

The Western region is also considered as to have a Mediterranean climate is semi-arid. With an annual average rainfall of varies from about 250-300 mm and is considered a wheat belt region. However the region experiences monsoonal climate with places like Kimberley receive rainfalls to a high of 1500mm during this periods encouraging floods which consequently means soil runoff which is solved by CA growth of cover crops.

CA in South Australia: With an annual rainfall of about 475mm, the south Australian region is not regarded as a low rainfall or dryland. However, the soils in this region are poor consisting of Sodosols, Calcarosols, Vertisols, as well as Rudosols. The region practices CA in form of crop rotation and use of minimum tillage in order to increase soil quality.

The above-mentioned regions are an example of how dissimilar CA needs are in different areas in Australia.

For the Australian agricultural researchers a blueprint of engaging CA as an alternative farming scheme that brings sustainable agriculture is clear as initial development of the CA principles as well as practices occurred in North and South America in the early 1980s. in both the U.S and Argentina which are the countries with the largest Ha under CA farmers as well as civil society reacted to severe land plus productivity losses due to tillage-based production practices which is a similar notion to that of Australia (Bockus & Shroyer,  1998). Non- tillage or Zero tillage, minimum tillage, non-or surface represent incorporation of crop residues besides establishment of cover crops under persistent woody crops or between dry region crops, are some of methods which are currently considered the principal techniques used in achieving sustainable agriculture globally.

Methodology

The study area.

Australia has a large land mass due to this fact its climate differs from one region to another. Nonetheless, most part of the continent is made up of desert or semi-arid regions. While looking at the continent climate report one would find that only the southeast as well as south-west region have a temperate climate as well as moderately rich soil.

Sample Selection and Data Collection

All the five regions (NSW, Western Australia, Queensland, Southern Australia, and Victoria) are well known for their cereal (wheat) output that are well known to practice CA with several farm sites have been selected for data collection. The data collected will include amount of rainfall soil type, crop grown, CA farming practice used (non-tillage NT or Conventional tillage CT) and finally the amount of years the practice has been employed. Each category used has a specific significance in this research, for instance the amount rainfall received in a region, which is very important in understanding the aridity and climatic characteristic. Soil type and crop grow dictate the kind of CA practice to be employed as the number of years is significant in identifying the benefits of CA in the specific region.

Secondary data will be collected through face-to-face interviews using a questionnaire that was pre-tested and validated. The questionnaire is made up of questions in regards to farmers’ socioeconomic features as well as farming practices. In other words secondary data will measure the theoretical concept of CA practise in the selected region, these will include

• Farmers’ innovativeness of CA farming System
• Environmental awareness
• Farmer’s cosmopolitanisms
• Social participation

Data Collection and analysis

Primary data (farm research)

A physical study was conducted on the farms from the selected regions in order to compare crop yield in cases where NT and CT were practiced. This would give a clear non-theoretical perspective how much CA can help support agriculture in arid regions. The table below represents different factors that affect crop output in the areas selected.

TABLE 1: Regional assessment of land use under no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) systems in Australia ranging between 2014 and 2015 planting seasons

Results and Analysis Interpretation

The data collected in the above table is majorly based to highlight the influence of CA on various region output on bread wheat yields. However as both NT and CT remain as constant factors the table above highlights on four other variable factors in order to show the efficiency of NT over CT.

Rainfall amount

Australia receives low amounts of rainfall per year and it is said that only Antarctica receives less. NWS and Southern Australia receives the least amount of rainfall yearly ranging from 150mm in the hot and dry season and 1000mm in the monsoon season. NSW has a total of 68% as Southern Australia has 75% of its total arable farming under non-tillage system due t the fact that it increases water retention in the soil which is a good quality in dry areas. This means that wheat can grow even when it is dry with very little rain increasing productivity. Victoria and Western Australia receive a much higher amount of rainfall ranging from 250 to 1800mm. in this region the dry seasons are not as dry as NSW or Southern though the Monsoon season is worse. Non-tillage farming is practiced in this region not only for water retention but also for reducing the runoff effect that makes the soil in these regions poor in agricultural terms. Both regions have about 70% of their land covered in non-tillage farming, as the impact of run of is serious in these places. In Queensland, animal keeping is more adopted than farming hence CA in this region helps the famers grow cover crops that are significant in grazing in regions such as Burnett Mary region

Arid and semi-arid regions do not necessarily have the best soil for agriculture. From the above data, there are about five types of these poor agricultural soils however, Vertisol, which is majorly found in Australia representing the largest percentage of dry region soil. The return on this soil is low when CT practices are employed however when NT is practiced its productivity shoots. From the above data, one can draw this conclusion from the Southern Australian region, which has a vast array of soil types affecting the yearly growth of wheat. In this region, CA encourages crop rotation to improve on the soil quality as the lands used in this survey used for continuous growth of wheat showed low productivity than those with rotations. From the table it is easy to see more land in rotation than continuous planting.

From the above data, it is clear that CA improves both soil quality and soil nutrient efficiency. According to Verhulst et al. (2010) suggests that from an agricultural production perspective high soil qualityassociates to the capability of the soil to retain a high productivity without noteworthy soil or environmental destruction. The employment of CA farming systems while following all its ideologies for extensive periods leads to substantial enhancement in soil quality, primarily in the grounds surface layers (Lal, 2010; Mousques and Friedrich, 2007; Hobbs, 2007). From the above data this is true as CT results in lessens the effective use of aggregation and similarlydisrupting the process of new aggregate creation by destroying the plant roots as well asmycorrhizal hyphae, which are make-up the major binding proxies for macro-aggregate development, which in turn correspondingly disrupts other biological activities in the soil. In summary NT with excess retention increasesthe ability of dry as well as wet aggregate size distribution and development compared to CT (Madari et al ., 2005; Govaerts et al ., 2007c; Liet al ., 2007; Lichter et al ., 2008; Verhulst et al ., 2009).

Secondary Data (Questionnaire)

In this second part of data collection and analysis, questioners were given to a select group of famers in the Western and Victoria regions. The idea behind employing this data collection tool was to give a more theoretical perspective on CA practice in Australia. The table below represents a set of parameters put in place to draw comparisons on the region CA practice as those around the world.

