ancient greek architecture essay

Introduction to ancient Greek architecture

The Erechtheion , 421–405 B.C.E. (Classical Greek), Acropolis, Athens (photo: Steven Zucker , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

For most of us, architecture is easy to take for granted. It’s everywhere in our daily lives—sometimes elegant, other times shabby, but generally ubiquitous. How often do we stop to examine and contemplate its form and style? Stopping for that contemplation offers not only the opportunity to understand one’s daily surroundings but also to appreciate the connection that exists between architectural forms in our own time and those from the past. Architectural tradition and design have the ability to link disparate cultures together over time and space—and this is certainly true of the legacy of architectural forms created by the ancient Greeks .

Ancient Greek world map (underlying map © Google)

Where and when

Greek architecture refers to the architecture of the Greek-speaking peoples who inhabited the Greek mainland and the Peloponnese, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Greek colonies in Ionia (coastal Asia Minor), and Magna Graecia (Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily).

Greek architecture stretches from c. 900 B.C.E. to the first century C.E., with the earliest extant stone architecture dating to the seventh century B.C.E.

Greek architecture influenced Roman architecture and architects in profound ways, such that Roman Imperial architecture adopts and incorporates many Greek elements into its own practice. An overview of basic building typologies demonstrates the range and diversity of Greek architecture.

“Hera II,” c. 460 B.C.E., 24.26 x 59.98 m, Greek, Doric temple from the classical period likely dedicated to Hera, Paestum (Latin) previously Poseidonia (photo: Steven Zucker , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The most recognizably “Greek” structure is the temple (even though the architecture of Greek temples is actually quite diverse). The Greeks referred to temples with the term ὁ ναός ( ho naós ), meaning “dwelling,” temple derives from the Latin term, templum . The earliest shrines were built to honor divinities and were made from materials such as wood and mud brick—materials that typically don’t survive very long. The basic form of the naos  (the interior room that held the cult statue of the God or Gods) emerges as early as the tenth century B.C.E. as a simple, rectangular room with projecting walls ( antae ) that created a shallow porch. This basic form remained unchanged in its concept for centuries. In the eighth century B.C.E., Greek architecture begins to make the move from ephemeral materials (wood, mud brick, thatch) to permanent materials (namely, stone).

The Greek Architectural Orders

During the Archaic period , the tenets of the Doric order of architecture in the Greek mainland became firmly established, leading to a wave of monumental temple building during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. Greek city-states invested substantial resources in temple building—as they competed with each other not just in strategic and economic terms, but also in their architecture. For example, Athens devoted enormous resources to the construction of the Acropolis in the 5th century B.C.E.—in part so that Athenians could be confident that the temples built to honor their gods surpassed anything that their rival states could offer.

Iktinos and Kallikrates, The Parthenon, Athens, 447–432 B.C.E. (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The multi-phase architectural development of sanctuaries such as that of Hera on the island of Samos demonstrates not only the change that occurred in construction techniques over time but also how the Greeks re-used sacred spaces—with the later phases built directly atop the preceding ones. Perhaps the fullest, and most famous, expression of Classical Greek temple architecture is the Periclean Parthenon of Athens —a Doric order structure, the Parthenon represents the maturity of the Greek classical form.

Left: Tholos temple, sanctuary of Athena Pronaia, 4th century B.C.E., Delphi, Greece (photo: kufoleto , CC BY 3.0); right: Greek temple plans (diagram: B. Jankuloski , CC BY-SA 4.0 )

Greek temples are often categorized in terms of their ground plan and the way in which the columns are arranged. A prostyle temple is a temple that has columns only at the front, while an amphiprostyle temple has columns at the front and the rear. Temples with a peripteral arrangement (from the Greek πτερον ( pteron ), meaning “wing”) have a single line of columns arranged all around the exterior of the temple building. Dipteral temples simply have a double row of columns surrounding the building. One of the more unusual plans is the tholos, a temple with a circular ground plan; famous examples are attested at the sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi and the sanctuary of Asclepius at Epidaurus.

Stoa (στοά) is a Greek architectural term that describes a covered walkway or colonnade that was usually designed for public use. Early examples, often employing the Doric order, were usually composed of a single level, although later examples (Hellenistic and Roman) came to be two-story freestanding structures. These later examples allowed interior space for shops or other rooms and often incorporated the Ionic order for interior colonnades.

P. De Jong, Restored Perspective of the South Stoa, Corinth (image: American School of Classical Studies, Digital Collections )

20th-century reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalos in the Athenian Agora (original c. 159–138 B.C.E.) (photo: DerHexer , CC BY-SA 3.0)

Greek city planners came to prefer the stoa as a device for framing the agora (public marketplace) of a city or town. The South Stoa (c. 700–550 B.C.E.), constructed as part of the sanctuary of Hera on the island of Samos, numbers among the earliest examples of the stoa in Greek architecture. Many cities, particularly Athens and Corinth, came to have elaborate and famous stoas. In Athens, the famous Stoa Poikile (“Painted Stoa”), c. fifth century B.C.E., housed paintings of famous Greek military exploits, including the battle of Marathon, while the Stoa Basileios (“Royal Stoa”), c. fifth century B.C.E., was the seat of a chief civic official ( archon basileios ).

Later, through the patronage of the kings of Pergamon, the Athenian agora was augmented by the famed Stoa of Attalos (c. 159–138 B.C.E.), which was recently rebuilt according to the ancient specifications and now houses the archaeological museum for the Athenian Agora itself. At Corinth, the stoa persisted as an architectural type well into the Roman period; the South Stoa there, c. 150 C.E., shows the continued utility of this building design for framing civic space. From the Hellenistic period onwards, the stoa also lent its name to a philosophical school, as Zeno of Citium originally taught his Stoic philosophy in the Stoa Poikile of Athens.

Theater at the Sanctuary of Asclepius at Epidaurus, c. 350–300 B.C.E. (photo: Andreas Trepte , CC BY-SA 2.5)

The Greek theater was a large, open-air structure used for dramatic performance. Theaters often took advantage of hillsides and naturally sloping terrain and, in general, utilized the panoramic landscape as the backdrop to the stage itself. The Greek theater is composed of the seating area (theatron), a circular space for the chorus to perform (orchestra), and the stage ( skene ). Tiered seats in the theatron provided space for spectators. Two side aisles ( parados , pl. paradoi ) provided access to the orchestra. The Greek theater inspired the Roman version of the theater directly, although the Romans introduced some modifications to the concept of theater architecture. In many cases, the Romans converted pre-existing Greek theaters to conform to their own architectural ideals, as is evident in the Theater of Dionysos on the slopes of the Athenian Acropolis. Since theatrical performances were often linked to sacred festivals, it is not uncommon to find theaters associated directly with sanctuaries.

