how does a research ship work

What is a Research Vessel?

Research vessels fulfil an important need of carrying out research at the sea. As their titular reference indicates, these ships help in the detailed analyses and studies of the oceanic arena for various purposes. The construction and the structural composition of these kinds of ships are majorly customised to suit the operational needs. This type of vessels are designed and built in a manner to face the toughest environmental conditions at the sea.

The earliest known utilisation of a research vessel predates back to the mid-1700s when the well-known and well-regarded adventurer James Cook was commissioned to study about planetary movements, while being positioned in the Pacific Ocean. Though at that time the vessel employed was not officially accredited as being a research ship, the nature and the characteristics of the outlined project demarcated it to be as one of the pioneering vessels to be applied in the field of sub-water researching.

A research vessel can be utilised for myriad purposes and in diverse oceanic regions.

Some of main purposes of research vessels are:

• Seismic Surveys (carried out by Seismic Vessel )
• Hydrographic Survey
• Oceanographic Research
• Polar Research
• Fisheries Research
• Naval/Defence Research
• Oil Exploration

Research vessels are majorly employed in the remotely vast polar arenas for polar region research. The vessels that address the scientific and analytical needs of these regions are structured with special torsos that allow them to pave their way through the icy sheets and extreme weather conditions.

A research ship can also be employed to study the patterns of the marine life-forms occurring within various water zones. Researching ships that are thus used come equipped with the necessary piscatorial equipment to aid the process.

Researching vessels are also utilised in the offshore oil and gas excavation sector so as to enable better understanding of the sub-water crude and gas reservoirs. They are employed so as to determine the best suited area to install the necessary excavation riggings.

As a means to validate the maritime security of a nation, researching vessels are employed at the national level so as to find out about any chances of naval security breach or invasion

The domain of Oceanology also necessitates the utilisation of a research ship. Such a research undertaking involves studying of the oceanic weather and tidal conditions, monitoring the features of the oceanic water and studying the seismologic trends of the underwater geography.

Research vessels are also utilized by the fishing industry to carry out various types of researches such as fish finding, water sampling etc.

In the present times on account of the development in science and technology, even researching vessels have become quite advanced. It is also expected that in the future, the concept of researching ships will bear several more pioneering hallmarks.

Some famous Research Vessels:

Flip Ship – A Unique Research Vessel

G.O. Sars – An Advanced Research Vessel

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FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform) Research Vessel

Floating Instrument Platform (FLIP) is a unique oceanographic research vessel owned by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) and operated by the Marine Physical Laboratory at Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

Gunderson Brothers Engineering

US Office of Naval Research (ONR)

Marine Physical Laboratory (MPL) of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Length Overall

Maximum draft, gross tonnage.

The vessel is a 355ft long, spoon-shaped buoy, which can be flipped from horizontal to a 90° vertical position in the ocean by pumping 700t of seawater into the ‘handle’ end while flooding air into the ‘cradle’, causing it to rise out of the sea.

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The transition from horizontal to vertical positioning takes nearly 30 minutes, after which 300m of the buoy is submerged underwater, keeping the 700 long-ton mass steady, providing a stable research platform for underwater acoustics research.

The vessel is imperviable to wave motion, thus allowing researchers to conduct a range of research activities including meteorology, geophysics, physical oceanography, marine mammal research, non-acoustic ASW and laser propagation experiments in a stable environment.

Construction and maintenance of the research vessel

Launched in June 1962 by The Gunderson Brothers Engineering Company of Portland, the FLIP was designed by two MPL scientists, Dr Fred Fisher and Dr Fred Spiess, to create a more stable space than a conventional research ship to study wave forms.

The FLIP Maintenance Availability began at the Campbell Shipyard in December 1994 and was completed in January 1996. FLIP underwent constant dry dockings in 2001, 2003, 2006 and 2010, and completed 50 years of successful operations in 2012.

The FLIP transformation

The transformation from horizontal to vertical is one of the most impressive sights on the ocean. Because of the potential interference with the acoustic instruments, FLIP has no propulsion power, so has to be towed out to its operating area in the horizontal position at a speed of 7kt to 10kt.

When positioned at the desired location at sea, the research vessel either drifts freely or is held in place using one or all of its three anchors, as required by the research project. The long, thin end of the buoy has special ballast tanks, which are then flooded with seawater, causing it to sink, while air tanks cause the other end of the buoy to rise. The protruding end is equivalent in height to a five-storey building.

FLIP can operate equally well in shallow water and depths of more than 2,000 fathoms. A 30ft wave only causes FLIP to move three feet vertically in the water column. Although this is the size of wave the buoy was built to withstand, FLIP can cope with swells of up to 80ft.

For FLIP to flip back to a horizontal position, air-compressed into eight tanks is used to push the seawater out of the ballast tanks. The submerged end of FLIP rises until the buoy is once again level with the water.

FLIP ship design

FLIP’s unique design makes it the only vessel in the world capable of operating both horizontally and vertically. Scientific instruments are built sideways into the wall so that as the buoy flips, the instruments flip into a usable position as well.

Most rooms on FLIP have two doors: one to use when horizontal and the other for when FLIP is vertical. Bunk beds, toilets and stoves are built on swivels and gimbals, so they turn with the buoy, but things that would not rotate so well, like sinks, are built both horizontally and vertically in each room.

A fresh-water tank with a capacity to store 1,500 gallons of water is replenished daily by a 31gal/hour reverse-osmosis water maker. The eight storage flasks located inside the ballast tanks store around 3,000ft3 of air at a maximum pressure of 250psi. Two Ingersoll-Rand Model H25M air-compressors are used to charge the air flasks.

The main power source comes from two 150kW generators, as well as one 40kW backup generator. The engines are mounted on trunnions for horizontal and vertical operation.

Navigation equipment on-board the vessel includes a gyro, GPS and RADAR, while the communication equipment includes HF, VHF, INMARSAT and cellular.

Accommodation on-board the research vessel

The steel hull platform of FLIP provides accommodation for 11 researchers and five crew members for up to 30 days. During the flip, everyone has to stand on deck while the deck below gradually becomes a bulkhead, before stepping onto a deck that was the bulkhead just minutes before.

Once the transition has completed, staff have to cope with working five storeys above the ocean, contending with steep stairs, narrow booms and the confined spaces necessary to make FLIP operational.

There are two heads (bathrooms) on-board, two showers, but only one that can be used in the vertical and one that can be used in the horizontal position.

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The ability to explore remote and challenging areas at sea, across a range of oceanographic disciplines, is becoming increasingly important for us to understand the complex nature of our oceans in order to predict future change.

Despite the increasing accuracy and precision of satellite measurements, the electromagnetic waves used for recording data from the oceans can only penetrate the top few millimetres of the ocean surface, leaving physical tools as the only viable way to research the ocean depths. For the foreseeable future, research vessels will be the primary method of oceanographic observation, through direct observation and via autonomous vehicles. Our research vessels support complex, multidisciplinary, multi-investigator research, and include state-of-the-art technology and instruments to provide research needs across all oceanographic disciplines.

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Science at Sea: Meeting Future Oceanographic Goals with a Robust Academic Research Fleet (2009)

Chapter: 4 oceanographic research vessel design.

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4 Oceanographic Research Vessel Design The most important factors in oceanographic research vessel design. Does specialized research needs dominate the design criteria and, if so, what are the impacts on costs and overall availability? Ship design is an exercise in conflict resolution. It is the creation of a system of systems to perform a specific mission while balancing con- flicting requirements to achieve a ship capable of performing its mission in the best way possible within economic constraints. Oceanographic ship design is one of the very complex subsets of ship design, due to the large variety of oceanographic missions: physical, biological, and chemi- cal oceanography; marine geology and geophysics; ocean engineering; and atmospheric science. Each discipline has its own unique set of mis- sion requirements, yet a given ship is often called upon to perform work for a number of different disciplines, often on the same research cruise. In addition, the capital needed to build effective oceanographic ships is finite and scarce. Ships will remain the primary method of conducting oceanographic research, both through direct observation and through deployment and recovery of sensors, moorings, and vehicles. Driven in part by national oceanographic research objectives, research will be conducted in increas- ingly remote and environmentally challenging areas. Future ships must be able to perform their science missions in all areas of the oceans, includ- ing the margins of the polar seas. Specialized vessels (icebreakers) will also be needed to work in ice-covered regions. 47 

48 SCIENCE AT SEA SCIENCE-DRIVEN SHIP DESIGN REQUIREMENTS The future science trends and technology advances that will drive oceanographic ship design have been described in Chapters 2 and 3. These have been synthesized into a matrix (Table 4-1). Several of these needs are unique to certain disciplines and are potential design require- ments that should be assessed carefully in general purpose oceanographic ship design. Other needs are more universal; for example, the ability to collect seawater samples throughout the water column is important for most of the oceanographic disciplines. Specific design considerations driven by the listed needs are discussed in the following sections. Handling Equipment Handling equipment overboard and onboard will continue to be of paramount importance, to allow for the safety of personnel, equipment, and the ship itself (Figure 4-1). Trends indicate that handling equipment must be able to operate effectively and safely up to sea state 6. General pur- pose oceanographic research ships require a permanently installed suite of winches (direct pull and traction) to perform conductivity-temperature- depth (CTD) type activities, deep tow, coring, and trawling missions. To expand the environmental operating window, active heave compensation has been incorporated on a number of recent ship designs. The Office of Naval Research (ONR) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) jointly funded a 2004 workshop to consider future handling systems. Recom- mendations from that workshop were used in motion compensation sys- tems installed on the Regional/Coastal class Sharp (Figure 4-1B,C), the Ocean class Kilo Moana, and the system designed for the Alaska Region Research Vessel (ARRV). It is likely that active heave compensation will be considered for all future University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS) vessels. Gliders, autonomous underwater and unmanned aerial vehicles (AUVs and UAVs), and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) often require specific deployment and recovery procedures and equipment (e.g., Figure 4-1A). Although systems vary, deployment is usually much easier than recovery. While UAVs now use catchlines for recovery, advancements in remote aircraft are likely to change significantly in the future. Current oceanographic vessels, especially the larger classes, have high freeboard that makes recovery more difficult for offboard equipment. Requirements for damage stability and personnel safety in desired higher sea state   http://www.unols.org/publications/reports/lhsworkshop/index.html   Damage stability refers to the ability of a ship to have sufficient stability to survive a flooding casualty. 

Table 4-1  Science-Driven Ship Needs Science Driver Physical Biological Chemical MG&G Atmospheric Atmospheric measurement capability X X X X AUV/glider/UAV stowage and handling X X X X X Capability to service observatories X X X X Clean laboratory space X X X X Controlled temperature laboratory space X X Dynamic positioning X X X X High data rate communication X X X X X Hull mounted and deployable sensorsa X X X X X Low radiated noise X X X Low sonar self noise X X X Manned submersible use X X X Mooring/buoy deployment and recovery X X X X X Multi-channel seismics X X Ocean drilling and coring X Precise navigation X X X X X ROV stowage and handling X X X X Towing nets and/or vehicles X X X X X Underway scientific seawater supply X X X X X Watercatching/water column sampling X X X Xb X aIn this instance, deployable sensors include centerboards, stalks, and towed sensors that can be lowered beneath the level of bubble sweep- down interference. bFor hydrothermal plume studies. 49 

