case studies on action research

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Ann Fam Med
• v.19(6); Nov-Dec 2021

Case Study With a Participatory Approach: Rethinking Pragmatics of Stakeholder Engagement for Implementation Research

Catherine hudon.

1 Department of Family Medicine and Emergency Medicine, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada

Maud-Christine Chouinard

2 Faculty of Nursing, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Mathieu Bisson

Alya danish, marlène karam, ariane girard, pierre-luc bossé, mireille lambert.

3 Integrated University Health and Social Services Centre, Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada

Associated Data

The case study design is particularly useful for implementation analysis of complex health care innovations in primary care that can be influenced by the context of dynamic environments. Case studies may be combined with participatory approaches where academics conduct joint research with nonacademic stakeholders, to foster translation of findings results into practice. The aim of this article is to clarify epistemological and methodological considerations of case studies with a participatory approach. It also aims to propose best practice recommendations when using this case study approach. We distinguish between the participatory case study with full co-construction and co-governance, and the case study with a participatory approach whereby stakeholders are consulted in certain phases of the research. We then compare the epistemological posture of 3 prominent case study methodologists, Yin, Stake, and Merriam, to present the epistemological posture of case studies with a participatory approach. The relevance, applications, and procedures of a case study with a participatory approach methodology are illustrated through a concrete example of a primary care research program (PriCARE). We propose 12 steps for designing and conducting a case study with a participatory approach that may help guide researchers in the implementation analysis of complex health care innovations in primary care.

Over the last 40 years, case study research has become increasingly popular and has evolved rapidly in many disciplines. By allowing in-depth analysis of complex phenomena in real-world contexts, 1 the case study design is particularly useful in health services research, 2 for implementation analysis of complex interventions that can be influenced by the context of dynamic environments. 3 Public health and primary care research encourage a participatory approach because involvement of stakeholders fosters translation of research findings into practice. 4 This was the case of the PriCARE primary care research program. In this multijurisdictional Canadian study, the research team and stakeholders aimed to evaluate the implementation of a case management intervention in 10 primary care clinics, for frequent users of health care services with chronic diseases and complex care needs. 5 , 6 It is important to first distinguish the case study with a participatory approach from the participatory case study before proceeding with the example of the PriCARE program.

Participatory Research and the Case Study

Participatory research is a systematic inquiry whereby academics conduct joint research with nonacademic partners affected by the issue being studied, for purposes of education and taking action or promoting social change. 7 , 8 Participatory research conducted for empowerment or social change relies on the transformative/postmodern interpretative paradigm, in which knowledge is not neutral and reflects the power and social relationships within a society. The purpose of knowledge construction is to help people improve society. 9 Each phase of the research process is an opportunity to create knowledge through a collaborative effort to develop or refine the research questions, select the methodology, develop data collection methods and tools, choose outcome measures, interpret findings, craft the message, and disseminate the results, feasibility, and outcomes. 4 Rosemary C. Reilly, PhD, MEd 10 proposes that a case study may adopt a participatory focus with full co-governance where participants are fully involved as contributing researchers in all phases of the research process, from conceptualization of the study to write-up and dissemination of the findings.

Within the different participatory research approaches, the transformational intent of stakeholder involvement may, however, range from empowerment to more pragmatic considerations. The case study with a participatory approach may be adopted to facilitate knowledge translation and practice changes 4 in the implementation of a complex intervention such as case management, where several components interact with each other and with their context, and where there are multiple highly adaptable effects. 11 The intensity of stakeholder involvement will vary from full co-construction and involvement in all stages of the research to involvement or consultation in only certain phases of the research, balancing stakeholder engagement and availability. The participatory case study with a full co-governance structure relies on the transformative/postmodern interpretative paradigm, but what are the epistemological assumptions of the case study with a participatory approach? What steps should be taken to ensure the validity of this approach when applied to the case study? In this article, we aim to clarify epistemological and methodological considerations of case studies with a participatory approach. We also propose best practice recommendations when applying this approach to the case study.

EPISTEMOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS OF 3 PROMINENT CASE STUDY METHODOLOGISTS

Three prominent case study methodologists—Robert K. Yin, PhD, Robert E. Stake, PhD, and Sharan B. Merriam, MEd, EdD—brought differing perspectives to move case study knowledge forward in educational and social science research. All 3 provided definitions, designs, applications, and procedures to follow when conducting case study research. 12 Table 1 summarizes and compares their epistemological positions and assumptions, which we discuss in more detail below.

Comparison of Epistemological Assumptions of Yin, Stake, Merriam, and Reilly (Inspired by Patton 15 )

Yin: Postpositivism

Yin’s realist–postpositivist epistemological posture 1 , 13 defines a case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the ‘case’) within its real-life context.” 14 Although reality cannot be entirely apprehended, the knowledge generated from the case study is the result of the combination of experimentations leading to a closer approximation of actual mechanisms. 15 Yin suggests combining quantitative and qualitative sources, viewing them as equally instrumental. He places considerable emphasis on preparing a detailed design at the outset of the research and advises that investigators make only minor changes in the design after they begin data collection. 16 Interaction with research participants therefore needs to be minimized and subjectivity managed to avoid biasing the results. 16

Stake: Constructivism

Stake’s epistemological commitment is to constructivism, which leads him to define the case study as the “study of the particularity and complexity of a single case, coming to understand its activity within important circumstances.” 17 Unlike Yin, Stake considers knowledge as a construction rather than the result of an empiric inquiry developed within a logical sequence. He argues that reality is multiple and subjective. 17 This assertion implies that human experiences can be known through every perspective of a given situation, all of which are equally valuable. While suggesting that every viewpoint of a situation be represented in the case study, he recommends minimal interaction between the researchers and the context of the case or the involved individuals. 18