Note: Socioeconomic characteristics also influence the employment of CA and help in increasing the yield of farms. For instance, a younger, more educated group of famers are likely to employ NT, as they know they would get a higher yield without causing environmental damage. The above set of sample provided information various factors for instance:

Input use efficiency

As the knowledge and offamersin regards to CA rises over a certain period, the requirement for mechanical operations as well as off-farm inputs decreases. NT without or with least soil disturbance suggests less use of labour, machinery requirement, time as well as energy. According to Fernandes et al. (2008), in a research done on CA done in Brazil, showed that6.4 l ha -1 of diesel is saved by tractors when CT was replaced by NT  similarly the total energy budget dropped by about 25.5 l ha -1 . Omission of tillage farming systems in CA systems aid in the reductionof labour requirements during the planting period in the agricultural calendar, which makes it suitable for farmers to execute other operations for example the timely sowing of fairly large farms (Giller et al., 2009).

Table 3: Estimated costs DH ha-1 of production for bread wheat using conventional and no-tillage system for large and medium size farms

Insect-pest and disease aspects

With higher knowledge levels either formal or informal about CA allows the population deal better with pest, and disease management. Ananalysis of 45 studies suggests that about 27% of the pest types went up with a reduction on tillage, 29% highlighted no noteworthyconnection between the two phenomena of tillage however 43% decreased pest infestation with decreasing tillage. In other words, there is more evidence suggesting that the adoption of NT will decrease or better manage pests hence increase yield. The farmers suggested that the adoption of rotation helped them reduce pests as well. This result corresponds with Hobbs and Govaerts, (2010) study that suggested that biological diversity processes as well as increased species as well as functional variety due NT, residue retention other than crop rotations in CA fields similarly aids keeping insect-pests plus diseases in check. Consequently, better insect-pest management is made possible in CA practiced farms after prolonged use.

CA similarly to some extent affects diseases indirectly by altering soil moisture, aeration as well as moderating soil temperatures (Krupinsky et al., 2002). According to the information carried out by the questionnaire it was found out that the farmers similarly knew that Crop rotations play a critical role in CA as it halts the disease cycles while neutralizing the pathogen transfer effect effects of residue retention as well as minimum mechanical disruption of soils.

Food security and demands have been the driving factor for the adoption of CA. Australia’s southern hemisphere climate is a major influence of desert conditions caused by poor precipitation seasons. Combined with poor arid and semi-arid soils Agriculture has faced hurdle in meeting the two demands. However, the introduction of CA in a bid to create an environment of sustainable agriculture as increased the potential of providing food in times of shortage and the increasing demand of food products by the middle class. Currently Conservation Agriculture (CA), comprising minimum mechanical soil disturbance and no-tillage, organic mulch cover, and crop diversification, has proved profitable and environmentally friendly.In Morocco, CA represents anessentialalteration in production system thinking as well as is technological, new and knowledge intensive practice. As a matter of fact, experiment as well as on-farm results portrayed that CA should be well thought-out as a foundation for sustainable agricultural intensification as well as ecosystem management.

The case study in selected regions has showed that CA is the best form of farming in the region. Causing changes such as:

(1) Better farm economy  as a result of a reduction of costs in machinery labouras well as fuel besides time-saving in the operations that allow the development of other agricultural as well as non-agricultural complementary activities

(2) Flexible technical options for sowing, reduction of fertilizer application plus weed control;

(3) Yield increases hence yield stability.

Australia is a large land mass and that is its first problem. All the five regions in this case study have dissimilarity in there conventional tillage practices and this causes a true challenge to technocrats as a solution in one area might not be the same solution in another. The vast nature of Australia also gives varied readings on rainfall and temperatures. A singular region like Southern Australia might have desert climate on one region and semi=arid or highland climate in another hence one solution for the whole region is unrealistic. The introduction of international crop products is also causing a problem as the crops are much cheaper fetching market much faster than expensive local produce. Similarly, the government is not putting enough resources to fully employ agricultural sustainability mostly through passing of knowledge to farmers.

In conclusion, the notion of the global climate problem such as global warming and climate change is growing and risks of reducing food security in many countries. In Australia despite agriculture, being a major economy driver the country that has poor climatic and non-climatic properties that discourages agriculture is under threat with the existence of extreme events such as droughts and floods. Alternative farming systems have proved to be a solution to these harsh agricultural conditions with over 60% of all land being placed under CA. The above paper sets to show how this is true and attainable without affecting the environment for future generations and through the methodology, part shows CA is a good substitute to conventional agricultural systems.

Bockus, W. W. & Shroyer, J. P. (1998). The impact of reduced tillage on soil-borne plant pathogens. Annual Reviews of Phytopathology 36 , 485–500.

Erenstein, O. (2002). Crop residue mulching in tropical and semi-tropical countries: an evaluation of residue availability and other technological implications. Soil and Tillage Research 67 , 115–133.

Giller, K. E. (2001). Nitrogen Fixation in Tropical Cropping Systems . CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

Giller, K. E., Witter, E., Corbeels, M. & Tittonell, P. (2009) Conservation agriculture and smallholder farming in Africa: The heretics’ view. Soil and Tillage Research 114 , 23–34.

Govaerts, B., Sayre, K. D., Goudeseune, B., De Corte, P., Lichter, K., Dendooven, L. & Deckers, J. (2009). Conservation agriculture as a sustainable option for the central Mexican highlands. Soil and Tillage Research 103, 222–230.

Hobbs, P. R. & Govaerts, B. (2010). “How conservation agriculture can contribute to buffering climate change.” In: Reynolds, M.P. (ed.). Climate Change and Crop Production . CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 177–199

Jat, R. A., Wani, S. P. & Sahrawat, K. L. (2012b). “Conservation agriculture in the semi-arid tropics: prospects and problems.” In: Sparks D.L. (ed.). Advances in Agronomy 117 , 191–273.

Kassam, A., Mello, I., Goddard, T., Friedrich, T., Laurent, F., Reeves, T. & Hansmann, B. (2011c). 5th World Congress of Conservation Agriculture incorporating 3rd Farming Systems Design Conference, September 2011, Brisbane, Australia.

Kassam, A., Freidrich, T., Shaxson, F. & Pretty, J. (2009). The spread of Conservation Agriculture: Justification, sustainability and uptake. International Journal for Agricultural Sustainability 7 (4), 292–320.