50 SCIENCE AT SEA (A) (C) (B) Figure 4-1  (A) An AUV being deployed using a custom OTS handling system (used with permission from ODIM Brooke Ocean). (B) The hands-free CTD han- dling system mounted on the R/V Sharp, which allows the CTD to be deployed and recovered without personnel holding the rosette. (C) A CTD deployed using the R/V Sharp’s OTS CTD handling system. The motion compensating function keeps the CTD at designated depth without regard to the motion of the ship, once deployed. (B and C used with permission from William Byam, University of Delaware). operations are likely to exacerbate this issue. Existing options, including using a small boat or a grapple to hook gliders, AUVs, or ROVs, will be less viable in rough weather conditions. Development of over-the-side (OTS) lifting equipment, either portable or permanent, will be neces- sary to protect equipment and personnel. However, designing handling equipment that is optimized for current OTS equipment could negatively impact vessel utility over the 30-year lifespan of a ship. Instead, this type of equipment should be designed with future needs in mind. 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 51 Acoustic Quieting Acoustic quieting requirements are essential for many missions (e.g., shipborne acoustic sensors, acoustic releases on equipment, offboard platforms with acoustic communications). Double raft mounting and/or resilient mounting will be increasingly desirable. Achieving compliance with ship-radiated noise recommendations set forth in the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) report Underwater Noise of Research Vessels (commonly referred to as ICES 209; Mitson, 1995) is likely to be costly, and mission needs must clearly warrant imposition of this requirement if costs are to be minimized. Some recent and planned vessels, including the ARRV and RRS Discovery, are attempting partial compliance with ICES 209 specifications for a manageable and economic solution to ship-radiated noise. Attention should also be paid to ambient noise and its impacts on habitability for the ship crew and science party, especially when round- the-clock operations are undertaken. The positioning of berthing and accommodations should be designed to avoid unnecessary and disturb- ing ambient noise. Dynamic Positioning Dynamic positioning is critical to handle deployment, recovery, and operation of offboard vehicles safely. Design conditions should strive to maintain position beam-on in at least sea state 6-7, 30-knot winds gust- ing to 40 knots, and a 0.5-knot surface current all from the same direction (Williams and Hawkins, 2009). The current Ocean class Science Mission Requirements (SMR) require that the ship be designed to maintain posi- tion in sea state 5, a 35-knot wind, and a 2-knot current (UNOLS Fleet Improvement Committee, 2003b). Laboratories and Working Decks There will be a continued need for plentiful laboratory and working deck space and capabilities. Laboratory space should be divided between ultraclean, clean, normal, and temperature-controlled areas, with sufficient flexibility to be used for multiple needs (Williams and Hawkins, 2009). There should be ease of and logical access into and between lab spaces for personnel and sample movements. Vessel design should include a substantial scientific stores area, including areas for frozen and refriger- ated sample storage (Daidola, 2004). Working deck design must be open and clear, with tie-downs for equipment and containers. There should be flexible deck space to sup- port the use of laboratory and equipment vans, and easy and safe access 

52 SCIENCE AT SEA to covered working areas using integrated overhead lifting gear. Decks must be able to handle increasingly heavy gear, including moorings, fleets of autonomous vehicles, and ROV equipment and winches. Freeboard should be as low as possible to allow for optimal handling of over-the- side equipment while keeping decks dry. Berthing and Accommodations Accommodation trends aboard research vessels include more single berthing for crew, specialized technicians, and scientists; berthing with natural light to promote natural sleep patterns; and galley and relaxation spaces that promote a healthy lifestyle at sea (Williams and Hawkins, 2009). The quality and design of crew living spaces are paramount for employee retention and morale. Specifications for noise levels and envi- ronmental conditions in both interior laboratory spaces and living quar- ters should strive to minimize ambient noise levels. Other Design Attributes A number of other scientific and operational trends will drive oceano- graphic ship design in the future (Daidola, 2004; Williams and Hawkins, 2009). These include the following: • Larger, multidisciplinary science parties to make the best use of the ship resources and collect interdisciplinary and/or complementary data • Longer cruise durations ranging over larger areas of the ocean • Increasing desire to work in areas of rougher weather, demanding vessels capable of operating in higher sea states • Specifications that comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) • 24/7 operations • Higher-resolution and specialized hull-mounted swath bathymetry and sonar systems • Larger and heavier pieces of portable science equipment • Deployment, recovery, and maintenance of specialized offboard equipment • More specialists (in addition to marine technicians) to service com- plex equipment • Operational safety The impact of these trends on dimensions and displacement is discussed later in this chapter. 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 53 DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN DRIVERS Table 4-2 displays ship design characteristics that are dictated by science needs as well as other characteristics inherent to setting future mission requirements that may have a significant cost impact. These design drivers are assessed by their priority (1-9, with 9 being the high- est), established by the scientific community, and by their degree of ship impact (low-high), assessed by naval architects (UNOLS Fleet Improve- ment Committee, 2003b; Dan Rolland, personal communication, 2009). A “high” impact means that the ship’s capital cost will increase if that requirement is met. For example, dynamic positioning is important for many types of science missions and has a large impact on ship design. The thrust delivery and control required add significantly to the ship construc- tion cost, but given the high associated priority, dynamic positioning is likely to be an investment with widespread use. Conversely, aiming for higher ship speeds also has strong impacts on ship construction cost, but with a much lower priority. This indicates that when ship mission require- ments are set, care should be taken to fully justify any speed that is on the steep side of the power curve. A corollary impact of higher speed is greater fuel consumption, leading to increased operating cost, and greater fuel tank volume, which can increase ship cost. Efficiency Efficiency is a vital consideration in the design of future oceano- graphic ships. Seeking a design with high propulsion efficiencies will lead not only to a lower operating cost but to a “greener” ship. Efforts to be more environmentally friendly often result in the addition of equipment to reduce emissions, which requires space in and adds weight to the ship in addition to its own costs, increasing ship construction costs. However, the potential for stronger regulations on emissions in particular local or regional areas (exist in the North Sea Sulfur Oxide Emission Control Area; International Maritime Organization, 1997) will affect ship design require- ments and will not be achievable with current UNOLS vessels. Future oceanographic ship design may have to anticipate this by creating space and weight to comply with as-yet-undefined requirements or by accept- ing construction and operation cost increases associated with emission reduction measures. Other control measures, such as a carbon tax, could also drastically change the economics of traditional propulsion plants. Recent increases in fuel costs dictate that high priority should be given to improving propulsion plant efficiency and reducing ship hull resistance. Many recent academic research vessels, such as Atlantis and Kilo Moana, have used some form of electric propulsion, and currently the Navy is contemplating shifting its combatant fleet toward integrated 

54 SCIENCE AT SEA Table 4-2  Research Vessel Design Drivers Ship Design Driver Priority Ship Impact ABS class/USCG certified 9 High ADA accessibility 9 High Working deck area and arrangement 9 High Laboratory area and arrangement 9 High Draft (less than 20 feet) 9 Moderate Dynamic positioning capability 9 High Fuel efficiency 9 Moderate Maneuverability at slow speeds 9 Moderate Sonar self noise 9 High Bubble sweepdown 9 High Seakeeping 8 High Number of science accommodations 8 High Crane handling on deck and on/off ship 8 High Overboard handling operations 8 High Overboard discharges/stack emission 8 Low Other scientific echosounders 8 Moderate AUV/ROV handling and servicing 7 Moderate Workboat handling 7 Moderate Science storage 7 Low On deck incubations, locations/water 7 Low Long coring capability 6 High Mast location, met sensors 6 Moderate Rangea 6 High Speed 6 High Variable science payload 6 Moderate Radiated noiseb 6 High One degree deep water multibeam 6 High Endurance 5 Low Ice strengthening 4 High Marine mammal and bird observations 3 Low aThecommittee thinks that “Range” deserves a higher priority than the value shown in this table, due to growing needs for ships capable of reaching distant research sites. bThe committee thinks that “Radiated noise” deserves a higher priority than shown on this table unless “Sonar self noise” (which has a high priority) is controlled. SOURCE: Adapted from UNOLS Fleet Improvement Committee, 2003b; Dan Rolland, per- sonal communication, 2009. 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 55 electric drives. This trend has resulted in larger research and develop- ment expenditures for naval combatant electric propulsion, and future oceanographic ships are likely to benefit from advancements in power conditioning, reductions in plant size, and reductions in fuel consumption for a given power level. There are other efficiencies to be considered. The performance of a research vessel is based upon the quantity and quality of the data it produces. A variety of issues can impact ship productivity, including the amount of time taken to deploy equipment to full depth and recover it, the time taken to change over from one piece of equipment to another, and time lost due to breakdowns in the winching and OTS handling equipment. This is increasingly important on multidisciplinary cruises, which often require capability for a variety of equipment to be used at any one site. Although little can be done to improve deployment and recovery speeds through the water column due to the limiting hydrodynamics of the equipment and potential for damage due to overspeeding, the U.K. academic research vessel RRS James Cook was designed to substan- tially reduce the time for equipment changeover and breakdown losses. Winches are arranged to allow all wires to be permanently rigged up and quickly connected, while a system of sheaves allows any wire to be led over any of the main OTS handling equipment (Robin Williams, personal communication, 2009). These types of ship arrangements permit a high degree of integration and support diverse science objectives simultane- ously, thus allowing more science to be carried out per day and increasing the ship’s efficiency. General Purpose and Specialized Design Requirements Large general purpose vessels yield an economical long-term fleet that can satisfy uncertainty in future mission requirements. Although general purpose ships will serve a broad spectrum of future research activities, some scientific mission requirements will call for special purpose ships. These include fisheries surveying, which requires very quiet platforms; operations in the marginal ice zone, which result in specialized hull struc- ture; deep submersible operations, which need strengthened A-frames and specialized hangar spaces; and three-dimensional (3D) seismic stud- ies, which require large reinforced deck spaces to accommodate streamer reels, large-capacity compressors for air guns, rigging and booms for handling air gun arrays, and the ability to tow multiple air gun arrays and/or streamers (Daidola, 2004). Of these, seismic needs are currently   For example, the Zumwalt-class destroyer DDG1000. 

56 SCIENCE AT SEA addressed with the Marcus Langseth; Atlantis serves as the tender for the Alvin manned submersible; and the NSF-funded ARRV will allow for work in marginal ice. These specialized ships are relatively young: Marcus Langseth was converted for research service in 2008, Atlantis was built in 1997, and the ARRV is anticipated to come online in 2014. Based on the evolving science and technology needs identified in Chapters 2 and 3 and the existence of capable specialized vessels, readily adaptable general purpose ship designs are most needed in the future fleet. The UNOLS fleet does not currently have any specialized fisheries vessels, although the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operates four ultraquiet fisheries vessels and is slated to build three more by 2018 (Office of Marine and Aviation Operations, 2008; Tajr Hull, personal com- munication, 2009). There are a number of ship design trends involving displacement and dimensions that are useful to consider, including (Williams and Hawkins, 2009) • Increased beam, which increases damage survivability; • Increased length, which improves the hull form for powering and control of bubble sweepdown over hull mounted transducers; • Increased draft, which reduces bow emergence in a seaway and reduces bubble sweepdown; and • Increased displacement, which supports increases in range, roll stabilization, science outfitting, and over-the-side lifting equipment weights. Beam has been increasing as a result of stronger standards for damage stability but is likely to stabilize. Draft has also increased over time, likely due to the need to minimize bubble sweepdown for hull-mounted sonar systems. Minimization of bubble sweepdown has proven to be extremely challenging and can be a significant design driver for ships carrying these devices (Robin Williams, personal communication, 2009). Increasing beam and draft for conventional hull forms implies increased displace- ment, which leads to higher costs for ship construction. However, larger ships capable of carrying more scientists and performing more scientific experiments do provide an economy of scale. While adding more berth- ing and lab space increases ship construction costs, the cost per scientist decreases. This is supported by UNOLS statistics from 2008, where the average daily cost per scientist was higher for the Ocean ($1,062) and Intermediate ($982) classes than for the Global class ($946; data from UNOLS office, 2009). 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 57 International Maritime Organization (IMO) MARPOL Regulations The United States is a party to Annex 1 of the IMO’s International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), which regulates oil pollution. A 2007 amendment to Annex 1 is likely to have a significant effect on the design, cost, and operation of future research vessels. Ships with fuel capacity of more than 600 m3 will be required to enclose the fuel tanks within a double hull. Several of the current Global class vessels (Revelle, Atlantis, Thompson, and Langseth) have fuel tanks with greater capacity. This regulation has the potential to severely restrict the range of larger ships of the academic fleet, which in turn will affect scientific activities. Although ships built using Navy funds could be exempt from these regu- lations, the amendment provides a significant driver toward more fuel- efficient operations, including lower transit speeds, more streamlined hull forms, and efficient power generation and distribution systems for future Global and Ocean class vessels. THE SHIP ACQUISTION PROCESS The Navy’s acquisition process related to the academic fleet has a significant impact on both ship cost and quality. The time from concept to delivery of any ship constructed with federal funds is extraordinarily long: the proposed new polar icebreaker is projected to take 8 to 10 years to enter service (National Research Council, 2007), and the new ARRV has taken more than 30 years of planning (http://www.sfos.uaf.edu/arrv/). Because of the lead times involved, it is vital that the most capable ship is constructed. Since decisions made at the earliest stage of design can have the greatest impact on the life-cycle cost of a ship (Bole and Forrest, 2005), science users need to participate in setting initial requirements and design specifications and to be included in the evolution of the design. This is especially important when the research requirements are translated into ship specifications, because poor decisions at this stage often yield a ship that will be unsatisfactory or uneconomical to operate. One strategy that almost guarantees an unsatisfactory solution is the use of poorly defined performance specifications. Shipbuilding is a business, and shipbuilders must compete for contracts that are usually awarded to the lowest bidder. If specifications are not tightly defined, the shipbuilder may use inexpensive and unsatisfactory approaches to construction. Some of the recent UNOLS vessels procured through the Navy acquisition process have been constructed with poor attention to   http://www.imo.org/Conventions/contents.asp?doc_id=678&topic_id=258#7. 