Bouleuterion, Priène (Turkey), c. 200 B.C.E. (photo: QuartierLatin1968 , CC BY-SA 2.0)

Bouleuterion

The Bouleuterion (βουλευτήριον) was an important civic building in a Greek city, as it was the meeting place of the boule (citizen council) of the city. These select representatives assembled to handle public affairs and represent the citizenry of the polis (in ancient Athens, the boule was comprised of 500 members). The Bouleuterion generally was a covered, rectilinear building with stepped seating surrounding a central speaker’s well in which an altar was placed. The city of Priène has a particularly well-preserved example of this civic structure, as does the city of Miletus.

House of regular plan, Olynthus, Greece, House A vii 4, built after 432, before 348 B.C.E., from Olynthus, vol. 8 pl. 99, 100 and fig. 5, kitchen complex c, d, and e; andron (k) (photo: Perseus Digital Library )

Greek houses of the Archaic and Classical periods were relatively simple in design. Houses usually were centered on a courtyard that would have been the scene for various ritual activities; the courtyard also provided natural light for the often small houses. The ground floor rooms would have included kitchen and storage rooms, perhaps an animal pen and a latrine; the chief room was the andron — site of the male-dominated drinking party ( symposion ). The quarters for women and children ( gynaikeion ) could be located on the second level (if present) and were, in any case, segregated from the men’s area. It was not uncommon for houses to be attached to workshops or shops. The houses excavated in the southwest part of the Athenian Agora had walls of mud brick that rested on stone socles and tiled roofs, with floors of beaten clay.

The city of Olynthus in Chalcidice, Greece, destroyed by military action in 348 B.C.E., preserves many well-appointed courtyard houses arranged within the Hippodamian grid-plan of the city. House A vii 4 had a large cobbled courtyard that was used for domestic industry. While some rooms were fairly plain, with earthen floors, the andron was the most well-appointed room of the house.

Fortifications and gate, Palairos, Greece (photo: orientalizing , CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 )

Fortifications

The Mycenaean fortifications of Bronze Age Greece (c. 1300 B.C.E.) are particularly well known—the megalithic architecture (also referred to as Cyclopean because of the use of enormous stones) represents a trend in Bronze Age architecture. While these massive Bronze Age walls are difficult to best, first millennium B.C.E. Greece also shows evidence of stone-built fortification walls. In Attika (the territory of Athens), a series of Classical and Hellenistic walls built in ashlar masonry (squared masonry blocks) have been studied as a potential system of border defenses.  At Palairos in Epirus (Greece), the massive fortifications enclose a high citadel that occupies imposing terrain.

Stadium, gymnasium, and palaestra

The Greek stadium (derived from stadion , a Greek measurement equivalent to c. 578 feet or 176 meters) was the location of foot races held as part of sacred games; these structures are often found in the context of sanctuaries, as in the case of the Panhellenic sanctuaries at Olympia and Epidauros. Long and narrow, with a horseshoe shape, the stadium occupied reasonably flat terrain.

The gymnasium (from the Greek term gymnós meaning “naked”) was a training center for athletes who participated in public games . This facility tended to include areas for both training and storage. The palaestra (παλαίστρα) was an exercise facility originally connected with the training of wrestlers. These complexes were generally rectilinear in plan, with a colonnade framing a central, open space.

Altar of Hieron II, 3rd century B.C.E., Syracuse, Sicily, Italy (photo: Urban~commonswiki , CC BY-SA 3.0 )

Front view, model, Pergamon Altar

Since blood sacrifice was a key component of Greek ritual practice, an altar was essential for these purposes. While altars did not necessarily need to be architecturalized, they could be, and, in some cases, they assumed a monumental scale. The third century B.C.E. Altar of Hieron II at Syracuse, Sicily, provides one such example. At c. 196 meters in length and c. 11 m in height, the massive altar was reported to be capable of hosting the simultaneous sacrifice of 450 bulls. [1]

Another spectacular altar is the Altar of Zeus from Pergamon, built during the first half of the second century B.C.E. The altar itself is screened by a monumental enclosure decorated with sculpture; the monument measures c. 35.64 by 33.4 meters. The altar is best known for its program of relief sculpture that depicts a gigantomachy (battle between the Olympian gods and the giants) that is presented as an allegory for the military conquests of the kings of Pergamon. Despite its monumental scale and lavish decoration, the Pergamon altar preserves the basic and necessary features of the Greek altar: it is frontal and approached by stairs and is open to the air—to allow not only for the blood sacrifice itself but also for the burning of the thigh bones and fat as an offering to the gods.

Fountain house

Black-figured water-jar (hydria ) with a scene at a fountain-house, Greek, about 520–500 B.C.E., 50.8 cm high, © The Trustees of the British Museum

The fountain house is a public building that provides access to clean drinking water and at which water jars and containers could be filled. The Southeast Fountain house in the Athenian Agora (c. 530 B.C.E.) provides an example of this tendency to position fountain houses and their dependable supply of clean drinking water close to civic spaces like the agora. Gathering water was seen as a woman’s task and, as such, it offered the often isolated women a chance to socialize with others while collecting water. Fountain house scenes are common on ceramic water jars ( hydriai ), as is the case for a Black-figured hydria found in an Etruscan tomb in Vulci that is now in the British Museum.

The architecture of ancient Greece influenced ancient Roman architecture and became the architectural vernacular employed in the expansive Hellenistic world created in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great. Greek architectural forms became implanted so deeply in the Roman architectural mindset that they endured throughout antiquity, only to be then re-discovered in the Renaissance and especially from the mid-eighteenth century onwards as a feature of the Neoclassical movement . This durable legacy helps to explain why the ancient Greek architectural orders and the tenets of Greek design are still so prevalent—and visible—in our post-modern world.

[1] Diodorus Siculus History 11.72.2.

Additional resources

Learn more about ancient Greek architecture in three chapters in  Reframing Art History : “ Pottery, the body, and the gods in ancient Greece, c. 800–490 B.C.E. , ” “ War, democracy, and art in ancient Greece, c. 490–350 B.C.E. ,” and “ Empire and Art in the Hellenistic world (c. 350–31 B.C.E.) .”

Athenian Agora Excavations.

J. M. Camp, The Athenian Agora: a short guide to the excavations (American School of Classical Studies at Athens).

Architecture in Ancient Greece on the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

B. A. Ault and L. Nevett, Ancient Greek Houses and Households: Chronological, Regional, and Social Diversity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005).

N. Cahill, Household and City Organization at Olynthus (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001).

J. J. Coulton,   The Architectural Development of the Greek Stoa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976).

J. J. Coulton, Ancient Greek Architects at Work: Problems of Structure and Design (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1982).

W. B. Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Greece: an Account of its Historic Development 3rd ed. (London: Batsford, 1950).

Marie-Christine Hellmann, L’architecture Grecque 3 vol. (Paris: Picard, 2002–2010).

M. Korres, Stones of the Parthenon (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2000).

A. W. Lawrence, Greek Architecture 5th ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).

C. G. Malacrino, Constructing the Ancient World: Architectural Techniques of the Greeks and Romans (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2010).