Krupinsky, J. M., Bailey, K. L., McMullen, M. P., Gossen, B. D. & Turkington, T. K. (2002). Managing plant disease risk in diversified cropping systems. Agronomy Journal 94 , 198–209.

Lal, R. (2010). A dual response of conservation agriculture to climate change: reducing CO2 emissions and improving the soil carbon sink. Opening address, European congress on conservation agriculture. Madrid, Spain.

Machado, P.L.O.A. and Silva, C.A. (2001). Soil management under no tillage systems in the tropics with special reference to Brazil.Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 61 , 119–130.

Mrabet, R, 2002. “Wheat yield and water use efficiency under contrasting residue and tillage systems in a semiarid area of Morocco. Experimental Agriculture 38: 237-248.

Mrabet, R., 2008. No-tillage systems for sustainable dryland agriculture in Morocco. Manuscript Institut National de la Recherche Agricole. Rabat

Rebera, L. A., Hons, F. M. & Richardson, J. W. (2004). An Economic Comparison between Conventional and No-Tillage Farming System in Burleson Count, Texas. Agronomy Journal, 96 .

Thomas, G. A., Dalal, R. C. & Standley, J. (2007). No-till effects on organic matter, pH, cation exchange capacity and nutrient distribution in a Luvisol in the semi-arid subtropics. Soil and Tillage Research 94 , 295–304.

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• Essay On Agriculture

Essay on Agriculture

500+ words essay on agriculture.

In India, agriculture is considered a primary livelihood for most of the population, which can never be underestimated. Agriculture has existed for thousands of years in our country and has developed with new technologies and equipment that have replaced traditional farming methods. In India, few farmers still use the traditional farming method because they lack the resources to use modern techniques. Agriculture is the only sector that contributes to itself and other country sectors. India is the second-largest wheat, rice, cotton, fruit, vegetables, and tea producer. It is also a global powerhouse of agricultural production. It is the world’s largest producer of spices, milk, wheat, rice and cotton.

Role of Agricultural in Economic Development

The population of India largely depends on agriculture, and it is not only just a means of livelihood but a way of living. The Government of India is continuously developing the agricultural sector by framing new laws, implementing modern technology, etc. In India, the entire nation depends on agriculture for food. In earlier times, agriculture was mainly dependent on the monsoon, but dams, canals, pump sets, and tube wells are now being constructed.

Agriculture plays a crucial role in the economic development of India as 3/4th of the population is based on agriculture. It is one of the largest sources of livelihood for the country. The country was dependent on agriculture for a thousand years.

The agricultural sector also benefits the industries in getting their raw materials, which clearly states that a large part of the economy will freeze without a flourishing agriculture sector. It leads to the expansion of the industrial sector. Indian agriculture provides employment opportunities to most people, and 70% of the population, especially in rural areas, earn their livelihood from cultivation.

In India, agriculture plays an imperative role in enhancing foreign exchange. To other nations, India exports commodities such as coffee, spices, tea, vegetables, tobacco, etc. Agriculture contributes to Indian exports. With the invention of organic farming, exports have also increased in the last few decades.

Agriculture is the Indian economy’s most important sector, and India’s farm sector is the largest industry. With constant changes and developments happening and introduced policies, it will only go upwards. It will always remain a significant factor in the nation’s economic growth.

An essay on Agriculture is crucial that can be asked during the exam. Students can also access CBSE Essays from our BYJU’S website.

Frequently Asked Questions on Agriculture Essay

Where was agriculture originally developed.

Agriculture was developed in modern-day Iraq, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, parts of Turkey and Iran which was also known as the Fertile Crescent.

What are the main types of agriculture?

The four main types of agricultural activities include livestock production, crop production, agricultural economics and agricultural engineering.

What are agricultural methods which are famous in India?

The majority of Indian farmers practice subsistence farming which involves the cultivation of crops on small pieces of land.

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• School Education /

Essay on Biodiversity in 500 Words for Students

• Updated on  
• Dec 7, 2023

Essay on Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety of animals and plants in the world or a specific area. Even in today’s modern world where so many technological advances have taken place, we still rely on our natural environment and resources to survive, A healthy and vibrant ecosystem is not disturbed by human activities. We humans are the largest consumers of natural resources, and you know what? We are also a real threat to the natural environment? Biodiversity is not just about a variety of animal and plant species, but, also offers us water, climate, disease control, nutrition cycle, oxygen release, etc. According to one report released by the United Nations, around 10 lakh plant and animal species are on the verge of extinction. The worst thing is that this number is almost at a doubling rate.

Also Read: Essay on 5g Technology

Check out all the latest updates on all board exams 2024

Why is Biodiversity Important?

Biodiversity supports all life forms on earth. To understand the importance of biodiversity, we don’t need to think or act like a biologist. All we need is a holistic understanding. 

• Biodiversity promotes resilience and stability in our ecosystem. If there is any natural disturbance in the environment, a diverse ecosystem will be able to survive and recover better.
• Fields like agriculture, forestry, and medicine completely rely on biodiversity. We get genetic resources from biodiversity, which is essential for agriculture and medicine fields.
• A healthy biodiversity environment means healthy humans. The medicinal drugs we use are derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms.
• In many parts of the world, biodiversity is an integral part of cultural identity. Indigenous tribes are connected with their natural environment and species. 
• Forest areas and oceans play an important role in regulating global temperature and storing carbon dioxide.
• Our environment is constantly changing and the species around it also need to adapt to for to survive. Therefore, genetic diversity within species is also important.
• Natural activities like soil formation, nutrient cycling, water purification, etc, are all dependent on biodiversity.

Also Read: NCERT Solutions Class 9 Natural Vegetation and Wildlife

What is Biodiversity Loss?

Biodiversity loss means the global extinction of various species, resulting in the loss of biological diversity. One of the main factors responsible for biodiversity loss is the conversion of natural habitats into agricultural and urban areas. Cutting down forests and using the land for commercial activities results in destroying the livelihood of all the species in the region. Other factors responsible for biodiversity loss are listed below.

• Overexploitation
• Climate change
• Global trade and transportation
• Emerging diseases
• Pollution 

Also Read: Essay on Save Environment

What is Biodiversity Conservation?

Biodiversity conservation refers to the preservation of species, natural resources, and habitats from the rate of extinction. To achieve the goals of biodiversity conservation, effective management, and sustainable practices are required.