58 SCIENCE AT SEA detail because of this approach. Examples include the use of iron piping instead of copper-nickel for potable water systems because pipe material was not defined (as on Thompson), or deck drains that are not located at the local low point (thereby not working effectively) because the designer failed to specify a location (on Atlantis). There have even been cases where the drain piping has been run against grade (both Revelle and Atlantis). There is simply no substitute for specificity in fixed-price contracts, such as those the Navy uses to procure academic ships. While cost constraints may preclude securing a ship with every desired specification, improvements could be made to the current system. Since hull structure is one of the cheapest aspects of a complete ship, one alternative to the current approach might be to consider building a larger ship than may appear to be affordable and bid certain scientific systems separately. This would allow for “mix-and-matching” the systems, creat- ing a ship that does some part of the overall mission very well. Other capabilities could be deferred for a future refit, with unfinished space left for future equipment purchases and installation. Another alterna- tive would be for the procuring agency to purchase certain high-tech equipment separately and provide it to the shipbuilder for installation, ensuring that the desired equipment is installed rather than a lower-cost component that would require replacement and increase life-cycle costs. One caveat with this approach is that equipment must be delivered to the shipyard on time, and any required interfaces with the ship must be correctly and precisely defined. If this is not done, the shipyard will likely consume all potential cost savings by claiming increased costs due to delay and disruption associated with failure to be timely and properly defined. A common hull design between vessels of each class, as done previously with Global class ships (i.e., Thompson, Atlantis, Revelle, and the NOAA ship Ronald H. Brown), could also provide cost savings. NSF created a design and construction plan for the AARV that was intended to address many of the problems that have impacted earlier oceanographic ship acquisition programs. The ARRV process involves the scientific user community in the design and construction of an oceano- graphic ship from the preconstruction phase through post delivery of the ship. It is summarized in Box 4-1. CONCLUSIONS The fleet of the future will be required to support increasingly com- plex, multidisciplinary, multi-investigator research. The design of future oceanographic ships is likely to become more challenging in order to achieve the needed integration and balance of facilities and equipment. Multidisciplinary, multi-investigator cruises will drive many aspects of 

OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN 59 Box 4-1 The ARRV Procurement Process The ARRV is being built under the direction of NSF to support research in coastal and open ocean settings, particularly in those regions that experience mod- erate seasonal ice. ARRV, as the first ice-strengthened ship to join the academic fleet, requires special capabilities and presented engineering challenges that do not apply to more general purpose vessels. In order to provide strict oversight for vessel fabrication, NSF implemented a four-phase building project that required successful completion of early phases before funding would be awarded for subse- quent phases. The phases included a project refresh (design review), yard selec- tion and acquisition, ship construction, and delivery and transitions to operations. A key element of the process was the creation of an ARRV Oversight Commit- tee to obtain community input and advice on ship design and construction during all of the phases. This included a review of a final refreshed design and de-scop- ing plan, draft shipyard contract, and shipyard scope of work; a periodic review of ARRV construction progress; review of delivery voyage and the shakedown science test cruises; and review of warranty period and final acceptance. The oversight committee provides advice on the establishment of design and budget priorities, ensuring that construction remains within the agreed scope and cost. The committee was established and supported by the University of Alaska, Fairbanks (UAF), and its membership and scope of activities are approved by NSF. The committee is responsive to NSF and UAF by providing reports that detail and track the status of recommendations. The committee’s membership is fluid and may change depending on needed expertise for each phase of design, construction and trials. The ARRV procurement process entails a competitive two-step shipyard selec- tion process. Step 1 is the competitive qualification of shipyards through a technical proposal submission. Step 2 is a best-value price competition among acceptable shipyards in response to a request for cost proposals. Shipyards that do not pass Step 1 are expected to be eliminated to reduce risks of procurement delay, allow fewer potential protest risks or expenses, and maintain strong price competition among acceptable shipyards. The shipyard selection process begins with a request that interested shipyards demonstrate their qualifications for the ARRV project. The request includes the baseline project design package, a thorough description of the selection process (including evaluation methods), and detailed instructions to the potential offerors. design, including power plant and propulsion, laboratory and working deck layout, over-the-side handling, launch and recovery, and equip- ment changeover. Larger science parties and more complex technology will require more laboratory and berthing space. The growing trend toward use of multiple offboard vehicles will also impact the design with respect to freeboard and deck space. Vessel design will have to incorpo- rate technology that is currently available, such as dynamic positioning or 

60 SCIENCE AT SEA state-of-the-art sonar, while remaining adaptable for future technological upgrades. The capability to operate in high latitudes and high sea states will also be required. Because technology changes rapidly and ship lifespans are long, future academic vessel designs need to be general purpose and highly adaptable to changing science needs. Specialized ships will also be needed for some disciplines, with designs that are well matched to disciplinary needs while also being available for limited general purpose work. Trends toward increasing beam, length, draft, and displacement and the economy of scale present in larger hulls suggest that investments in larger, more capable vessels in any size class are preferred. The current Navy ship acquisition process does not emphasize inclu- sion of the scientific community in decision making regarding academic ship design and specifications. Development of the NSF-sponsored ARRV has benefited from community-driven ship design, allowing the users to participate more fully and create optimal designs for the cost constraints. 

The U.S. academic research fleet is an essential national resource, and it is likely that scientific demands on the fleet will increase. Oceanographers are embracing a host of remote technologies that can facilitate the collection of data, but will continue to require capable, adaptable research vessels for access to the sea for the foreseeable future. Maintaining U.S. leadership in ocean research will require investing in larger and more capable general purpose Global and Regional class ships; involving the scientific community in all phases of ship design and acquisition; and improving coordination between agencies that operate research fleets.

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The Complete Guide To Research Vessels

by Goodwin Marine Services | Jan 20, 2020 | Blog , Research Vessels | 0 comments

From mapping uncharted waters to discovering new species and beyond, research vessels have had a huge impact on human history. This post takes a look at notable research vessels , including titans from the past as well as some of those currently exploring our oceans. Enjoy our guide to research vessels!

The HMS Endeavour 

According to the UK’s National Oceanography Centre (NOC), modern-day research vessels owe a great deal to ancestors such as the HMS Endeavour and HMS Challenger. Both were part of the fleet of the British Royal Navy.

The BBC’s History Extra website has taken a deep dive into the history of the Endeavour. The ship is most famous for its 1768 voyage into the South Pacific, which was led by James Cook. An astronomer aboard observed the transit of Venus, an important celestial event. The ship also transported natural historians. By the end of the voyage, which involved 1,052 days on the sea, Cook had charted the coastline of New Zealand’s pair of islands. That, according to Smithsonian Magazine , was a first for European explorers.

Interestingly, the ship went by multiple names and served more than one function during its time: It began its seagoing days as the Earl of Pembroke and spent time involved in the coal industry. It was renamed the Endeavour upon the British Royal Navy’s purchase of the ship in 1768, and it took the moniker Lord Sandwich 2 in 1775, according to The Guardian . Its third and final role was serving in an invasion fleet during the Revolutionary War. It was sunk as part of British efforts to ruin the harbor at Newport.

The HMS Challenger

Taking place roughly a century later, in the 1870s, the Challenger’s key voyage saw it cover more than 68,000 nautical miles, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s page on the ship. This journey is the reason many people believe that the Challenger undertook the world’s first proper oceanic expedition. Among other feats, its passengers gathered data at 363 oceanic stations. That data revealed information on water chemistry, currents, temperature, and deposits on the ocean floor. The passengers also identified new organisms. The Challenger’s trip resulted in so much data that the end product was a report filling 50 volumes and 29,000 pages. It took 23 years to create that report.

Like the Endeavour, the Challenger filled multiple roles during its time in service. It began life as a warship in the British Royal Navy, boasting 17 guns and a powerful engine. It was 200 feet in length, and it featured three masts. (On its famous voyage, the ship used its sails more than its engine because the sails allowed for easier stops to gather data.) The Challenger began its later role as a ship of science thanks to the efforts of Dr. C Wyville Thomson, who requested through the Royal Society of London that a warship be repurposed as a research vessel. The British government was amenable to this, and the Challenger was converted.

The HMS Beagle

Between the adventures of the Endeavour and Challenger came the voyages of the HMS Beagle, which was the research vessel that famously carried Charles Darwin. It launched in 1820, per Britannica . Its second and most notable voyage occurred from 1831–1836, with Darwin on board and Robert Fitzroy as captain. This journey saw the ship circumnavigate the globe and collect a plethora of specimens. In particular, Darwin gathered numerous fossils. On a later voyage, lasting from 1837–1843, the lieutenants John Clements Wickham and John Lort Stokes fully surveyed the coasts of Australia, which was a first.

The Calypso

The Calypso is yet another example of a British vessel converted from military service to research purposes. Originally a minesweeper and finally a research vessel, this one spent a period of time in between those two jobs as a ferry in Malta. According to the Cousteau Society , pioneering oceanic explorer Jacques-Yves Cousteau discovered the ship in Malta and completed the process of buying it in 1950. From there, the ship traveled to Antibes, France, and was converted into a research vessel. (The ship’s original designation was J-826, and it became the Calypso upon Coustau’s purchase.) Companies, the French Navy, and Cousteau and his wife Simone put forth resources toward repurposing the ship.

The ship’s adventures began not long after, with test runs occurring in June 1951 and the ship’s first true expedition taking place in November 1951. It set out from the military port at Toulon for the Red Sea with the goal of studying corals. The ship succeeded from a research standpoint: It brought back documentation, including photographic evidence, of flora and fauna that was previously unknown. The ship also succeeded from an even wider point of view: It was this journey that convinced Cousteau that more exploration of the sea was necessary to truly understand it.

The Calypso had many more notable voyages to fulfill Cousteau’s goal. In 1953, it served as a platform for testing new underwater cameras that could capture images of deep-sea animals. In 1954, it took part in a journey that led to the discovery of a Persian Gulf oil field. Then, in 1955, Cousteau and his crew took part in filming The Silent World. As the New York Times review at the time of its release put it, this was a “feature-length fact film” that brought the images the Calypso captured to the masses.

The Calypso was also a key part of the TV series titled The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau and enjoyed a long career. Sadly, the ship suffered severe damage and sank after a 1996 collision with a barge. However, that wasn’t the end of the line for the Calypso: It was eventually raised, and the Cousteau Society is currently working to restore it .

The Flip Ship

A child of the 1960s, the Flip Ship is a truly unique research vessel. As covered by Marine Insight , this ship was created by the US Navy with help from the Marine Physical Laboratory in 1962. Spoon-like in shape and 355 feet long, it is able to shift into a vertical position—from the normal horizontal position of a ship—without difficulty. The ship uses ballast tanks to achieve this realignment, and the process takes just under half an hour.

It gets its name both from its most notable feature and its official acronym: FLIP, which stands for Floating Instrument Platform. The Flip Ship enters its vertical position to gather certain types of data more accurately, including measurements of waves. The ship does not have engines to maneuver itself; instead, other vessels tow it into position. The Flip Ship was renovated in 1995 and has provided very valuable data throughout its time in service.

Underwater Research Vessels

A number of research vessels prove their worth not above the waves but below them. For example, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution maintains a number of state-of-the-art submersible research vehicles. In its original configuration, the Alvin could reach depths of 4,500 meters and dive for up to 10 hours at a time, making it able to reach approximately two-thirds of the ocean floor. Another notable vehicle in the institution’s fleet is the Deepsea Challenger , which oceanographer and cinematographer James Cameron used to visit Challenger Deep—the ocean’s deepest spot.

Icebreakers

Another specialty research vessel is the SA Agulhas II. This huge ship is an icebreaker—that is, it is able to break through thick ice, enabling it to explore the frigid area of Antarctica. Per the South African government , along with performing research, the ship has an important job in delivering supplies to South African research facilities in the Antarctic.

Joining the SA Agulhas II as a notable icebreaker is the RV Sikuliaq, which is operated by the University of Fairbanks and described in detail here . It uses a number of winches to deposit and retrieve scientific equipment, and it has a wide-ranging set of instruments for research. The ship was designed with the environment in mind, down to the noise it emits, which is purposely low.

The RV Investigator

The RV Investigator, launched in late 2014, represents Australia’s foray into high-tech research vessels. Along with advanced oceanographic capabilities, it can also collect data on the weather from far into the atmosphere, according to The Conversation . Its design is so well thought out that bubbles created by the hull won’t interfere with acoustic equipment on board.