A. Mazarakis Ainian, From Rulers’ Dwellings to Temples: Architecture, Religion and Society in early Iron Age Greece (1100–700 B.C.) (Jonsered: P. Åströms förlag, 1997).

L. Nevett, House and Society in the Ancient Greek World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

J. Ober, Fortress Attica: Defense of the Athenian Land Frontier, 404–322 B.C. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985).

D. S. Robertson, Greek and Roman Architecture 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969).

J. N. Travlos, Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens (New York: Praeger, 1971).

F. E. Winter, Greek Fortifications (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1971).

F. E. Winter, Studies in Hellenistic Architecture (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006).

W. Wrede, Attische Mauern (Athens: Deutsches archäologisches Institut, 1933).

R. E. Wycherley, The Stones of Athens (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).

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Ancient Mediterranean + Europe

Course: ancient mediterranean + europe   >   unit 6.

• Ancient Greece, an introduction
• Introduction to ancient Greek art
• Contrapposto explained
• Classic, classical, and classicism explained

Introduction to Greek architecture

• The classical orders
• Greek architectural orders
• Black Figures in Classical Greek Art
• Greek sanctuaries as artistic hubs
• Olympic games
• Victorious athlete: The Vaison Daidoumenos
• Prize amphora showing a chariot race
• A competitor in the long jump
• Sprinter on a vase from Rhodes and a bronze running girl

Where and when

Bouleuterion, fortifications, stadium, gymnasium, and palaestra, fountain house, want to join the conversation.

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Classical Architecture – The Influential Ancient Greek Building Style

Throughout history, architecture has been greatly influenced by the styles of the ancient Romans and Greeks, which we collectively refer to as Classical architecture. The style first originated in Greece in the fifth century BCE, and the Classical period in Rome in the third century CE. Throughout the centuries, whenever architects have come to creative dead-ends, they have turned to Classic architecture for inspiration by reinterpreting and incorporating Classical architecture elements into their designs.

Table of Contents

• 1.1.1 A Table of the Ages of Classicism Architecture
• 1.2 Characteristics of Classical Architecture Elements
• 2.1 Temple of Hephaestus (449 BCE)
• 2.2 The Parthenon (447 BCE)
• 2.3 Erechtheion (421 BCE)
• 2.4 Temple of Apollo (120 BCE)
• 2.5 Maison Carrée (16 – 20 BCE)
• 2.6 Colosseum (70 – 80 AD)
• 2.7 Library of Celsus (114 AD)
• 2.8 Pantheon (118 AD)
• 2.9 Arch of Septimius Severus (203 AD)
• 3.1 What Are the Various Characteristics of Classical Architecture?
• 3.2 What Are the Ages of Classicism Architecture?
• 3.3 What Are the Various Columns Called?

What Is Classical Architecture?

The most well-known Classical buildings are the famous temples that were constructed on the fundamentals of order and symmetry. These principles have been a continuous source of inspiration for architects seeking to incorporate the more traditional ideals and methods of Classicism architecture. Classic architecture is largely characterized by the use of materials such as marble, attention to symmetry, the inclusion of rectangular windows, and the use of columns.

A Brief History of the Classical Period

Classical architecture refers to any architecture throughout history that was originally influenced by the styles of the buildings constructed in ancient Greece and Rome. When parts of the Roman Empire began to crumble, most of Western Europe started to create their own styles and methods, as seen in the Byzantine Empire, where new, distinctive styles such as the Byzantine style began to develop. It was during the late eighth and ninth centuries that architects began to consciously reincorporate the forgotten architectural language of antiquity.

A Table of the Ages of Classicism Architecture

Characteristics of classical architecture elements.

Concepts such as intellect, humility, and boldness were highly sought after by the architects of Classical buildings. These concepts would help to define certain key components that are detectable in several styles of Classicism architecture. A few of the key Classical architecture elements are:

• Proportion and symmetry: Classical building designs usually incorporate the use of symmetry in the spacing of the windows and columns.
• Front porch with a pediment: Many public buildings and homes of this style feature porches topped with pediments. The entrance door is usually situated right in the middle of the building.
• Long-lasting building materials: Building materials such as brick, concrete, and marble were used in the architecture of Classical buildings.
• Design motifs: Classical design motifs can be found in homes and buildings such as decorations around the doors, medium pitched roofs, and boxed eaves.
• Rectangular-shaped windows: These windows can be found in many symmetrical configurations and were often double-hung.
• Columns: The various design motifs of the columns of Classical buildings determine how the buildings are categorized. There is the Doric order, the Ionic order, the Composite order, The Corinthian order, and the Tuscan order.

Famous Examples of Classical Architecture

Now that we have learned a bit about the origins and the characteristics of Classic architecture, we can now move on to some well-known examples of Classical buildings. These buildings were all constructed in different periods, yet display Classical architecture elements in their design. No matter whether from the Classical period or periods that followed, they are all considered examples of Classicism architecture.

Temple of Hephaestus (449 BCE)

The Temple of Hephaestus is a Doric peripteral temple situated on the north-western side of the Agora. The temple was named after the patron god of fire, craftsmanship, and metalworking, Hephaestus, possibly due to the temple’s position near the metalworking and potter’s workshops. Unlike the other temples mentioned, this one was not a replacement for an older temple, but it was previously the site of a small sanctuary that was destroyed in 480 BCE during the Persian invasion.

It was first believed by modern scholars to be the home of the remains of Theseus, an Athenian hero, but later translations of the inscriptions found within the temple state clearly that it was in fact a temple dedicated to Hephaestus.

The Greeks often rebuilt the temples and sanctuaries that had been left in ruins by the invading Persian armies but after the battle of Plataea, they decided to rather leave them as reminders of the war and focus their attention and finances on strengthening their political influence and rebuilding the economy. Pericles came into power and started to change the Athenian landscape to match his vision of a Greek cultural and political center of influence and power.

Part of this vision was the building of structures such as the Temple of Hephaestus.

The temple was made from marble which had been sourced from Mount Penteli, and the architect’s identity remains unknown, leading to scholars referring to the anonymous figure as simply “The Hephaisteion Master”. The temple has a porch or pronaos, and an inner chamber or cella, which houses various cult images and is situated at the center of the building. Certain decorative elements reveal the mixture of two styles in the sculptures and friezes, displaying elements of both Ionic and Doric styles.

The Parthenon (447 BCE)

The Parthenon is an ancient temple structure situated on the Athenian Acropolis in Greece. It was created in dedication to the patroness of the Athenian people, the goddess Athena. Construction of the famous temple started in 447 BCE at the peak of the Athenian Empire’s power, and it was completed in 438 BCE, although further decoration continued until 342 BCE.

It is regarded as the pinnacle of the Doric order and is regarded as the most important building of the Classical period in Greece to still exist today. The intricately decorated sculptures that adorn the walls are considered to be some of the highlights of Greek art.

The Parthenon is considered to be one of the most highly regarded cultural monuments in the world, and a symbol of Western civilization, democracy, and Ancient Greece.