Merriam: Constructivist Pragmatism

Merriam’s constructivist pragmatism appears similar to Stake’s at the outset. Reality is an intersubjective construction. 19 Where she diverges from Stake is mostly in the finality of knowledge, which is to address concrete problems and give answers or direction to progress. 15 In this perspective, the truth is what works in practice. 15 Merriam’s approach to case study design combines elements of Yin’s positivist standpoint with Stake’s constructivism. For her, a case study is essentially an in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system. 19 Merriam proposes a structured approach to designing research in a step-by-step process: conducting a literature review; constructing a theoretical framework; identifying a research problem; crafting and sharpening research questions; and selecting the sample (purposeful sampling). 19

Yet, Merriam recommends that the study design remain flexible to a certain degree, which means, for example, that sample selection may occur before or in conjunction with data collection. 16 As it is the unit of analysis that defines the case, other types of approaches can be combined with the case study. 19 The design will depend on the theoretical framework of the study, its purpose, and the research questions. 19 In Merriam’s constructivist pragmatism, participatory research is an approach to enhance internal validity. 16 This epistemological posture is compatible with a participatory approach to case study research.

THE WHY AND HOW OF USING A CASE STUDY WITH A PARTICIPATORY APPROACH IN IMPLEMENTATION RESEARCH

Which case study approach should be used in implementation research? The answer will depend on the epistemological assumptions on which the methods will rely. On one hand, a research team adopting a postpositivist standpoint (as proposed by Yin) will want to maintain independence from stakeholders and will conduct the implementation analysis from an external/objective point of view that precludes a participatory approach. On the other hand, a team adopting a constructivist perspective (as proposed by Stake) will plan qualitative methods to shed light on the multiple perspectives of stakeholders without involving them as co-researchers in the study. Then again, researchers who adopt a transformative posture (as proposed by Reilly) will work closely with community or organizational partners in the co-construction of the implementation using a participatory case study approach. Finally, a “middle ground” approach20 may be to adopt a pragmatic posture (as proposed by Merriam), where researchers use a case study with a participatory approach to conduct an implementation analysis of a health care innovation while consulting community or organizational stakeholders in certain phases of the research. Adopting this epistemological posture, we will present the example of the PriCARE program 5 , 6 in the next section.

TWELVE STEPS FOR CONDUCTING CASE STUDIES WITH A PARTICIPATORY APPROACH IN HEALTH CARE IMPLEMENTATION RESEARCH

Building on Merriam’s previously mentioned step-bystep process, 19 we propose 12 steps for conducting case studies with a participatory approach in health care implementation research. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed research process. Steps 1 through 10 are sequential and iterative, whereas steps 11 and 12 are concurrent and ongoing.

Twelve steps to conduct a case study with a participatory approach.

(1) Think About What a Pragmatic Posture Means

Disagreements during the project within the academic research team, or between the academic research team and stakeholders, may be related to differences of epistemological posture or values. Being aware of and sharing this posture from the beginning of the project will help maintain the coherence of methodological choices throughout the project. For the PriCARE program, in accordance with the pragmatic posture of Merriam, the academic research team decided on consultation of varying intensity, rather than full partnership, depending on the category of stakeholders.

(2) Identify Stakeholders and Determine a Governance Structure for Consultation

To optimize the implementation process and practice changes, various stakeholders—decision makers, clinicians, and patient partners—may collaborate with the academic research team according to their interest, availability, and expertise. In PriCARE, decision makers and clinicians were consulted based on the relevance of their expertise to certain phases of the project, and to accommodate time constraints, whereas most patient partners were engaged as co-researchers in all steps of the project. Many stakeholders were involved before the grant was obtained and in a pragmatic context (people changing jobs or people expressing interest in being involved), whereas other stakeholders joined the team during the project (new patient partners, new case managers, etc). Supplemental Table 1 (available at https://www.AnnFamMed.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1370/afm.2717/-/DC1 ) identifies the committees and roles of stakeholders within the PriCARE program.

Four types of stakeholders were involved corresponding to the categories proposed by Damschroder et al21 in their Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (Supplemental Figure 1, available at https://www.AnnFamMed.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1370/afm.2717/-/DC1 ). Their roles and contributions are detailed below.

Opinion leaders. Decision makers, who are referred to as opinion leaders, 21 are in a good position to inform the team regarding the broad context of implementation and to play a role in disseminating results and applying new knowledge. In the PriCARE program, decision makers were health center chief executive officers, primary care services directors, and representatives of health ministries. The academic research team consulted decision makers from each participating province while writing the grant request to ensure consideration of the global context in which the project would be implemented. Decision makers were consulted for strategic decisions and for knowledge transfer activities.

Champions. As champions, 21 clinicians working on the ground are usually aware of the specific dynamics in their setting and can give useful advice to the research team regarding feasibility, potential challenges, or adaptation required before implementation. Champions can be helpful in convincing their colleagues to participate in the project and in encouraging them toward change. The academic research team was in contact, in person or by telephone, with family physicians as well as managers in the clinics to facilitate case management implementation.

Formally appointed internal implementation leaders. Individuals from within the organization who have been formally appointed with responsibility for implementing the intervention—as a part of their job—are called formally appointed internal implementation leaders. 21 In PriCARE, the case manager nurses were identified during recruitment of the participating clinics at the beginning of the project. In addition to doing fieldwork, they informed the academic research team about the challenges they were facing or about what helped them to carry out the intervention as the project was progressing. The academic research team organized formal training and a virtual community of practice bringing all case managers together to deploy co-development activities.

External change agents. Finally, patient partners may play the role of external change agents. 21 They bring an experiential perspective to research, provide valuable advice to the team about patient recruitment and data collection, and validate and interpret aspects of the analysis. In PriCARE, regular meetings with patient partners (not related to the clinics) and research assistants were organized to advise the team on different aspects of the project (questionnaires, patient recruitment, analysis, knowledge transfer plan, etc). Patient partners also contributed to training the case managers and met with them to advise them on approaching patients with complex needs.