The RRS James Cook and the RRS Discovery

Since 2006, the RRS James Cook has supported the efforts of the NOC by performing large-scale research expeditions. According to the organization’s writeup on the ship , it can perform a variety of duties, including seismic surveys, seawater sampling, the operation of remote vehicles, and deepwater coring. It can even measure changes in gravity. Additionally, the ship contains numerous laboratory facilities on board. The NOC also operates the RRS Discovery, which is the newest research ship in the organization’s fleet, featuring extremely modern equipment. These two ships represent some of the most cutting-edge research vessels out there, and it will be exciting to see what they and other modern ships reveal about the world’s oceans.

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Research Ship

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• Cheng Long Wei 4 , 5 &
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Research vessel ; Survey vessel

A research ship is a special ship or boat designed, modified, and equipped to carry out research at sea, which is carrying scientists and special equipment. Research ships are applied in marine natural science research such as geology, geophysics, hydrology, meteorology, chemistry, biology, landforms, and so on.

Scientific Fundamentals

Development history.

On the basis of great technological changes and typical characteristics of ship types, there are two main periods in the development history of the world research ships (Wu 2017 ).

First Development Period

The first development period of research ships is from the late 1950s to 1980s. Along with the application of electronic computers and the emergence of various kinds of advanced marine survey equipment, modern research ships are built gradually. Compared with the early refitted research ships, research ships in the first generation have qualitative improvements in performance,...

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Key Laboratory of Marine Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources, Guangzhou, China

Cheng Long Wei & Shuang Ling Dai

Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey, Guangzhou, China

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Hadal Science and Technology Research Center, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China

Weicheng Cui

School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

School of Marine Science and Technology, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK

Zhiqiang Hu

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College of Shipbuilding and Ocean Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China

A-Man Zhang

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Wei, C.L., Dai, S.L. (2019). Research Ship. In: Cui, W., Fu, S., Hu, Z. (eds) Encyclopedia of Ocean Engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6963-5_32-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6963-5_32-1

Received : 17 October 2018

Accepted : 09 January 2019

Published : 07 February 2019

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Under international law, all States have the right to conduct marine scientific research subject to the rights and duties of other States (see  Law of the Sea Convention, in particular, Part XIII (Arts. 238-264) offsite link ). All States are also required to promote and facilitate the development and conduct of marine scientific research. Under international law, coastal States also have the right to regulate and authorize marine scientific research in their  territorial sea , their  exclusive economic zone , and on their  continental shelf .

“Marine scientific research” is the general term most often used to describe those activities undertaken in ocean and coastal waters to expand scientific knowledge of the marine environment and its processes. Marine scientific research may include physical oceanography, marine chemistry, marine biology, fisheries research, scientific ocean drilling and coring, geological and geophysical research, and other activities with a scientific purpose. Marine scientific research underpins the science-based mission of NOAA. See  NOAA Research and Development Vision Areas: 2020-2026 . It is the policy of the United States to develop, encourage, and maintain a coordinated, comprehensive, and long-range national program in marine science for the benefit of humanity to assist in the protection of health and property, enhancement of commerce, transportation, and national security, rehabilitation of our commercial fisheries, and increased utilization of these and other resources.  33 U.S.C. § 1101 offsite link .

NOAA works with the U.S. Department of State to develop and implement  U.S. marine scientific research policy  consistent with domestic and international law. NOAA also conducts marine scientific research within maritime zones subject to U.S. jurisdiction and beyond. Before conducting marine scientific research within foreign EEZs or territorial seas or on foreign continental shelves, NOAA seeks the advance consent of the relevant foreign coastal State, if required by that State and consistent with international law.

The United States requires advance consent for all marine scientific research conducted by foreign researchers in the U.S. territorial sea, U.S. EEZ, and on the U.S. continental shelf, consistent with international law. Revision to United States Marine Scientific Research Policy,  Proclamation No. 10071 ,  85 Fed. Reg. 59165 (September 18, 2020) . Advance consent is required regardless of the platform used to support or conduct the marine scientific research, e.g., vessel, remotely operated vehicle, autonomous craft, or other installation or equipment. NOAA works with the U.S. Department of State to review proposals by foreign researchers to conduct marine scientific research in maritime zones subject to U.S. jurisdiction to ensure compliance with the requirements of the laws NOAA administers. These laws include the  Marine Mammal Protection Act , the  Endangered Species Act , the  National Marine Sanctuaries Act , the  Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act , and the  Antiquities Act of 1906 (Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument) and MSR) .  

NOAA seeks to leverage and benefit from foreign scientists’ marine scientific research conducted in the maritime zones subject to U.S. jurisdiction. Thus every State Department letter consenting to such research requires submission to  NOAA’s National Center for Environmental Information  of a copy of all data collected during the research project and the research project’s final report.  NOAA scientists are also obligated to provide, when requested by a foreign coastal State, reports and access to data and samples derived from NOAA MSR activities undertaken in a foreign coastal State’s territorial sea or EEZ or on its continental shelf.

Additional reference information: 

Law of the Sea Convention,  Part XIII (Articles 238-264) offsite link

U.N. Division of Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea,  “Marine Scientific Research: A Revised Guide to the Implementation of the Relevant Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea” offsite link  (2010)

Presidential  Proclamation on Revision to United States Marine Scientific Research Policy  (September 15, 2020)

U.S. State Department,  Marine Scientific Research  

NOAA Legal Authorities to Engage in Scientific Research

How Laws Administered by NOAA Apply to Marine Scientific Research :

Marine Mammal Protection Act and MSR

Endangered Species Act and MSR

National Marine Sanctuaries Act and MSR

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act and MSR

Antiquities Act (Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument) and MSR

NOAA,  Marine Scientific Research Data  (oceanographic, meteorological, and marine geophysical data submitted to NOAA by foreign scientists authorized to conduct MSR in waters subject to U.S. jurisdiction)

Updated March 3, 2022

R/V  Atlantis

Atlantis  is a Global Class research vessel in the U.S. academic fleet and is specially outfitted to carry the submersible Alvin and to conduct general oceanographic research

R/V  Neil Armstrong

Neil Armstrong  is an Ocean Class research vessel and, as one of the newest, most advanced ships in the U.S. academic fleet, is outfitted to conduct general oceanographic research.

Tioga , a small, fast research vessel owned and operated by WHOI and designed to conduct oceanographic work close to shore in waters along the Northeast U.S. coast.

Marine Facilities & Operations

Learn more about WHOI's shore operations, seagoing support and services, and the Iselin Marine Facility.

Find current and archived ship schedules in this section.

See the current location of each ship using graphical maps that show the current ship location and cruise track.

Oceanographic Research Vessels: How They Help Scientists

by Goodwin Marine Services | Apr 1, 2022 | Blog | 0 comments

Oceanographic Research Vessels cater to a crucial demand for doing study at sea. These ships assist in the extensive assessments and investigations of the maritime arena for numerous purposes. Plus, it aids scientists in many ways. 

To discover ocean regions

Oceanographic research vessels are built to study the oceans’ shoreline and remote areas. Moreover, the vessels assist in water testing and seabed surveying. These tests include: 

• Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth Recording
• Hydrographic sounding
• Coring and dredging

Oceanographic research vessels are also for a range of other jobs that assist scientists in deepening their knowledge of the seas.

Research vessels provide a diverse range of winches and lifting solutions for handling and deploying your expensive scientific equipment. With the help of research vessels, institutes, shipyards, and vessel designers can determine the appropriate equipment configuration for the anticipated activities. 

To deliver precise data

Despite growing exactness in satellite observations, electromagnetic radiation records information from the waters for the first few centimeters of the ocean surface. Moreover, it keeps physical equipment as the only practical option to investigate the ocean depths.

On the other hand, Oceanographic Research Vessels are the principal methods of oceanic observation, mainly for the near future. Such vessels are equipped with cutting-edge technology and devices that support sophisticated, multidisciplinary, multi-investigator studies throughout all oceanographic subfields.

Advanced sensors and scientific resources can generate accurate information for a wide range of oceanographic variables. The research vessels’ data enables makers to construct models and forecast how the prospective waters will change. In this way, oceanographic research vessels can permit scientists to carry the torch in oceanographic science.

For other crucial operations

For polar research.

Scientists mostly use oceanographic research vessels in the far-flung polar regions for polar area study. These ships respond to the areas’ scientific needs. It is because they are built with specific torsos that enable researchers to navigate under icy layers plus adverse weather conditions .

For oil research

Offshore oil and gas extraction companies also use research vessels to understand sub-surface crude and gas deposits. 

For Oceanography research

Oceanographic research vessels undertake studies on water’s tangible, chemical, and biological properties. This is not all. They also carry out research on such features of the atmosphere and the climate. 

Such vessels have tools for capturing water samples from a variety of depths, such as the deep oceans. Moreover, such ships have hydrographic sounding devices and a variety of other sensing devices. Through this, scientists can analyze what is happening and going to happen in the ocean. 

For fishing industry researches

The fishing business also uses research vessels to conduct various types of research, including fish discovery and water testing. Scientists can thus recognize the condition of the aquatic environment. 

Due to technological improvements, even oceanographic research vessels have gotten fairly complex in recent years. The concept of investigating ships is also predicted to display several other pioneering markings.

Want to know more about the ability of oceanographic research vessels? Contact Goodwin Marine Services today. With over 10 years of experience, the team will surely assist you with more information and details.

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Life on a NOAA Vessel and the People that Bring it Together

February 10, 2023

Learn what life is like on a NOAA ship and get a glimpse into the diverse people that make this survey happen.

Survey work conducted on NOAA research ships contributes important data to stock assessments and aids in long-term monitoring. Some surveys have been running for decades. The dedication and hard work by the crew and scientists have allowed us to learn about our ocean environments. For the dedicated few, life at sea becomes second nature and some spend months on end without the comforts of home or their family. 

Hi, I’m Tralee Chapman, communications intern at the Southeast Fisheries Science Center. I spent 2 weeks aboard NOAA Ship Oregon II on the Southeast Bottom Longline Survey . I aided the science team on the night shift tagging sharks, taking measurements, and helping to collect samples. During that time I was able to interview some of my shipmates to get their perspectives on life at sea. Let's take a look at what it's like to live onboard a NOAA ship and a little bit about those who were on the recent voyage with Oregon II .

Adjusting in More Ways than One

There’s many aspects of life at sea that we take for granted here on land. First and foremost is the sturdy ground we walk on. When you’re living aboard a vessel, there’s nowhere to escape the motion of the ocean. This is why everything is secured into place at all times on a ship. Things like doors, cabinets, and drawers have latches or locking mechanisms, while chairs and furniture are made with sturdy, non-rolling bases. Also the weather can change in a moment out at sea so have your sea legs ready for a rocking ship. 

Besides the movement, the next most noticeable difference is the tight spaces, shared facilities, and weaving layout. It can take a couple days to remember where everything is and how you get from one room to another. Also, things like watertight hatches, steep staircases, and new terms—such as galley (kitchen) and head (toilet)—add to the adjustment process. At sea most people share a room with at least one other person. Amenities such as showers, bathrooms, community areas, and the galley are shared among everyone. While sharing makes it hard to get quiet time to yourself, it also makes the ship environment a social one!

Work, Work, Work

While the living environment is much different than normal, the work on a ship keeps you busy and focused on the reason you’re out there in the first place! When you’re out at sea, the ship is running 24/7 which means there is work to be done at all hours. Different teams on the ship have different schedules. For example, our scientists and the deck crew work on 12-hour shifts that switch at noon and midnight. However, crew like the chief engineer or steward work normal day hours. Regardless, there’s always someone awake! On the ship side you have NOAA Commissioned Corps officers and  professional mariners , including engineers, fishermen, electronic technicians, and more. They keep the ship running and ensuring the science team’s objectives are met in a timely and safe manner. On the science side, we’re working day and night collecting data, gathering samples, and setting up and retrieving gear. 

Throughout this science being conducted, you may see scientists take a moment to snap a photo of an exceptionally large fish or shark they retrieved. While all of the sharks are tagged and returned to the water, reef fish like snapper and grouper are kept to provide key life history information. By sampling these fish we can gain critical information that informs stock assessments and ecosystem management. All the data collected also goes towards improving the sustainability of the commercial and recreational fisheries of these species. You can learn more about the usefulness of the data and samples we collect in our previous blogs .

People Make the World Go Round

I realize that at sea it really is the people and the harmony of them coming together that keeps everything running smoothly. On many NOAA ships, the crew consists of a wide diversity of people with backgrounds reaching all around the world. This was certainly the case aboard the Oregon II . 

I found that getting to join everyone on Oregon II was exciting but also quite intimidating not knowing anyone. However, it was a great surprise to meet everyone and discover both how welcoming and how different we all were. I wanted to capture the diversity and different perspectives on board so I asked five questions to five people all serving different roles on the ship.