Greek architects Iktinos and Callicrates built the Parthenon in dedication to the gods that led them to victory during the Persian invasion of Hellenic territories. An Older Parthenon was destroyed during the invasion of the Persian forces in 480 BCE. The Parthenon was constructed as a replacement for the older Athenian temple. As with many other Greek temples, the Parthenon also served a more practical purpose as the treasury for the city.

In the last decade of the 6th century, it was converted by Christians into a church of the Virgin Mary.

This Greek Classical building is a Doric temple that displays Ionic architectural elements. Like many other temples in Greece, it is surrounded by columns bearing the moldings and bands known as entablature. There are seventeen columns on the sides and another eight on either end of the structure. It has been considered a legendary building since its completion and is reputed to be the finest Doric temple ever created, as well as a monument that symbolizes ancient Greek architecture and culture.

Erechtheion (421 BCE)

The Erechtheion was constructed on the northern side of the Acropolis in Greece in 421 BCE. Also known as the Erechtheum, it was created in dedication to both Poseidon and the goddess Athena. The temple’s name is derived from a shrine built in dedication to Erichthonius, a legendary Greek hero, and it is thought to have been designed by Mnesikles, and Phidias was the mason and sculptor for the temple. Some scholars have also put forward the theory that it was built in honor of Erechtheus, a king that was buried nearby. He ruled Athens during the Archaic period and was mentioned in Homer’s Iliad .

It is also possible that it refers to them both, as they were often regarded as the same person due to being syncretized.

Just as the Parthenon was a replacement of an older temple, so too was this temple built as a replacement for the Peisistratid temple of Athena Polias which was destroyed in 480 BCE by the attacking Persian invaders. The south and east sides of the temple are around 3m higher than the north and west sides due to being constructed on a slope. It was constructed out of marble which had been cut out from Mount Pentelikon. Black limestone was sourced from Eleusis for the friezes which bore sculptures made from white marble. The windows and doorways of the temple were elaborately carved.

Despite what little can be seen left today, the columns were originally ornately decorated and were painted, highlighted, and gilded with gilt bronze and glass beads.

There is a large porch on the northern side with six Ionic columns, and on the southern side of the temple are the six female figures which support the columns known as the “Porch of the Maidens”. After the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, the budget and size of the building were drastically cut. A huge fifteen-foot beam was built to support the north-western corner, and the “Porch of the Maidens” was built to conceal the beam.

Temple of Apollo (120 BCE)

The Temple of Apollo is situated in the Roman town of Pompeii in Southern Italy. It was built in 120 BCE and was dedicated to the Roman and Greek god Apollo. This building of ancient origins was the most important in the town for religious purposes and was situated in the forum, facing the northern part of the town.

Originally imported from Greek mythology and traditions, the Apollo cult was widespread in the area and had been present in Pompeii since around the 6th century BCE.

Attempts at reconstructing the temple after an earthquake in 62 AD went underway in the 2nd century but were permanently interrupted by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The temple was surrounded by a series of volcanic rock columns from Nocera and was situated in the center of a sacred enclosure. They were once grooved with Ionic capitals, but during reconstruction attempts, they were replaced with Corinthian capitals and stucco columns painted in dark blue, red, and yellow.

During work on reconstruction, the Doric architrave of triglyphs and metopes was transformed into a frieze of festoons, griffins, and foliage. Since then all of the plaster that had covered the front of the temple has disappeared with time, and the temple’s front now looks how it originally did. The remains of a few statues representing Apollo and Diana were uncovered and were replaced by copies and the original pieces are now housed at the National Archeological Museum of Naples.

The temple was situated on a high podium and was approached by climbing up a steep flight of stairs, with the temple being held up by 48 Ionic columns.

Maison Carrée (16 – 20 BCE)

The Maison Carrée is regarded as one of the best-preserved temples that were constructed during the period of the Roman Empire. It is situated in Nimes in France, a former territory of the Roman Empire. It has been the source of inspiration for several buildings across the world such as the St. Marcellinus Church in Rogalin, the Virginia State Capitol building in the United States, and the Église de la Madeleine in Paris.

It is a prime example of Vitruvian architecture due to being an almost exact replica of a Roman temple that had been described in Vitruvius’s writings.

The temple dominated the skyline in Nimes at the time, with its height of 17 meters. The facade contains deep pronaos that goes in around one-third of the length of the building and is decorated with ornate columns. The front of the temple is emphasized by the deep porch and it is also a feature that differentiates it from the older Greek temples. The hexastyle design incorporated six columns at either end under the pediment. Acanthus leaves and rosettes decorate three sides of the frieze.

Despite the detail and beauty of the decorative carvings, they are not as perfect and mathematically precise as the Parthenon or the other temples in Greece. The door at the entrance is large with a diameter of 6.8 meters in height and 3.27 meters wide, yet despite the huge entrance the inside is comparatively small and made even more claustrophobic by the lack of any windows.

There are no ancient decorations that remain inside, and where a shrine was once housed, a film is now projected displaying the history of Nimes in the Roman era.

Colosseum (70 – 80 AD)

The Colosseum is situated in the city of Rome in Italy and it is regarded as the largest standing amphitheater to exist in the world. Emperor Vespasian began construction around 70 AD and it was only completed ten years later under the rule of his successor, Titus. The Roman emperor Domitian would see over further modifications, and the three emperors who were all patrons of the amphitheater belonged to the same family (Flavius), and the colosseum was also known as the Flavian amphitheater.

This colossal structure is made of brick-faced concrete, volcanic rock (tuff), and travertine limestone, and could seat approximately 50,000 to 80 000 spectators during events held at various points in its history. The Classical building was used for gladiatorial contests as well as re-enacting battles and mythological dramas, executions, animal hunts, and various other public spectacles. In the early medieval period , it ceased being used for entertainment purposes and was instead used for workshops, housing the clergy of religious orders, a Christian shrine, and a fortress.

The Colosseum is considered an icon of Imperial Rome, and despite being ruined by everything from stone robbers to earthquakes, still stands today and is regarded as one of the new seven wonders of the world.

This stunning example of Classical architecture differs from its Greek counterparts due to the fact that it is free-standing and not built into a hillside. The architecture of the Colosseum has been derived from placing two normal semi-circular Roman amphitheaters next to each other to create a full circle. The outer walls measure 48 meters in height and the amphitheater is 189 meters long and 156 meters wide.

Library of Celsus (114 AD)

The Library of Celsus is an ancient library from the Roman Empire era situated in Modern-day Ephesus, Turkey. It is one of the last libraries from the Roman Empire to still be in existence. It was commissioned by Gaius Julius Aquila in the 110s as a monument to his father Celsus, the former proconsul of Asia.

It was completed after Aquila’s death during the reign of Hadrian. It held over 12,000 scrolls and after the libraries of Pergamum and Alexandria, was the third largest library in the Roman Empire.