• Biodiversity conservation includes protected areas like biodiversity hotspots, national parks, and wildlife sanctuaries.
• One of the most effective ways to conserve biodiversity is rehabilitation and restoring degraded habitats is crucial.
• Promoting sustainable practices in agriculture, forestry, and other resource-dependent activities is essential for the conservation of biodiversity.
• Encouraging the participation of local and indigenous communities can be one solution to achieving the goals of biodiversity conservation. Indigenous and local knowledge can contribute to effective conservation strategies.

Also Read: Essay on Junk Food

Quotes on Biodiversity

Here are some popular quotes on biodiversity. Feel free to add them to your writing topics related to the natural environment.

• ‘Look closely at nature. Every species is a masterclass, exclusively adapted to the particular environment in which it has survived. Who are we to destroy or even diminish biodiversity?’ – E O Wilson
• ‘Biodiversity is our most valuable but least appreciated resource.’ – E O Wilson
• ‘Biodiversity is the greeted treasure we have. It’s diminishment is to be prevented at all cost.’ – Thomas Eisner
• ‘Animal protection is education to humanity.’ – Albert Schweitzer
• ‘Only beautiful animals or ugly people wear fur.’ – Unknown
• ‘Babies and animals are the mirrors of the nature.’ – Epicurus

Also Read: Essay on Globalization

Ans: Biodiversity refers to the variety of plants and animals in our natural environment or a particular region. Biodiversity supports all life forms on earth. To understand the importance of biodiversity, we don’t need to think or act like a biologist. All we need is a holistic understanding. Biodiversity promotes resilience and stability in our ecosystem. If there is any natural disturbance in the environment, a diverse ecosystem will be able to survive and recover better. Fields like agriculture, forestry, and medicine completely rely on biodiversity. We get genetic resources from biodiversity, which is essential for agriculture and medicine fields.

Ans: Biodiversity conservation refers to the preservation of species, natural resources, and habitats from the rate of extinction. To achieve the goals of biodiversity conservation, effective management, and sustainable practices are required.

Ans: Some of the popular biodiversity hotspots in India are the Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats & Sundaland.

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Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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Original research article, factors influencing small holder farmers adoption of climate smart agriculture practices in welmera woreda, central ethiopia.

• 1 Kulumssa Research Center, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Assela, Ethiopia
• 2 Center for Environmental and Developmental Studies, College of Development Studies, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices are believed to have significantly lessened the devastating impact of climate change on agriculture. However, in countries like Ethiopia, the adoption and use level of climate-smart agriculture practices remains low. The understanding of farmers’ levels of CSA practice adoption and influencing factors is therefore crucial. The goal of the study is to evaluate the degree to which various CSA practices were being used in the study area, as well as adoption determinants. The study was conducted in Welmera district, Oromia, Ethiopia. Three kebeles were chosen from the district, and a random sample of 306 farmers was picked. We used a cross-sectional household survey, a focus group discussion, and interviews with key informants. A multivariate probit model was employed to investigate the factors influencing the adoption of multiple climate-smart agriculture practices. According to the result, conservation agriculture, integrated soil fertility management, and crop diversification are the most often used CSA practices. The results also revealed that male farmers outperformed female farmers in terms of crop diversity and improved animal feed and feeding practice adoption. The age of farmers has a considerable and unfavorable impact on their likelihood of adopting improved soil fertility management and crop diversification practices. However, it has a positive and considerable impact on the adoption of agroforestry practices. With regards to economic factors, having a relatively big farmland area considerably enhances the adoption of conservation agriculture, enhances soil fertility management and crop diversity, and improves livestock feed and feeding methods and post-harvest technology practice. Improved livestock feed and feeding are more likely to be used with higher farm income. Having a significant number of animals strongly promotes the adoption of conservation agriculture, and access to financial services positively impacts agroforestry, diversification of crops, and postharvest technology practice adoption. Furthermore, institutional factors including access to agricultural extension services and training were discovered to be important and beneficial for crop diversification; similarly, access to field day participation was discovered to have a significant and positive impact on the adoption of conservation agriculture and improved soil fertility management practices. It is critical to raise awareness about climate change among farmers and experts, as well as to incorporate location-specific CSA practices into agricultural programs.

1 Introduction

Rises in mean temperatures, precipitation irregularities, the intensity and frequency of droughts, floods, unreliable rainy seasons, hurricanes, and the level or concentration of atmospheric CO 2 are all visible signs of climate change that have impacted and will continue to impact the agricultural sector ( OECD, 2016 ; Malhi et al., 2021 ). Climate change lessens the potential of the natural resources to provide its services and will affect the agricultural sector. Climate change has a wide range of adverse effects on agriculture [ International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2009 ; Arora, 2019 ; Holleman et al., 2020 ; Ahmad et al., 2022 ]. Erosion, crop health issues, diseases of livestock, and high temperatures for crop development are just a few of the warning signals.

Climate changes have a considerable impact on agricultural outputs in Africa, particularly Ethiopia ( Mekonnen et al., 2021 ; Rahel et al., 2021 ). Ethiopian agriculture is predominantly rain-fed, making it vulnerable to variations in precipitation ( Conway et al., 2011 ). This implies that food production may cease to be a viable method of livelihood with an inadequate amount or distribution of precipitation over successive growing periods. As a consequence, the dramatic decrease in agricultural productivity is likely to lead to food insecurity.

Climate change and adjacent affairs such as irregular rainfall distribution, severe drought, and degradation of land severely limit the social and economic progress in Ethiopia ( Zeray and Demie, 2015 ; Jirata et al., 2016 ; Singh et al., 2016 ; Yalew et al., 2017 ). Droughts occur regularly in Ethiopia ( Mera, 2018 ), causing food scarcity and affecting a large number of people ( Asaminew and Jie, 2019 ). For example, according to the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT); BFS/USAID (2017), the droughts of 1984 and 2003, which affected 7.5 and 12.6 million people, respectively, had a significant impact on agricultural livelihoods. In addition, the El Nino event in 2015/16 caused Ethiopia to suffer one of the most severe droughts in decades, with an estimated 10.2 million individuals in need of food aid (CIAT; BFS/USAID, 2017).

To alleviate the mistrust of climate change effects on agriculture, we focused on the creation of means and methods for sustaining agricultural production in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by encouraging small-holder farmers to use climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices ( Branca et al., 2013 ). CSA involves location-specific analyses to identify viable agricultural production technology and practices to solve the complex, interconnected concerns of food security, development, and climate change ( FAO, 2013 ; Tekeste et al., 2022; Belay et al., 2023 ).