Discussions with stakeholders addressed expectations and preferences regarding their contribution, as well as the management of interaction, engagement, and communication. A clear governance structure was proposed ( Supplemental Figure 1 ). Most communication was virtual and by e-mail to accommodate geographic realities. The way the team functioned always considered the various circumstances of different stakeholders, their level of involvement, and their ability to contribute during the project.

(3) Consult Stakeholders About the Research Problem

PriCARE decision makers and clinicians in each province helped the academic research team to understand their context of implementation and what was needed in that province in terms of adapting the intervention and training. We also consulted patient partners to develop a broader understanding of the problem.

(4) Conduct a Literature Review

The literature review determines the knowledge gap, which in turn allows the relevant research questions to be presented and specified for the project. In PriCARE, 2 literature reviews on case management were conducted: a systematic review by the academic research team22 and a realist synthesis by the research team engaging stakeholders in the steering committee, including decision makers, clinicians, and patient partners. 23 Both reviews were summarized and shared with stakeholders.

(5) Sharpen Research Questions or Objectives

The final research questions of the PriCARE program were formulated, after consultation with stakeholders, by the academic research team. They are as follows: what are the facilitators of and barriers to case management implementation in primary care clinics across Canada; what are the relationships between the actors, contextual factors, mechanisms, and outcomes of the case management intervention; and what are the next steps toward case management scale-up in primary care across Canada?

(6) Choose or Construct a Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework emerging from the literature review helps elaborate research questions and points of emphasis. 24 It also often helps in the building of data collection tools (eg, interview guides and questionnaires) and in guiding the analysis process. Although stakeholders may contribute to this step, in PriCARE, it was the academic research team who decided to use a combination of the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research 21 and the Rainbow Model of Integrated Care Framework, 25 combining the concepts of primary care and integrated care. 6 The academic research team took responsibility for explaining theoretical frameworks to stakeholders through brief, informal online meetings, to ensure a common comprehension and facilitate participation and engagement of all stakeholders throughout the research process.

(7) Define the Case and Its Boundaries

In implementation research, the case is often an innovation implemented in a specific primary care setting. To select the case and establish the research design, we recommend identifying the focus and refining the parameters of the case including the participants, location, and/or process to be explored, and also establishing the timeframe for investigating the case. 19 The focus and boundaries may also be influenced by the resources and time available to accomplish the research project. In PriCARE, stakeholders, especially opinion leaders and champions, helped delimit the cases. Each case was the case management intervention implemented in the individual clinic.

(8) Design the Methods and Collect the Data

We encourage researchers to use multiple methods of data collection to provide a more comprehensive view of the subject being studied. Data collection methods for case studies are usually qualitative but may also be quantitative. 1 Use of software is highly recommended for regrouping and managing all the data. 9 , 15 The complete design and data collection methods of PriCARE, which had a multiple-case, embedded, mixed methods design, are described elsewhere. 5 , 6 The research team designed the methods. Clinicians and case managers identified eligible patient participants registered to the clinic, who were contacted by the latter. Patient partners, well positioned to understand the situation of participants, contributed to explaining the research project in lay language, and to answering their questions to obtain their consent for participation. They were also involved in developing recruitment and data collection tools to adapt the scientific language to a lay audience.

Case study research with a participatory approach allowed the PriCARE academic research team to observe participants during meetings with stakeholders. The academic research team carefully planned interactions to manage key messages to be delivered to stakeholders and to record and document all interactions so that meetings were also opportunities for data collection, for promoting change, and for facilitating implementation. The impact of this approach on data collection and results must be rigorously documented, analyzed, and discussed. 9 , 26

(9) Do the Analysis

Although the various analytic strategies suggested by the 3 methodologists 13 , 19 , 27 remain relevant, the particulars of case studies with a participatory approach make it possible to involve partners in various steps, to better understand, to coanalyze, or to validate results. In PriCARE, patient partners participated in key steps of the analysis to ensure meaningful interpretation.

(10) Reflect on the Impact of the Participatory Approach on the Results

The case study with participatory approach should document the role of the research team during observation and consider it to be a contextual element in the analysis of each case. For example, positive relationships between the individuals involved in a case may promote implementation and improve impact. 28 This situation may differ with another group of individuals in another case. Although such facilitation is considered a desirable extra benefit of the participatory approach, its impact on the results still has to be made explicit and discussed. 8

In PriCARE, the research team used a logbook to document interactions and reflections to maintain a reflexive distancing. 9 , 19 We sought to involve all stakeholders in these reflections, to better understand the impacts of the participatory approach, both positive and negative, which were transparently discussed in reports or articles.

(11) Plan Strategies to Ensure Rigor

As a concurrent, ongoing step, the team has to plan strategies to ensure the rigor of the research. 29 In PriCARE, we ensured credibility through in-depth description and analysis of context using qualitative and quantitative data collection in each province. We kept an audit trail of all decisions and collected data to ensure dependability. We promoted triangulation of the expertise of team members (researchers of various backgrounds, diverse health care professionals, patient partners, decision makers) and reflexivity through team discussions and interactions. We made a thick description of each clinic’s context to promote transferability. We also respected rigor criteria when administering questionnaires. 30

(12) Elaborate and Apply a Knowledge Transfer Plan

Researcher and stakeholder collaboration throughout the research process is a strong predictor that research findings will be put into practice, 31 so stakeholders should be involved in the elaboration and the application of the knowledge transfer plan. In PriCARE, team members and stakeholders of each province representing each targeted audience (population, clinicians, decision makers, and researchers) helped to write the plan throughout the study, tailor messages, and disseminate case study findings. 31 All stakeholders mobilized within the case study contributed to knowledge transfer.