Underneath the library is a crypt that contains the remains of Celsus in a decorated sarcophagus made of marble. An earthquake started a fire that gutted the library’s interior around 262 AD, and the facade was also badly damaged by another earthquake that followed in the 10th or 11th century. The Classical building lay in a state of complete ruin until archeologists re-erected the structure’s facade from 1970 until 1978.

The facade is intricately decorated with designs such as scrolls, leaves, and other symbols of magisterial prestige. The library is approached by climbing nine steps that run the entire length of the building’s entrance towards any one of three entrances. Each entrance is flanked by four pairs of columns that are elevated on pedestals. There are four statues that represent various virtues situated along the facade.

These virtues have been personified in the form of female figures, such as excellence (Arete), intelligence (Ennoia), knowledge (Episteme), and wisdom (Sophia).

Pantheon (118 AD)

The Pantheon is a former Roman temple in Rom e Italy and was constructed on the site of an older temple that existed during the reign of Augustus from 27 BCE to 14 AD. Since 609 AD it has been used as a Catholic church. Emperor Hadrian ordered the rebuild and it was finished and dedicated around 126 AD.

The reason scholars are uncertain of exactly when it was built is due to the inscription belonging to the older temple, as Hadrian did not choose to add an inscription to the new temple.

The Pantheon is cylindrical in shape with a front extended portico porch consisting of 16 Corinthian columns under the pediment. The porch is linked to the rotunda by a vestibule that is rectangular in shape. The rotunda is situated under a coffered concrete dome. It is still considered to be the largest unreinforced dome in the world despite being two thousand years after it was first constructed. Due to its continuous use and regular maintenance, the Pantheon remains one of the most well preserved ancient buildings from Rome.

It has been known as the “Santa Maria Rotonda” since it was turned into a church dedicated to St. Mary in the 7th century. The Pantheon is managed by the Ministry of Cultural Heritage of Italy and is a state-owned property that is visited by around 6 million people per year. The circular domed inner chamber of the Pantheon also contained a rather conventional temple facade, a mixture of Classical architecture elements that were unique at the time of its construction.

However, it has since become a classic standard of reference for revivalists of Classicism architecture and has been used as a source of inspiration by numerous architects since.

Arch of Septimius Severus (203 AD)

The Arch of Septimius Severus is a triumphal arch made of white marble and is situated at the northwestern end of the Roman forum. It was dedicated in 203 AD in commemoration of Emperor Septimus Severus’s victories with his sons against the Parthians in 195 AD and 199 AD. After his death, the two sons took on the joint role of the emperor until one, Caracalla, had the other, Geta, killed.

All of Geta’s memorials were destroyed and any mention of his name was removed from buildings and the public. Hence, his inscriptions and image have all been removed from the arch.

The arch was originally approached by steps from the direction of the ancient level of the forum, and it was raised on a base made from travertine. A feature of the arch that has since been copied many times is the central archway that has lateral openings to the side archways. The arch is about 25 meters wide and 23 meters high. Two sets of reliefs can be found on the arch. The first set is composed of four panels on either side of the attic and the other set is eight panels that have been set into the four archway’s inner faces.

The Arch of Septimius Severus is situated close to the base of the Capitoline Hill, not far from where one can find the remains of the Temple of Jupiter Tonans – three lone Corinthian columns. A steep flight of stairs used to lead up to the entrance, but years of erosion from surrounding hills had raised the level of the forum to such an extent that a road was eventually built going through the archway for the time in the 4th century.

Today we have learned about the architecture of the Classical period. Classical architecture first arose in ancient Greece and then again during the Roman Empire. The Classical architecture elements were then rediscovered and re-incorporated by architects throughout history who sought to look back at the Classical buildings and bring forth the symmetry and mathematical perfection of Classicism architecture.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the various characteristics of classical architecture.

The characteristics of Classic architecture include concepts of boldness, humility, and intellect. These characteristics would help define the style and methods of Classical period architects. Some of the more notable characteristics of the Classical period are the use of long-lasting materials such as marble and stone, attention to proportion and symmetry, front porches capped with pediments, the use of columns, and rectangular-shaped windows.

What Are the Ages of Classicism Architecture?

After the initial influence of Greek and Roman architecture, there were other ages that were influenced by the style of the Classical buildings, namely: the Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic, Italian Renaissance , Baroque, Rococo, Neo-Classical and Modern Eras. Each period was met with a time where the architects would look back at Classic architecture to regain insight and inspiration into the techniques of the classic architects. This influence is even felt today with styles like Neoclassicism.

What Are the Various Columns Called?

Columns are one of the most easily recognizable Classical architecture elements . Based on the column’s design motif, they are categorized into various orders. There is the Doric order which has no base or decoration. The Ionic order columns are taller and narrower. The Corinthian order columns have capitals that are ornately decorated with designs that have been inspired by nature such as leaves and vines. The Composite order features a combination of Corinthian and Ionic elements on the columns, and the Tuscan order is plain and simple with very little ornamentation if any at all.

Justin van Huyssteen is a freelance writer, novelist, and academic originally from Cape Town, South Africa. At present, he has a bachelor’s degree in English and literary theory and an honor’s degree in literary theory. He is currently working towards his master’s degree in literary theory with a focus on animal studies, critical theory, and semiotics within literature. As a novelist and freelancer, he often writes under the pen name L.C. Lupus.

Justin’s preferred literary movements include modern and postmodern literature with literary fiction and genre fiction like sci-fi, post-apocalyptic, and horror being of particular interest. His academia extends to his interest in prose and narratology. He enjoys analyzing a variety of mediums through a literary lens, such as graphic novels, film, and video games.

Justin is working for artincontext.org as an author and content writer since 2022. He is responsible for all blog posts about architecture, literature and poetry.

Learn more about Justin van Huyssteen and the Art in Context Team .

Cite this Article

Justin, van Huyssteen, “Classical Architecture – The Influential Ancient Greek Building Style.” Art in Context. September 20, 2021. URL: https://artincontext.org/classical-architecture/

van Huyssteen, J. (2021, 20 September). Classical Architecture – The Influential Ancient Greek Building Style. Art in Context. https://artincontext.org/classical-architecture/

van Huyssteen, Justin. “Classical Architecture – The Influential Ancient Greek Building Style.” Art in Context , September 20, 2021. https://artincontext.org/classical-architecture/ .

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Art & Architecture

Art & Architecture Main articles: Art in ancient Greece and Architecture of ancient Greece The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the western world.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Greek art in the archaic period.

