short essay on self determination

Self-Determination Theory: How It Explains Motivation

Gabriel Lopez-Garrido

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Political Science and Psychology

Gabriel Lopez-Garrido is currently in his final year at Harvard University. He is pursuing a Bachelor's degree with a primary focus on Political Science (Government) and a minor in Psychology.

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Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Key Takeaways

Self-determination refers to the ability of individuals to make choices and determine their own actions.
Self-determination is a theory of human motivation and personality that suggests that people can become self-determined when their needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy are fulfilled.
The presence versus absence of environmental conditions that allow satisfaction of these basic needs (in people’s immediate situations and in their developmental histories) is a key predictor of whether or not people will display vitality and mental health.
People tend to become happier when pursuing things that are intrinsically motivated and aligned with their own goals – it not only makes them feel more responsible about the outcomes, it also helps them to really focus their time on what they want to be doing.
Self-determination theory itself can be helpful in understanding the things that might motivate a given individual’s behavior. Feeling like one has both the autonomy and the capabilities required to make choices on their own is something that most, if not every, individual would want to have.

What is Self-Determination?

The term self-determination was first introduced by Deci and Ryan in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior .

The term self-determination refers to a person’s own ability to manage themselves, to make confident choices, and to think on their own (Deci, 1971).

Self-determination is a macro theory of human motivation and personality. It is a theory that deals with two huge factors: people’s inherent growth tendencies and the innate psychological needs of these same individuals.

Given how self-determination can help with achieving independence, this concept plays an essential role not only in the overall well-being of the individual, but also their overall psychological health.

Because self-determination puts the individual in the driving seat, it makes the person both responsible and potentially culpable for whatever happens.

Given this, self-determination also has a large impact on motivation. If the individual themselves believe they can manage themselves properly, they would more than likely find more motivation in whatever task they wish to carry out.

Theoretical Assumptions

The need for growth drives behavior.

The first assumption of self-determination theory is that a need for growth as a human being drives behavior. People are always actively seeking to grow and improve (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Gaining mastery over challenges (both new and old) is essential for developing a sense of self or, at the very least, a cohesive one.

Autonomous motivation is important.

Self-determination theory focuses on the interplay between the extrinsic forces acting on persons and the intrinsic motive and needs of human beings. People can generally be motivated by outside factors such as money, acclaim, and fame, and this type of motivation is known as extrinsic .

Self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation (known as intrinsic motivation), such as learning to gain independence and wanting to prove yourself.

According to Lepper et al. (1973), if the behavior is purely self-determined, there is a very high chance that it will be both intrinsically driven and that the behavior is done not for the reward or the prize, but rather for self-satisfaction, interest, and enjoyment for the behavior itself.

Non-self-determined behaviors are only performed only because they have to get done – not out of enjoyment or because it fulfills the individual, rather because the individual has little to no choice on whether they want to partake in said behavior. This leads to a lack of control given that this behavior is not done willingly.

Basic Needs

Self-determination theory posits that people are driven by three innate and universal psychological needs, and that personal well-being is a direct function of the satisfaction of these basic psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 1991;Ryan, 1995),

Competence (need to be effective in dealing with the environment)

Competence is a term utilized to describe someone who has sufficient qualities to perform a given task or to describe the state of having sufficient intellect, judgment, skill, and/or strength.

When an individual feels competent, they feel able to interact effectively within their environment, and they have the skills needed for success to ensure that their goals are achieved. A competent person feels a sense of mastery over their environment.

If tasks are too challenging or a person receives negative feedback, feelings of competence can decrease. Alternatively, feelings of competence are enhanced when the demands of a task are optimally matched to a person’s skills, or positive feedback is received.

Relatedness (need to have close, affectionate relationships)

Relatedness is the ability to feel a sense of both attachment to other people and a sense of belonging amongst other people.

Relatedness involves feelings of closeness and belonging to a social group.

Without connections, self-determination is harder to achieve because the individual would lack access to both help and support.

Feelings of relatedness are enhanced when individuals are respected and cared for by others, and are part of an inclusive environment. Alternatively, feelings of relatedness are undermined by competition with others, cliques, and criticism from others.

Autonomy (need to feel self-governing and independent)

Autonomy is the ability to feel in control of one’s behavior and destiny, and involves self-initiation and self-regulation of one’s own behavior.

Autonomy involves being able to make your own decisions and is associated with feelings of independence.

Feelings of autonomy are enhanced when individuals are given choice and are able to govern their own behavior, and when other people acknowledge their feelings.

Alternatively, the individual lacks autonomy if they feel controlled or threatened by others, or have to operate according to deadlines.

Tangible rewards can also reduce feelings of autonomy. If one were to give someone an extrinsic reward for already intrinsically motivated behavior, then the likelihood that autonomy is undermined (given that the extrinsic reward is likely to draw attention away from autonomy) is fairly large.

It gets even worse if the behavior is repeated: as the behavior becomes increasingly controlled by external rewards rather than by autonomy. Thus, intrinsic motivation is diminished, and people start to feel both a different source for their motivation and less belief in their own personal qualities.

Research on self-determination theory has shown the importance of the three basic needs in real-world settings, such as the workplace, education, and sports.

In the Classroom

Researchers have found that students show a greater intrinsic motivation towards learning when teachers encourage a culture of autonomy in the classroom (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Students experience autonomy when they feel supported to explore, take initiative and develop and implement solutions for their problems.
Teachers should provide prompt feedback and stretch and challenge students to promote a sense of competence. If done correctly, feedback not only works because it provides an insight into how that student is doing, but because when students perform well and they are given positive feedback, it makes them feel good about the work they have achieved.
Students experience relatedness when they perceive others listening and responding to them. When these three needs are met,
It is fine to reward a student for their success, but avoiding excessive external rewards for actions students already enjoy is essential if one wants to improve their internal desire for motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999) Students who are more involved in setting educational goals are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation, and are more likely to reach their goals.

In the Workplace

People who feel that they can have a positive effect at work tend to feel more engaged and motivated. How else can employers build self-determination in their workers?

Organizations should encourage autonomy in the workplace as this can enhances employees’ well-being, productivity, and personal growth, and contributes to organizational effectiveness (Strauss & Parker, 2014).
One way that managers and leaders can help their employees with developing self-determination is by putting them in leadership roles. For example, let’s say that the company needs to prepare a presentation for a huge client.
A manager who wants to build his employer’s sense of self-determination will take steps to ensure that the each of the team members working on the presentation take an active role. One could be in charge of designing the graphs, while the other is in charge of the marketing strategy.
Constructive feedback works wonders for building self-determined behaviors like competence.Feedback helps individuals understand what they are doing wrong and how they can improve doing said task. It helps people feel as if their work has actual value, which is key in trying to build motivation.
Employers should be careful not to offer one too many extrinsic rewards as this can diminish a sense of autonomy. If extrinsic rewards are in the picture, it is likely to become the case that – at some point – the work will stop being about loving what one does and become about simply obtaining the reward.

In Competition

Fostering a sense of self-determination is one of the many things that can inspire certain individuals to excel – this is especially true in competitive settings -such as sports and athletics – where the stakes are sometimes so high.

It surely is a given that athletes are driven to perform better in their designated sport if they themselves believe that they are capable of overcoming the hurdles that may arise along the way (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2008).

In a Social Setting

If an individual attempts to forge close, and affectionate relationships with other people – the likelihood that self-determination behaviors improve (or are seen more often) is high. What are some specific ways that people can build self-determination in social settings?

One specific way to build self-determination in these types of settings is by actively seeking positive relationships with people that promote a positive environment.
When seeking social relationships, an individual who wants to work on their self-determination should look for individuals who will support them in the pursuit of their goals.

How to Improve Self-Determination

People who are high in self-determination tend to believe in their own innate ability and that they have control over their own lives.

People who practice self-determined behaviors have an internal locus of control , and this makes them feel that their behaviors will have an influence on outcomes.

More importantly, it makes them understand that in order for other people to start believing in this individual’s abilities, the same individual must first believe in themselves.

People who believe in themselves- when faced with a difficult scenario feel that they can overcome anything they set their minds on through the use of diligence, good choices, and hard work.

Without an individual believing in themselves, chances are that individual is likely less to give 100% of his effort when trying to achieve any task (after all, why would said individual give so much time and effort to a cause they think they are bound to already fail)?

People who are high in self-determination tend to have high self-motivation.

People who demonstrate self-determined behaviors tend not to rely on external rewards as a means for them to do a task. Often, times completing the task properly is its own reward.

To improve motivation, it is essential to remove external rewards and punishments as a reason for completing a task. Self-determined individuals set goals and work to reach them because they feel enough motivation to know that their effort will produce a finished product.

People who are high in self-determination tend to take responsibility for their behaviors.

The biggest difference between someone who is self-determined and someone who isn’t is that highly self-determined people take credit for their success but also hold their heads high up in the face of failure. They have no problem with taking responsibility, because they know they can do better.

Conversely, individuals who lack self-determination will attempt to put the blame on someone or something else in an attempt to take of the pressure from themselves.

Taking responsibility is important for learning how to become self-determined as it helps the individual accept that they are human (meaning, that they are capable of failure) and also that they are capable of owning up to their mistakes (which is a sign of confidence).

It puts the individual in a situation where they appreciate that things happen to them even more because – at the end of the day – the person who is responsible for putting the individual in that situation is the individual themselves.

Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105–115.

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation . Psychological Bulletin, 125 (6), 627.

Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality”. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237–288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 85-107). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Hagger, M., & Chatzisarantis, N. (2008). Self-determination theory and the psychology of exercise . International review of sport and exercise psychology, 1 (1), 79-103.

Lepper, M. K., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “over justification” hypothesis . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28 (1), 129–137.

Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice . Theory and research in Education, 7 (2), 133-144.

Pritchard, R.; Campbell, K.; Campbell, D. (1977). Effects of extrinsic financial rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62 (1), 9.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being . American Psychologist, 55 (1), 68–78.

Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness . New York: Guilford Publishing.

Strauss, K., & Parker, S. K. (2014). Effective and sustained proactivity in the workplace: A self‐determination theory perspective . In M. Gagné (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self‐determination theory (pp. 50–72). Oxford: Oxford University Press .

Which psychological need in the self-determination theory (sdt) is described as the basic need to feel effective and capable in one’s actions?

In Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the psychological need described as the basic desire to feel effective and capable in one’s actions is referred to as ‘Competence.’ This need represents an individual’s inherent desire to engage in challenges and to experience mastery or proficiency in their endeavors.

According to self-determination theory, people’s behavior and well-being are influenced by what three innate needs?

According to Self-Determination Theory, people’s behavior and well-being are influenced by three innate needs: Autonomy, the need to be in control of one’s actions and choices; Competence, the need to be effective and master tasks; and Relatedness, the need to have meaningful relationships and feel connected with others.

These needs are universal, innate, and psychological, and are essential for an individual’s optimal function and growth.

What is self-determination?

Self-determination refers to the process by which a person controls their own life. It involves making choices and decisions based on personal preferences and interests, the freedom to pursue goals, and the ability to be independent and autonomous.

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What Is Self-Determination Theory?

How Self-Determination Influences Motivation

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

How It Works
Self-Determined vs. Non-Self-Determined
How to Improve

Self-determination refers to a person's ability to make choices and manage their own life . Being self-determined means that you feel in greater control, as opposed to being non-self-determined, which can leave you feeling that your life is controlled by others.

It states that people are motivated to grow and change by three innate (and universal) psychological needs. The concept of intrinsic motivation , or engaging in activities for the inherent reward of the behavior itself, plays an important role in this theory.

Self-determination is an important concept in psychology since it plays a role in psychological health and well-being . Promoting self-determination is also an emerging best practice when working with certain populations, such as individuals with intellectual disabilities .

Self-determination theory seeks to explain how being self-determined impacts motivation—that people feel more motivated to take action when they think that what they do will have an effect on the outcome. Learn more about how this theory works, as well as what you can do to improve your self-determination skills.

Self-determination theory suggests that people can become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled.

Self-determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, who first introduced their ideas in their 1985 book Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior . They developed a theory of motivation that suggests people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment.

Assumptions of Self-Determination

Self-determination theory makes two key assumptions:

The need for growth drives behavior. The first assumption of self-determination theory is that people are actively directed toward growth. Gaining mastery over challenges and taking in new experiences are essential for developing a cohesive sense of self .

Autonomous motivation is important. While people are often motivated to act by external rewards such as money, prizes, and acclaim (known as extrinsic motivation ), self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation such as a need to gain knowledge or independence (intrinsic motivation).

Components of Self-Determination

According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following to achieve psychological growth:

Autonomy : People need to feel in control of their own behaviors and goals. This sense of being able to take direct action that will result in real change plays a major part in helping people feel self-determined.
Competence : People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills . When people feel that they have the skills needed for success, they are more likely to take actions that will help them achieve their goals.
Connection or relatedness : People need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people.

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How Self-Determination Theory Works

It's important to realize that the psychological growth described by self-determination theory does not happen automatically. While people might be oriented toward such growth, it requires continual sustenance.