Listed in no particular order meet Walter, Arlene, Justin, Melissa, and Heather.

Walter Ingram 

Where are you from? 

I am from Jacksonville, Alabama.

What’s your role?

I’m a research fishery biologist at the Southeast Fisheries Science Center. My role is primarily to analyze data collected during the fishery-independent surveys we conduct. I provide this information to fishery stock assessment scientists and managers. I also participate in surveys such as this one.

How did you end up here?

After completing graduate school at the University of South Alabama/Dauphin Island Sea Laboratory, I immediately began work for the center, based in Pascagoula, Mississippi in 2001. Since then, I have been involved in fishery-independent research to support stock assessment. 

What’s your favorite part? What keeps you coming back?

I love to be offshore. Most people will never get to see this part of nature. I also enjoy the camaraderie with my fellow scientists and crew.

If you could sum up life at sea in one word, what would it be?

Focused. The center survey scientists are very focused on the mission of collecting and providing the best fishery-independent data for use in stock assessments.

Arlene Beahm

I am from Connecticut.

I am the Second Cook, one of the professional mariners working on the ship.

After living in Italy for 20 years and my husband’s passing, I went to culinary school while raising my kids. From there I worked as a cook on a ship; however, my sister worked for NOAA and told me to apply. The rest is history!

The isolation. I like to be alone and quiet. When we come into port and most people leave the ship then I have time to myself to read or watch the pelicans.

Justin Weeks

Where are you from?

I am from Roswell, Georgia.

I am the ship’s Safety Officer and an Ensign in the NOAA Corps.

I heard about the opportunity in college while studying marine science. My mentor knew a captain in the NOAA Corps and offered to reach out and I pursued the opportunity from there.

Getting to be in the field and helping facilitate science at sea is something I never got to do in college. The sunsets are great too.

Melissa Trede

I am from Fort Hood, Texas.

I am the ship’s Operations Officer and a Lieutenant in the NOAA Corps.

I enlisted in the Navy and used my GI Bill to go to college. My goal was to stay in and become an officer and I decided to go to Texas A&M in Galveston. While I was there, I just happened to meet the NOAA Corps officer who worked at the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. I had never heard of NOAA Corps before. But, when I saw on their website “where science meets service,” I felt like it would be a great fit for me.

The people. I am definitely a people person and I get to meet new and unique people all the time. But the crew on a ship becomes like family, and we have some great people here. They are what keep me going. 

Heather Moncrief-Cox

I am originally from Panama City, Florida, where I spent most of my summers as a kid, but I grew up in Alabama.

What’s your role? 

I join the surveys as a scientist to assist with data collection and biological sampling.

How did you end up here? 

I have wanted to be a marine biologist my entire life, so earned my Bachelor’s of Science in Marine Biology. I then went on to earn a master’s of Science in Environmental Science from the University of West Florida in Pensacola, Florida. During graduate school, I became a fisheries observer for the Southeast Fisheries Science Center. I worked on commercial fishing vessels around the Gulf of Mexico and U.S. South Atlantic. I later became an assistant observer coordinator. This job took me off the boats, but allowed me work on shark life history studies based out of Panama City, Florida. When a position opened up in the Biology and Life History Branch, I jumped at the opportunity to work on life history full-time. I primarily study reproductive biology. I love what I do so much, I am now pursuing a doctorate in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences at the University of Florida.

What’s your favorite part? What keeps you coming back? 

I love being in the field and getting to be hands-on. My role now focuses on receiving the samples taken by the observers and surveys, followed by analyzing the data for stock assessments. Going out on the vessels allows me to be a part of the critical first steps in the process.

If you could sum up life at sea in one word, what would it be? 

Adventurous.

Getting to interview my crewmates taught me so much about the diversity amongst everyone and opened my eyes to how important each person’s unique perspective is. There were two major things that stuck out to me. The first was how everyone’s path through life leading up to this point was totally different. They were all from different states, were different ages, different education levels, but they were all together on the Oregon II . 

The other answer that stuck out to me was all the different words they used to describe life at sea. I even asked this question to others I didn’t interview and I never heard someone use the same word. Focused, freedom, beautiful, and dynamic are all such powerful and true words to describe life and work on a NOAA vessel. Each word also gives an insight into each person’s perspective and it’s this difference that leads to a well-balanced team.

By the way, my one word to sum up life at sea is: Enriching!

Meet the Blogger

Tralee Chapman

Meet Tralee

27th Year of the Southeast Bottom Longline Survey

The bottom longline survey provides critical information about a broad array of species. The primary target species are predatory fish inhabiting the coastal waters off the Southeastern United States, including the Gulf of Mexico. The collection of data from the survey assists in the management of important species, critical habitats, and the biological identification of species.

More Information

• Southeast Fisheries Science Center

More Blog Posts

From the sea to the database: the process of data collection on the fall groundfish survey.

Life Aboard the Oregon II

The Importance of Conducting Groundfish Surveys

Last updated by Southeast Fisheries Science Center on February 27, 2024

• Science & Technology
• Exploration Tools

Side-Scan Sonar

Side-scan sonar is a category of active sonar system for detecting and imaging objects on the seafloor. The multiple physical sensors of the sonar — called a transducer array — send and receive the acoustic pulses that help map the seafloor or detect other objects. This array can be mounted on the ship’s hull or placed on another platform like a towfish.

Side-scan sonar image of schooner Typo , which collided with steamer W.P. Ketcham in October of 1899. The schooner, which was carrying a cargo of coal, was rammed in the stern. The sonar image shows the bow and upright foremast, cargo hatches across Typo’s deck, and the broken stern with a pile of spilled coal. Image Source: Michigan Technological University Great Lakes Research Center. Image courtesy of the Michigan Technological University Great Lakes Research Center. Download larger version (jpg, 561 KB) .

How does it work?

As the ship moves along its path, the transducer array sends out signals on both of its sides, sweeping the seafloor like the fan-shaped beam of a flashlight. Side scans search at constant speeds and in straight lines, allowing the ship to map the ocean bottom as it travels. The towfish will record data at different sound frequencies, depending on the survey goals: a lower frequency (50 kilohertz (kHz) -100 kHz) can cover large swathes of the seafloor at low image resolution. Higher-frequency pulses (500 kHz to 1 megahertz) record smaller areas but in much greater detail.

The resulting “picture” from side-scan sonar data is made up of dark and light areas. Hard objects protruding from the bottom send a strong echo and create a dark image. Shadows and soft areas, such as mud and sand, send weaker echoes and create light areas. These dark and light images help scientists create accurate maps of the seafloor.

A high resolution side-scan sonar image of a WWII B-25 discovered in 2017 in Papua New Guinea. Image courtesy of Project Recover  NOAA. Download larger version (jpg, 639 KB) .

Why is it used?

As a specialized sonar system, side scan has particular benefits. This system is often used to map cultural heritage sites like shipwrecks, to characterize the makeup of the seafloor, and can even be used to help biologists identify habitats of marine animals. Side scan is sometimes chosen for an expedition because it is less expensive to run than, for example, a remotely operated vehicle with a high-definition camera. In this way, scientists are able to efficiently cover a lot of ground.

Side scan cannot measure bathymetry (depth), so it is often used in tandem with depth-measuring tools such as single-beam and multibeam sonar in order to create a more comprehensive map of the seafloor.

Text adapted from Side-Scan Sonar at the Edge mission log (2002) .

SONAR , short for SOund NAvigation and Ranging , is a tool that uses sound waves to explore the ocean. Scientists primarily use sonar to develop nautical charts, located underwater hazards to navigation, search for and identify objects in the water column or seafloor such as archaeology sites, and to map the seafloor itself. With a sonar survey, a platform is equipped with a group of physical sensors, called a transducer array. This array emits an acoustic signal or pulse of sound into the water. If an object is in the path of the sound pulse, it bounces off the object and returns an “echo” to the array. The array can then measure the strength of the signal. By determining the time between the emission of the sound pulse and its reception, the range and orientation of the object can be determined.

Final Summary: Two Historic Shipwrecks in Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary

Interpreting Sentry’s Geophysical Data

Finding WWII Wrecks with Robots

Careers at Sea

The opportunities for jobs involving the ocean are wide and varied, and preparation makes them within reach. when most people think of a career at sea, they may envision a marine biologist watching whales, a captain piloting a large cargo ship, or a scuba diver studying reefs. in reality, there are hundreds of different careers at sea. on research vessel falkor alone there are deckhands, stewards, chefs, bosons, engineers, fitters, officers, pursers, marine technicians, scientists, and more., preparing for a career.

Classes in school are often the first steps people take in pursing their dream job. Studying sciences and math – chemistry, biology, physics, calculus, etc. is essential to pursuing marine sciences and engineering. It is good to have an idea of what you would like to specialize in, but also important to have wide-ranging foundation of understanding. Trade and vocational schooling can also open doors to jobs on ships. Internships and student opportunities help students get first-hand experience and exposure to a variety of careers.

No one claims that working on a ship is easy. Long hours and hard work are the rules, not the exceptions. However, many people are drawn to careers on ships for the chance to travel, long stretches of time off, and the chance to participate in unique work. In order to excel, a person needs to have a sense of adventure, good problem solving skills (there are limited resources when one is miles from land), and be able to work well with others (it is tight quarters on a ship). Being determined, curious, and eager to learn are important traits. Curiosity led Colleen Peters, one of Falkor’s Lead Marine Technician, to study marine sciences and continue exploring possibilities to find a job that would fulfill her the most. “I like to understand how things work. Troubleshooting is a big part of my job—if something breaks you have to figure out why and how to fix it.” Determination will also help you find a job you love. Put forth the effort to ask for advice and ask about opportunities such as internships or volunteering.

Career resources

Map Your Career FAQ’s How Do I Become A Marine Biologist? Explore Careers at Sea

Related stories

So, You Want To Go To Sea – Part One So, You Want To Go To Sea – Part Two Virtual Field Trip – Careers at Sea with EarthEcho International and Schmidt Ocean Institute 

Working on Falkor

Beginning a career can sometimes be overwhelming, so find out how some of the crew on research vessel falkor got their start:.

Name: Stian Alesandrini From: California Position on Falkor: Science Services Manager

What do you do: Stian works to make sure all the science cruises are organized and planned, working with both the crew on Falkor and the science teams.

How did you start: Stian was obsessed with SCUBA diving as a kid. He loved to free dive and learned to SCUBA at the age of 13. After finishing high school, he studied marine biology in college and graduate school. Stian worked as a SCUBA instructor, laboratory manager, and sub-tidal research biologist (working underwater in kelp forests and on small research boats), before joining the United States Antarctic Program as a marine technician on their research vessels. Fifteen years and several vessels later, he now gets to work both in the field and in the office, where he provides remote support to the technicians sailing on the Falkor .

Fun fact: Stian once got stuck in the ice for a month on an icebreaker in Antarctica.

Name: Archel Benitez From: Philippine Islands Position on Falkor : Deckhand

What do you do: As a deckhand, Archel helps with various science operations such as deploying robotic vehicles and CTDs, as well as assisting with the day-to-day operation such as looking after lines used to moor the ship, and general ship maintenance.

How did you start: Archel spent four years in marine studies after high school, and worked on a wide variety of ships including container vessels shipping cargo from Europe to the United States, passenger ships, and tugboats.

Advice: Archel recommends taking every aspect of your job seriously and to strive for perfection.

Name:  Shiella Marie Bonita From: Philippine Islands Position on Falkor : Stewardess

What do you do: Shiella attends to the living needs of crew, making sure the interior of Falkor is working and kept clean.

How did you start: Shiella graduated from college with a degree in Hotel and Restaurant Management. She worked in a five-star hotel, but wanted to see the world. After leaving the hotel, Sheilla worked on a cruise ship.

Many people do not consider the fact that there are also hospitality careers at sea.

Name: Leonard Pace From:  New York Position on Falkor : Science Program Manager

What do you do: Leonard manages Schmidt Ocean Institute’s annual collaborative proposal review process and related community coordination and outreach activities. He also manages special projects and liaising with the scientific community: for example, coordinating and leading SOI’s ROV Development Survey.

How did you start: From a young age Leonard was inspired to become a marine biologist. He majored in Marine and Environmental science in college and found passion during a semester at sea aboard S/V Westward . Leonard continued on to earn a Masters degree, which opened the door for his Knauss Marine Policy fellowship.

Advice: Enjoy what you do.

Name: Edwin Pabustan From: Philippine Islands Position on Falkor: Fitter

What do you do: Edwin works on everything from science instruments to ship parts, optimizing their fit and performance. Edwin also does maintenance and repair, a never-ending job on a ship.