Terracotta dinos (mixing bowl)

Attributed to the Polyteleia Painter

Terracotta vase in the form of a ketos (sea monster)

Two bronze helmets

Terracotta aryballos in the form of an eagle's head

Terracotta volute-krater (vase for mixing wine and water)

Attributed to Sophilos

Marble statue of a kouros (youth)

Terracotta aryballos (oil flask)

Signed by Nearchos as potter

Terracotta column-krater (bowl for mixing wine and water)

Attributed to Lydos

Terracotta lekythos (oil flask)

Attributed to the Amasis Painter

Bronze mirror with a support in the form of a nude girl

Terracotta kylix (drinking cup)

Terracotta neck-amphora (jar) with lid and knob (27.16)

Attributed to Exekias

Terracotta amphora (jar)

Attributed to the manner of the Lysippides Painter

Signed by Andokides as potter

Terracotta Panathenaic prize amphora

Attributed to the Euphiletos Painter

Bronze Herakles

Lion felling a bull, from a marble pediment

Attributed to the Kleophrades Painter

Terracotta psykter (vase for cooling wine)

Attributed to Oltos

Terracotta hydria (water jar)

Attributed to the Class of Hamburg 1917.477

Bronze handle of a patera (shallow basin) in the form of a youth

Chalcedony scaraboid

Attributed to Epimenes

Terracotta architectural tile

Terracotta antefix (roof tile)

Terracotta head of a woman, probably a sphinx

Department of Greek and Roman Art , The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2003

A striking change appears in Greek art of the seventh century B.C., the beginning of the Archaic period. The abstract geometric patterning that was dominant between about 1050 and 700 B.C. is supplanted in the seventh century by a more naturalistic style reflecting significant influence from the Near East and Egypt . Trading stations in the Levant and the Nile Delta, continuing Greek colonization in the east and west, as well as contact with eastern craftsmen, notably on Crete and Cyprus , inspired Greek artists to work in techniques as diverse as gem cutting, ivory carving, jewelry making, and metalworking ( 1989.281.49-.50 ). Eastern pictorial motifs were introduced—palmette and lotus compositions, animal hunts, and such composite beasts as griffins (part bird, part lion), sphinxes (part woman, part winged lion), and sirens (part woman, part bird). Greek artists rapidly assimilated foreign styles and motifs into new portrayals of their own myths and customs, thereby forging the foundations of Archaic and Classical Greek art .

The Greek world of the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. consisted of numerous autonomous city-states, or poleis, separated one from the other by mountains and the sea. Greek settlements stretched all the way from the coast of Asia Minor and the Aegean islands, to mainland Greece, Sicily, North Africa , and even Spain. As they grew in wealth and power, the poleis on the coast of Asia Minor and neighboring islands competed with one another in the construction of sanctuaries with huge stone temples. Lyric poetry, the primary literary medium of the day, attained new heights in the work of such notable poets as Archilochos of Paros and Sappho of Lesbos. Contact with prosperous centers like Sardis in Lydia , which was ruled in the sixth century B.C. by the legendary king Croesus, influenced eastern Greek art. Sculptors in the Aegean islands, notably on Naxos and Samos, carved large-scale statues in marble. Goldsmiths on Rhodes specialized in fine jewelry, and bronzeworkers on Crete fashioned armor and plaques decorated with superb reliefs ( 1989.281.49-.50 ).

The prominent artistic centers of mainland Greece—notably Sparta , Corinth, and Athens—also exhibited significant regional variation. Sparta and its neighbors in Lakonia produced remarkable ivory carvings and distinctive bronzes ( 38.11.3 ). Corinthian artisans invented a style of silhouetted forms ( 1997.36 ) that focused on tapestry-like patterns of small animals and plant motifs. By contrast, the vase painters of Athens were more inclined to illustrate mythological scenes . Despite variance in dialect—even the way the alphabet was written varied from region to region at this time—the Greek language was a major unifying factor in Greece. Furthermore, Greek-speaking people came together for festivals and the games that were held at the major Panhellenic sanctuaries on mainland Greece, such as Olympia and Delphi. Dedications at these sanctuaries included many works from the eastern and western regions of Greece.

Throughout the sixth century B.C., Greek artists made increasingly naturalistic representations of the human figure. During this period, two types of freestanding, large-scale sculptures predominated: the male kouros, or standing nude youth, and the female kore, or standing draped maiden. Among the earliest examples of the type, the kouros in the Metropolitan Museum ( 32.11.1 ) reveals Egyptian influence in both its pose and proportions. Erected in sanctuaries and in cemeteries outside the city walls, these large stone statues served as dedications to the gods or as grave markers. Athenian aristocrats frequently erected expensive funerary monuments in the city and its environs, especially for members of their family who had died young. Such monuments also took the form of stelai, often decorated in relief.

Sanctuaries were a focus of artistic achievement at this time and served as major repositories of works of art. The two main orders of Greek architecture —the Doric order of mainland Greece and the western colonies, and the Ionic order of the Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor and the Ionian islands—were well established by the beginning of the sixth century B.C. Temple architecture continued to be refined throughout the century by a process of vibrant experimentation, often through building projects initiated by rulers such as Peisistratos of Athens and Polykrates of Samos. These buildings were often embellished with sculptural figures of stone or terracotta ( 26.60.73 ), paintings (now mostly lost), and elaborate moldings. True narrative scenes in relief sculpture appeared in the latter part of the sixth century B.C., as artists became increasingly interested in showing figures, especially the human figure, in motion. About 566 B.C., Athens established the Panathenaic games. Statues of victorious athletes were erected as dedications in Greek sanctuaries, and trophy amphorai were decorated with the event in which the athlete had triumphed.

Creativity and innovation took many forms during the sixth century B.C. The earliest known Greek scientist, Thales of Miletos, demonstrated the cycles of nature and successfully predicted a solar eclipse and the solstices. Pythagoras of Samos, famous today for the theorem in geometry that bears his name, was an influential and forward-thinking mathematician. In Athens, the lawgiver and poet Solon instituted groundbreaking reforms and established a written code of laws. Meanwhile, potters (both native and foreign-born) mastered Corinthian techniques in Athens, and by 550 B.C., Athenian—also called “Attic” for the region around Athens—black-figure pottery dominated the export market throughout the Mediterranean region. Athenian vases of the second half of the sixth century B.C. provide a wealth of iconography illuminating numerous aspects of Greek culture, including funerary rites, daily life , symposia , athletics, warfare , religion, and mythology. Among the great painters of Attic black-figure vases, Sophilos, Kleitias, Nearchos, Lydos, Exekias, and the Amasis Painter experimented with a variety of techniques to overcome the limitations of black-figure painting with its emphasis on silhouette and incised detail. The consequent invention of the red-figure technique, which offered greater opportunities for drawing and eventually superseded black-figure, is conventionally dated about 530 B.C. and attributed to the workshop of the potter Andokides.

Department of Greek and Roman Art. “Greek Art in the Archaic Period.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/argk/hd_argk.htm (October 2003)

Further Reading

Cook, R. M. Greek Painted Pottery . 3d ed. New York: Routledge, 1996.

Grant, Michael, and John Hazel. Who's Who in Classical Mythology . London: Dent, 1993.

Hornblower, Simon, and Antony Spawforth, eds. The Oxford Classical Dictionary . 3d ed., rev. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Langdon, Susan, ed. From Pasture to Polis: Art in the Age of Homer . Exhibition catalogue. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1993.

Lawrence, A. W. Greek Architecture . 4th ed., rev. by R. A. Tomlinson. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983.