Ryan and Deci have suggested that the tendency to be either proactive or passive is largely influenced by the social conditions in which we are raised. Social support is key. Through our relationships and interactions with others, we can foster or thwart well-being and personal growth.

Other factors that also help or hinder the three elements needed for growth include:

Extrinsic motivators can sometimes lower self-determination. According to Deci, giving people extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior can undermine autonomy. As the behavior becomes increasingly controlled by external rewards, people begin to feel less in control of their behavior and intrinsic motivation is diminished.
Positive feedback can boost self-determination. Deci also suggests that offering unexpected positive encouragement and feedback on a person's task performance can increase intrinsic motivation. This type of feedback helps people feel more competent, which is a key need for personal growth.

Example of Self-Determination

Imagine a person who fails to complete an important project at work. If this person is high in self-determination, they will admit their fault, believe that they can do something to fix the problem, and take action to correct the mistake .

If that same person was low in self-determination, they might instead look for other things that they can blame. They might make excuses, assign blame elsewhere, or refuse to admit their own role in not completing the project on time.

Most importantly, perhaps, is that the person low in self-determination won't feel motivated to fix the mistake. Instead, they might feel helpless to control the situation and believe that nothing that they do will have any real effect.

Self-Determined vs. Non-Self-Determined Behaviors

Motivated by intrinsic rewards

Driven by enjoyment, interest, or satisfaction

Feel in control

Motivated by extrinsic rewards

Driven by obligation or responsibility

Feel a lack of control

Rather than thinking of motivation as being driven by either extrinsic or intrinsic rewards, it is often helpful to view it as a continuum between self-determined and non-self-determined behaviors.

On one end of the continuum are purely self-determined behaviors that tend to be intrinsically driven and done for the enjoyment of, interest in, and inherent satisfaction for the action itself.
On the other end are non-self-determined behaviors, which are performed only because they must be done. There is a complete lack of control on this extreme end of the scale.

If you are training to compete in a marathon, for example, you might be extrinsically motivated by a desire to gain approval from others. At the same time, you may also be intrinsically motivated by the satisfaction you gain from the activity itself. In most cases, behaviors tend to lie in the middle of the continuum.

There is also often a varying amount of external motivation, which can fuel the degree of internal motivation. People may engage in actions because they feel they have some level of personal control and the behaviors ultimately align with something that is important for their self-concept.

Most actions are not purely self-determined or non-self-determined. Instead, actions often rely on a certain degree of self-determination that may also be influenced by extrinsic motivations.

Impact of Self-Determination

The concept of self-determination has been applied to a wide variety of areas including education, work, parenting, exercise, and health. Research suggests that having high self-determination can foster success in many different domains of life.

In the Workplace

People with self-determination feel more satisfied at work while also playing a key role in that organization's success. How can employers build self-determination in their workers?

By allowing team members to take an active role
Not overusing extrinsic rewards since this can undercut intrinsic motivation, a phenomenon known as the overjustification effect
Offering employees greater responsibilities
Offering support and encouragement
Providing employees with meaningful feedback

In Competition

In competitive settings, such as sports and athletics, fostering a sense of self-determination can motivate people to excel. Some suggest that it works, at least in part, by increasing a person's level of mental toughness .

Athletes who feel that they are capable of achieving their goals and overcoming challenges are often driven to perform better. Excelling allows them to gain a sense of competence and build mastery in skills that are enjoyable and important to them.

Researchers have also found that people with an internal sense of control are more likely to stick to a healthy diet and regular exercise regimen .

In Social Settings

Self-determination can also play an important role in social relationships. For instance, when people are new to an online group , if their needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence (the three components of self-determination) are fulfilled, it impacts their social identity which, in turn, affects their participation behaviors.

To forge close, affectionate relationships with others, thus potentially improving self-determination:

Seek positive relationships with people who will support you in the pursuit of your goals.
Offer support and feedback to people who are part of your social circle.

In School Settings

Self-determined students are more likely to feel motivated to achieve. They also tend to feel greater levels of competence and satisfaction. Educators can help students foster a sense of self-determination and intrinsic motivation by:

Providing unexpected positive feedback when students perform well to help improve their feelings of competence
Avoiding excessive external rewards for actions students already enjoy, which helps improve their internal motivation

Self-determination can play an important role in how people function in many different areas of their lives. Feeling in control and intrinsically motivated can help people feel more committed, passionate, interested, and satisfied with the things that they do.

Traits of Self-Determined People

If you are interested in strengthening your self-determination, it is helpful to think about what a highly self-determined individual might look like. People high in self-determination tend to:

Believe that they have control over their own lives . Self-determined people have an internal locus of control and feel that their behaviors will have an influence on outcomes. When confronted with challenges, they feel that they can overcome them through diligence, good choices, and hard work.
Have high self-motivation . Someone with high self-determination doesn't rely on external rewards or punishments to motivate them to take action. Instead, they engage in behaviors because they are motivated intrinsically. They have an internal desire to set goals and work toward them.
Base their actions on their own goals and behaviors . In other words, people with self-motivation intentionally engage in actions that they know will bring them closer to their goals.
Take responsibility for their behaviors . Highly self-determined people take credit for their success but they also accept the blame for their failures. They know that they are responsible for their actions and don't shift blame elsewhere.

How to Improve Your Self-Determination

Do you want to be more self-determined? There are a few steps you can take to improve your own self-determination skills.

Improve Your Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is associated with self-determination and can even help prepare you to make more purposeful decisions. Meditation, seeking regular feedback, and writing down your thoughts and feelings are all ways to improve self-awareness.

Engage in Self-Regulation

Developing a higher level of self-determination involves also working on your self-regulation skills. Strategies that can help you better regulate yourself include being more mindful of how you feel mentally and physically, along with practicing cognitive reframing to better regulate your emotional responses.

Find Social Support

Strong social relationships can foster motivation and well-being. Seek people who make you feel welcome and cared for. This may be a family member or friend, or it could be a member of your church, a counselor, or anyone else who provides a sense of support and belonging.

Gain Mastery

Becoming skilled in areas that are important to you can help build your sense of self-determination. Whether you have a strong interest in a hobby , sport, academic subject, or another area, learning as much as you can about it and improving your skills can help you feel more competent.

The more you learn and practice, the more skilled and self-determined you will likely feel.

A Word From Verywell

Self-determination theory can be helpful in understanding what might motivate your behaviors. Being self-determined, feeling like you have the autonomy and freedom to make choices that shape your destiny, is important for each person's well-being.

When you pursue things that are intrinsically motivated and aligned with your goals, you will feel happier and more capable of making good choices.

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Schultz PP, Ryan RM. The 'why,' 'what,' and 'how' of healthy self-regulation: Mindfulness and well-being from a self-determination theory perspective . In: Ostafin B, Robinson M, Meier B (eds) Handbook of Mindfulness and Self-Regulation . doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2263-5_7

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

The Role of Self-Determination in Well-Being

Learn about what self-determination is and how it can affect your well-being..

Updated December 3, 2023 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

What Is Motivation?
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Self-determination theory says that we have three psychological needs for optimal well-being.
Autonomous regulation is linked with greater overall well-being,
Autonomous motivation is associated with greater creativity and improved problem-solving.

Cowritten by Tchiki Davis and Sarah Sperber

Why do you do the things you do? Why did you brush your teeth this morning, go to work, or click on this post? And is it possible to change the way you behave?

Motivation underlies all of our behavior. Self-determination theory is a widely recognized framework for understanding motivation and the impact that different types of motivation can have on different aspects of well-being . Read on to learn the fundamental principles of self-determination theory and how to live a more self-determined life.

What Self-Determination Is

The psychologists who developed self-determination theory defined self-determination as follows: “Self‐determination means acting with a sense of choice, volition, and commitment, and it is based on intrinsic motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation ” (Deci & Ryan, 2010).

Psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan first presented self-determination theory (referred to as SDT for short) in their 1985 book, Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior . They suggest that there are four different types of behavior regulation or motivation, two of which are autonomous and two of which are controlled. In this theory, autonomous regulation is the basis for self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 2010).

Autonomous motivation or regulation refers to acting out of a sense of willingness, volition, and choice (Deci, 2017).
Controlled motivation or regulation refers to acting out of a sense of pressure, demand, or obligation (Deci, 2017).

Self-Determination Examples

Here are some examples of self-determined behaviors:

A child playing with toys for enjoyment
Exercising because you value the health benefits
Quitting smoking because you value living a longer life with your children
A child completing their chores because they understand the value of responsibility
Creating art for the inherent joy of it
Choosing a career path with a complete sense of willingness

Principles of Self-Determination

Self-determination theory states that humans have three psychological needs for optimal well-being and performance: relatedness, competence, and autonomy. When someone feels related to others, competent, and like they are acting with a sense of volition, they will be autonomously motivated or self-determined (Deci, 2017; Deci & Ryan, 2012).

Relatedness refers to the need to be cared for and caring for others.
Competence refers to the need to feel effective in one’s behavior.
Autonomy refers to the need to feel that one is acting out of a sense of volition and self-endorsement (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013).

The research suggests that to foster self-determination in oneself or others, it is important to create a supportive environment that satisfies all three of the above needs (Deci & Ryan, 2012).

How Self-Determination May Affect Well-Being

So why do these different types of motivation or regulation matter? If you end up with the same behaviors, then does it make a difference what is motivating them? Well, your own experience might tell you that the type of motivation you have can influence how you feel while you engage in a behavior.

Research surrounding self-determination theory has found that autonomous regulation is linked with greater overall well-being. “Those behaviors that are more self‐determined and less controlled are associated with a stronger sense of personal commitment, greater persistence, more positive feelings, higher quality performance, and better mental health ” (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Studies have found that autonomous motivation is also associated with greater creativity and improved problem-solving (Deci, 2012).

With this in mind, it is likely helpful to learn how to increase the amount of autonomous regulation in your life. To do this, you can work on creating a supportive environment for yourself based on the above principles of relatedness, competence, and autonomy.

A version of this post also appears as an article on The Berkeley Well-Being Institute Web site.

Deci, E. L. (2012, August). Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity. TED Conferences.

Deci, E. L. (2017, October). Edward Deci - Self-Determination Theory. The Brainwaves Video Anthology

Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. United States: Springer US.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry , 11(4), 227-268.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Self‐determination. The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, 1-2.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. In P. A. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume 1 (Vol. 1, pp. 416-437). SAGE Publications Ltd, https://www.doi.org/10.4135/9781446249215.n21

Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration , 23(3), 263.

Tchiki Davis, Ph.D. , is a consultant, writer, and expert on well-being technology.

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21 Self-Determination Skills and Activities to Utilize Today

People are often motivated to act by external influences, be they financial reward, prestige, advancement, or the opinions of others. Just as often, people are motivated from within, by their beliefs and personal values.

While extrinsic motivation is not necessarily a bad thing, it is intrinsic motivation that most effectively encourages and sustains action. We need to feel autonomous – that we are the authors and agents of our behavior – rather than feeling that external forces control our behavior.

Self-determination is primarily concerned with intrinsically driven motivation and shines a light on the interplay between the external factors and internal motives inherent in human nature.

The following article will examine the concept of self-determination, answer common questions on the subject, and take a look at some activities, assessments, and worksheets to develop and improve self-determination skills.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

This Article Contains:

What is self-determination, a look at the concept in psychology, common questions on self-determination, 8 self-determination skills to utilize today, 7 useful activities and worksheets (incl. pdf), 5 assessments, tests, and questionnaires, 6 books worth reading, a take-home message.

Self-determination began as a political concept whereby a group of people could form their own state and choose their own government (Unrepresented Nations & Peoples Organization, 2017). After World War II, the promotion and support of self-determination became one of the primary goals of the United Nations. In psychology, self-determination refers to an individual’s ability to make choices and manage their own life.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is an approach to human motivation that emphasizes the importance of our evolved inner resources for personality development and behavioral self-regulation (Ryan, Kuhl, & Deci, 1997). Deci (1992) recognized the motivational dynamics that determine the activities an individual chooses freely and those activities they feel coerced or compelled to partake in.

Similarly, Wehmeyer (2007) defined self-determination as the primary causal agent that encourages decision making that is free from external influence. According to Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, and Wehmeyer (1998), an understanding of our strengths and limitations and a belief in ourselves as capable and competent are essential to self-determination.

When acting on the basis of these skills and attitudes, individuals have a greater ability to take control of their lives and engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior.

In essence, self-determination is a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that allow the individual to choose and act in accordance with those choices rather than reinforcement contingencies, drives, or other external pressures.

As a psychological construct, self-determination is a theory of motivation and personality that addresses issues of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation concerning universal, innate psychological needs. These needs are thought to be essential for growth and integration, constructive social development, and personal wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

SDT postulates that humans have three innate psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2000):

Competence (feeling effective)
Autonomy (the feeling of being the origin of our behavior)
Psychological relatedness (feeling cared for and understood by other people)

The satisfaction and fulfillment of these three needs are considered necessary and essential to vital, healthy human functioning, regardless of culture or stage of development (Silva, Marques, & Teixeira, 2014).