CONCLUSIONS

Engaging stakeholders in the design and conduct of case studies may enhance implementation analysis of complex health care interventions in primary care, whereby stakeholders are consulted to foster translation of findings results into practice. Ensuring transparency and rigor of the approach remains crucial as it lays the groundwork for critical evaluation of this strategy. The 12 steps we propose here constitute a major milestone toward attaining this goal. Future research could contribute to testing and refining these steps, and demonstrating the contribution of this approach to implementation in health care.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

We would like to acknowledge all team members and partners who were engaged in the PriCARE program.

Conflicts of interest: authors report none.

To read or post commentaries in response to this article, go to https://www.AnnFamMed.org/content/19/6/540/tab-e-letters .

Authors’ contributions: C.H. proposed a first draft of the manuscript. C.H., M-C.C., M.B., A.D., M.K., A.G., P-L.B., and M.L. substantially contributed to subsequent drafts. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding support: This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).

Disclaimer: The views expressed are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent official views of the authors’ affiliated institutions or funder.

Supplemental materials: Available at https://www.AnnFamMed.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1370/afm.2717/-/DC1 .

• Subject List
• Take a Tour
• For Authors
• Subscriber Services
• Publications
• African American Studies
• African Studies
• American Literature
• Anthropology
• Architecture Planning and Preservation
• Art History
• Atlantic History
• Biblical Studies
• British and Irish Literature
• Childhood Studies
• Chinese Studies
• Cinema and Media Studies
• Communication
• Criminology
• Environmental Science
• Evolutionary Biology
• International Law
• International Relations
• Islamic Studies
• Jewish Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Latino Studies
• Linguistics
• Literary and Critical Theory
• Medieval Studies
• Military History
• Political Science
• Public Health
• Renaissance and Reformation
• Social Work
• Urban Studies
• Victorian Literature
• Browse All Subjects

How to Subscribe

• Free Trials

In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Action Research in Education

Introduction.

• Chapters and Articles
• Theory and Ethics
• Practical Texts for Individual Teachers
• Collaborative Inquiry and School-Wide Teams for Administrators and School Leaders
• Action Research in Teacher Education
• Action Research in Graduate Education
• PAR Inquiry Processes
• Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR)
• Critical Participatory Action Research
• Critical Youth Participatory Action Research
• International Perspectives
• Exemplary Case Studies
• Practitioner Journals for Action Researchers across All Disciplines
• Research Journals for Action Researchers across All Disciplines
• Journals Primarily for English/Language Arts/Literacy Educators, Teacher Educators, and Researchers
• Action Research Organizations

Related Articles Expand or collapse the "related articles" section about

About related articles close popup.

Lorem Ipsum Sit Dolor Amet

Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Aliquam ligula odio, euismod ut aliquam et, vestibulum nec risus. Nulla viverra, arcu et iaculis consequat, justo diam ornare tellus, semper ultrices tellus nunc eu tellus.

• Ethical Research with Young Children
• Grounded Theory
• Methodologies for Conducting Education Research
• Mixed Methods Research
• Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques
• Qualitative Research Design
• Social Science and Education Research

Other Subject Areas

Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

• English as an International Language for Academic Publishing
• Girls' Education in the Developing World
• History of Education in Europe
• Find more forthcoming articles...
• Export Citations
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Action Research in Education by Mary Beth Hines , Kerry Armbruster , Adam Henze , Maria Lisak , Christina Romero-Ivanova , Leslie Rowland , Lottie Waggoner LAST REVIEWED: 15 January 2020 LAST MODIFIED: 15 January 2020 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0140

Educational action research involves participants conducting inquiry into their own practices in order to improve teaching and learning, practices and programs. This means that the researcher is a participant in the activity being investigated, be it in schools or community centers—wherever teaching and learning occur. In Guiding School Improvement with Action Research ( Sagor 2000 , cited under Collaborative Inquiry and School-Wide Teams for Administrators and School Leaders ), Richard Sagor describes action research as “a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action . . .[in order to] assist the “actor” in improving and/or refining his or her actions” (p. 3). The term “educational action research” encompasses a variety of approaches with different goals (see Historical Overviews of Educational Action Research ). While no consensus exists on a taxonomy that best describes its variations (modes, goals, epistemologies, politics, processes), most analyses identify the following types: (1) “Teacher research” signifies P-16 teacher-conducted inquiry designed to explore research questions related to educational improvement. It is often used interchangeably with “practitioner research/participant inquiry,” although this is a broader term that also refers to projects initiated by others in the educational experience (e.g., administrators, staff, community members). (2) “Participatory action research” (PAR) emphasizes equal, collaborative participation among university and/or school personnel and/or others with vested interests in education, working toward the shared goal of producing educational change. (3) “Youth participatory action research” (YPAR) includes young people as research partners and agents of change. (4) “Critical action research” refers to investigations of underlying power relations present in one’s situated educational practices. All educational action research is designed to impact local policy and practice. Critiques of action research object to this focus on the micro level, claiming that it does not impact education beyond the immediate audience. However, this viewpoint obscures the fact that qualitative action research case studies and cross-case analyses are generalizable to theory, thus carrying the potential to create widespread change. Another critique centers on the limited effectiveness of connecting action research with social justice. However, others argue that social justice is inextricably woven into action research because the inquiry stems from grassroots movements that emphasize social change ( Cochran-Smith and Lytle 2009 , cited under Books ) and privileges the educator’s “insider” knowledge alongside the outside researcher’s formal academic training. The following criteria were used for selecting the texts cited in this article: (1) texts that were peer-reviewed, (2) texts explicitly described as action research (or a synonymous term) by the writer or other scholars, (3) texts cited more frequently than other texts on the same issue, (4) texts originally written in English. These criteria guidelines eliminated the use of dissertations, conference papers, blogs, or pedagogical narratives that were not described as action research (or a comparable term), or reports written in other languages.