How did you start: After high school, Edwin studied engineering at a technical school then worked on tankers that transported liquids for 10 years before joining Falkor .

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by Chris Woodford . Last updated: June 25, 2023.

T he worst thing that could ever happen to you on a ship in the middle of the ocean would be for water to flood in and make you sink. But if you're on-board a submarine , sinking is exactly what you want! Unlike ships , which pitch and roll as they struggle across the waves, submarines slip swiftly and silently through the calmer waters beneath. They are lean, mean, military machines and they can stay submerged for weeks or even months at a time. Let's take a closer look at how they work!

Photo: The fast-attack-class nuclear-powered submarine USS Newport News (SSN-750) speeds across the sea. Photo by Aaron Chase courtesy of US Navy and Wikimedia Commons .

What is a submarine?

If you've ever gone snorkeling or scuba diving, you'll know that life underwater is very different from life on the surface. It's dark and difficult to see, there's no air to breathe, and intense water pressure makes everything feel uncomfortable and claustrophobic. Submarines are ingenious bits of engineering designed to carry people safely through this very harsh environment. Although they were originally invented as military machines, and most large subs are still built for the world's navies, a few smaller subs do work as scientific research vessels. Most of these are submersibles (generally small, unpowered, one- or two-person submarines tethered to scientific research ships as they operate).

Photo: Submarine ahoy! When we see photos of submarines floating on the surface, it's hard to imagine how big they really are: like icebergs, virtually all of a floating sub is underwater. In this very unusual picture of a submarine in dry dock for maintenance, you can clearly see how big a submarine really is—and that it really is almost a perfect cylinder. Photo of USS City of Corpus Christi at Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard by Dustan Longhini courtesy of US Navy and Wikimedia Commons .

Parts of a submarine

These are some of the key parts of a typical submarine.

Pressure hull

The pressure of water pushing inward is the biggest problem for anyone who wants to go deep beneath the ocean surface. Even with scuba tanks, we can dive only so far because the immense pressure soon makes it impossible to breath. At a depth of 600m (2000ft), the maximum depth subs ever dive to, the water pressure is over 60 times greater than it is at the surface!

How do subs survive where people can't? The hull of a standard ship is the metal outside that keeps the water out. Most submarines have two hulls, one inside the other, to help them survive. The outer hull is waterproof, while the inner one (called the pressure hull ) is much stronger and resistant to immense water pressure. The strongest submarines have hulls made from tough steel or titanium .

Photo: The diving planes on either side of a submarine's tower generate lift as it moves forward, just like the wings on a plane. Two photos of the USS Alabama by Ray Narimatsu and Mark A. Correa courtesy of US Navy and Wikimedia Commons (original photos here and here ).

Ballast tanks

There are spaces in between the two hulls that can be filled with either air or water. These are called the ballast tanks and, with the diving planes, they give a sub control over its buoyancy, particularly during the first part of a dive or a return to the surface from the depths. When the ballast tanks are filled with air, the submarine rises to the surface because it has positive buoyancy. With water inside the tanks, the sub has negative buoyancy so it sinks deeper into the ocean. The tanks at the front (known as the front trim tanks ) are usually filled with water or air first, so the submarine's front (bow) falls or rises before its rear (stern). The ballast tanks can also be used to help a submarine surface very quickly in an emergency.

Photo: A submarine blows the air from its ballast tanks as it prepares to dive. Photo by Michael Murphy courtesy of US Navy and Wikimedia Commons .

Gasoline engines and diesel engines used by cars and trucks, and jet engines used by planes , need a supply of oxygen from the air to make them work. Things are different for submarines, which operate underwater where there is no air. Most submarines except nuclear ones have diesel-electric engines. The diesel engine operates normally when the sub is near the surface but it doesn't drive the sub's propellers directly. Instead, it powers an electricity generator that charges up huge batteries . These drive an electric motor that, in turn, powers the propellers. Once the diesel engine has fully charged the batteries, the sub can switch off its engine and go underwater, where it relies entirely on battery power.

Early military submarines used breathing tubes called snorkels to feed air to their engines from the air above the sea, but that meant they had to operate very near the surface where they were vulnerable to attack from airplanes . Most large military submarines are now nuclear-powered. Like nuclear power plants , they have small nuclear reactors and, since they need no air to operate, they can generate power to drive the electric motors and propellers whether they are on the surface or deep underwater.

Photo: The tower or sail can double up as an observation platform when the sub is cruising on the surface. Note the various different communications and navigation antenna. Photo by Jeffrey M. Richardson courtesy of US Navy .

Submarines are cigar-shaped so they can slip smoothly through the water, but in the very center there's a tall tower. In older submarines, the tower was packed with navigation and other equipment and was sometimes known as the conning tower (because, historically, it contained a submarines con trols). It's also referred to simply as the tower or the sail, because in a modern submarine the controls and navigation equipment take up more room and tend to be located in the hull.

Navigation systems

Photo: Periscopes are useful if you're near the surface searching for enemy ships but they're useless underwater. Photo by Jeffery S. Viano courtesy of US Navy .

Light doesn't travel well through water, so it gets darker and darker the deeper down you go. Most of the time, submarine pilots can't even see where they're going! Submarines have periscopes (seeing tubes that can be pushed up through the tower), but they're useful only when subs are on the surface or just beneath it. Submarines navigate using a whole range of electronic equipment. There's GPS satellite navigation , for starters, which uses space satellites to tell the submarine its position. There's also SONAR, a system similar to radar , which sends out pulses of sound into the sea and listens for echoes reflecting off the seabed or other nearby submarines. Another important navigation system onboard a submarine is known as inertial guidance . It's a way of using gyroscopes to keep track of how far the submarine has traveled, and in which direction, without referring to any outside information. Inertial guidance is accurate only for so long (10 days or so) and occasionally needs to be corrected using GPS, radar, or other data.

Photo: The sonar apparatus in a typical submarine. Photo by Brandon Shelander courtesy of US Navy .

Life-support systems

A large military submarine has dozens of people onboard. How can they eat, sleep, and breathe, buried deep beneath the sea, in freezing cold water, for months at a time? A submarine is a completely sealed environment. The nuclear engine provides warmth and generates electricity —and the electricity powers all the life-support systems that submariners need. It makes oxygen for people to breathe using electrolysis to chemically separate molecules of water (turning H 2 O into H 2 and O 2 ) and it scrubs unwanted carbon dioxide from the air. Subs can even make their own drinking water from seawater using electricity to remove the salt. Trash is compacted into steel cans, which are ejected from an airlock system (a watertight exit in the hull) and dumped on the seabed.

Who invented the submarine?

• 1620: Englishman Cornelis Drebble (1572–1633) builds the first submarine by waterproofing a wooden, egg-shaped boat with leather and coating the whole thing in wax. Scientists are uncertain whether Drebble's boat ever set sail.

Artwork: Two views of David Bushnell's Turtle submarine. Artworks from A History of Sea Power by William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, George H. Doran Co., 1920, p.294, courtesy of Internet Archive.

Artwork: Robert Fulton's Nautilus submarine. Artwork from A History of Sea Power by William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, George H. Doran Co., 1920, p.295, courtesy of Internet Archive.

• 1863: American engineer Horace Lawson Hunley (1823–1863) develops a hand-powered submarine that ultimately becomes known as the CSS H.L. Hunley (often just "Hunley" for short). It sinks once during testing in August 1863, killing five crew, then sinks again in October 1863, killing Hunley himself and all his crew. Later retrieved, it becomes the first submarine to sink a warship (during the American Civil War)—a real milestone in submarine history.
• 1888: Spanish engineer Isaac Peral (1851–1895) builds the first electric (battery-powered) submarine. Despite successful tests, it never enters production, though Peral's ideas influence other engineers around the world.
• 1897: American inventor Simon Lake (1866–1945) launches the Argonaut, the first submarine to operate in the open sea.

Practical subs

Photo: The USS Holland (Submarine Torpedo Boat # 1) underway, circa 1900. Photo by courtesy of Naval Historical Center.

• 1908: Russia's Pochtovy is an early pioneer of Air Independent Propulsion (AIP)—operating a submarine without frequent trips to the surface—using a gasoline engine fed by compressed air.

From World Wars to the Cold War

• 1914–18: During World War I, the German navy operates a fleet of highly effective military submarines called U-boats (short for Unterseeboot, which means underwater ship). In the 1930s, the Germans start using snorkel tubes (invented by a Dutch engineer) to supply air to their U-boat's diesel-electric engines, giving them greater range and effectiveness.
• 1930s: Germany engineer Hellmuth Walter pioneers high-thrust hydrogen peroxide engines for use in submarines and missile rockets. It's another step forward for Air Independent Propulsion.
• 1952: French underwater photographer Dimitri Rebikoff launches the Poodle, the first tethered Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV).
• 1955: The US Navy launches the USS Nautilus, the first nuclear-powered submarine.
• 1964: Alvin , a scientific research submersible operated by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, begins its long and distinguished history of underwater exploration. Its major successes including discovering black smokers (hydrothermal vents—a bit like chimneys in the ocean floor) and exploring the wreck of the Titanic.
• 1968: The Soviet Union (Russia and its former allies) launches K-162 , the first submarine with a titanium hull and the world's fastest.
• 1969: The Soviets launch the first of their sleek, fast, titanium-hulled Alfa-class nuclear submarines.

Modern times

• 1990s: Nuclear submarines made redundant by the end of the Cold War are used for oceanographic and climate research in the Arctic in a project named Science Ice Exchange (SCICEX) .
• 1990s: British-born submarine designer Graham Hawkes promises to revolutionize sub design with small, plane-like submersibles called Deep Flight that "fly" underwater.
• 1990s–: As in many other industries, China emerges as a major supplier of affordable but effective diesel-electric military submarines, including refurbished versions of the old 1960s–1980s Ming class (Type 035) and the more recent Song class (Type 039).
• 2023: Titan, a tiny carbon-fiber submersible designed to carry tourists to the wreck of the Titanic, implodes catastrophically around 3.5km (2.1 miles) underwater, killing all five crew members onboard.

Photo: What of the future? Over two thirds of our planet is water, so submarines will always have a place in the military. But when it comes to scientific exploration, small robotic submersibles, like this Super Scorpio remotely operated vehicle (ROV), are becoming increasingly important. Note the video cameras on the front and the large, silver, robotic grabber arms. Photos by Geoffrey Patrick courtesy of US Navy and Wikimedia Commons (original photos here and here ).

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For older readers

• The Illustrated World Guide to Submarines by John Parker. Anness Publishing, 2013. A detailed photographic guide to 140 of the world's more notable submarines.
• Submarines: An Illustrated History of their Impact by Paul E. Fontenoy. ABC-CLIO, 2007. A chronological account of submarine technology.
• Bushnell's Submarine: The Best Kept Secret of the American Revolution by Arthur S. Lefkowitz. Scholastic, 2006. A fascinating look at one of the very first subs.
• The Submarine Book by Chuck Lawliss. Burfood Books, 2000. Another historic account of the development of submarines, from the Drebble to the nuclear sub.

For younger readers

• Ships and Submarines by Chris Woodford. Facts on File, 2004. My own short (96-page) introduction covers the history of shipping in chronological order. For ages 9–12.
• Submarines by Rebecca Stefoff. Marshall Cavendish, 2006. A shorter introduction aimed at ages 9–12 (but suitable for older readers too).
• Scientists Explore Underwater Quantum Links for Submarines by Charles Q. Choi. IEEE Spectrum, April 20, 2020. Exploring the development of secure quantum communication between subs.
• Meet Aquanaut, the Underwater Transformer by Evan Ackerman. IEEE Spectrum, July 25, 2019. Is it a person... is it a submarine? No, it's both!
• Houston Mechatronics Raises $20M to Bring NASA Expertise to Transforming Robot Submersibles by Evan Ackerman. IEEE Spectrum, April 26, 2018. What happens when you cross a robot with a submersible?
• World's Largest Swarm of Miniature Robot Submarines by Evan Ackerman. IEEE Spectrum, May 5, 2015. How swarms of autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) could cooperate to achieve complex missions.
• Russia Launches Quietest Submarine in the World by Zachary Keck. The National Interest, April 29, 2015. All about the new diesel-electric Krasnodar, a type of Kilo-class submarine so quiet it has earned the nickname "black hole."
• How we can get submarines to travel at supersonic speed by Jordan Golson. Wired, 25 August 2014. Chinese researchers are developing subs that can travel faster than most jet places, using a technology called supercavitation.
• Q&A With Graham Hawkes, the Man Who Built the Deep Flight Challenger Submersible : Popular Mechanics, 8 April 2011. Graham Hawkes explains the concept of Deep Flight subs that fly underwater like planes.
• New UK nuclear submarine launched : BBC News, 8 June 2007. A guide to Britain's state-of-the-art submarine, HMS Astute.
• The First Soviet Giants by Norman Polmar, Undersea Warface (The Official Magazine of the US Submarine Force), Fall 2001. An intriguing article about the development of giant Soviet cargo submarines after World War II. [Archived via the Wayback Machine.]
• Unravelling a Cold War Mystery : CIA Library, 1993. A fascinating declassified article explaining how the CIA tried to figure out the latest advances in Soviet submarine design during the Cold War.
• The history of the Isaac Peral submarine in Cartagena : Murcia Today, Undated. The fascinating story of Peral's pioneering electric submarine.