When these three needs are met, individuals experience more vitality, self-motivation, and wellbeing. Conversely, circumvention of these basic needs may lead to declining self-motivation and a heightened sense of ill-being (Ryan, Deci, Grolnick, & La Guardia, 2006).

Self-determination theory developed through a set of six ‘mini-theories,’ which represent a broad framework for the study of human motivation and personality:

Cognitive evaluation theory is concerned with intrinsic motivation and how factors such as rewards, deadlines, feedback, and pressure affect feelings of autonomy and competence.
Organismic integration theory is concerned with extrinsic motivation in its various forms and addresses the process of internalization of various extrinsic motives.
Causality orientations theory is concerned with individual differences in tendencies to orient toward environments and regulate behavior in various ways.
Basic psychological needs theory elaborates on the concept of the three basic psychological needs by connecting them directly with wellness.
Goal contents theory is concerned with the distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and their impact on motivation and wellness.
Relationships motivation theory is concerned with the development and maintenance of close personal relationships and encompasses one of the three basic psychological needs: relatedness.

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Several questions are asked regularly about self-determination, and some of the more common ones are answered below.

Why is self-determination so important?

The promotion and procurement of self-determination skills can help individuals of all ages, with or without disabilities, to assert personal control over their choices in life.

Self-determination plays a vital role in several contexts. It has been shown to increase life satisfaction in later life (Ekelund, Dahlin-Ivanoff, & Eklund, 2014), promote physical activity and weight loss (Silva et al., 2010; Teixeira, Silva, Mata, Palmeira, & Markland, 2012), moderate occupational burnout (Fernet, Guay, & Senecal, 2004), and affect motivation (Gagné & Deci, 2005).

Within an educational setting, the integration of self-determination skills such as self-regulation , decision making, and action planning has been shown to help students evaluate and set personal goals; become more autonomous, self-determined learners; and increase the sense of control over their learning (Eisenman, 2007).

When young adults develop the ability to consider and implement solutions to their problems, they become intrinsically motivated and actively engaged in the learning process (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Wehmeyer (2005) discussed a common misconception that people with severe disabilities lack the requisite skills to exert control in their lives. While it is true that individuals with severe disabilities may be limited in the degree to which they can become more self-determined, by encouraging the expression of preferences and promoting self-advocacy, there are opportunities for them to become causal agents in their own lives.

Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003) found that students with disabilities who took part in a self-determination program were more likely to live independently and move out of the family home, hold a job, and have greater financial independence.

Is self-determined behavior always ‘successful’ behavior?

Self-determination has been linked to myriad positive outcomes, and perhaps unsurprisingly, there is a tendency to equate self-determined behavior with successful behaviors. However, even self-determined people experience failure. According to Wehmeyer (2005), the emphasis should be on the attempt to exercise control and not on the specific outcome of actions.

Self-determination should not be equated only with successful outcomes. Not every decision an individual makes turns out to be an optimal decision, nor is every goal the right goal.

What are the primary assumptions of self-determination?

According to Deci and Ryan (1985), self-determination consists of two key assumptions. The first is that the innate human need for growth drives behavior. Put simply, people are actively directed toward growth, gaining mastery over challenges, and taking on new experiences to develop a cohesive sense of self.

The second assumption focuses on the importance of autonomous motivation that has been linked to greater psychological health and more effective performance (Deci & Ryan, 2008). While individuals can be motivated by external factors such as money and acclaim, self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources of motivation, such as a need to gain knowledge or independence (Silva et al., 2014).

What techniques are used in self-determination interventions?

Interventions based on self-determination theory comprise many behavioral and communicative techniques that focus on the satisfaction of needs and autonomy. Reeve and Jang (2006) emphasized the importance of autonomy-based interventions within education, healthcare, parenting, and the workplace.

This focus on personal autonomy can include taking the client’s perspective, creating opportunities for client input and initiative, and providing explanatory rationales for requests made by the practitioner.

Additionally, many self-determination interventions are concerned with the support of competence and psychological relatedness needs. Many of the techniques used to support competence focus on promoting a sense of satisfaction by making progress toward self-referenced goals, attaining mastery, and developing self-determination skills (Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Goossens, Soenens, & Dochy, 2009).

Are self-determination and self-efficacy the same?

According to Sugarman and Sokol (2012), self-determination and self-efficacy are both based on the ideology that people are agents of their actions and possess complex internal structures that allow them to make choices regarding their actions. While the two theories work from a similar ideology, they also view the concept of agency from very different perspectives.

Self-efficacy reflects the capacity of individuals to take measures to achieve targeted goals (Bandura, 1997). In terms of self-efficacy, enhanced perceptions of competency lead to perceived controllability. It is an individual’s self-efficacy that drives their agency. Put simply, people act when they feel able to achieve the goals they have set.

While self-determination theory recognizes that feelings of competence are important, autonomy plays a more central role. When an individual perceives their actions as autonomous, then self-determined motivation is the main element of agency (Sweet, Fortier, Strachan, & Blanchard, 2012).

While self-determination is a complex construct that includes a combination of skills and knowledge, these skills are teachable, measurable, and most effectively developed through regular practice. According to Wehmeyer, Agran, and Hughes (2000), the component skills of self-determined behavior include the following:

1. Choice-making skills

Choice making is an individual’s ability to express their preference between two or more options (Wehmeyer, 2005) and exert control over their actions and environment.

2. Decision-making skills

Similar to choice making, decision making requires effective judgments about what choices or solutions are right at any given moment. According to Wehmeyer (2007), effective decision making requires individuals to identify possible alternatives for action, the potential consequences of each action, assess the probability of each result occurring, select the best alternative, and implement the alternative decision.

3. Problem-solving skills

Problem solving requires the identification of a problem, possible solutions, and an understanding of the potential pros and cons of each solution.

4. Goal-setting and attainment skills

Goal setting and attainment skills are a critical component in the development of abilities that lead to agentic action and self-determination.

5. Self-regulation skills (including self-observation, evaluation, and reinforcement)

Self-regulation is the process by which people incorporate behavioral change into their everyday lives (Kapp, 2001). Self-regulation involves setting goals, developing a plan to achieve goals, implementing and following the action plan, evaluating the outcomes of the action plan, and adjusting accordingly. Find more self-regulation tools here .

6. Self-advocacy skills

Self-advocacy refers to an individual’s ability to express their needs and wants assertively and take action on their own behalf. More on this topic in How to Foster Self-Expression .

7. Positive self-efficacy (including an internal locus of control)

Self-efficacy with an internal locus of control encourages individuals to believe in their ability to perform and achieve goals.

8. Self-awareness skills

Self-awareness skills allow individuals to identify and understand their needs, strengths, and limitations.

The following worksheets are designed to assist in the development of the component skills of self-determined behavior.

1. Self-Awareness Worksheet for Young Children

2. Self-Awareness Worksheet for Older Children

3. Self-Awareness Worksheet for Adults

4. Decision-Making Worksheet for Adults

5. Problem-Solving Worksheet for Adults

6. Emotion Regulation Worksheet

7. Self-Awareness Test

Several scientific scales and assessments are available to evaluate self-determination. Below is a sampling of five of these.

1. The Basic Needs Satisfaction in General Scale (BNSG-S; Gagné, 2003)

This 21-item scale measures the three distinct needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness with the emphasis that all three needs must be individually met for wellness. The BNSG-S was developed to assess the satisfaction of basic psychological needs in general.

Respondents are invited to indicate how true each statement is for them personally and respond on a scale from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true). Higher scores are indicative of a higher level of satisfaction of needs.

Basic Needs Satisfaction in General Scale

2. AIR Self-Determination Assessments

The American Institutes for Research developed the AIR Self-Determination Assessments in conjunction with Columbia University. Designed for use with adolescents, these assessments can be used to measure two broad components of self-determination:

The knowledge, abilities, and perceptions that enable self-determination
The opportunity to use the relevant knowledge and abilities

The AIR Self-Determination Scale produces a profile of the student’s level of self-determination, identifies areas of strength and areas needing improvement, and identifies specific educational goals.

AIR Self-Determination Student Form
AIR Self-Determination Parent Form
AIR Self-Determination Educator Form

You can find guidance on how to use and interpret the results of the AIR Assessments here .

3. The ARC Self-Determination Scale (Wehmeyer & Kelchner, 1995)

The ARC Self-Determination Scale was developed to assess the self-determination strengths and weaknesses of adolescents with disabilities and to facilitate client involvement in determining goals. The assessment scores for autonomy, self-regulation, psychological empowerment, self-realization, and finally, an overall rating for self-determination.

You can find the scale, procedural guidelines, and guidance on scoring and interpretation here .

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The following selection of books will enhance your understanding of self-determination.

1. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

It also looks at the processes and structures related to the three innate psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and interpersonal relatedness.

Available on Amazon .

2. Self-Determination Theory in the Clinic (Sheldon, Williams, & Joiner, 2003)

The authors also include numerous specific clinical and case examples to describe the theory’s application.

They show the ways it can be used to motivate patients undergoing treatment for physiological and psychological issues such as diabetes management, smoking cessation, post-traumatic stress, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression.

3. Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness (Ryan & Deci, 2018)

Additionally, the authors discuss the application of self-determination theory in multiple domains, including healthcare, education, sports, virtual environments, and organizations.

4. Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Perspective, Applications, and Impact (Wade, 2017)

Wade discusses the motivational typology in self-determination theory and explores the egoistic side of public service motivation.

5. The Handbook of Self-Determination Research (Deci & Ryan, 2004)

With an emphasis on the importance of self-determination for understanding basic motivational processes and solving pressing real-world problems, this handbook provides a detailed overview of self-determination theory and explores the current state of self-determination research in relation to other areas of inquiry such as coping, self-esteem , and interest.

6. The Oxford Handbook of Work Motivation, Engagement, and Self-Determination Theory (Gagné, 2014)

The book provides suggestions for practitioners on how to adjust their programs and practices using self-determination theory principles.

Topics in the handbook include self-determination research and practice, the application of self-determination theory to the field of organizational psychology, suggestions for future research in organizational psychology, and a range of topics related to motivation in the workplace.

The book is available here .

If you like book lists, be sure to read this entry on self-esteem books .

We need to feel autonomous and that we are the authors and agents of our own behavior rather than believe that external forces control our behavior.

Being self-determined and having the autonomy to make choices that shape your future is essential. It means knowing what you want, making choices that are right for you in the moment, and actively making things happen in your own life. When we pursue activities and behaviors that are intrinsically motivated and aligned with our personal goals, we feel happier, more in control, and capable.

I hope you have enjoyed this piece on self-determination. What are your thoughts on the subject? Let us know in the comments.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum.
Deci, E. L. (1992). The relation of interest to the motivation of behavior: A self-determination theory perspective. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 43–70). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2004). The handbook of self-determination research. University Rochester Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49 , 14–23.
Eisenman, L. Y. (2007). Self-determination interventions: Building a foundation for school completion. Remedial and Special Education , 28 , 2–8.
Ekelund, C., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., & Eklund, K. (2014). Self-determination and older people – A concept analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy , 21 (2), 116–124.
Fernet, C., Guay, F., & Senecal, C. (2004). Adjusting to job demands: The role of work self-determination and job control in predicting burnout. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65 , 39–56.
Field, S. S., Martin, J. E., Miller, R. J., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (1998). Self-determination for persons with disabilities: A position statement of the Division on Career Development and Transition. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 21 , 113–128.
Gagné, M. (2003). The role of autonomy support and autonomy orientation in prosocial behavior engagement. Motivation and Emotion, 27 , 199–223.
Gagné, M. (2014). The Oxford handbook of work motivation, engagement, and self-determination theory. Oxford University Press.
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26 (4), 331–362.
Kapp, C. B. (2001). Self-regulation in childhood. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes, International encyclopedia of social and behavioral sciences (pp. 13862–13866). Elsevier.
Reeve, J., & Jang, H. (2006). What teachers say and do to support students’ autonomy during a learning activity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98 , 209–218.
Ryan, R. M., Kuhl, J., & Deci, E. L. (1997). Nature and autonomy: Organizational view of social and neurobiological aspects of self-regulation in behavior and development. Development and Psychopathology, 9 , 701–728.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American psychologist, 55 , 68.
Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness . Guilford Press.
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., Grolnick, W. S., & La Guardia, J. G. (2006). The significance of autonomy and autonomy support in psychological development and psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Theory and method (2nd ed.) (pp. 795–849). John Wiley & Sons.
Sheldon, K. M., Williams, G., & Joiner, T. (2003). Self-determination theory in the clinic: Motivating physical and mental health . Yale University Press.
Sierens, E., Vansteenkiste, M., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., & Dochy, F. (2009). The synergistic relationship of perceived autonomy support and structure in the prediction of self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 79 (1), 57–68.
Silva, M. N., Marques, M. M., & Teixeira, P. J. (2014). Testing theory in practice: The example of self-determination theory-based interventions. European Health Psychologist, 16 (5), 171–180.
Silva, M. N., Vieira, P. N., Coutinho, S. R., Minderico, C. S., Matos, M. G., Sardinha, L. B., & Teixeira, P. J. (2010). Using self-determination theory to promote physical activity and weight control: a randomized controlled trial in women. Journal of Behavior & Medicine, 33 , 110–122.
Sugarman, J., & Sokol, B. (2012). Human agency and development: An introduction and theoretical sketch. New Ideas in Psychology, 30 , 1–14.
Sweet, S. N., Fortier, M. S., Strachan, S. M., & Blanchard, C. M. (2012). Testing and integrating self-determination theory and self-efficacy theory in a physical activity context. Canadian Psychology, 53 , 319–327.
Teixeira, P. J., Silva, M. N., Mata, J., Palmeira, A. L., & Markland, D. (2012). Motivation, self-determination, and long-term weight control. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9 , 22.
Unrepresented Nations & Peoples Organization. (2017, September 21). Self-determination. Retrieved August 20, 2021, from https://unpo.org/article/4957
Wade, S. L. (2017). Self-determination theory (SDT): Perspective, applications, and impact. Nova.
Wehmeyer, M. L. (2005). Self-determination and individuals with severe disabilities: Re-examining meanings and misinterpretations. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30 , 113–120.
Wehmeyer, M. L. (2007). Promoting self-determination in students with developmental disabilities. Guildford Press.
Wehmeyer, M. L., & Kelchner, K. (1995). The ARC’s Self-Determination Scale . The ARC of the United States.
Wehmeyer, M. L., Agran, M., & Hughes, C. (2000). A national survey of teachers’ promotion of self-determination and student-directed learning. Journal of Special Education, 34 , 58–68.
Wehmeyer, M. L. & Palmer, S. B. (2003). Adult outcomes for students with cognitive disabilities three years after high school: The impact of self-determination. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38 , 131–144.