The World of Athens: An Introduction to Classical Athenian Culture: Background Book . Joint Association of Classical Teachers' Greek Course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Padgett, J. Michael, ed. The Centaur's Smile: The Human Animal in Early Greek Art . Exhibition catalogue. Princeton: Princeton University Art Museum, 2003.

Pomeroy, Sarah B., et al. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Additional Essays by Department of Greek and Roman Art

• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Classical Cyprus (ca. 480–ca. 310 B.C.) .” (July 2007)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Antonine Dynasty (138–193) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Ancient Greek Dress .” (October 2003)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Death, Burial, and the Afterlife in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Geometric Art in Ancient Greece .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Flavian Dynasty (69–96 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 B.C.–68 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Augustan Rule (27 B.C.–14 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Severan Dynasty (193–235 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Roman Egypt .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Roman Copies of Greek Statues .” (October 2002)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Athenian Vase Painting: Black- and Red-Figure Techniques .” (October 2002)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Boscoreale: Frescoes from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Early Cycladic Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Geometric and Archaic Cyprus .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Hellenistic and Roman Cyprus .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Scenes of Everyday Life in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Symposium in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Roman Painting .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Tanagra Figurines .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Augustan Villa at Boscotrecase .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Cesnola Collection at The Metropolitan Museum of Art .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Roman Republic .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Warfare in Ancient Greece .” (October 2000)

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Artist or Maker

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Greek Architecture Essay Example

• November 28, 2022

Ancient Architecture

Greek Architecture Essay: Abstract

Art and architecture history cover up a long period that started with the civilization of humanity. Ever since cultures and societies have been creating art and architecture, specifically, one can see the impacts of ancient cultures on modern art and architecture because art is a collective process. In other words, one culture influences another, and art evolves to new methods and innovations. However, to understand modern art and architecture, one must know ancient art and architecture. This paper's primary purpose is to examine both Greek and Persian culture's architectures and find relations to one and another. For doing so, this paper analyzes Parthenon Temple and others in the Acropolis region. Therefore, this paper concentrates on Greek architecture and its relations to Persian architecture. The classical period had been influenced by many social and political impacts, and Greek had built temples that combined both political and mythological influences within the architecture.

Introduction

First of all, it is generally assumed that Greek art and architecture influenced Romans. Specifically, in the classical period, Romans copied original Greek statues and architecture. On the other hand, in Greek architecture, some similarities exist with Persian architecture. This influence stems from long years of wars between the Greeks and Persians. In this sense, both cultures interfered with each other and were affected by each other because Persians were a great empire that conquered middle-east, Anatolia, and Asia. Also, Persians and Greek had harmed each other, and Persians destroyed Acropolis temples.

Body Paragraphs

Persepolis architecture influenced Acropolis temples in several aspects. For instance, both Persepolis and Greek structures had similar functions. Also, Persian influence on Greek architecture revealed several different points. These similarities are that both structures represented the glory of their culture, and they were the main places to show respect to the gods or the Emperor. Greek temples were designed to see the temple from each side; specifically, one can see Greek temples from a very distant location. On the other hand, Persepolis structures represented the Apadana belief. The primary purpose of the Persian structure was to glorify the Emperor. Also, Persian was influenced by Greek architecture as well.

Ionian Greeks were famous for their expertise in sculptures. The Persian king Darius I. the Great wanted to build a palace in Persepolis, and Ionian Greeks were invited to help Persians. One can highlight that Ionian Greeks went to Persepolis and observed the architecture and art. Then they came back to their country and transferred their knowledge to the Greek artists. Therefore, the Ionian Greeks' impacts on Greek architecture stem from this invitation.

Before the Parthenon temple was built, one can find Persian influences in Greek architecture. For instance, the Odeon of Pericles and the Hall of The Hundred Columns in Persepolis. Both structures had the same dimensions: The Odeon was measured 68,50 x 62,40 meters and contained 9 x 10 columns; the room of the Persepolis palace had 10 x 10 columns and was measured 68,50 x 68,50 meters ("Persian Influence," 2020). Therefore, one can highlight that there are certain resemblances between the two structures. Specifically, these kinds of similarities can be found in many Acropolis temples. After all, Persians and Greek interfered with each other for more than fifty years.

Figure 1. Odeon of Pericles, Athens

Another resemblance between Persian and Greek architecture can be found in the Prytaneum. Specifically, the Prytaneum was an Athenian market, and it was built in 465 BC. It represented Greek democracy, and the Athenians called it merely the tholos ("round building") or skias ("parasol") ("Persian Influence," 2020). That is, the Prytaneum was influenced by the Persian structure because round buildings were uncommon, and the Persian king often was described with parasol. Arguably, one can assume that Greeks were influenced by Persian left-behinds and change the original form with different materials. After all, in this period, the parasol was uncommon and associated with Persians.

Figure 2. The Prytaneum, Turkey

Other than Persian influences, Greek had their architectural style and belief. The temples in Acropolis shows resemblances with each other. These temples are similar to each other because they represent the same function and mythological narratives. Also, their internal structures are identical to each other. For instance, one can see that in the Temple of Athena, Nike and Parthenon have similar measures in the fragments, and they were both built for honoring Athena. Also, both temples can be seen from all sides.

Greeks valued building sanctuaries in honor of gods and goddesses. However, Persian destroyed many temples in Acropolis. Therefore, in the battle of Salamis, the Greeks defeated the Persians by destroying their navy. Frequently, the Persians retreated to Asia. More specifically, the war between Greeks and Persians kept going for years. Both sides had their victories, sometimes Greek won and sometimes Persians. Eventually, in 447 BC Parthenon Temple was started to build. Some historians believe that Athens concluded a peace treaty with Persia in 449 BC, two years before work began on the Parthenon ("The Parthenon," 2020).

Figure 3. The Parthenon Temple of Athena, Athens

The Parthenon temple was built to represent glory and victory. In this sense, the Parthenon was made in honor of the goddess Athena. The Parthenon temple represented political and mythological impacts on Greek culture. In Greek mythology, Athena is the justice and strategy goddess, and Greek believed that the goddess helped their grandfathers to win the war against Persians. Therefore, the Parthenon glorified Athena and Greek culture. In other words, the Parthenon represents a victory for Greeks, and one can suggest that the Parthenon was built to defend the city against another Persian invasion. Also, it was made for uniting Greek citizens.

In Greek society, women had not any rights in politics or social life. The only man who was born in Greek had rights in politics. Typically, in this period, Greek figures only include portray of Greek gods and goddesses, but in the Parthenon temple, there were warrior human figures. Therefore, mortal Greek warriors were represented as the equals of the gods and goddesses. In the Parthenon temple, friezes had a classical sense of dimensionality, anatomy, and a great sense of motion associated with Greek-style and mythology.

More specifically, a part of friezes included the war with Amazons, and they were dressed as Persians. One can highlight that Amazons represented Persians, and revealing Persian men in the female body was done to humiliate Persians because in Greek society, being a woman meant nothing. Therefore, the Parthenon temple wound Persians and glorified the Greek Empire.