Text copyright © Chris Woodford 2007, 2023. All rights reserved. Full copyright notice and terms of use .

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Raimondo, state leaders celebrate work on new NOAA center in Newport. Why it's coming to RI

NEWPORT – Commerce Secretary Gina Raimondo was back in her home state Monday to celebrate the groundbreaking for the new headquarters of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Atlantic Ocean research fleet . 

Raimondo, former governor of Rhode Island, joined her successor, Dan McKee, and the state’s congressional delegation Monday morning at Naval Station Newport, where workers are already building the $147-million operations center that will support climate research, fisheries surveys, nautical charting and other work to better understand the ocean environment. 

The bulk of the funding for the project is coming from the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act , which was largely aimed at addressing the impacts of climate change. 

“Here in the Ocean State, climate change is real,” Raimondo said. “We know the risks – but also the opportunities – that come with living and working along the coast.”  

NOAA is moving center to Newport from Virginia

She spoke as construction crews in the background drove piles for the pier that will become the homeport for four NOAA research ships. The facility, which is expected to be completed in 2027, will also include a floating dock for smaller vessels, repair space and a building for shoreside support and storage. About 150 NOAA personnel will be based at the center. 

NOAA, which is part of the Department of Commerce, is moving its Atlantic operations center from Norfolk, Virginia, to Newport. It will be one of two main operations centers for NOAA’s fleet of 15 research and survey vessels. The other one, serving the Pacific Ocean, is in Newport, Oregon. 

Rear Admiral Nancy Hann, director of NOAA’s marine and aviation operations, said the Newport site was chosen in part for its proximity to facilities operated by the U.S. Navy and the Coast Guard, which work closely with her agency. 

She said that future projections of sea level rise and other climate impacts also factored into the decision. 

“We need a climate-resilient facility,” Hann said. “We need to know that if we’re making this investment, we can use it for decades to come.”  

NOAA has been expanding its presence in Rhode Island in recent years

NOAA has gradually been expanding its presence in the City by the Sea during the past decade. In 2016, Newport became homeport for the Henry B. Bigelow, a 209-foot-long fisheries research ship. It was later joined by the Okeanos Explorer, a 224-foot-long ship that specializes in exploration of the deep ocean. 

The Thomas Jefferson, a 208-foot-long survey ship, is set to also come to Newport, as is the Discoverer, a 244-foot-long research vessel under construction in Louisiana. 

Raimondo and others at the ceremony credited U.S. Sen. Jack Reed for working to secure NOAA’s commitment to Newport. 

Reed said that locating the NOAA center in Newport makes sense because it’s also close to academic institutions, including Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute and the Graduate School of Oceanography at the University of Rhode Island. 

“We’re at the intersection of all of the blue economy and blue research – I think not just on the East Coast but everywhere,” Reed said. 

Green building designs to be used for new facility

Hann said that NOAA is employing climate-friendly practices at the new facility. The operations building was designed to minimize its carbon footprint and will be certified by LEED, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, which oversees the most common rating system in the United States for green construction. It will include energy-efficient mechanical systems and will maximize the use of natural light, she said. 

In addition, the Discoverer will have lower emissions than comparable vessels by employing a hybrid propulsion system that combines diesel engines with battery storage, she said. 

NOAA’s research is used in everything from weather forecasting to fisheries management. Hann said that it’s also important to national security.  

She pointed to the agency’s work after a container ship struck the Francis Scott Key Bridge in Baltimore in March and caused it to collapse. She said that NOAA mapped an alternative shipping channel under the bridge so the Port of Baltimore could reopen. 

None of NOAA’s vessels were in port for Monday’s ceremony. 

“You’ll have to imagine our ships here, because they’re all out working,” Hann said. 

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What is it really like to work on a research ship?

On its journey from bremerhaven to cape town, the polarstern crew has been keeping us up-to-date on their progress. they have shared some stunning images, giving us an insight into daily life on a research ship., good day sunshine.

Living and working on a ship on the high seas 24/7 for weeks is most fun when the weather is good and you can enjoy the sun, but…

Cloudy days

… that's not always the case. There are dark days, too, but the crew has to work whatever the conditions.

Safety first

Before entering the work deck, each crew member has to put on a lifejacket and a helmet.

Taking samples

The aim of the expedition is to find out more about our changing climate. The crew takes water samples for analysis.

From the sea to the lab

They take a sample from the ocean with a bucket. The water is filled into canisters. Then it gets filtered before it's taken to the lab.

The scientists analyze the water samples for pigments like chlorophyll in several labs on board. They're curious what the results of these tests will show.

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Better Sailing

How Does Sailing Work? The Physics of Sailing

Sailing, with its graceful boats skimming across the water powered solely by the wind, is a captivating and ancient mode of transportation and recreation. While it might seem like magic, the principles behind sailing are firmly grounded in physics. The interplay between the wind, the water, and the structure of the sailboat creates an intricate dance of forces that propels the vessel forward. In this article, we will delve into the physics of sailing to uncover the mechanics behind this age-old practice.

The Role of the Wind: Lift and Drag

At the heart of sailing lies the wind – a dynamic force that fills the sails and provides the energy needed to move the boat. The interaction between the wind and the sail is based on the principles of lift and drag, which are also fundamental to aviation and other fluid dynamics.

When wind flows over the curved surface of a sail, it creates an area of lower pressure on the windward side and an area of higher pressure on the leeward side. This pressure difference generates lift, much like an airplane wing. The sail’s shape and angle in relation to the wind determine the amount of lift generated. By adjusting the sail’s angle, sailors can control the lift and subsequently the boat’s direction.

Drag, on the other hand, is the resistance the sail experiences due to the friction between the air molecules and the sail’s surface. While drag can’t be entirely eliminated, modern sail designs aim to minimize it to ensure the boat moves efficiently through the water.

>>Also Read: How Fast Can a Sailboat Go?

The Concept of Apparent Wind

In a straightforward scenario, a sailboat would travel directly downwind with the wind pushing the sails from behind. However, sailing often involves moving at angles to the wind, a concept that introduces the notion of apparent wind.

Apparent wind is the combination of the true wind – the wind blowing over the Earth’s surface – and the wind generated by the boat’s motion through the water. As the boat sails at an angle to the true wind, the wind experienced by the boat appears to come from a different direction and at a higher speed than the true wind. This apparent wind is crucial for maintaining lift on the sails, even when sailing against the true wind direction.

Points of Sail: Navigating the Wind Angles

To understand how sailboats maneuver, it’s essential to grasp the concept of points of sail. These are specific angles at which a boat can sail relative to the wind direction. The main points of sail are:

• Close-hauled:  Sailing as closely as possible into the wind. This requires the sails to be trimmed in tightly, and the boat moves forward at an angle against the wind.
• Close reach:  Sailing diagonally to the wind, between close-hauled and a beam reach.
• Beam reach:  Sailing perpendicular to the wind. This is often the fastest point of sail as the boat can fully capture the wind’s energy.
• Broad reach:  Sailing diagonally away from the wind, between a beam reach and running.
• Running:  Sailing directly downwind, with the wind coming from behind the boat.

By adjusting the angle of the sails and the boat’s course, sailors can optimize their speed and direction according to the prevailing wind conditions.

>>Also Read: Points of Sail Explained

Balancing Forces: The Keel and Centerboard

While the wind provides the forward propulsion, the boat’s stability and ability to maintain a straight course are maintained through the use of a keel or centerboard, depending on the type of sailboat.

The keel is a heavy, fin-like structure located beneath the boat’s hull. It serves two main purposes: counteracting the force of the wind pushing the boat sideways (referred to as leeway) and providing ballast to keep the boat upright. The keel’s shape generates lift in the water that counters the lateral force of the wind, allowing the boat to sail closer to the wind without being pushed sideways.

For boats with a centerboard, which is a retractable fin located in the center of the boat, the principle is similar. By adjusting the centerboard’s depth, sailors can control the boat’s lateral resistance and stability.

>>Also Read: How do Sailboats Move Without Wind?

Tacking and Jibing: Changing Course with the Wind

Sailing isn’t just about going in a straight line – sailboats can change direction by tacking and jibing.

Tacking involves turning the boat’s bow through the wind so that the wind changes from one side of the boat to the other. This maneuver allows the boat to change direction while maintaining forward momentum. During a tack, the sails are let out to spill the wind’s energy, the bow crosses through the wind, and then the sails are trimmed in again on the new tack.

Jibing, on the other hand, is a maneuver where the stern of the boat crosses through the wind. This is often used when sailing downwind. Jibing requires careful coordination, as the sails can swing abruptly from one side to the other, potentially causing powerful forces.

Sail Shape and Rigging: Aerodynamics of Sailing

The shape of the sail and the configuration of the rigging also play a vital role in the physics of sailing. Modern sail designs use a combination of materials and engineering to create sails that are both efficient and durable.

The angle at which the sail is set, known as the angle of attack, determines the amount of lift and drag produced. Sails are typically designed with a curved shape, known as camber, which allows for better lift generation and minimizes drag. Adjustable controls such as the cunningham, outhaul, and boom vang enable sailors to modify the shape of the sail according to wind conditions.

The mast, rigging, and other structural elements of the sailboat are designed to distribute forces evenly and provide stability. The tension in the rigging affects the shape of the mast, which, in turn, affects the shape of the sail. Balancing these factors ensures optimal sail performance and boat stability.

>>Also Read: Most Common Sailing Terms

How Does Sailing Work? The Physics of Sailing – In Conclusion

Sailing is a captivating interplay of physics and nature, where the wind’s energy is harnessed to propel a boat gracefully across the water. By understanding the principles of lift, drag, apparent wind, and the mechanics of sail shape and rigging, sailors can navigate the seas with precision and finesse. From the ancient mariners who first ventured out onto the open waters to the modern sailors competing in high-tech races, the physics of sailing remains a timeless and essential art.

Peter is the editor of Better Sailing. He has sailed for countless hours and has maintained his own boats and sailboats for years. After years of trial and error, he decided to start this website to share the knowledge.

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Why Do Sailboats Lean?

How Does a Boat Sail Upwind? Unveiling the Mechanics of Against the Wind Sailing

Best Sailing Certifications – Which Sailing Certification is Better?

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The Science Behind Self-Affirmations

Science is showing self-affirmations are valuable for health and well-being..

Posted August 7, 2023 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• What Is Resilience?
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• Affirmations are short statements that are said aloud or to oneself regularly.
• Social psychologists have been doing research on self-affirmation theory for more than 40 years.
• Researchers have found that self-affirmation can improve one's health and well-being in a variety of ways.

Does repeating a positive phrase called an affirmation out loud or to oneself change one's feelings or behavior? Some psychologists believe the answer to this question is yes. Others remain skeptical. To answer this question we need to look at the science behind self- affirmations .

What Are Affirmations?

Affirmations are short statements that are said aloud or to oneself regularly. They also may be written and placed in locations always visible to the individual. They are repeated multiple times on a daily basis (for greater detail and background on affirmations, please read " Affirmations May Improve Life Satisfaction and Well-Being "). Affirmations are any act that underscores one's adequacy and reaffirms one's sense of self-integrity.

Research on Self-Affirmations

Social psychologists began serious academic research on self-affirmations in the 1980s and have continued for more than 40 years. This research is based on self-affirmation theory. Self-affirmation theory assumes the following:

• In times of threat, we maintain the self by defending it from outside conflicting information.
• We respond to threats in one domain by affirming self-worth in other domains.
• Our core values play an essential role in maintaining the self.

The majority of research on self-affirmation theory follows the same research design or variations of it:

• Participants are asked to identify a set of core values that they believe in.
• Participants are followed longitudinally in an existing threat situation (e.g., student academic underperformance). Participants repeat affirmations to themselves daily. Performance is measured and compared both pre and post. Or
• Participants are randomly assigned to either the (a) self-affirmation or (b) non–self-affirmation control condition. Participants in the self-affirmation condition experience affirmations of self-worth while the control group does not. Participants are then asked to complete a difficult task that induces an experience of failure. Pre- and post-experiment measurements are taken and the two groups' scores are compared.