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Taking Charge: Stories of Success and Self-Determination

We often hear about the problems young people with disabilities face—physical obstacles, social rejection, academic failure, and medical crises. Yet some people do overcome significant challenges and lead successful lives. What does success mean to them and how do they achieve it? What internal characteristics do these individuals possess and what external factors have been present in their lives? What advice do they have to help young people build personal strengths to overcome the challenges they no doubt will face?

Included in this brochure are insights from successful young people and adults with disabilities associated with DO-IT. These insights may help young people learn to lead self-determined lives. But what is self-determination? There are many definitions to choose from. The following definition is concise and incorporates a number of common themes found in other definitions.

Self-determination is a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior. An understanding of one's strengths and limitations together with a belief in oneself as capable and effective are essential to self-determination. When acting on the basis of these skills and attitudes, individuals have greater ability to take control of their lives and assume the role of successful adults. (Field, S., Martin, J., Miller, R., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer, M., Self-determination for persons with disabilities: A position statement of the division on career development and transition," Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 21(2), 113-128.)

Gaining control over your life involves learning and then successfully applying a number of self-determination skills, such as goal setting, understanding your abilities and disabilities, problem solving, and self-advocacy. The personal process of learning, using, and self-evaluating these skills in a variety of settings is at the heart of self-determination.

The content of this publication is organized around advice synthesized from hundreds of responses of the successful young people and adults with disabilities who contributed to the following topics:

Define success for yourself.

Set personal, academic, and career goals.
Keep your expectations high.
Understand your abilities and disabilities.
Play to your strengths.

Develop strategies to meet your goals.

Use technology as an empowering tool., work hard. persevere. be flexible., develop a support network. look to family, friends, and teachers..

Perhaps young people with disabilities will find the experiences of others useful as they set their course toward successful, self-determined lives.

People define success in many ways. Several successful people with disabilities use these words:

Success is defined by who we are, what we believe in, and what we think it means to be successful. For some it is money; for others it could be relationships, family, jobs, religion, or education. I believe that success is reaching my own personal dreams. I'm not done with my dreams, but know that I have been successful so far because I've worked toward my goals regardless of my disability. – college student who is deaf
Success is possessing the capability for self-determination. Self determination is the ability to decide what I want to do with my life, and then to act on that decision. – high school student who is blind
A successful life is one where I can be actively engaged in creative activities that make a contribution to the lives of others. Success is a kind of by-product and NOT an end in itself! – professor who is blind
To me, having a successful life is being able to do things independently for myself, and not always have someone there to do things for me. It's achieving my goals on my own terms and at my own pace. – high school student with a mobility and orthopedic impairment

Set personal, academic, and career goals. Keep your expectations high.

Below, successful young people and adults share their views about how they set goals and maintain high expectations:

A combination of people and events has helped me maintain high standards. This all started during the summer months when my mother and neighbor friend pushed me to improve my academic skills. At the time, it wasn't high standards that I was working for, but rather escaping embarrassment. For me, I wanted no one to know I had a disability and would have done most anything to hide it. Summer study sessions provided a stepping stone for future success in high school and college. Success builds upon itself. This was my start to expecting to do well in school.
I'm just stubborn and I refuse to lower my expectations. – college student with a mobility and orthopedic impairment
My parents helped me maintain high expectations for myself. They taught me never to say, "I can't," at anything I try. – high school student with cerebral palsy
My mobility teacher made me confident in my ability to learn, which has helped me maintain high expectations. – college student who is blind
My parents expected me to do as well as other students without disabilities, if not better. My parents actively sought help for my hearing impairment in the forms of speech therapists, audiologists, and teachers to make sure that I had an equal chance in public schools. Before choosing a new house, my parents did a lot of research on the local schools. – college student who is deaf
My brother and sister had one single expectation that determined my success: I was not treated differently in any way because I could not see. – computer scientist who is blind
I am still in the process of learning to stretch but I start by identifying what I can already do, what I am comfortable doing and feel good about. Then I say to myself (sometimes in writing) I can do more. I can do better, what is it BEYOND what I already can do that I want to be able to do? Then I write down goals or ideas and make efforts to stretch myself. – adult with hearing and mobility impairments
Very early on, I became the stubborn guy I am today. "Can't" wasn't in my vocabulary, which, of course, was helped by a set of parents who offered me opportunities to do most of the things everyone else did and encouraged me to set very high standards. By now, I do realize that everyone has a path in life that their unique set of talents and lack thereof gives them. I will never be mistaken for an athlete. However, knowing what talents I do have, I press myself to be the best historian, philosopher, and writer that I can be. – college student with a mobility impairment
I set personal, academic, and career goals by knowing where my limits are and working around them. If someone says I can't do something, and I haven't tried it before, that just makes me more determined to prove that someone wrong. If I fail, at least I tried. That's what counts. – college student with mobility impairments
One of the main reasons people do not set high expectations is fear of failure…. Start by having achievable goals that are not long-term. Develop week long, achievable goals that lead to success. Build on each success and make each goal a little higher. Think of it as a metaphorical high jump. You cannot set the bar too high in the beginning or you just set yourself up for failure. – adult with hearing and mobility impairments

Understand your abilities and disabilities. Play to your strengths.

People with disabilities who consider themselves successful generally accept their disabilities as one aspect of who they are, do not define themselves by their disabilities, recognize that they are not responsible for their disabilities, and know that they are not inherently impaired. They recognize their responsibility for their own happiness and future. Below are insights from successful people with disabilities:

My personal opinion about disabilities is that everyone is disabled. It just so happens that there is a certain group whose disabilities are more obvious than others. – high school student with mobility and visual impairments
My parents helped me learn to accept responsibility for myself by treating me the same as my siblings. They gave me the same punishments and chores, and they expected me to do well in school. – high school student with speech, hearing, mobility, and orthopedic impairments
Do not make people feel sorry for you or pity you. Get people to view you as an able person who is capable of anything within your reach if the doors of opportunity are open. – graduate student with a hearing impairment
Clearly disabilities can be obstacles. However, they ought to be focused on as obstacles which problem solving can surmount. Sometimes trade-offs do exist. I once wanted to go into biochemistry, but my lack of fine-motor skills and general distrust of lab partners made me realize that I wanted something I could do on my own—hence, history-philosophy. Perhaps I could have found adaptive technology to help me in biology and chemistry, but I had other loves as well, so I went for them. Admittedly, I rerouted, but for those who are determined to be biochemists and such, most obstacles can be overcome by abilities. – college student with mobility impairment
Focus on the ABILITY in disability more than the dis. If we can do that, then we are more apt to succeed. Also, know your limits. If you don't know what you can or can't do, how do you expect other people to know? Plan for success by using more of the cans than the can'ts. – college student with mobility impairment

Successful people use creative strategies to reach their goals. They look at options and make informed decisions. Successful planning requires that you know your rights and responsibilities and strengths and challenges; set goals; work toward those goals; and use tools and resources available to you. One key skill for success is self-advocacy. Being able to self-advocate requires that a young person become an expert on their disability, know what specific services and help they need, and be able to use strategies to obtain this help and support. One's life should not be defined by the assumptions of others. Insights by successful people with disabilities are shared below.

We don't have to be victims of other people's assumptions. We are only victims if we choose not to take charge of a situation. If you are blind and someone grabs your arm and pushes you across the street and you don't say anything, but would like to, then you are letting the other person force the result of his assumptions on you. If you, on the other hand, either say, "thank you, but I'll be fine," or, "let me take your arm," depending on what you would like to do, then you are taking charge and aren't a victim. – adult who is blind
I could never achieve anything without writing things down. Sometimes I use a calendar, sometimes a blank sheet of paper or my notebook, and sometimes the computer. But without putting my plans on paper, I am not able to get things done. I use a prioritization process. I write out everything that I need to do, including the small things like getting dressed, taking medications, and riding the bus. Then I mark the things that must get done today or tomorrow as opposed to later, and I prioritize in order of importance. The list I make is constantly changing but I get a lot of satisfaction crossing off accomplished steps. It also helps me to break down larger tasks into smaller ones. I make lists, plan how to do the things on the lists, then use the lists to motivate me to get things done. I never leave home without it! – adult with mobility and hearing impairments
The more often I express my needs and preferences, the easier it becomes, and the easier it becomes, the more comfortable I am, and that makes people more comfortable, and on and on and on... and somewhere in the midst of this is the need to be both polite and clear. – adult who is deaf
The way to preempt or erase assumptions is to tell people what you need rather than let them act out what they think you need. It is okay to say what you need help with. I think that is part of being independent. And just by being out and about and going about your normal business you also show people what you don't need help with. – adult who is blind

Being technologically competent has become an avenue to academic and career success. Computer technology is one of the most powerful tools available to individuals with disabilities. Technology, including computers, adaptive technology, and the Internet, can help maximize independence, productivity and participation. It can lead to high levels of success—personally, socially, academically, and professionally. As reported by successful individuals with disabilities:

The computer helps me organize my thoughts. I can read and make improvements with ease. I can check all of my papers for spelling errors before I send them. I am a really BAD speller. – high school student with a learning disability
I use a combination of a palmtop note-taker computer and a desktop computer to write. Without them I'd be lost. – college student with mobility and health impairment
Without computers or the Net I would not be doing many things that I'm doing today. For instance, I am involved in a writing forum on the Net that lets writers talk about writing and share their pieces of literature with each other. Since I want to be a writer this has been very helpful. – high school student with Dyslexia and Attention Deficit Disorder
One of my two or three best friends—maybe best next to my wife—and I met on the Internet, and we are not only friends but close working colleagues. – professor who is blind
Technology is not a nicety; it is a necessity. Get it, learn it, and use it. – college student who is blind

Knowing and valuing yourself, setting goals, and planning help build important foundations, but action is required to make your dreams come true. To take control of your life it is necessary to choose and take appropriate action. Take charge. Move forward. Sometimes students with disabilities need to work harder to achieve the same level of success as their peers. As reported by one student who is blind:

I accepted the fact that I must work harder than other students to get the same grade.

But, learning to work hard has a positive side:

Sometimes I think that all of us with disabilities have an advantage over those who have things come easier to them. Whatever it is we want, we have to want it and then work for it. That necessary desire promotes drive to accomplish, succeed, or achieve. Others around us may be content to float, or do the minimum most of the time, but not us. For us, having what everybody else has is an accomplishment, and having tasted success we want to keep succeeding.

The willingness to take risks is critical to achieving success. As reported by one young person with a mobility impairment:

I keep going when people tell me I can't. I am not afraid to try things and I don't give up. My parents took me everywhere and I did everything like a normal kid. I have a good friend from kindergarten who is able bodied, and she knows me so well that we do all sorts of stuff that people might not think I could do, but we come up with a flexible plan and we do it.

Advice about risk taking from successful people with disabilities includes:

Nothing worthwhile comes without risk. Without risk, success cannot be achieved.
Never give up.
Do not pity yourself for what cards you have been dealt. It happened... now move on.
That moment of insecurity is worth the achievement in the end. It is important to keep that in mind throughout life.

Successful adults with disabilities report that they were supported in youth by opportunities for inclusion, high expectations from adults, disability-related accommodations that de-emphasized their differences, promotion of autonomy, encouragement of friendships, and support from caring adults. On the other hand, their progress was inhibited by segregation, treatment that highlighted their differences, restricted opportunities for independence, social isolation, and social rejection.