Historical Overviews of Educational Action Research

This section contains key texts in defining and outlining the history of educational action research. The scholars whose works are included are among the most cited, recognized, and respected in this field. These articles and books will aid in understanding the spectrum of issues that led to action research’s inception as well as its implementations, changes, and ideologies. This section is broken into shorter works ( Chapters and Articles ) and longer works ( Books ) that will guide the reader in gaining a better understanding of action research’s past and its growth as an area of study.

back to top

Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login .

Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here .

• About Education »
• Meet the Editorial Board »
• Academic Achievement
• Academic Audit for Universities
• Academic Freedom and Tenure in the United States
• Action Research in Education
• Adjuncts in Higher Education in the United States
• Administrator Preparation
• Adolescence
• Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Courses
• Advocacy and Activism in Early Childhood
• African American Racial Identity and Learning
• Alaska Native Education
• Alternative Certification Programs for Educators
• Alternative Schools
• American Indian Education
• Animals in Environmental Education
• Art Education
• Artificial Intelligence and Learning
• Assessing School Leader Effectiveness
• Assessment, Behavioral
• Assessment, Educational
• Assessment in Early Childhood Education
• Assistive Technology
• Augmented Reality in Education
• Beginning-Teacher Induction
• Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
• Black Undergraduate Women: Critical Race and Gender Perspe...
• Blended Learning
• Case Study in Education Research
• Changing Professional and Academic Identities
• Character Education
• Children’s and Young Adult Literature
• Children's Beliefs about Intelligence
• Children's Rights in Early Childhood Education
• Citizenship Education
• Civic and Social Engagement of Higher Education
• Classroom Learning Environments: Assessing and Investigati...
• Classroom Management
• Coherent Instructional Systems at the School and School Sy...
• College Admissions in the United States
• College Athletics in the United States
• Community Relations
• Comparative Education
• Computer-Assisted Language Learning
• Computer-Based Testing
• Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Evaluating Improvement Net...
• Continuous Improvement and "High Leverage" Educational Pro...
• Counseling in Schools
• Critical Approaches to Gender in Higher Education
• Critical Perspectives on Educational Innovation and Improv...
• Critical Race Theory
• Crossborder and Transnational Higher Education
• Cross-National Research on Continuous Improvement
• Cross-Sector Research on Continuous Learning and Improveme...
• Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education
• Culturally Responsive Leadership
• Culturally Responsive Pedagogies
• Culturally Responsive Teacher Education in the United Stat...
• Curriculum Design
• Data Collection in Educational Research
• Data-driven Decision Making in the United States
• Deaf Education
• Desegregation and Integration
• Design Thinking and the Learning Sciences: Theoretical, Pr...
• Development, Moral
• Dialogic Pedagogy
• Digital Age Teacher, The
• Digital Citizenship
• Digital Divides
• Disabilities
• Distance Learning
• Distributed Leadership
• Doctoral Education and Training
• Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) in Denmark
• Early Childhood Education and Development in Mexico
• Early Childhood Education in Aotearoa New Zealand
• Early Childhood Education in Australia
• Early Childhood Education in China
• Early Childhood Education in Europe
• Early Childhood Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
• Early Childhood Education in Sweden
• Early Childhood Education Pedagogy
• Early Childhood Education Policy
• Early Childhood Education, The Arts in
• Early Childhood Mathematics
• Early Childhood Science
• Early Childhood Teacher Education
• Early Childhood Teachers in Aotearoa New Zealand
• Early Years Professionalism and Professionalization Polici...
• Economics of Education
• Education For Children with Autism
• Education for Sustainable Development
• Education Leadership, Empirical Perspectives in
• Education of Native Hawaiian Students
• Education Reform and School Change
• Educational Statistics for Longitudinal Research
• Educator Partnerships with Parents and Families with a Foc...
• Emotional and Affective Issues in Environmental and Sustai...
• Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
• Environmental and Science Education: Overlaps and Issues
• Environmental Education
• Environmental Education in Brazil
• Epistemic Beliefs
• Equity and Improvement: Engaging Communities in Educationa...
• Equity, Ethnicity, Diversity, and Excellence in Education
• Ethics and Education
• Ethics of Teaching
• Ethnic Studies
• Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention
• Family and Community Partnerships in Education
• Family Day Care
• Federal Government Programs and Issues
• Feminization of Labor in Academia
• Finance, Education
• Financial Aid
• Formative Assessment
• Future-Focused Education
• Gender and Achievement
• Gender and Alternative Education
• Gender, Power and Politics in the Academy
• Gender-Based Violence on University Campuses
• Gifted Education
• Global Mindedness and Global Citizenship Education
• Global University Rankings
• Governance, Education
• Growth of Effective Mental Health Services in Schools in t...
• Higher Education and Globalization
• Higher Education and the Developing World
• Higher Education Faculty Characteristics and Trends in the...
• Higher Education Finance
• Higher Education Governance
• Higher Education Graduate Outcomes and Destinations
• Higher Education in Africa
• Higher Education in China
• Higher Education in Latin America
• Higher Education in the United States, Historical Evolutio...
• Higher Education, International Issues in
• Higher Education Management
• Higher Education Policy
• Higher Education Research
• Higher Education Student Assessment
• High-stakes Testing
• History of Early Childhood Education in the United States