Do Self-Affirmations Work?

Years of research show promise for self-affirmations as an intervention. Researchers have found that self-affirmation can improve one's life in a variety of ways. Here's a sampling of those findings:

• Affirmations and the brain. Cascio et al. 2 used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology to measure two parts of the brain associated with (1) self-related processing and (2) rewards following self-affirmation activities. They found a measurable significant increase in brain activity in both of these regions, concluding that self-affirmations affect brain activity.
• Self-control . Schmeichel and Vohs 10 found that self-affirmations helped participants achieve self-control by reflecting upon the values that guide their lives.
• Self-efficacy . Epton and Harris 5 found that self-affirmation promotes health behavior changes. They designed an experiment to see if self-affirmation would increase a health-promoting behavior (eating more fruits and vegetables). A seven-day diary record of fruit and vegetable consumption showed that self-affirmed participants ate significantly more portions of fruit and vegetables.
• Prosociality. Crocker, Niiya, and Mischkowski 4 found that writing essays about one's own important values increases feelings of love compared to writing about unimportant values.
• Improving academic achievement. Cohen et al. 3 had African American students complete a series of brief structured writing assignments focusing on self-affirmation. A two-year follow-up showed that African Americans' grade point average (GPA) was raised by 0.24 grade points on average. Low-achieving African American students benefited the most. Sherman et al. 13 conducted a similar longitudinal field experiment in middle school with Latino-American and European American students. Affirmed Latino-American students earned higher grades than non-affirmed Latino-American students and were less likely to have their daily feelings of academic fit and motivation undermined by identity threat. These effects persisted for a period of three years or more.
• Reducing stereotyping toward minority group members. Badea and Sherman 1 studied self-affirmation and prejudice reduction: "One exciting implication of the self-affirmation approach in the domain of prejudice reduction is that self-affirmation shows the potential malleability of prejudice in situations of intergroup conflict."
• Happiness and meaning in life. Nelson et al. 9 conducted experiments with two different cultures: (a) psychology students in South Korea and (b) psychology students in a public U.S. university of which the majority were Asian American (66 percent). Participants were randomly assigned to either a self-affirmation or a control condition. Results suggest that affirming important values bolsters one's happiness and meaning in life.
• Promoting health behavior change. Epton et al. 6 conducted a meta-analysis with 41 self-affirmation studies. The studies all had participants reflect upon important values, attributes, or social relations to reduce one's defensiveness to health behavior change. They found that when self-affirmations were paired with persuasive health information it was effective in changing health attitudes and behaviors. Falk et al. 7 used MRI technology to measure brain activity in participants' prefrontal cortex, a portion of the brain associated with positive valuation. They found that participants in the self-affirmation condition produced more brain activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex during exposure to health messages and went on to increase their objectivity. Affirmation of core values allows at-risk individuals to be open to health messages and behavior change.
• Affirmations and smartphone overuse. Xu et al. 14 found that just-in-time self-affirmations helped smartphone overusers reduce phone use by 57.2 percent.

This is only a brief review of self-affirmation research. For a more comprehensive review, I direct you to Self-Affirmation Interventions by Sherman et al. 12 and Self-Affirmation Theory and the Science of Well-Being by Andrew Howell. 8 There is a growing body of evidence showing the use of self-affirmations to be a valuable tool for health and well-being.

Practice Aloha. Do all things with love, grace, and gratit ude.

© 2023 David J. Bredehoft

1. Badea, C., & Sherman, D. K. (2019). Self-affirmation and prejudice reduction: When and why? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28 (1), 40–46.

2. Cascio, C. N., et al. (2016). Self-affirmation activates brain systems associated with self-related processing and reward and is reinforced by future orientation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 2016, 621–629.

3. Cohen, G. L., et al. (2009). Recursive processes in self-affirmation: Intervening to close the minority achievement gap. S cience, 324 , 400–403.

4. Crocker, J., Niiya, Y., & Mischkowski, D. (2008). Why does writing about important values reduce defensiveness? Self-affirmation and the role of positive, other-directed feelings. Psychological Science , 19 , 740–747.

5. Epton, T., & Harris, P. R. (2008). Self-affirmation promotes health behavior change. Health Psychology , 27, 746–752. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.27.6.746

6. Epton, T., et al. (2014, August 18). The impact of self-affirmation on health-behavior change: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology . Advanced online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/hea0000116

7. Falk, E. B., et al. (2015). Self-affirmation alters the brain’s response to health messages and subsequent behavior change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112 (7), 1977–1982.

8. Howell, A. J. (2017). Self-affirmation theory and the science of well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 18, 293–311.

9. Nelson, S. K., Fuller, J. A. K., Choi, I., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). Beyond self-protection: Self-affirmation benefits hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 40 , 998–1011.

10. Schmeichel, B. J., & Vohs, K. (2009). Self-affirmation and self-construal: Affirming core values counteracts ego depletion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 96 , 770–782.

11. Sherman, D. K. (2013). Self-affirmation: Understanding the effects. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7 (11), 834–845.

12. Sherman, D. K., Lokhande, M., Muller, T., & Cohen, G. L. (2021). Self-affirmations Interventions. In G. M. Walton & A. J. Crum (Eds.), Handbook of Wise Interventions: How Social Psychology Can Help People Change (pp. 63–99). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

13. Sherman, D. K., et al. (2013). Defecting the trajectory and changing the narrative: How self-affirmation affects academic performance and motivation under identity threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104 (4), 591–618.

14. Xu, X et al. (2022). TypeOut: Leveraging just-in-time self-affirmation for smartphone overuse reduction. Creative Commons Attribution International. https://doi.org/10.1145/3491102.3517476

David Bredehoft, Ph.D., is a professor emeritus and former chair of psychology at Concordia University.

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Will the Army’s New Rifle—And the Bigger Bullets It Fires—Be Able to Take on Modern Body Armor?

The Army universally recognizes that its current 5.56mm bullet can’t defeat Russian body armor, and it’s easily out-ranged by the latest Russian small arms, experts tell us.

They’ll both fire a new kind of ammunition—bullets with a caliber of 6.8mm. The Army’s existing M4 carbine fires a smaller-caliber bullet of 5.56mm.

“The last time we issued a service rifle was in 1967, when we went from the M14 to the M16,” says Col. Jason Bohannon, who leads the Army’s Next General Squad Weapons program, which was created in 2017 specifically to replace the M4 carbine. “I think it’s a historical time period for the Army,” he tells Popular Mechanics .

To understand why the Army is making this decisive change—planning to give some 100,000 soldiers a new rifle that the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky is currently testing—start by considering the ammunition the Army’s current M4 weapon uses and that the M16 used before that, beginning in the 1960s and the Vietnam War: the 5.56mm bullet.

“There had been some concerns about—was the round effective enough?” Bohannon says. There were “lessons learned coming out of combat, all the years we spent on the global war on terrorism.”

“At the end of the day,” he adds, “I think we had just plateaued with the effectiveness of 5.56.”

In recent years, part of the concerns about the 5.56mm bullet have swirled around what happens when a bullet of that caliber hits a person on the battlefield wearing body armor . Back in 2017, Lt. Gen. Mick Bednarek, who is now retired, testified about that issue in front of a Senate Armed Services Committee hearing on small arms. He noted that the U.S. was facing adversaries on battlefields who “are approaching with level two and level three body armor that precludes our lethality that we once dominated that infantry battlefield with, regardless of range.”

Bednarek added that, because of this new level of protection, “our capability to eliminate that threat at medium or long range is almost gone, so we must have small arms systems that can stop and can penetrate that increased enemy protection.”

Maj. Gen. Robert Scales, who died earlier this year, seconded that point later in the same hearing. “I think the Army universally realizes that the 5.56 bullet can’t defeat Russian body armor , and it’s easily out-ranged by the latest Russian small arms,” he said. “Senior leaders now in both ground services are calling for this middle-caliber bullet.”

Just over a week later, in another 2017 Senate Armed Service Committee hearing, Gen. Mark Milley, who is also now retired, echoed the points that Bednarek and Scales made. “The 5.56 round—we recognize that there is a type of body armor out there that it doesn’t penetrate,” he said. “We also have that body armor ourselves, and … adversarial states are actually selling that stuff on the internet for about $250 bucks.”

Indeed, one such brand is called Militech, and you can find videos on YouTube of a shooter demonstrating what happens when firing at one of their plates.

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The middle-caliber bullet that Scales referenced back in 2017 is now the 6.8mm round that the XM7 and XM250 will fire—a caliber that the military hopes is a kind of Goldilocks-type round between the smaller 5.56mm and the larger 7.62mm NATO rounds that issue out of weapons like the M240 machine gun or, previously, the Army’s M14 rifle , which predated the M16.

But experts say that body armor is just one part of the equation when considering which bullet size is the most effective at doing its deadly job on battlefields. With the 5.56mm bullets fired out of a carbine like the M4, the big issue is its range, says Amael Kotlarski, a weapons team manager at Janes . “The round is light, it has quite high velocity, but it doesn’t perform as well at longer ranges,” he tells Popular Mechanics . He says its “sweet spot” is between 300 and 400 meters (about 984–1,312 feet).

None of this is to say that the 5.56mm bullet isn’t terribly deadly. “It’s an incredibly lethal round—I mean, it does pretty horrific things to the human body when it hits it,” Kotlarski adds. “Depending on the round construction, it does have a tendency to tumble inside soft tissue.” That can produce awful physical destruction.

Nicholas Drummond, a defense commentator and land warfare expert, sees similar issues with the 5.56mm round. “It really is right on the limit of what it takes to incapacitate a human target,” he tells Popular Mechanics . “It’s always been controversial. It relies on the fact that the bullet tumbles when it hits a denser medium than air.” Drummond notes that in Afghanistan, for example, one issue is that the 5.56mm bullets fired out of an M4 weren’t always penetrating car windshields, a concern if a soldier thought that the vehicle might be a threat and fired at it.

In other words, the ability for a bullet to penetrate body armor—or not—is just one of the issues the Army is considering with its move toward a new caliber and new rifles. “I think people get myopically focused on body armor,” says Bohannon, speaking in that Picatinny Arsenal conference room. “But really, there’s a series of target sets across the battlefield that exist today. And there’s a series of target sets in the battlefield that will exist in the next 10 years. And we’re trying to balance all of that to put [the] U.S. Army, [and Department of Defense] at large, in an advantageous position.”

So will the new weapons, with their bigger bullets, do that? The rounds in the new weapons are not only bigger, they also fire at a faster velocity. “Typically speaking, a larger caliber projectile tends to perform better at longer ranges and hit stuff harder at longer ranges,” Kotlarski says. And Bohannon is bullish on its killing power in a future battlefield scenario where an adversary is wearing body armor. “You’re not going to want to be hit by this round anywhere on your body,” he says. “It is lethal in every aspect.” (And of course, the longer the range involved, the harder time any projectile will have penetrating serious body armor.)

But the new rifle comes with a physical cost: the XM7 is heavier than the M4 it will be replacing for some soldiers. Then there’s the weapon’s thump on the shoulder. “Does it have more recoil? Yes,” says Bohannon. Still, he says, “it’s a controllable weapon system.” He also notes that a carbine version of the XM7 rifle will “eventually” happen; a carbine is a shorter type of rifle.

It’s important to remember that the debate about the best caliber bullet for the job is not a new one, points out Mark Cancian, a senior adviser for the International Security Program at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, and a former colonel in the Marines. “There has been a long, long argument in the military about large caliber versus small caliber,” Cancian tells Popular Mechanics . “Recently, that’s the 5.56 versus the 7.62. And the two sides feel passionately about the issue.”

He says he knows what side of the fence he lands on. “I’ve always preferred the 5.56 because I found it easier to shoot and easier to hit a target with,” Cancian says, referencing his time in the Marines. Compared to the 7.62mm, “it didn’t have as much kick; the weapon wasn’t as heavy.”

Of course, the new 6.8mm ammunition is in between those two sizes. “It may be that the 6.8 is a good compromise,” he says. “I just don’t know the answer to that.”

Ultimately, time, testing, and the military’s refinement process will tell if this ammunition size, and the new weapons that fire it, represent a type of silver bullet for success on the modern battlefield—whether an adversary is wearing body armor or not.

Rob Verger is a freelance journalist who focuses on aviation, transportation, and military tech. His work has also appeared in Fast Company, Inverse , Popular Science , The Boston Globe , Newsweek , The Daily Beast , VICE News , Columbia Journalism Review , and other publications. He lives in Manhattan with his wife.

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