Below, successful individuals with disabilities share examples of how they stay actively involved.

I am in my school's band and on our youth leadership team. In the past, I was part of the speech team and student council. I think being a part of clubs has given me confidence and boosted my self-esteem. I enjoy music, and I think it is an awesome feeling to be able to go out and be a part of my school's band to cheer on the sports teams and to contribute to a music concert. – college student who is blind
I have been involved in the drama club at my school. – high school student who uses a wheelchair for mobility
I have been involved in internships. They give me experiences that are needed for jobs. I've also been part of a city hall committee. This will help me know how professional life is. – college student with mobility and health impairment

No one achieves success alone. The comments below provide examples of how successful individuals with disabilities have found, accessed, and used resources to help them achieve success personally, socially, academically, and professionally.

Most of the resources I use I either found through word of mouth (from parents, friends, and others I know), from newsletters, or from the Internet. Sometimes, I find out about something useful by accident, and at other times I ask around or look on the Internet for a specific resource. I often ask others whose opinion I respect for advice, especially when I am making a making a major decision. I subscribe to a few newsletters and magazines that provide information on topics that interest me and keep lists of useful websites on my home page. – Ph.D. candidate who is blind
I ask questions. – high school student with a brain injury
One of my resources is my best friend. When I take her along with me, I can tell that people who don't know me feel comfortable being around me. My friend and I think that there isn't a way that I can't be a part of what she is doing. Being with her is one of the ways I use a natural resource. – high school student with mobility, orthopedic, and speech impairments

This brochure summarizes content that is covered in the DO-IT video series: Taking Charge 1: Three Stories of Success and Self-Determination , Taking Charge 2: Two Stories of Success and Self-Determination , and Taking Charge 3: Five Stories of Success and Self-Determination . An online version may be freely viewed at the DO-IT Videos page, or purchased in DVD format .

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DO-IT (Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology) serves to increase the successful participation of individuals with disabilities in challenging academic programs such as those in science, engineering, mathematics, and technology. Primary funding for DO-IT is provided by the National Science Foundation, the State of Washington, and the U.S. Department of Education. DO-IT is a collaboration of UW Information Technology and the Colleges of Engineering and Education at the University of Washington.

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Acknowledgment

Funding for the creation of this publication was provided by Mitsubishi Electric America Foundation, a nonprofit foundation jointly funded by Mitsubishi Electric Corporation of Japan and its American affiliates with the mission of contributing to a better world for us all by helping young people with disabilities, through technology, maximize their potential and participation in society.

Introduction: ‘Self-Determination’ and Ideas of Freedom

First Online: 02 June 2020

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Rita Augestad Knudsen 2

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This chapter introduces the international language of ‘self-determination’ and explains the two ideas of freedom that have fought over this discourse over the last hundred years: the radical idea of freedom and the liberal-conservative idea of freedom. It fleshes out the anatomy of legitimation that connects these two ideas of freedom with international ‘self-determination’ discourse, and anchors the book disciplinarily in intellectual history and international history. This introductory chapter explains the organisation of the book in terms of ‘moments’ from the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and the selection of the specific historical moments of self-determination.

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Augestad Knudsen, R. (2020). Introduction: ‘Self-Determination’ and Ideas of Freedom. In: The Fight Over Freedom in 20th- and 21st-Century International Discourse. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46429-5_1

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Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act

Motivation, self-determination, and long-term weight control

Pedro j teixeira.

1 Faculty of Human Kinetics, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal

Marlene N Silva

António l palmeira.

2 University Lusófona of Humanities and Technologies, Lisbon, Portugal

David Markland

3 School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Bangor University, UK

This article explores the topics of motivation and self-regulation in the context of weight management and related behaviors. We focus on the role of a qualitative approach to address motivation - not only considering the level but also type of motivation - in weight control and related behaviors. We critically discuss the operationalization of motivation in current weight control programs, present a complementary approach to understanding motivation based on self-determination theory, and review empirical findings from weight control studies that have used self-determination theory measures and assessed their association with weight outcomes. Weight loss studies which used Motivational Interviewing (MI) are also reviewed, considering MI's focus on enhancing internal motivation. We hypothesize that current weight control interventions may have been less successful with weight maintenance in part due to their relative disregard of qualitative dimensions of motivation, such as level of perceived autonomy, often resulting in a motivational disconnect between weight loss and weight-related behaviors. We suggest that if individuals fully endorse weight loss-related behavioral goals and feel not just competent but also autonomous about reaching them, as suggested by self-determination theory, their efforts are more likely to result in long-lasting behavior change.

Introduction

The recent increase in obesity is undoubtedly rooted in powerful environmental changes, which exert constant pressure, or at the least that make it increasingly easy for individuals to lead predominantly sedentary lives and eat high-energy dense foods in excess [ 1 , 2 ]. Under these conditions, and given limited research resources, some may question whether it is justifiable or useful to continue to study psychological and other self-regulatory features of the behaviors involved in weight control, such as motivation, attitudes, goals, and skills around relevant behaviors? While stronger policy measures to halt the "obesity epidemic" (e.g., [ 3 ]) may prove decisive in effectively fighting obesity at a population level, major environmental changes will take time to be implemented and are still in the early stages of effectiveness testing (e.g., [ 4 ]). Meanwhile, overweight and obese persons are living their lives in the present environment and, in one-on-one sessions with health professionals or as part of community or commercial group programs, seek more effective solutions and ask for advice on how to deal with their excess weight [ 5 ]. This is the main rationale to continue studying and improving so-called individual-level interventions. They exist in real life and influence the experiences of a large number of people. Additionally, the potential for these interventions to be effectively translated and implemented in mass scale (e.g., [ 6 - 8 ]) has not yet been fully tested and should not, in our view, be underestimated when considering population behavior change.

Motivation in current weight control programs

Few people, especially those treating or counseling persons with obesity would argue against the importance of motivation as a predictor of treatment success. A lack of motivation leading to poor adherence has been presented as a rationale for including MI in weight control programs [ 9 ] and "internal motivation to lose weight" and "self-motivation" have been identified as predictors of successful weight control in previous review articles [ 10 , 11 ]. Surprisingly, in a recent review of obesity treatments, Powell et al. [ 12 ] concluded that successful lifestyle interventions " used a variety of behavioral techniques to achieve goals, including self-monitoring, modeling, environmental restructuring, as well as group and individual support . (p.242). Motivation is notably absent from this list. State-of-the-art behavioral interventions to reduce overweight or obesity (e.g., [ 13 - 15 ]) also offer limited detail into specific motivational mechanisms selected to influence behavior change. Traditionally, researchers in these trials appeared to have been primarily concerned with increasing and maintaining motivation level . This is reflected in statements such as "(using strategies)... to increase motivation." (p. 742, italics added), or " Sustaining motivation for behavior change is a key focus..." (p.743, italics added) [ 14 ]. Motivation was also expected to decrease for some people, at which time interventions needed to be prepared for "boosting" motivation (level) in participants with adherence issues.

Reducing motivation to its quantitative dimension could be an important limiting factor in current weight loss interventions. For example, very different events (e.g., a practitioner's firm instruction during a consultation, a personal decision after a life-threatening event, etc.) can lead people to initiate the same course of action, such as joining a weight loss program, potentially with no detectable difference in how much they want to lose weight. Similarly, motives such as wanting to lose weight to improve physical attractiveness or reduce body size/shape dissatisfaction may carry different implications during treatment from joining a weight loss program primarily to improve health or to learn how to engage the family in regular physical activity. Moreover, the source and nature of motivation for weight loss could markedly shift during the course of treatment. Although these questions have not been systematically investigated in current weight control interventions, we believe that examining the nature of goals and the quality of motivation behind the desire to lose weight can prove useful at various junctures of the weight management process, beyond considering the amount of a person's motivational impulse. For example, what is the personal meaning (or meanings ) associated with participating in regular exercise, adopting a new dietary regimen, or achieving a reduced body weight? Why do some patients "lose motivation" and others do not, particularly after achieving weight loss and entering maintenance? Why do some participants feel that they have failed (and often abandon their efforts) when, despite having successfully improved their lifestyle and also their health, they did not lose a substantial amount of weight? What makes the difference between self-sustained and less consistent forms of motivation and associated behaviors? Although some authors have begun to differentiate intervention components into those that primarily address motivational facets associated with weight loss and those which target motivational aspects that foster weight loss maintenance [ 16 , 17 ], motivation in the obesity behavior change literature has almost exclusively been described in a one-dimensional, quantitative fashion that typically only focuses on how to achieve the outcome. A more sophisticated examination of the consequences of differences in the quality of motivation could help in understanding successful weight loss and eventually help design more effective interventions [ 18 ].

Autonomous motivation: exploring the why and what of weight control behaviors

Within the context of self-determination theory, the role of personal autonomy in human agency is given primary attention as a characteristic of motivational quality [ 19 , 20 ]. Clearly differentiated from constructs such as independence or self-reliance, autonomy is related to the perceived origin of one's action or its locus of causality [ 21 ]. That is, the extent to which a behavior or course of action is personally endorsed and engaged in with a sense of choice and volition (autonomous motivation), as opposed to being associated with a need to comply or with feelings of pressure and tension, often manifested in expressions like "I should", "I ought to", "I must", etc. In the latter case, motivation is described as being controlled, either by introjects the person has internalized (e.g., anchored in guilt or needed to maintain self-esteem) or by external contingencies such as incentives or expected negative consequences from the behavior [ 19 ].

Whenever individuals embark on a weight loss program, clearly they will have particular goals in mind associated with a reduced weight, whether these are to improve appearance, for health and fitness reasons, or to please others. Self-determination theory distinguishes between the content of goals or aspirations (e.g., social connectedness, personal growth, fame and fortune, physical attractiveness) and different regulatory reasons (to conform, to maintain self-esteem, to have fun) in that behavioral pursuits associated with more extrinsic goals, for instance, projecting an attractive image, tend to be regulated by more controlled reasons [ 22 ]. Conversely, more intrinsic goals (i.e., health, affiliation, personal growth) tend to be directly connected to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs [ 23 ] and are typically regulated by more autonomous forms of motivation [ 24 ]. Indeed, in self-determination theory, the concept of autonomy is central to understanding goal pursuit and why not all goals are created equal [ 25 ]. Autonomy (or self-determination) is understood as an innate and universal human psychological need, along with the needs for competence (effectance) and relatedness (belonging) with others. Feeling autonomous and volitional in one's pursuits, feeling effective and optimally challenged, and feeling meaningfully connected to others are held to have intrinsic value to the self and are essential for well-being and behavioral persistence.

Exploring the degree of autonomy associated with individuals' choices and actions provides a qualitatively sophisticated characterization of motivation, with potentially important implications for understanding and promoting behavior initiation and especially its maintenance. According to self-determination theory, the same behavioral goal (e.g., self-monitoring one's diet or exercise routine) can be enacted according to various regulatory/motivational features, from externally driven (e.g., to avoid criticism from a health professional), to partially internalized (introjected) regulation (e.g., "the people in my weight loss group all keep exercise diaries; I really feel like I should do it too"), all the way to autonomous regulation. (Note: Some authors refer to autonomous regulation as autonomous self-regulation , placing the emphasis on autonomy as a distinctive feature of the regulatory process and differentiated from more traditional views of self-regulation [ 26 ] 1 ). In the case of autonomous regulation, an individual might decide to self-monitor because gathering information on progress has become personally important (identified regulation; e.g., "I have realized that charting my progress helps me stay motivated") or because it is an interesting activity per se (intrinsic motivation; e.g., "I've created my own exercise spreadsheet on the computer and enjoy filling it out after class and calculating how many calories I burned"). The key difference to be noted is the level of "choicefulness" and personal endorsement ("authorship") associated with the course of action, which can be applied to all behaviors associated with weight control. In the words of Ryan and colleagues, it's not only important to address " toward what kind of goals does the counseling or therapy aim " but also " who does the steering " [ 27 ] (p.6).

From a behavior change viewpoint, the internalization process, that is, the assimilation of the behavior into the self and taking responsibility for its regulation has critical functional significance since interventions can be built precisely to foster ownership by the participant of the new behavioral patterns and the development of self-motivated reasons to change, as opposed to fomenting continued reliance on external support, incentives, and/or oversight [ 27 ].

Lasting weight control through the lens of self-determination theory

Promoting self-motivation vs. providing "continuous care".