• History of Education in the United States
• History of Technology Integration in Education
• Homeschooling
• Inclusion in Early Childhood: Difference, Disability, and ...
• Inclusive Education
• Indigenous Education in a Global Context
• Indigenous Learning Environments
• Indigenous Students in Higher Education in the United Stat...
• Infant and Toddler Pedagogy
• Inservice Teacher Education
• Integrating Art across the Curriculum
• Intelligence
• Intensive Interventions for Children and Adolescents with ...
• International Perspectives on Academic Freedom
• Intersectionality and Education
• Knowledge Development in Early Childhood
• Leadership Development, Coaching and Feedback for
• Leadership in Early Childhood Education
• Leadership Training with an Emphasis on the United States
• Learning Analytics in Higher Education
• Learning Difficulties
• Learning, Lifelong
• Learning, Multimedia
• Learning Strategies
• Legal Matters and Education Law
• LGBT Youth in Schools
• Linguistic Diversity
• Linguistically Inclusive Pedagogy
• Literacy Development and Language Acquisition
• Literature Reviews
• Mathematics Identity
• Mathematics Instruction and Interventions for Students wit...
• Mathematics Teacher Education
• Measurement for Improvement in Education
• Measurement in Education in the United States
• Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis in Education
• Methodological Approaches for Impact Evaluation in Educati...
• Mindfulness, Learning, and Education
• Motherscholars
• Multiliteracies in Early Childhood Education
• Multiple Documents Literacy: Theory, Research, and Applica...
• Multivariate Research Methodology
• Museums, Education, and Curriculum
• Music Education
• Narrative Research in Education
• Native American Studies
• Nonformal and Informal Environmental Education
• Note-Taking
• Numeracy Education
• One-to-One Technology in the K-12 Classroom
• Online Education
• Open Education
• Organizing for Continuous Improvement in Education
• Organizing Schools for the Inclusion of Students with Disa...
• Outdoor Play and Learning
• Outdoor Play and Learning in Early Childhood Education
• Pedagogical Leadership
• Pedagogy of Teacher Education, A
• Performance Objectives and Measurement
• Performance-based Research Assessment in Higher Education
• Performance-based Research Funding
• Phenomenology in Educational Research
• Philosophy of Education
• Physical Education
• Podcasts in Education
• Policy Context of United States Educational Innovation and...
• Politics of Education
• Portable Technology Use in Special Education Programs and ...
• Post-humanism and Environmental Education
• Pre-Service Teacher Education
• Problem Solving
• Productivity and Higher Education
• Professional Development
• Professional Learning Communities
• Program Evaluation
• Programs and Services for Students with Emotional or Behav...
• Psychology Learning and Teaching
• Psychometric Issues in the Assessment of English Language ...
• Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research Samp...
• Quantitative Research Designs in Educational Research
• Queering the English Language Arts (ELA) Writing Classroom
• Race and Affirmative Action in Higher Education
• Reading Education
• Refugee and New Immigrant Learners
• Relational and Developmental Trauma and Schools
• Relational Pedagogies in Early Childhood Education
• Reliability in Educational Assessments
• Religion in Elementary and Secondary Education in the Unit...
• Researcher Development and Skills Training within the Cont...
• Research-Practice Partnerships in Education within the Uni...
• Response to Intervention
• Restorative Practices
• Risky Play in Early Childhood Education
• Scale and Sustainability of Education Innovation and Impro...
• Scaling Up Research-based Educational Practices
• School Accreditation
• School Choice
• School Culture
• School District Budgeting and Financial Management in the ...
• School Improvement through Inclusive Education
• School Reform
• Schools, Private and Independent
• School-Wide Positive Behavior Support
• Science Education
• Secondary to Postsecondary Transition Issues
• Self-Regulated Learning
• Self-Study of Teacher Education Practices
• Service-Learning
• Severe Disabilities
• Single Salary Schedule
• Single-sex Education
• Single-Subject Research Design
• Social Context of Education
• Social Justice
• Social Network Analysis
• Social Pedagogy
• Social Studies Education
• Sociology of Education
• Standards-Based Education
• Statistical Assumptions
• Student Access, Equity, and Diversity in Higher Education
• Student Assignment Policy
• Student Engagement in Tertiary Education
• Student Learning, Development, Engagement, and Motivation ...
• Student Participation
• Student Voice in Teacher Development
• Sustainability Education in Early Childhood Education
• Sustainability in Early Childhood Education
• Sustainability in Higher Education
• Teacher Beliefs and Epistemologies
• Teacher Collaboration in School Improvement
• Teacher Evaluation and Teacher Effectiveness
• Teacher Preparation
• Teacher Training and Development
• Teacher Unions and Associations
• Teacher-Student Relationships
• Teaching Critical Thinking
• Technologies, Teaching, and Learning in Higher Education
• Technology Education in Early Childhood
• Technology, Educational
• Technology-based Assessment
• The Bologna Process
• The Regulation of Standards in Higher Education
• Theories of Educational Leadership
• Three Conceptions of Literacy: Media, Narrative, and Gamin...
• Tracking and Detracking
• Traditions of Quality Improvement in Education
• Transformative Learning
• Transitions in Early Childhood Education
• Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities in the Unite...
• Understanding the Psycho-Social Dimensions of Schools and ...
• University Faculty Roles and Responsibilities in the Unite...
• Using Ethnography in Educational Research
• Value of Higher Education for Students and Other Stakehold...
• Virtual Learning Environments
• Vocational and Technical Education
• Wellness and Well-Being in Education
• Women's and Gender Studies
• Young Children and Spirituality
• Young Children's Learning Dispositions
• Young Children's Working Theories
• Privacy Policy
• Cookie Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility

Powered by:

• [66.249.64.20|185.66.14.236]
• 185.66.14.236

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, an action research case study: digital equity and educational inclusion during an emergent covid-19 divide.

Journal for Multicultural Education

ISSN : 2053-535X

Article publication date: 22 January 2021

Issue publication date: 4 June 2021

This paper aims to share responses from current literature, a small case study about perceptions and practices of the school of education faculty toward multicultural and educational issues concerning the rapid rise in online environments during coronavirus (COVID-19) experiences and just-in-time strategies for addressing digital equity and educational inclusion in K-16 online educational settings.

Design/methodology/approach

This is a conceptual paper that emerged from an action research case study. The study included four faculty in an urban school of education. The faculty participants were asked to provide examples of educational inclusion strategies used during transitioning their courses and advising to online environments in a Research I university. Faculty included one educational leadership, one sports management, one special education and one teacher education professor. Central issues explored practices related to language, technology access, curriculum design and technological competencies and assessment. A driving question was: How do institutions, schools or educators provide learning opportunities to support digital equity and inclusive education practice to maintain and strengthen relationships and core practices of multicultural education during a time of physical distancing during COVID-19? And what are the experiences, barriers, successes?

Research-based transformative knowledge, real situations and practical resources for considering inclusive education curriculum concepts were found that are connecting educators, teachers, learners and communities during this time of crisis.

Research limitations/implications

Methodological limitations that influenced the research design include conducting research in a totally virtual environment, small sample size, lack of diversity in curriculum content and one research site. The data collection was limited to written responses from the faculty participants. This action research study took place in a time frame limited by COVID-19 conditions during a four-month period.

Practical implications

In theory and practice, this new online movement suggests learners, teachers, educators and leaders are gaining experience and knowledge about resources and strategies for using new technologies, assessments and flexible curriculum as powerful tools for building language, curriculum and social-cultural communication bonds across generations and including special needs populations. Such new and emerging strategies could be used to bridge gaps in a time of distancing to support inclusive and equitable learning environments in education to minimize the effects of an emergent COVID-19 digital divide. Social learning culture as constructed, performed and captured in patterns of cooperation among faculties shows the world becoming more open and less restricted by borders. In conclusion, an emerging new conceptual framework is presented in Figure 2 to support action planning to bridge the digital equity access and learning gaps created by COVID-19.

Social implications

It is in times of strife and difficulty that problems and issues become exacerbated. While some educators easily adapted and took on the challenges of online learning, others needed time for learning and mourning (literally and figuratively). The issues of equity and access have become even more apparent as this paper takes inventory of intersections between multicultural education, special education, sports education and K-16 education overall. This is an excellent time to reflect on how education can address the cultural, economic and social barriers that impact student learning globally for all learners.

Originality/value

The brief collective case study reports educational experiences during a time of crisis that stimulates creative and innovative approaches to creating inclusive and equitable online learning environments to address diverse learning needs. The various and often contrasting educator responses from faculty facing digital and educational challenges present ideas that might be applicable in the global learning environment beyond the COVID-19 pandemic.

• Online learning
• New technologies
• Transformative knowledge

Acknowledgements

World Council on Curriculum and Instruction -WCCI (UNESCO-NGO) Newsletter, Winter 2020 Content cited by Toh Swee-Hin (S.H.Toh) President, WCCI. Professor Emeritus, University of Alberta. Laureate, UNESCO Prize for Peace Education (2000).

Pittman, J. , Severino, L. , DeCarlo-Tecce, M.J. and Kiosoglous, C. (2021), "An action research case study: digital equity and educational inclusion during an emergent COVID-19 divide", Journal for Multicultural Education , Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 68-84. https://doi.org/10.1108/JME-09-2020-0099

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020, Emerald Publishing Limited

Related articles

We’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

Research Methods and Design

• Action Research
• Case Study Design
• Literature Review
• Quantitative Research Methods
• Qualitative Research Methods
• Mixed Methods Study
• Indigenous Research and Ethics This link opens in a new window
• Identifying Empirical Research Articles This link opens in a new window
• Research Ethics and Quality
• Data Literacy
• Get Help with Writing Assignments

Action research

A type of applied research designed to find the most effective way to bring about a desired social change or to solve a practical problem, usually in collaboration with those being researched.

SAGE Research Methods Videos

How do you define action research.

Professor David Coghlan explains action research as an approach that crosses many academic disciplines yet has a shared focus on taking action to address a problem. He describes the difference between this approach and empirical scientific approaches, particularly highlighting the challenge of getting action research to be taken seriously by academic journals

Dr. Nataliya Ivankova defines action research as using systematic research principles to address an issue in everyday life. She delineates the six steps of action research, and illustrates the concept using an anti-diabetes project in an urban area.

This is just one segment in a whole series about action research. You can find the rest of the series in our SAGE database, Research Methods:

Videos covering research methods and statistics

Further Reading

• << Previous: Home
• Next: Case Study Design >>
• Last Updated: Feb 6, 2024 9:20 AM

CityU Home - CityU Catalog

Action Research vs. Case Study

What's the difference.

Action research and case study are both research methodologies used in social sciences to investigate and understand complex phenomena. However, they differ in their approach and purpose. Action research is a collaborative and participatory approach that involves researchers and practitioners working together to identify and solve practical problems in real-world settings. It aims to bring about positive change and improvement in the context being studied. On the other hand, case study is an in-depth and detailed examination of a particular individual, group, or situation. It focuses on understanding the unique characteristics and dynamics of the case being studied and often involves extensive data collection and analysis. While action research emphasizes practical application and problem-solving, case study emphasizes detailed exploration and understanding of a specific case.

Further Detail

Introduction.

Action research and case study are two widely used research methodologies in various fields. While both approaches aim to gain insights and understanding, they differ in their focus, design, and implementation. This article will explore the attributes of action research and case study, highlighting their similarities and differences.

Action Research

Action research is a participatory approach that involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners to address real-world problems. It emphasizes the active involvement of stakeholders in the research process, aiming to bring about practical change and improvement. Action research typically follows a cyclical process, consisting of planning, action, observation, and reflection.

One of the key attributes of action research is its focus on generating knowledge that is directly applicable to the context in which it is conducted. It aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice by actively involving practitioners in the research process. This participatory nature allows for a deeper understanding of the complexities and nuances of the problem being investigated.

Action research often involves multiple iterations, with each cycle building upon the insights gained from the previous one. This iterative approach allows for continuous learning and adaptation, enabling researchers to refine their interventions and strategies based on the feedback received. It also promotes a sense of ownership and empowerment among the participants, as they actively contribute to the research process.