It has been accepted that implementing CSA practices is the most effective way to lessen the adverse effects of climate change ( FAO, 2016 ; Belay et al., 2023 ). In Ethiopia, a variety of agricultural development initiatives—both traditional and cutting-edge—are implemented to improve livelihoods and food security. These initiatives are also seen as essential for tackling climate change concerns and aiding in its adaptation and mitigation ( Jirata et al., 2016 ). However, the adoption of CSA practices remains low in developing countries, including Ethiopia ( Mazhar et al., 2021 ). Even though there is evidence in many places about factors that influence the decisions of smallholder farmers to adopt CSA methods, there is a dearth of information about the determinants of the adoption of CSA practices in the study area. The adoption of multiple CSA practices by farmers, as well as the intensity of adoption, is significantly influenced by the age of the household head, education, land size, household total asset value, frequency of extension contacts, farmer awareness of climate change, farmer experience with climatic shocks, parcel fertility, slope, and severity of soil erosion ( Mebratu et al., 2022 ). Similarly, Bamlaku and Abera (2022) found that education, HH size, income, climate change perception, and farmland size all had statistically significant effects on farmers’ decision to adopt CSA methods.

In order to effectively implement CSA in Ethiopia and recover maximum benefits, it is imperative to uncover the determinants of the CSA adoption process, understanding the adaptive potential of the farmer community, the reaction of institutions, and the integration of CSA into research and development, which are important for facilitating the adoption of CSA practices. Therefore, identifying CSA practices for implementation in the study area and investigating the factors influencing CSA practice adoption were the objectives of the study.

2 Potential benefits of CSA practices

Climate-smart agriculture fulfills the need for an agricultural system that encourages climate change mitigation and adaptation activities, while enhancing food security ( FAO, 2013 ; Neufeldt et al., 2013 ). It enhances productivity and incomes while mitigating forest degradation, adjusting to climate changes, and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in situations where possible ( Nkumulwa and Pauline, 2021 ). Site-specific CSA practices benefit users while safeguarding natural resources. A study done in Uganda by Zizinga et al. (2022) indicated that compared to the control treatment, CSA practices considerably enhanced total water storage of the soil by 1–12%. This type of advantage derived from adopting CSA techniques encourages and supports the adoption of CSA practices in areas where soil erosion and vegetation loss have lowered crop production. Sustainable land management is critical for preventing land degradation, restoring damaged areas, and ensuring that natural resources are used appropriately for present and future generations.

CSA practices are location-specific in the sense that they would be effective if executed in accordance with the specific requirements of the field; as a result, there are different practices that are believed to be climate-smart. A terrace is a region that has been flattened out on the edge of a hill just to produce crops (The Britannica Dictionary). It minimizes the amount and velocity of water traveling across the soil surface, which dramatically reduces soil erosion. Terracing changes steep slopes into a manmade sequence of relatively flat surfaces, thereby minimizing slope length and gradient, which reduces sediment yield and runoff ( Deng et al., 2021 ). Terracing allows for more intensive cropping than would otherwise be possible.

Crop diversification, mainly, drought-tolerance has the potential to withstand the effect of a temperature rise that could probably affect soil moisture level and crop yields. Drought-tolerant varieties were thought to have a higher rooting depth in the soil profile, which enables the absorption and extraction of soil water ( Tesfaye et al., 2018 ). Consequently, this makes it easier for plants to receive water even in dry conditions, which together with the other factors could increase crop yields.

The weather has a significant impact on agricultural yield, growth, and development as well as on the prevalence of diseases and pests, the need for fertilizers and water, the quality of products during transportation services, and the viability and vigor of planting materials and seeds during storage ( Aditya et al., 2021 ). Access to weather information, such as temperature and rainfall, helps farmers prepare appropriately for farming tasks.

The promotion of afforestation and replanting is crucial for climate change mitigation efforts because trees absorb and store atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) through photosynthesis over time. Forests and trees safeguard watersheds, support the resilience of farming systems and habitations, support temperature regulation, support the provision of water and shade, protect coastal regions from storms, and help regulate climate at the regional and continental scales ( Meybeck et al., 2021 ). In addition to these advantages, forests play an important role in increasing soil organic matter and avoiding erosion. The thick canopy of trees helps reduce the impact of rain on the ground. Rainfall runs down the leaves and branches and gradually absorbs into the soil rather than forcefully hitting the ground, reducing the quantity of soil washed away by the rain.

3 Materials and methods

3.1 study sites.

This study was conducted in Welmera district. Welmera district is located in West Shewa Zone of the Oromia region at a distance of 29 km from Addis Ababa on the main route to Ambo. It is bounded on the south, west, north, northeast, and east by Sebeta Hawas district, Ejere district, Mulo district, Sululta, and Addis Ababa, respectively. It has a total surface area of around 80,927 hectares, of which 37,411 hectares are agricultural land or are under agriculture. The altitude of the district spans from 2,060 to 3,380 meters above sea level. The district lies between 8 0 50′ and 9 0 15’ N latitude and 38 0 25′ and 39 0 45′ E longitude. It has a total population of 104,143, consisting of 52,403 men and 51,740 women.

The district has two agro-ecologies: highland and midland. The Highlands account for 61% of the total, followed by the Midlands at 39%. The mean annual rainfall lies between 834 mm and 1,300 mm, and the annual temperature lies between 0°C and 27°C. The soil type composition is as follows: 60% red soil, 37% black soil, and 3% mixed soil. The agriculture system is primarily reliant on rain, making it very sensitive to climate change. Erosion is a major issue in several regions of the district. As a result, it is vital to understand farmer’s adoption of CSA practices and the associated problems that smallholder farmers face while implementing the approaches ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Map of the research area.

3.2 Sampling and data collection

This study employed multistage sampling methods. During district and Kebele (the smallest administrative unit) selection, targeted sampling procedures were applied. The Welmera district was chosen since it is one of the potential areas for crop and livestock production in the zone for adopting CSA practices. The study involves a purposive selection of three kebeles that have strong agricultural production potential. Finally, respondents were picked at random from all designated kebeles. A well-organized questionnaire was developed and used to collect data from a total of 306 respondents. The study data were collected for main variables including demographic factors, economic factors (land holding, livestock holding, farm income, and access to credit services), and institutional factors (access to agricultural extension services and participation of farmers in field day). Additionally, adoption of different types of CSA practices by farmers is among the kinds of information collected from the respondents.