In their review of obesity interventions, Powell et al. [ 12 ] suggest that "the idea that a lifestyle intervention for obesity should occur for a discrete period of time, terminate, and then have lasting effects over the duration of one's lifetime is outmoded." (p.243), asserting that these interventions are only successful as long as participants are in treatment. They also write that "patients tell us, in a number of ways, that they need ongoing treatment" [ 12 ] (p.243); in fact, a "continuous care" model for treating obesity is widely recommended (e.g. [ 28 ]). Despite the unlikelihood that large numbers of overweight and obese adults can ever be treated and supported for life by trained health care professionals in a cost-effective manner, the latter statement deserves a closer analysis. One possible interpretation is that, from the beginning of treatment, patients have internalized the message that their condition is to be dealt with by procedures and techniques essentially under the responsibility and "steering" of an external expert. If individuals generally expect to be told what to do in order to manage their condition (e.g., simply follow a dietary/exercise prescription or take a medication), this in itself could condition heteronomous (i.e., controlled) motivation from the start and promote an external locus of causality, particularly if therapeutic options are not presented and a clear rationale for each recommendation is not discussed. In contrast, from a self-determination theory perspective, lasting behavior change depends not on complying with external demands for change but rather on accepting the regulation of change as one's own. As stated by Ryan and Deci, " it is integration within personality rather than behavior change per se that is the aim of an SDT-approach ..." [ 21 ] (p.188). This requires internalizing the regulation of relevant behaviors and integrating them with one's sense of self and one's values and goals, so they can become the basis of autonomous regulation. From this perspective, ongoing treatment is clearly not inevitable nor is it desirable. In fact, even if this would be scalable to effectively affect the millions of people struggling with obesity, accepting that regular reinforcements and "booster sessions" are needed for lasting behavior change denotes a clear focus on external regulation of behavior, which is typical of operant conditioning theory and classic behaviorism [ 27 ]. At the very least, one could argue that this focus is clearly not compatible with promoting self-motivation and autonomous regulation [ 19 ]; adopting a more conservative theoretical perspective, obesity researchers and clinicians might ultimately have to decide which approach brings about the best overall outcomes: one focused on continued external incentives or one unequivocally focused on developing self-motivation. Just as one example, financial incentives may promote short-term weight loss but appear ineffective in the long-term [ 29 ].

Reconsidering treatment outcomes

On a related note, the selection of outcomes in obesity treatment may also merit renewed attention. Currently, weight change is the most consistent result reported in weight loss trials and interventions are evaluated, and their relative efficacy compared, largely based on these parameters (e.g., percent weight change from baseline, number of subjects who achieve 5% or 10% weight loss, etc. [ 30 ]). From a self-determination theory perspective, because changes energized by autonomous vs. controlled motivation, including those experienced during weight control, are associated with different psychological consequences [ 25 , 31 ], selected psychological and behavioral outcomes might also have to be routinely considered successful. Two examples are (i) autonomous non-compliance, where a well-informed participant volitionally decides not to partake in behavior change despite professional advice [ 32 ], and (ii) maintenance of physical activity (or a healthful eating pattern) even when the person remains overweight or obese. For instance, in the course of treatment, someone may decide to focus primarily on physical activity (e.g., after experiencing its associated benefits for health and well-being), and be autonomously motivated for that outcome with only a small amount of weight loss, well below the recommended goal. Because in self-determination theory, promoting autonomy is a "non-negotiable" goal, those responsible for conducting obesity treatment programs may consider preserving or increasing participants' autonomy an equivalent outcome to that of weight loss. Indeed, recent evidence suggests that merely preserving (or not thwarting) autonomy may not be sufficient to ensure the development of autonomous motivation in the presence of competence and relatedness need support [ 33 ]. This may require a broader re-evaluation of the importance of psychological and behavioral in addition to biological health outcomes in obesity.

Patients and study participants are not the only ones who may experience pressure about achieving particular outcomes, with consequences for their motivation. If practitioners also feel pressure about achieving certain objective indicators of success, this could color their interactions with patients and inadvertently infringe on patient autonomy. This has previously been observed in tobacco cessation [ 34 ]. As recommended for practitioners in psychotherapeutic care [ 21 ], health professionals in obesity may also benefit from gaining clarity about their own motivations related to treatment, namely the extent to which they may feel controlled by external incentives (e.g., imposed by their health care organizations) or driven by internalized outcome contingencies, such as feeling that their own professional (and/or self-) worth is dependent on their patients' amount of weight loss. For the moment, empirical research is not available to either support or refute this hypothesis in obesity treatment. Nevertheless, having alternative indices of success (besides weight), such as increased self-efficacy and perceived autonomy around weight management, finding personal meaning in being physically active, or displaying a more flexible and positive relation to food and diet, as long as these are accepted as markers of success by participants, could help avoid these treatment traps.

Outcome-focused vs. process-focused treatment

A primary focus on weight - a number on a scale - as the single measure of success, while regarding exercise and diet primarily as a means to an end (weight loss) presents additional problems. First, it may tend to minimize the importance of the process of exercising, becoming physically fit, healthful eating, etc. and its inherent attributes and experiential elements, which could per se undermine behavior change [ 35 ]. Many sports and physical activities can clearly be a great source of enjoyment and provide a source of optimal challenge, to the point of being regulated primarily by intrinsic motivation [ 36 ]. A second limitation around a mostly instrumental view of lifestyle change is that whenever results do not meet initial expectations, take too long, or even because results are achieved, people may find themselves missing a good reason to continue their exercise and/or healthful eating efforts. A focus on fast results may even exacerbate these problems. For instance, more aggressive lifestyle changes (e.g., using a very low calorie diet or a reduced carbohydrate diet) are less likely to be explored for their inherent interest and instead valued only for their results. By contrast, an emphasis on making experiences worthwhile per se is not only clearly centered on the person's preferences but it also does not set inflexible boundaries or contingencies for success or failure. Indeed, there are indications that a dichotomous, all or nothing approach towards weight management as well as a rigid control of eating behavior negatively predict success [ 10 , 37 ]. From a self-determination theory perspective, rigid thinking and rigid behavioral patterns are thought to be maladaptive responses to conditions where basic needs are (or were) not satisfied [ 25 ]. They can provide an illusory sense of control, akin to what is described as introjected behavioral regulation, when preserving self-esteem and avoiding guilt are the primary energizers of behavior. As we will review later in this text, such controlled regulations are typically associated with less stable behavioral patterns[ 38 , 39 ].

Initial motivation

Another problem which could pervade weight control programs has to do with the initial motivation to lose weight on the part of overweight and obese individuals. The current environment seems to encourage extrinsic goals regarding body weight and physical appearance in general [ 40 ]. Not only can implicit social messages lead people, women in particular, to believe that thinness and attractiveness will automatically bring about happiness and well-being but obese people are also discriminated against in critical areas of life such as employment opportunities and health care [ 41 ]. Consequently, it is not surprising that people desire, and actually attempt, to lose weight in such large numbers [ 42 ]. Surprisingly, little research is available detailing motives for initiating a weight loss attempt or the impact of initial motivation on treatment outcomes [ 10 ]. One study in men found that health benefits, appearance, fitness, and well-being were the key reasons (in this order) mentioned for participating in a worksite weight management program [ 43 ], while another study with men and women reported that health (50%), appearance (35%), and improved mood (15%) were the "number one reason" to take part in a weight loss program [ 44 ]. Health (64%) and appearance (36%) were also given as the primary motives to start a "stop binge eating and lose weight program" [ 45 ]. Even considering that some people may not openly admit that body image improvement (i.e., appearance) is a central motive to lose weight, the previous findings suggest that a substantial number of individuals who attempt to lose weight have partially internalized pressuring forces and social constraints that value thinness above fatness. As noted above, self-determination theory researchers have proposed that some goals are considered extrinsic because meeting them is less fulfilling of basic psychological needs [ 25 ]. Aiming at social acceptance and status through physical appearance, or relying on motives associated with protecting self-worth and self-esteem (e.g., avoiding social discrimination) are unlikely to promote autonomous forms of motivation [ 24 ].

Beyond "behavior change"

Besides addressing how behaviors are regulated and integrated, self-determination theory is also concerned with human thriving, personal growth, and with the quality of (and vitality in) individuals' daily experiences [ 25 ]. Could there be a place in lifestyle change interventions to create the conditions for patients to strive for (intrinsic) goals beyond physical and mental health improvement, through behaviors such as cooking/eating, playing sports, or exercising? Could the internalization process in obesity behavioral treatment also be seen as the starting point for active self-actualization, for instance through learning new abilities and routines (e.g., becoming the cook of the house), relating to one's body in ways previously unknown (e.g., using dance as a form of personal and creative expression), contributing to one's community (e.g., by teaching others to be active and/or eat more healthfully), integrating new personal identities (e.g., becoming "a runner", who for the first time finishes a competitive popular race), or relating more closely to the natural world (e.g., in daily walks/runs in the local park or riverside path)? If autonomy and competence are recognized as human psychological nutriments at the most essential level, and if interventions are explicitly built to promote the fulfillment of those needs, then there is the possibility that individuals will thrive in that environment and reach a level of personal change beyond what is currently meant by "behavior modification". For instance, transference or spill-over effects in motivation and self-regulation from one behavioral domain to others are compatible with the principles of self-determination theory [ 46 ] and appear valid in its practice [ 47 ].

Whether long-lasting changes in eating and physical activity (and consequently in body weight) can in the future be reliably traced back to deeper personal transformative experiences is unknown [ 48 ]. Meanwhile, studies in the area of exercise and physical activity clearly show that perceived need support and autonomous forms of motivation are consistent predictors of behavior adoption and, in some cases, also maintenance [ 49 , 50 ]. The close association between regular exercise and long-term weight control [ 51 ] at least suggests that a similar pattern of associations could be observed more broadly in weight control. We review those data in the following section.

Studies on autonomous motivation and weight control

Only a handful of studies have tested autonomy or other self-determination theory-related motivation variables as predictors of outcomes in the context of weight control interventions. Williams and colleagues [ 52 ] studied severely obese patients in the context of a 6-month medically-supervised very-low-calorie diet, where participants also received weekly group counseling intended to provide peer support, facilitate discussion, promote self-monitoring, etc. Perceived autonomy support and autonomous regulation were assessed immediately after the intervention and analyzed as predictors of exercise and weight loss. Results showed that perceived autonomy support predicted autonomous reasons to continue to participate in treatment, which in turn predicted higher attendance and improved weight loss. Path analysis supported these same mediation paths for outcomes at treatment end. Autonomous motivation at 6 months also correlated with self-reported exercise and weight loss at a 20-month follow-up [ 52 ]. Unfortunately, and despite the enormous growth in obesity studies in the recent 10-15 years [ 53 ], these encouraging findings did not spur immediate interest to "motivate" further research on the role of autonomous regulation in weight control.

More recently, a randomized controlled trial was implemented to address the role of autonomous motivation in weight control, focusing on physical activity behaviors as well as on motivation for physical activity and exercise as putative mediating agents for long-term weight management, in premenopausal overweight and mildly obese women - the PESO study [ 54 , 55 ]. This intervention was found effective in changing perceived need support, need satisfaction, and autonomous regulation and intrinsic motivation for exercise, and also self-reported exercise and physical activity [ 54 ]. Subsequent analyses investigated the extent to which the hypothesized causal paths predicted exercise and weight outcomes immediately after the 1-year intervention and also at the 2- and 3-year follow-up assessments. One-year results supported a mediation effect of perceived need support and satisfaction of autonomy and competence needs for developing identified and intrinsic regulations for exercise. Autonomous exercise motivation was shown to mediate the effects of competence and autonomy on moderate and vigorous physical activity [ 54 ], a novel finding in overweight individuals. Exercise intrinsic motivation was a strong predictor of behavior change. In a subsequent study, three-year results confirmed the self-determination theory process model, showing that intervention-related changes in exercise autonomous regulation predicted 2-year self-reported moderate exercise and also 3-year weight control [ 39 ]. Figure Figure1 1 shows the structural model tested with parameter estimates and Figure Figure2 2 shows average weight changes at 3 years as a function of level autonomous exercise regulation 1 year after the intervention.

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Structural equation model (n = 135) for physical activity and weight change based on a self-determination theory-based 1-year weight control program . Values in the paths represent the standardized bootstrap estimate for direct effects, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 [ 39 ].

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Three-year weight change by tertile-split groups of exercise autonomous motivation, in initially overweight premenopausal women (n = 149) . Between-groups differences in weight change (ANOVA) observed at 12 (p = 0.065), 24 (p < 0.001) and 36 months (p = 0.005). Autonomous motivation includes the identified regulation and intrinsic motivation subscales of the Exercise Self-Regulation Questionnaire. Values used for tertile-split groups were calculated at 24 months, including all subjects (intervention and control groups collapsed), adjusting for experimental group membership (see reference 39 for more details).

Within the same trial, an empirical test of a more diverse set of psychological and behavioral variables potentially associated with weight control showed that change in exercise motivation variables during the 12-month program (i.e., self-efficacy, perceived barriers, and intrinsic motivation) were significantly correlated with 2-year weight change [ 37 ]. A similar study had been conducted in US women who participated in a 4-month behavior weight control trial [ 56 ]. In post-hoc analyses, change in exercise intrinsic motivation was found to be the best predictor of 16-month weight changes, before and after weight loss during the 4-month program was controlled for in the model.

Also in the PESO study, Mata and colleagues analyzed whether global self-determination, motivation for staying in the trial, and exercise motivational regulations predicted successful eating self-regulation and mediated the association between actual physical activity and eating behavior [ 47 ]. Results were consistent with the a priori hypotheses and with the hierarchical model of motivation [ 57 ], suggesting that the quality of motivation could be one mechanism through which successful self-regulation in one area may spill-over into other behavioral domains. These findings could help explain how autonomously-motivated exercise behavior contributes to improved weight control; not only via the effects of physical activity itself, but also positively influencing the regulation of other relevant behaviors such as eating [ 58 ].