The Parthenon temple represented Classical belief, and it had unique friezes that included different war figures for Greek victory. Specifically, in the friezes, one can see that some of the figures are not horizontal because the artist focused on filling the space in friezes. Also, there are two refinements in the Parthenon temple, and one can connect these refinements to ancient technology because these refinements reveal the incredible architecture. Specifically, Greek architecture has influenced modern architecture. One can suggest that in the 21st century, many buildings share similar measures with the Parthenon temple.

First of all, refinement 1 concentrates on entasis measures that force bearing down upon the columns. For instance, each column has a 1.75 cm entasis. One can explain this refinement by looking at different sides, angles, and forms of the Parthenon temple. Specifically, the basis of the Parthenon temple is the stairs. These stairs are uncommon because they are curving upwards. Also, the temple rises from the center of the building. There is a distortion that stems from visual distortion. Therefore, the proportion's emphasis makes the Parthenon temple appear from the front and back.

Another significant fact about the Parthenon temple is that its structure has a unique 4:9 rate. Specifically, 4:9 height of floor to top, and it has a 4:9 column diameter. Also, 4:9 column diameter creates an axial distance between columns. Eventually, the Parthenon's most significant fact is the 4:9 rate used in modern buildings.

On the other hand, while Greek was concentrating on classical belief, Persians were focusing on Apadana belief. In the classical period, Greek architecture was influenced by Persians. More specifically, the Parthenon temple's functions were similar to Apadana belief because the Parthenon temple was the main building for Greeks to show graduate to the goddess Athena. One can infer that it had a religious function because Greek was going to the temple to pray the goddess. Moreover, in Persian architecture, Apadana belief showed a similar function to the Parthenon temple. However, in Persian architecture, the structure was made for glorifying the Emperor, and on new years eve, Persians gave offerings to the Emperor.

Greek architecture has a similar form and building type on a few of the buildings when Greek architecture was compared to Persian. Still, Greek architecture's style and technology are more developed than Persian. Also, Greek temples represent the gods and goddesses. On the other hand, Persian architecture represents emperors and high-class ambassadors. One can see specific differences between Greek and Persian culture. Eventually, Greeks might be influenced by some of the buildings' styles and forms from Persian architecture, and most of the time, Greeks have changed the buildings that were affected by the Persians. Specifically, Greek improved those buildings with better forms, style, and technology.

Greek Architecture: Conclusion

To sum up, this paper investigated the relationship between Greek and Persian architecture. Specifically, it concentrated on both Acropolis and Persepolis, which were essential regions for Greeks and Persians. In this sense, it focused on examining the Parthenon temple and its relations to Persian influences. Since the Parthenon temple was built to represent the victory of Greeks after long years of wars with Persians, one can suggest that by making the Parthenon temple, Greeks humiliated Persians because, in the one section of the friezes, Amazon women were described with Persian clothes. In Greek culture, women had no rights. Therefore Persians were defined as women. Eventually, one can find resemblances between Greek and Persian architecture. On the other hand, they have differences in their cultures because Greek built temples for honoring their gods and goddesses. Also, in Greek society, there was a democracy. However, in Persian culture, temples and buildings were made for honoring the Emperor. While Greek made sacrifices and gave offerings to gods and goddesses, the Persians gave offerings to their Emperor on New Year's eve. Therefore, one can highlight that there are significant differences between the Greeks and Persian cultures because their societies' dynamics are different than each other. Eventually, Persian influences on Greek architecture helped Greeks improve architectural styles and form in order to create better buildings.

"The Parthenon." Humanities. Web. 12 Dec. 2020.

"Persian Influence on Greek Architecture." Livius.org. Web. 12 Dec. 2020.

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Ancient Greece Architecture Essay

The Greek temples are the most significant of the ancient Greek architecture (Boutsikas 4). They are found in throughout Greece, and a good example is the temple of Parthenon; even though most of them are ruins, they are still intact (Boutsikas 5). Another architectural structure that has survived the wrath of time is the open-air theatre that dates back to the 525-480 BC (Boutsikas 5). The Agora public square, Propylon gateway, and the Bouleuterion (town council building) have stood the test of time, and their style conveyed messages of conservation of the ancient culture of Greece (Holm 9). The formulas invented by the Greek in the 6th-century architecture have influenced the past two millennia through the classical column orders that conveyed some connotative meanings and conveyed the notion of democracy in Europe.

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Architects in the modern era chose to copy the classical style because of the artistry excellence and precision demonstrated by the ancient Greek architects. Modern buildings copy the traditional style of museums, sculptures, and monuments that reflect on the old architecture (Longfellow 133). The Greek civilization connected with the classical world, especially their sculptures and architecture. The rich history of Greek culture changes the view of the study of ancient architecture from the enjoyable storytelling sessions to educative and informative lessons. The information and messages portrayed on the monuments and building was inspired by the existence of life and culture. Due to the high influence of the Greek among the Romans, their art was merged in various aspects of sculpting and symmetry (Longfellow 133). These similarities were as a result of constant interaction and the use of the same concepts.

A study on the sculptures boosts the understanding of their history and culture (Boutsikas 4). Most importantly, it has changed the world view on the importance of art and architecture. The exciting findings on the meanings revealed by the sculptures positively change the impression of these cultures. The Greek statues were made for many different purposes, such as embodying human, divinity, mythological creatures, and animals (Holm 10). The ones that represented deity were placed in temples, gravesites, altars, and gateways. Throughout the Archaic and Classical Periods, Greek sculptures were mainly focused on the goddess Athena, worshipping her in honor of Athena on the Acropolis (Longfellow 133).

The Stylistic Cycle of the Parthenon temple and the Agora public square has contributed to changing the modern architectural thoughts (Boutsikas 6). This famous structure is a source of a lot of information that is essential in studying the Greek's culture. The sculptures provided a method of communicating amid vast distances. They generated and influence and familiarity within the population to learn and know about the one depicted in the statue (Holm 9). Others would either have a very naturalistic approach to look like their designers or showcase idealized traits in their portraiture.

The Greeks invented architectural formulas in the 6th century that have a significant influence on the classical column orders. The formulas have conveyed some connotative meanings that convey a message of European democracy. Ancient Greek architecture has inspired many modern architects through the historical structures that have stood firm to overcome the test of time. This monuments, sculptures, and buildings should be embraced and protected as they testify the ancient culture to the modern era and future generations.

Works Cited

Boutsikas, Efrosyni. "Placing Greek Temples: An Archaeoastronomical Study of the Orientation of Ancient Greek Religious Structures." Archaeoastronomy. 21 (2007): 4-19.

Holm, A. "Wisdom from Ancient Greece Music, Sculpture, and Architecture." Sculpture Review. 57.4 (2008): 8-11.

Longfellow, Brenda. "Roman Fountains in Greek Sanctuaries." American Journal of Archaeology. 116.1 (2012): 133-155.

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