To provide a representative sample, the sample size was determined using Yamane’s (1967) sample size formula ( Sajjad, 2016 ).

n  = sample size, N  = population understudy, and e  = error term.

The total farm households of the three kebeles are 1,308/sampling frame/ households. Based on the above formula, the total sample size included 306 households.

3.3 Econometric model and data analysis

Adoptions of multiple CSA practices are correlated ( Mebratu et al., 2022 ; Samuel et al., 2022 ; Tamirat, 2022 ; Abyiot et al., 2023 ). The correlation is caused by either technology complementarity or practice substitutability. As a result, the multivariate probit model, a generalization of the probit model, is employed to estimate several correlated associated binary outcomes jointly. This is the preferred model for several dependent variables (two categories) that are interrelated.

One farmer decides to implement the Kth climate smart agriculture (CSA) practices if Y * kj  =  U * k - U 0  > 0,

where Uk represents a benefit from one of the CSA practices and U0 represents a benefit from implementation of traditional/unimproved methods. The farmer’s net gain ( Y * kj ) from Kth CSA practice is a latent variable influenced by observed sociodemographics, institutional economic factors, and climate change perception level ( Xkj ) as well as unobserved attributes ( Ukj ).

By transforming the unobserved preference in the preceding equation ( equation 1 ) into the observed binary outcome formula for each CSA practice option, we obtain the following:

where CA means conservation agriculture, IS means improved soil fertility management, SSI means small-scale irrigation, AF means agroforestry, CD means crop diversification, ILF means improved livestock feed and feeding, IWI means improved weather information, and PH means post-harvest technology.

k  = 1, 2,3, ……m indicates the types of CSA practices, and j  = 1….n implies sample size.

As per equation (1) , it is assumed that a rational j th farmer possesses a latent variable Y * kj that captures the unobserved attributes connected with the kth CSA practice choice. This latent variable is believed to be a linear combination of observed attributes x ′ kj , factors influencing CSA practice adoption, and unobserved qualities reflected by the stochastic error term Ukj . Βk is the vector of parameters to be estimated in this model. Given the latent characteristic of Y * kj , the estimations depend on observable binary discrete variables Ykj that indicate whether or not a farmer implements a specific CSA practice on his/her farmland or plot p. If a farmer’s choice to implement one CSA practice is not influenced by other practices and if error terms are normally distributed, equations (1) and (2) indicate univariate probit models in which information on a farmer’s acceptance of one CSA practice does not affect the prediction of the probability that they will adopt another CSA practice. When many CSA techniques can be adopted, a more realistic specification is to presuppose that the error terms in equation (1) jointly follow a multivariate normal (MVN) distribution, with zero conditional mean and variance normalized to unity, Ukj  ~ MVN (0, Ω). This means that in the multivariate model, when several practices can be adopted, the error terms jointly follow a multivariate normal distribution with zero conditional mean and variance normalized to unity; assuming the CSA techniques are CA, ISF, SSI, AF, CD, ILF, IWI, and PH, then (μCA, μISF, μSSI, μAF, μCD, μILF, μIWI, μPH) ~ MVP (0, Ω) and the symmetric [8 × 8] covariance matrix Ω is given as follows:

The pairwise correlation coefficient of the error terms of any two of the equations of the estimated adoption of CSA practices in the model is represented by p .

3.3.1 Descriptive statistics result

Collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics for the mean divergence of explanatory variables among adopters and non-adopters of specified CSA activities in the area. Gender, age, levels of education, family size, farming system, farmland size, livestock holding (TLU), revenue from farming, access to credit, access to agricultural extension services and training, access to field day involvement, and climate change perception level are among the explanatory variables considered in the study. From all randomly chosen sample HHs, approximately 15.4% were female-headed HHs and 84.6% were male-headed HHs, a figure that is nearly identical to national statistics from the Central Statistical Agency/CSA (2012) , which indicated that approximately 16% of households were led by men. The farmers’ lowest and highest ages are 25 and 82 years, respectively, with a mean age of 47 years. The mean family size of the respondents is 5.9, whereas the mean land size is 1.77 ha. Approximately 34.3% of respondents have access to financial services, and approximately 46.1 and 35.6% have access to agricultural extension and training and field day participation, respectively.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 types of csa practices implemented in the study area.

Climate change negatively influences production and productivity. According to the survey data, FGD (focus group discussion), and KII (key informant interview), farmers believed that the rise in temperature and the late onset of the main rainy season were indicators of climate change. Soil erosion, hailstorms, late onset, high temperatures, and frost are the main incidences reported by respondents in the study area. These incidences are affecting agricultural production and productivity, both directly and indirectly. In order to lessen the effects of climate change in the study area, farmers implement different CSA practices, including those which have the potential to improve soil fertility, such as vermicompost. Based on different negative effects of climate change, farmers are implementing various coping strategies ( Keller, 2009 ; FAO, 2013 ; Jirata et al., 2016 ). Adoption of practices such as nitrogen-efficient and heat-tolerant or resistant crop varieties, zero-tillage or minimum tillage, and integrated soil fertility management ( Hellin et al., 2014 ; FAO, 2016 ) would improve productivity and farmers’ incomes and help lower food prices. Adoption of CSA practices is likely to vary from place to place due to the diversity of agro-ecology and agricultural practices in Ethiopia. CSA practices that have the potential to minimize climate change effects include zero tillage (minimum tillage) and integrated soil fertility management ( Komarek et al., 2018 ). Saguye (2017) proved that agroforestry, soil and water management, crop management, and livestock management practices are among the most common CSA practices.

The result of the analysis reveals that the adoption rate of CSA practices in the study area is low. The percentage of farmers adopting conservation agriculture, integrated soil fertility management, high yield, disease resistance and drought tolerance, and short-season crop varieties (crop diversification) is 42.5, 61, and 52%, respectively, while the other practices were adopted by less than 40% of respondents. The result shows that the adoption rate of different CSA practices identified in the study area remains low.

The farmers are assumed to be adopters of the practices such as conservation agriculture if they adopt at least one of the components of the practice, for example, bund or reduced tillage or crop residue or crop rotation ( Table 1 ).