To our knowledge, only one study tested the association of eating self-regulation, investigated from a self-determination theory perspective (i.e., autonomous eating regulation) with changes in body weight [ 59 ]. Path analysis showed significant links between global motivation, self-determined motivation for healthful eating, actual dietary measures, and body weight. These findings are in line with the generalization of exercise motivation research findings to the regulation of eating behavior as described above [ 47 ]. They also support the hierarchical model of motivation from global down to eating-specific motivational regulation (top-down process). Although they did not measure weight control, Hagger et al., studied the association between perceived locus of causality for dieting and exercising, and intention and behavior in a cross-sectional sample of college students [ 60 ]. They found that autonomy predicted exercise intentions and behavior but it did not predict dieting behavior. Dieting behavior was assessed with a 2-item instrument, which could be an important limiting factor.

Finally, Gorin and colleagues (2008) investigated whether baseline levels of autonomous and controlled regulations and changes in regulations over 6 months were associated with 6-month weight outcomes in overweight women [ 61 ]. They found that higher controlled regulation at baseline was associated with less weight loss and that an increase in autonomous regulation and a decrease in controlled regulation over the 6-month period predicted more weight loss. A still ongoing study from the same team so far shows that autonomy support provided by other adults in the home environment leads to more autonomous regulation for weight control which in turn predicts larger weight loss (see [ 18 ]).

In summary, the available research linking self-determined motivation to weight control indicates a positive association between feelings of autonomy regarding healthful eating and especially physical exercise, and improved weight loss in the short and long-term. Some findings have highlighted a potential causal path from autonomy and autonomous motivation of behavior change for exercise and eating behavior, leading to improved weight control [ 39 , 47 , 52 ]. In addition to the perceived locus of causality and degree of autonomous regulation, evaluating exercise as intrinsically rewarding, interesting, and a source of enjoyment, as well as feeling confident towards implementing it also predicted successful weight control in other studies [ 37 , 56 ]. Conversely, in the studies reviewed above, no indication emerged that external and introjected regulation regarding exercise (or eating) is conducive to improved weight control, particularly in the long-term, despite the fact that interventions may induce increases in autonomous as well as in introjected regulations (e.g. [ 54 ]).

Motivational Interviewing and weight loss programs

As discussed extensively elsewhere [ 62 , 63 ], MI and self-determination theory can be seen as complementary approaches to understanding behavior change and informing health-related interventions. MI is defined as a method of strengthening personal motivation for change [ 64 ]. Optimally implemented, one would expect MI to enhance individuals' autonomous motivation for change [ 65 , 66 ] (see also [ 63 ]). Thus research showing that MI interventions are effective in promoting healthy weight control could provide indirect evidence for the importance of autonomous motivation for successful behavior change. From our perspective then, with an emphasis on the need to promote autonomous motivation for change, it is encouraging that recently there have been a growing number of studies that have evaluated the effectiveness of MI in weight control programs. Although only two of the existing MI weight control studies have explicitly utilized self-determination theory as a theoretical framework [ 67 , 68 ], in most cases the authors explicitly state that MI was employed in recognition that the facilitation of internal or self-generated motivation for change is vital for sustained behavior change [ 9 , 69 - 72 ].

Studies have typically used MI as an adjunct to behavioral treatments or to standard care approaches (e.g., education on physical activity and diet) and the focus has been on weight control as the primary outcome variable. The results of this research are somewhat mixed. Five studies found an advantage for MI over comparison or control conditions [ 71 - 74 ]. Interestingly, Carels et al. [ 73 ] speculated that the observed weight loss benefits for an MI condition in their study could have been due to an increase in intrinsic motivation for behavior change. Unfortunately, motivation was not assessed in this study. One study found an advantage only for high attenders receiving a high intensity MI intervention [ 69 ]. Pollak and colleagues [ 75 ] found that physicians' use of MI-consistent techniques with overweight and obese patients predicted weight loss at three months whereas patients of physicians who used MI-inconsistent techniques gained or maintained weight.

Other studies have failed to show significant additional weight loss benefits for supplementing behavioral treatments with MI or in comparisons of MI with other interventions or control conditions [ 9 , 70 , 76 - 79 ]. However, in these studies the number of MI sessions was generally fewer than those with more positive outcomes. Furthermore, a number of studies have found advantages for MI in terms of weight-related outcomes other than weight loss, including physical activity [ 72 , 73 ], dietary behaviors [ 77 ], eating concerns and unrestrained eating [ 74 ], program adherence and glycemic control among type II diabetics [ 71 , 76 ], and a reduction in CHD risk factors [ 72 ]. Overall the evidence is at least suggestive that MI can be useful in weight control interventions but it remains unclear just how effective it is, and the extent to which it is effective in different populations [ 80 ].

Relatively few MI studies in weight control have included measures of motivation or considered motivation per se, and autonomous motivation in particular, as a desirable outcome to target or as a predictor or mediator of change. It is understandable that researchers should in the first instance be primarily interested in establishing treatment efficacy. Nevertheless, given the aforementioned explicit acknowledgement in many of the studies that the facilitation of internally-generated motivation for change is important for successful weight control, such studies offer an excellent opportunity to examine the motivational mechanisms underpinning successful, or indeed unsuccessful outcomes.

A number of well-validated instruments are available for assessing self-determination theory constructs which are suitable or adaptable for weight control contexts, including measures of perceived support for autonomy and the other psychological needs, satisfaction of psychological needs, and measures of autonomous and controlled regulation of behavior. Incorporating such measures in weight control interventions, and not just MI interventions, could help determine whether in comparison to control conditions (a) the intervention is perceived by participants as autonomy-supportive rather than controlling; (b) the intervention does lead to more autonomous motivation for engaging in adaptive weight control behaviors; and (c) enhancing autonomous motivation leads to greater adherence to adaptive behaviors and ultimately greater weight loss and maintenance. Adopting such measures could also help elucidate situations where interventions are found to be non-optimal or ineffective in producing desirable weight loss outcomes, for example by showing that the intervention led to more controlled rather than more autonomous motivation for change. For MI researchers in particular, even if they are not interested in self-determination theory per se, the use of such measures could provide support for the contention that MI is effective insofar as it promotes internal motivation for change and avoids externally coerced motivation.

Four studies so far have assessed autonomous motivation in MI interventions for weight loss (discussed below). All four used the Treatment Self-regulation Questionnaire (TRSQ: [ 52 ]) and they illustrate the usefulness of tassessing autonomous motivation in understanding intervention outcomes. In an intervention for weight loss among obese African American women, Befort et al. [ 9 ], compared a 16-week behavioral program with the addition of four sessions of MI with the same program with four sessions of didactic health education. Weight, dietary intake, physical activity, program adherence, and self-efficacy for diet and exercise were assessed, along with autonomous motivation. There was significant weight loss and improvements in diet in both groups but no differences between the two conditions, neither in autonomous motivation, self-efficacy, or program adherence. Furthermore and unexpectedly, autonomous motivation and exercise self-efficacy were significantly reduced in both groups, although post hoc analyses showed that higher motivation and self-efficacy at baseline were associated with greater decreases in motivation and self-efficacy. The authors proposed that the latter finding suggests that participants may have had unrealistic efficacy expectations and motivation at baseline.

Webber et al., [ 78 ] also assessed autonomous motivation in an 8-week internet-based intervention comparing MI with MI plus a discussion of values. Results showed a significant decrease in weight but no difference between groups. Autonomous motivation increased in both groups and, importantly, higher autonomous motivation at follow-up was associated with greater weight loss. Furthermore, the average number of self-motivating statements (change talk), expressed by participants during MI was correlated with an increase in autonomous motivation. An increase in change talk is considered the key 'active ingredient' in MI [ 64 , 81 ]. Thus, this study provides some evidence that MI can impact upon behavior change and weight outcomes by promoting autonomy.

Webber et al. [ 67 ] adopted SDT as a theoretical framework in comparing a standard internet-based weight loss program with a MI-based internet intervention among overweight or obese women, and assessed both autonomous and controlled motivation for weight loss. Although there was significant weight loss over 16 weeks, there was no difference between groups. However, examination of predictors of weight loss showed that treatment condition moderated the effect of baseline controlled motivation on weight loss. While low baseline controlled motivation was negatively associated with weight loss, moderation analysis revealed that individuals with high baseline controlled motivation lost less than 1 kg of body weight if they were assigned to the standard treatment group or 4.6 kg if they were assigned to a MI treatment group. Therefore, the MI-based intervention appeared to have buffered the negative effects of initial controlled motivation. This was confirmed by the similar weight loss results obtained among the individuals in the treatment group, whether they presented with high or low baseline controlled motivation. A different report from the same intervention has shown that motivational changes obtained during the first 4 weeks of treatment were associated with 16-week weight loss [ 67 ]. An increase in motivation, both autonomous and controlled, was observed during the 4 weeks. However, only individuals who obtained 5% weight loss or more at 16 weeks maintained the level of autonomous motivation throughout the treatment. The authors reported that the maintenance of autonomous motivation level was a possible mechanism by which the intervention might have affected adherence (measured by self-monitoring) and weight reduction.

West et al. [ 68 ], drawing partly on SDT as a theoretical framework, compared the effects of a novel motivation-focused approach, including an autonomy-promoting component based on MI, with a traditional skill-based approach on weight loss maintenance among overweight women. All participants underwent a six-month behavioral treatment program before being randomized to treatment conditions and followed for a further twelve months. The treatment conditions produced comparable sustained weight losses and both groups lost significantly more weight than controls. Participants in the motivational intervention group had significantly greater autonomous motivation for weight control than the skills-based group at the mid-point of the maintenance period, although the effect size was small. The authors suggested that motivational-based interventions are an effective alternative to available skill-based programs, and that future studies should investigate whether some women prefer one approach over the other [ 68 ].

A notable positive feature of the research on MI in weight control is that in most studies those delivering the interventions have been formally trained in MI and in the majority treatment fidelity checks have been conducted. On the other hand, the studies have tended to adopt or adapt selected discrete strategies from MI, combining them with alternative behavioral treatments, and the reports are often vague as to exactly how the interventions were implemented. In some studies, MI has been used principally to facilitate adherence to the behavioral treatments they have accompanied, or to enhance the efficacy of those treatments, rather than to promote autonomous motivation for engaging in a healthier lifestyle [ 9 , 74 ]. The potential problems with combining MI with other treatment approaches are lucidly discussed elsewhere [ 63 ] and we will not dwell on them here. Suffice it to say that reducing MI to a set of clinical techniques that are merely adjunctive to other treatments, or incorporating them into behavioral treatments that primarily emphasize outcomes (e.g., weight loss) that might themselves undermine autonomous motivation, carry the risk that any lasting benefits of MI may be reduced or eliminated.

Summary and conclusions

In this article, we aimed to explore the topics of motivation and self-regulation from the viewpoint of self-determination theory, in the context of weight management and related behaviors. By doing so, we have offered a somewhat different perspective in the ongoing discussion around promoting sustained behavior changes in the broader literature, which represents one of the most difficult challenges facing health care professionals, behavioral scientists, and the individuals who struggle to make lifestyle change and manage their weight. Specifically, we aimed to i) critically address how motivation is viewed by current weight loss programs (whether explicitly or implicitly) and how that has translated into behavior change interventions and practices aiming at self-regulation, ii) present a complementary approach to understanding (self-) motivation for health behavior based on self-determination theory - including a consideration of autonomy in behavioral self-regulation, by analyzing the degree to which goals in obesity interventions are linked with the satisfaction of people's basic psychological needs, and more explicitly focusing on the process of behavior change relative to its (immediate) outcomes; iii) review empirical findings from weight control studies which have used measures of autonomy and/or the quality of motivation and analyze their association with weight outcomes, and iv) review studies that have evaluated MI in weight control programs. It was our premise that a consideration of qualitative dimensions of motivation is essential in helping individuals to be more successful in their efforts to achieve their goals, such as adopting physical activity or losing weight.

In weight control, as in other areas of behavioral medicine, we suggest that only to the degree to which individuals fully endorse behavioral goals and to the extent that the goals facilitate satisfaction of the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness will their efforts be more likely to result in behavioral change that is effectively maintained. Most interventions have thus far focused mainly on the "skills" or more functional aspects of behavior change (e.g., self-monitoring, problem-solving, contingency management) and may have relied too heavily on influencing people's cognitions, such as expectations about the immediate outcomes of their choices. In doing so, interventions may have commonly ignored important elements associated with the process involved in adopting new behaviors (e.g., developing genuine interest in exercise and physical activity or personal meaning in changing one's diet for good) and bypassed, or even undermined, what is necessary for effective and lasting internalization of new behaviors: curricula which explicitly support the development of autonomy (or "ownership") over the newly adopted behavioral patterns. As a consequence, participants and patients often appear dependent on actual weight loss for continuing to invest energy into treatment and/or they indicate that they need continuous support from health professionals. That is, the "whats" and "whys" of losing weight have been limited to extrinsic and mostly superficial aspects such as compliance with prescriptions, weight-contingent improvements in self-esteem, physical attractiveness, or the immediate gratification of a changing number on the scale. Moreover, goals have often been set out by health professionals, or indirectly promoted by society, but perhaps never entirely "validated" by (i.e., internalized into) the person's deeper sets of values and aspirations, with negative consequences for long-term self-regulation.