Table 1 . Description of the study variables.

4.2 Interdependency of adopted CSA practices

CSA practices implemented in the study area include conservation agriculture.

The result of correlation coefficient error components based on the estimation of eight practices of climate smart agriculture by the MVP model revealed that correlation coefficients are jointly significant. This supports the rejection of the null hypothesis, which holds that there is no correlation or significant relationship among the error terms in any of the eight equations. Table 2 depicts farmers’ interconnected and collaboratively adopted CSA practices. This is caused by either practice complementarity or practice substitutability. Furthermore, it is suggested that those behaviors are mutually beneficial. The result is in line with the findings of Mebratu et al. (2022) , Samuel et al. (2022) , Tamirat (2022) , Abyiot et al. (2023) .

Table 2 . Multiple CSA practices implemented in the study area.

4.3 Adoption determinants of climate smart agriculture practices

A multivariate probit model was used to investigate the factors that influence the adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices ( Table 3 ). Institutional, socioeconomic, and demographic factors are identified explanatory variables in the analysis result. Response variables are conservation practices of agriculture, management of improved soil fertility, small-scale irrigation, agroforestry practices, crop diversification, improved livestock feed and feeding, improved weather information, and post-harvest technology. The value of the response variables is assumed to be 1 if the practice is used by farmers and 0 otherwise. The coefficient result of the multivariate probit model is shown in Table 4 . The following are independent variables: household head sex, age, family size, education level, climate change perception, land/farm size, livestock holding (TLU), farm income, household farming system, access to credit service, availability of agricultural extension and agricultural training services, and farmer field day participation.

Table 3 . Covariance of the correlation matrix of CSA practices integrated soil fertility management, small-scale irrigation includes, agroforestry practice, crop diversification, practices of improved livestock feed and feeding, improved weather information, and post-harvest technologies.

Table 4 . Adoption determinants of CSA practices.

4.4 Demographic factors sex

With climate change affecting production and productivity, it is highly advised to cultivate improved crop varieties that are site- and agro-ecological-specific, including drought and disease resistance and high-yielding crop varieties, in order to combat the devastating effects of climate change on agriculture. The study shows that being male as compared to female significantly ( p  < 0.01) increased the likelihood of adoption of improved crop varieties.

Livestock production is one of the agricultural sectors that contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, notably methane gas; hence, working on improvements of livestock feed and breed is therefore essential in this case. Being male as compared to female significantly ( p  < 0.1) increases the likelihood of adoption of improved livestock feed and feeding practice.

The level of soil fertility is one of the determining factors that might alter the output per plot of land in agriculture ( Braimoh and Vlek, 2006 ; Liliane and Charles, 2020 ). This is why many farmers add fertilizers to their farmland. However, if the farmland is not maintained properly, soil fertility decreases, possibly because of climate change and inappropriate use. In this study, the result indicated age of the household head significantly ( p  < 0.05) and negatively influenced the likelihood of adoption of improved soil fertility practices. This implies that young individuals are more motivated than older people to adopt improved soil fertility practices. One argument is that older people may find it more difficult to apply enhanced soil fertility methods including applying compost and manure. Likewise, the age of household head significantly ( p  < 0.05) and negatively affects crop diversification. This result is in line with the findings of Mebratu et al. (2022) .

Age of the household head positively and significantly ( p  < 0.05) influences the adoption of agroforestry practices. The result is in line with that of Abyiot et al. (2023) , which indicated that age significantly and positively impacts the adoption of agroforestry practices.

4.6 Education level

The effects of climate change can be tempered with the use of agroforestry techniques like tree-based conservation agriculture. Plants and trees can reduce erosion. The study result shows that the education level of household heads significantly ( p  < 0.1) and positively affects the adoption of agroforestry practices. The result is in agreement with that of Abyiot et al. (2023) .

4.7 Climate change perception

In this study, it was hypothesized that attitudes toward climate change will significantly and favorably influence the adoption of CSA practices. It has significantly ( p  < 0.05) increased improved weather information adoption. This suggests that with growing awareness of climate change, the willingness to accept and make use of better weather information also increases.

5 Economic factors

5.1 land holding (farm land size).

The farm land size of households significantly ( p  < 0.01) increased the implementation of agroforestry practices. The findings are in line with those of Samuel et al. (2022) , who found that adoption of minimum tillage (a conservation agriculture technique) was substantially and favorably influenced by total land holding, and Tamirat (2022) found that adoption of conservation tillage was significantly and positively influenced by land size.

Management of improved soil fertility practices is significantly ( p  < 0.01) and positively affected by the size of the farmland. Likewise, crop diversification is significantly and positively influenced by land holding size. This could imply that farmers with larger farms are more likely to allocate farmland to various improved crop varieties than farmers with smaller farms.

The size of a household’s land holding has a substantial ( p  < 0.01) favorable impact on improved livestock feed and feeding practices. This indicates that compared to households with relatively smaller land holdings, families with comparatively greater farmland holdings are more likely to adopt improved livestock feed and different forages for livestock feed. Post-harvest technologies are actions performed to preserve, protect, or process a commodity after it has been harvested. According to the study’s findings, the size of the land holding significantly ( p  < 0.01) enhanced the likelihood that post-harvest technical practices would be adopted.

5.2 Farm income

Farmers use their farm income to cover household expenses, which has a significant ( p  < 0.01) and favorable impact on the adoption of improved livestock feed and feeding practices. This demonstrated that with increase in their wealth, farmers are more likely to adopt better livestock feeding practices.

5.3 Access to credit service

The results showed that farmers who have access to credit services that help solve their financial deficit are more likely to adopt agroforestry practices than farmers who do not. The possible explanation may be that agroforestry practices require getting different young plants of trees that have multiple advantages both for conserving the soil and for producing fruit, but many farmers are lacking financial resources. The outcome further demonstrated that access to financial services had a substantial ( p  < 0.05) favorable effect on improved crop implementation. The reason could be that enhanced crop seed and the inputs that go with it need finance services, which not all smallholder farmers always have on hand. Therefore, having access to financial services may aid farmers in filling this gap.

Similarly, access to finance services was significantly and favorably ( p  < 0.05) correlated with post-harvest technology usage. This suggests that farmers who have access to finance services are more likely to embrace post-harvest technology than farmers who do not.

5.4 Livestock holding

Livestock is a valuable asset that supports smallholder farmers in rural areas in a variety of ways, including money generation, the use of animal products for home consumption, and draft animals for plowing. The results demonstrate that the size of the livestock holding, which is one of the farmers’ source of income, significantly and favorably ( p  < 0.05) influences the adoption of conservation agriculture practices. The finding is consistent with research from Tazeze et al. (2012) and Samuel et al. (2022) , which demonstrates that a larger livestock holding boosts the likelihood that soil and water conservation practices will be used. The likelihood that a small-scale irrigation practice would be adopted, on the other hand, was significantly and negatively impacted ( p  < 0.01) by livestock ownership. The finding is consistent with that of Titay et al. (2022) showing that small-scale irrigation and cattle could contend for water. Similarly, we discovered a large and unfavorable impact of livestock holding on the adoption of agroforestry practices.

6 Institutional factors

6.1 access to agriculture extension services and trainings.

Farmers can obtain various kinds of agricultural information through agriculture extension services and trainings, and these services and trainings have a positive and significant ( p  < 0.01) influence on the adoption of crop diversification. The research’s findings concur with those of Mebratu et al. (2022) , Abyiot et al. (2023) .

6.2 Farmers’ field day participation

Field days are a characteristic part of the farmer’s field school approach, which happens at the end following trainings and helps share information with a bigger group of farmers by providing demonstrations. This strategy is used in more than 90 countries ( Emerick and Dar, 2021 ). The findings of the study showed that participation in farmers’ field days significantly and favorably ( p  < 0.1) influences the adoption of conservation agriculture techniques. According to this, farmers who have access to field day activities are more likely to adopt agroforestry practices than farmers who do not. Similar to this, farmers are more likely to use soil fertility practices if they have access to field days.

6.3 Climate smart agriculture adoption barriers

Farmers who responded to the study stated that a variety of obstacles made it difficult to embrace CSA practices. The main obstacles to adopting climate wise agriculture methods as reported by farmers in the research area are shown in Figure 2 . The principal barriers to the adoption of CSA methods were a lack of technical expertise; access to irrigation water; labor shortages, particularly for laborious practices; lack of complete information; and lack of financial resources.

Figure 2 . CSA adoption barriers Source: survey data (May, 2022).

According to a study by Titay et al. (2022) conducted in the East Hararghe Zone, farmers confront several problems that prevent them from putting climate change adaptation measures into practice, and these difficulties include limited access of agricultural information and a lack of financial resources. Information access is one of the barriers preventing the implementation of CSA practices in this study as well. Different CSA practices have varying degrees of relevance, even though the overall goal is to mitigate the effects of climate change; therefore, farmers must be skilled and knowledgeable about the practices that are important to them.

7 Conclusion and recommendation

It is vital for long-term agricultural production to reduce the negative impact of climate change on agriculture and conversely the negative impact of agriculture on climate. As a result, CSA practices are seen to be critical in mitigating the negative effects of climate change on agriculture. However, the adoption of several CSA techniques in Ethiopia remains limited.

The goal of this study was to examine CSA practices being implemented and determining factors of adoption of CSA practices in Welmera woreda study sites. The result indicated that conservation agriculture, integrated soil fertility management, small-scale irrigation, agroforestry practices, crop diversification, improved livestock feed and feeding, improved weather information, and post-harvest technologies are some of the CSA techniques used by farmers in the study area. There might be a justification for why some CSA practices are being implemented by farmers in the research area. The area may be suffering repercussions as a result of climate change, which is one explanation.

The results of the study show that male farmers were significantly more likely than female farmers to adopt crop diversification and improved livestock feed and feeding practices. Increase in age has a considerable detrimental impact on the likelihood of farmers implementing improved soil fertility management techniques and crop diversification measures. However, it has a beneficial and considerable impact on the adoption of agroforestry practices. A comparatively large farmland size enhances the adoption of conservation agriculture, improved soil fertility management, crop diversification, enhanced livestock feed and feeding practices, and post-harvest technology practice, according to the results of the economic factors. Higher farm revenue increases the possibility of adopting improved livestock feed and feeding practices. Having a significant number of animals strongly promotes adoption of conservation agriculture, and having access to financing services positively influences agroforestry, crop diversification, and post-harvest technology implementation. We again found that climate change perception level has a positive and significant effect on the adoption of improved weather information. In addition, institutional factor results indicated that access to agricultural extension service and training positively influences the adoption of crop diversification and that access to participation on farmers’ field day similarly positively influences the adoption of both conservation agriculture and improved soil fertility management practices.

The results of the study indicate that CSA practices are complementary in terms of adoption. Therefore, concerned bodies ought to give due attention to the complementarity of the practices in the study areas for intensifying adoption of CSA practices in the study. Another consideration for concerned bodies is to look at farmers’ demographic, socioeconomic, and institutional characteristics that have a substantial impact on the adoption of CSA practices and to improve these factors, as these factors can influence the adoption of the practices.

Agricultural extension services are significantly important for increasing the public’s understanding of agricultural developments. It helps educate and improve the knowledge and abilities of rural farmers to increase the productivity through the use of improved technologies. Since this is an essential element, policymakers and other concerned bodies should pay close attention to the field of factors influencing the agricultural extension and training system. Along with this, it is crucial to work on the identification of site-specific CSA practices to decrease the negative effects of climate change on agriculture. Apart from the previously mentioned points, providing farmers with agro climate consulting services and facilitating access to climate information are more effective for raising awareness. Further investigation is recommended in order to gage the economic impact of CSA practices in the study areas as well as the adoption intensity of these practices.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the [patients/participants OR patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin] was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

MG: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EA: Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Kulumsa Agricultural Research center and Welmera Agricultural Office for their support and coordination during the data collection process from the farmers. The authors again thank data collectors and respondent farmers for their significant contribution in the data collection process. The Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research funded the study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: climate change, climate-smart agriculture, adoption, multivariate probit, determinants

Citation: Gudina MH and Alemu EA (2024) Factors influencing small holder farmers adoption of climate SMART agriculture practices in Welmera Woreda, Central Ethiopia. Front. Clim . 6:1322550. doi: 10.3389/fclim.2024.1322550

Received: 20 October 2023; Accepted: 18 March 2024; Published: 09 May 2024.

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*Correspondence: Mesay Hailu Gudina, [email protected]