More promising, however, is the growth in studies employing self-determination theory-based interventions and/or MI in weight control programs. There are also exercise and eating behavior studies (see [ 82 , 83 ]), in some cases with overweight/obese participants, which have employed and/or tested the principles of self-determination theory for behavior change, with the aim of overcoming the traditional approach to motivation previously described. Generally, these studies have been supportive of the role of perceived autonomy and autonomous regulation in long-term behavior change. As to MI, the rationale for using it has often been that it has been shown to be effective in other behavioral domains. However, most researchers conducting these studies have also explicitly or implicitly acknowledged that motivation for change must come from within the individual [ 84 ]. Unfortunately, few of the studies have attempted to elucidate the mechanisms by which MI might exert its effects, or determine whether their interventions have actually promoted self-motivation. Future research in this area would benefit from drawing on self-determination theory to explore the motivational processes that mediate the effects of MI on successful treatment outcomes, including autonomous motivation and satisfaction of psychological needs [ 65 ]. A sounder understanding of these processes could allow us to refine and maximise the impact of MI interventions for weight control.

In conclusion, the current evidence is compatible with the notion that autonomous regulation is among the key predictors of successful weight outcomes. However, intervention research with obese individuals is still in the early stages. Meanwhile, the more abundant evidence for the role of autonomous and intrinsic motivation in exercise and physical activity adherence and studies that have analyzed autonomous eating self-regulation (both reviewed elsewhere [ 83 ], Teixeira PJ, Carraça EV, Markland D, Ryan RM: Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review . submitted) must serve as positive indicators, considering the fundamental role of these behaviors in weight management. More and better studies using MI in overweight/obese persons are also expected in the near future, to provide the needed experimental evidence that will definitively further our understanding of the role of motivation, and self-motivation, in long-term weight control.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

PJT led the writing of the manuscript and drafted the first version. DM led the writing of the section on Motivational Interviewing and revised the entire manuscript. JM, MNS, and ALP revised the entire text and made substantial contributions to subsequent versions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Geoffey Williams, Heather Patrick, and Maarten Vansteenkiste for their insightful comments and suggestions to earlier drafts of the manuscript.

Footnote 1 : From a self-determination theory perspective, autonomous regulation is by definition a process which is well-internalized into the self (as defined by this theory) and thus it emerges from the self. Consequently, "autonomous self-regulation" might be seen as a pleonasm and "controlled self-regulation" a contradiction because to be fully autonomous, a regulation "must be" self- regulation. To avoid confusion, in this paper we adopted the expressions of autonomous and controlled regulations.

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Self-determination

Relevant Articles:

Articles 3, 4 and 5.

Self-determination is the central right of the Declaration. All other rights support Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ exercise of self-determination. All Indigenous peoples have this right.

Self-determination can mean different things to different groups of people. At its core, self-determination ‘is concerned with the fundamental right of people to shape their own lives’. In a practical sense, self-determination means that we have the freedom to live well, to determine what it means to live well according to our own values and beliefs.

In recognising that Indigenous peoples have this right, governments are required to recognise our collective/group identities such as our nations, language groups, clans, family alliances or communities.

Self-determination means that:

We have choice in determining how our lives are governed and our development paths.
We participate in decisions that affect our lives. This includes a right to formal recognition of our group identities.
We have control over our lives and future including our economic, social and cultural development.

Our citizenship rights and our Indigenous rights cannot be separated. We cannot have one without the other. Professor Lowitja O’Donoghue

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner conducted a survey of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s perspectives on the Declaration in 2012. Participants in the survey identified the following examples of how self-determination can be exercised:

through our own representative bodies
through our own schools, justice systems, health systems
by having control over our lives
by being able to participate in decisions that affect us
through being subject to our own laws
by establishing our own government
by establishing our own sovereign state.

Learn about the 4 UNDRIP principles

Participation in decision-Making
Respect for and protection of culture
Equality and non-discrimination

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Self-Determination: Definition, Theory, & Examples
A Definition. The psychologists who developed self-determination theory defined self-determination as follows: "Self‐determination means acting with a sense of choice, volition, and commitment, and it is based in intrinsic motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation" (Deci & Ryan, 2010). Read on to learn more about the theory behind ...
Self-Determination Theory Of Motivation
The term self-determination refers to a person's own ability to manage themselves, to make confident choices, and to think on their own (Deci, 1971). Self-determination is a macro theory of human motivation and personality. It is a theory that deals with two huge factors: people's inherent growth tendencies and the innate psychological ...
Self-Determination Theory: How It Explains Motivation
The first assumption of self-determination theory is that people are actively directed toward growth. Gaining mastery over challenges and taking in new experiences are essential for developing a cohesive sense of self . Autonomous motivation is important. While people are often motivated to act by external rewards such as money, prizes, and ...
The Role of Self-Determination in Well-Being
Self-determination theory states that humans have three psychological needs for optimal well-being and performance: relatedness, competence, and autonomy. When someone feels related to others ...
Self Determination Theory and How It Explains Motivation
Deci and Ryan's Self-Determination Theory (SDT) identifies autonomy, relatedness, and competence as crucial elements of human motivation. ... The PCS is a short questionnaire that measures perceived competence in a specific behavior or area. It is only 4 items long, and it is intended to be adapted for the specific behavior or area being ...
21 Self-Determination Skills and Activities to Utilize Today
According to Wehmeyer, Agran, and Hughes (2000), the component skills of self-determined behavior include the following: 1. Choice-making skills. Choice making is an individual's ability to express their preference between two or more options (Wehmeyer, 2005) and exert control over their actions and environment. 2.
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination
This short essay is confined to a discussion of attempts to define this elusive phrase in legal terms, through international treaties and other texts. Those looking for "the" definition of self-determination will be disappointed, for many of the texts are deliberately ambiguous or even contradictory.
Self-determination
self-determination, the process by which a group of people, usually possessing a certain degree of national consciousness, form their own state and choose their own government.As a political principle, the idea of self-determination evolved at first as a by-product of the doctrine of nationalism, to which early expression was given by the French and American revolutions.
Self Determination Theory
Self determination theory proposes that humans have three fundamental needs that must be satisfied in the social context. The first need is to feel autonomous in performing an activity. Autonomy involves being volitional and acting in such a way as to represent your integrated sense of self (Deci and Ryan, 2000).
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination
Introduction / Definition. At its most basic, the principle of self-determination can be defined as a community's right to choose its political destiny. This can include choices regarding the exercise of sovereignty and independent external relations (external self-determination) or it can refer to the selection of forms of government (internal ...
(PDF) Self-Determination Theory
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a broad theory. of human personality and motivation concerned. with how the individual interacts with and. depends on the social environment. SDT de ﬁ nes ...
PDF Self-Determination Across the Life Span
Self-Determination Projects 707 Southwest Gaines P.O. Box 7150 Portland, OR 97207 Colorado Springs, CO 80933-7150 Claudia Rein James E. Martin, Ph.D. Research Associate Professor Hood Center University of Colorado at Colorado Dartmouth Medical School
PDF ESSAY THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT AND SELF- DETERMINATION
Seth Davis†. Slavery in the American South was a system of government that denied self-determination to Black communities. The Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution promised that "[n]either slavery nor involuntary servitude . . . shall exist within the United States."1 Today, Black communities and other subordinated communities ...
Taking Charge: Stories of Success and Self-Determination
Success is possessing the capability for self-determination. Self determination is the ability to decide what I want to do with my life, and then to act on that decision. -high school student who is blind; A successful life is one where I can be actively engaged in creative activities that make a contribution to the lives of others.
Essay on Determination
Essay on Determination. Some people believe that talent and a winning attitude are all you need in order to succeed in your endeavors, but a winning attitude means having determination, which many people lack. As seen on wisdomforthesoul.org, "Real leaders are ordinary people with extraordinary determination.".
Essay On Self Determination
Essay On Self Determination. 911 Words4 Pages. The one thing people from all walks of life have in common is the ability to dream. There is no right or wrong dream, some people might dream of being a movie star, and other people might dream of being a champion boxer. A person might wonder, if everybody has goals why have more people not ...
Introduction: 'Self-Determination' and Ideas of Freedom
Abstract. This chapter introduces the international language of 'self-determination' and explains the two ideas of freedom that have fought over this discourse over the last hundred years: the radical idea of freedom and the liberal-conservative idea of freedom. It fleshes out the anatomy of legitimation that connects these two ideas of ...
DECOLONIZATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION
While self-determination is a cardinal principle of international law, its meaning is often obscure. Yet international law clearly recognizes decolonization as a central application of the principle. Most ordinary people also agree that the liberation of colonial peoples was a moral triumph. This essay examines three philosophical theories of ...
Motivation, self-determination, and long-term weight control
Autonomous motivation: exploring the why and what of weight control behaviors. Within the context of self-determination theory, the role of personal autonomy in human agency is given primary attention as a characteristic of motivational quality [19,20].Clearly differentiated from constructs such as independence or self-reliance, autonomy is related to the perceived origin of one's action or ...
Self-determination
v. t. e. Self-determination [1] refers to a people 's right to form its own political entity, and internal self-determination is the right to representative government with full suffrage. [2] [3] Self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law, binding, as such, on the United Nations as an authoritative interpretation of ...
National Self-Determination: Dilemmas of a Concept
This article deals with the principle of national self-determination, its historical roots, interpretations, dilemmas, contradictions and double standards. An attempt is made to divide the concept into its analytical components and to demonstrate that the words 'national', 'self and 'determination' mean different things to different ...
Self-determination
Self-determination means that: We have choice in determining how our lives are governed and our development paths. We participate in decisions that affect our lives. This includes a right to formal recognition of our group identities. We have control over our lives and future including our economic, social and cultural development.
Short Essay On Self Determination
1084Orders prepared. Short Essay On Self Determination, Essay International Student 20, How To Write An Analitical Essay, Completed Thesis In Civil Engineering, Popular School Essay Proofreading Website Usa, Critiquing A Qualitative Nursing Research Article Essay, Cbse 10 Topic Sumner Homework. ID 19300.

Self-Determination Theory: How It Explains Motivation

Key Takeaways

What is Self-Determination?

Theoretical Assumptions

Basic Needs

Competence (need to be effective in dealing with the environment)

Relatedness (need to have close, affectionate relationships)

Autonomy (need to feel self-governing and independent)

In the Classroom

In the Workplace

In Competition

In a Social Setting

How to Improve Self-Determination

Further Reading

Which psychological need in the self-determination theory (sdt) is described as the basic need to feel effective and capable in one’s actions?

According to self-determination theory, people’s behavior and well-being are influenced by what three innate needs?

What is self-determination?

What Is Self-Determination Theory?

Assumptions of Self-Determination

Components of Self-Determination

Press Play for Advice On Setting Goals

How Self-Determination Theory Works

Example of Self-Determination

Self-Determined vs. Non-Self-Determined Behaviors

Impact of Self-Determination

In the Workplace

In Competition

In Social Settings

In School Settings

Traits of Self-Determined People

How to Improve Your Self-Determination

Improve Your Self-Awareness

Engage in Self-Regulation

Find Social Support

Gain Mastery

A Word From Verywell

The Role of Self-Determination in Well-Being

What Self-Determination Is

Self-Determination Examples

Principles of Self-Determination

How Self-Determination May Affect Well-Being

21 Self-Determination Skills and Activities to Utilize Today

This Article Contains:

Download 3 Free Goals Exercises (PDF)

Download 3 Free Goals Pack (PDF)

Why is self-determination so important?

Is self-determined behavior always ‘successful’ behavior?

What are the primary assumptions of self-determination?

What techniques are used in self-determination interventions?

Are self-determination and self-efficacy the same?

1. Choice-making skills

2. Decision-making skills

3. Problem-solving skills

4. Goal-setting and attainment skills

5. Self-regulation skills (including self-observation, evaluation, and reinforcement)

6. Self-advocacy skills

7. Positive self-efficacy (including an internal locus of control)

8. Self-awareness skills

1. The Basic Needs Satisfaction in General Scale (BNSG-S; Gagné, 2003)

2. AIR Self-Determination Assessments

3. The ARC Self-Determination Scale (Wehmeyer & Kelchner, 1995)

World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource

1. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

2. Self-Determination Theory in the Clinic (Sheldon, Williams, & Joiner, 2003)

3. Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness (Ryan & Deci, 2018)

4. Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Perspective, Applications, and Impact (Wade, 2017)

5. The Handbook of Self-Determination Research (Deci & Ryan, 2004)

6. The Oxford Handbook of Work Motivation, Engagement, and Self-Determination Theory (Gagné, 2014)

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