Furthermore, action research is characterized by its emphasis on collaboration and co-learning. It encourages the exchange of ideas and knowledge between researchers and practitioners, fostering a sense of shared responsibility and collective action. This collaborative approach not only enhances the quality of the research but also increases the likelihood of successful implementation of the findings.

In summary, action research is a participatory and iterative approach that aims to generate practical knowledge through collaboration between researchers and practitioners. It focuses on addressing real-world problems and promoting positive change within specific contexts.

Case study, on the other hand, is an in-depth investigation of a particular phenomenon, event, or individual. It involves the detailed examination of a specific case or cases to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject under study. Case studies can be conducted using various research methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis.

One of the key attributes of case study research is its ability to provide rich and detailed insights into complex phenomena. By focusing on a specific case, researchers can delve deep into the intricacies and unique aspects of the subject, uncovering valuable information that may not be easily captured through other research methods.

Case studies are often used to explore and understand real-life situations in their natural settings. They allow researchers to examine the context and dynamics surrounding the case, providing a holistic view of the phenomenon under investigation. This contextual understanding is crucial for gaining a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the subject.

Furthermore, case studies are particularly useful when the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are not clearly defined. They allow for the exploration of complex and multifaceted issues, enabling researchers to capture the interplay of various factors and variables. This holistic approach enhances the validity and reliability of the findings.

Moreover, case studies can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory in nature, depending on the research questions and objectives. They can be used to generate hypotheses, provide detailed descriptions, or test theoretical frameworks. This versatility makes case study research applicable in various fields, including psychology, sociology, business, and education.

In summary, case study research is an in-depth investigation of a specific phenomenon, providing rich and detailed insights into complex situations. It focuses on understanding the context and dynamics surrounding the case, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of multifaceted issues.

Similarities

While action research and case study differ in their focus and design, they also share some common attributes. Both approaches aim to gain insights and understanding, albeit through different means. They both involve the collection and analysis of data to inform decision-making and improve practice.

Furthermore, both action research and case study can be conducted in naturalistic settings, allowing for the examination of real-life situations. They both emphasize the importance of context and seek to understand the complexities and nuances of the phenomena under investigation.

Moreover, both methodologies can involve multiple data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. They both require careful planning and design to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.

Additionally, both action research and case study can contribute to theory development. While action research focuses on generating practical knowledge, it can also inform and contribute to theoretical frameworks. Similarly, case studies can provide empirical evidence that can be used to refine and expand existing theories.

In summary, action research and case study share common attributes, including their aim to gain insights and understanding, their focus on real-life situations, their emphasis on context, their use of multiple data collection methods, and their potential contribution to theory development.

Action research and case study are two distinct research methodologies that offer unique approaches to gaining insights and understanding. Action research emphasizes collaboration, participation, and practical change, while case study focuses on in-depth investigation and contextual understanding. Despite their differences, both approaches contribute to knowledge generation and have the potential to inform theory and practice. Researchers should carefully consider the nature of their research questions and objectives to determine which approach is most suitable for their study.

Comparisons may contain inaccurate information about people, places, or facts. Please report any issues.

Home » Education » Difference Between Action Research and Case Study

Difference Between Action Research and Case Study

Main difference – action research vs case study.

Research is the careful study of a given field or problem in order to discover new facts or principles. Action research and case study are two types of research, which are mainly used in the field of social sciences and humanities. The main difference between action research and case study is their purpose; an action research study aims to solve an immediate problem whereas a case study aims to provide an in-depth analysis of a situation or case over a long period of time.

1. What is Action Research?      – Definition, Features, Purpose, Process

2. What is Case Study?      – Definition, Features, Purpose, Process

What is Action Research

Action research is a type of a research study that is initiated to solve an immediate problem. It may involve a variety of analytical, investigative and evaluative research methods designed to diagnose and solve problems. It has been defined as “a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the “actor” in improving and/or refining his or her actions” (Sagor, 2000). This type of research is typically used in the field of education. Action research studies are generally conductors by educators, who also act as participants.

Here, an individual researcher or a group of researchers identify a problem, examine its causes and try to arrive at a solution to the problem. The action research process is as follows.

Action Research Process

• Identify a problem to research
• Clarify theories
• Identify research questions
• Collect data on the problem
• Organise, analyse, and interpret the data
• Create a plan to address the problem
• Implement the above-mentioned plan
• Evaluate the results of the actions taken

The above process will keep repeating. Action research is also known as cycle of inquiry or cycle of action since it follows a specific process that is repeated over time.

What is a Case Study

A case study is basically an in-depth examination of a particular event, situation or an individual. It is a type of research that is designed to explore and understand complex issues; however, it involves detailed contextual analysis of only a limited number of events or situations. It has been defined as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.” (Yin, 1984)

Case studies are used in a variety of fields, but fields like sociology and education seem to use them the most. They can be used to probe into community-based problems such as illiteracy, unemployment, poverty, and drug addiction. 

Case studies involve both quantitative and qualitative data and allow the researchers to see beyond statistical results and understand human conditions. Furthermore, case studies can be classified into three categories, known as exploratory, descriptive and explanatory case studies.

However, case studies are also criticised since the study of a limited number of events or cases cannot easily establish generality or reliability of the findings. The process of a case study is generally as follows:

Case Study Process

• Identifying and defining the research questions
• Selecting the cases and deciding techniques for data collection and analysis
• Collecting data in the field
• Evaluating and analysing the data
• Preparing the report

Action Research : Action research is a type of a research study that is initiated to solve an immediate problem.

Case Study : Case study is an in-depth analysis of a particular event or case over a long period of time.                         

Action Research : Action research involves solving a problem.

Case Study : Case studies involve observing and analysing a situation.

Action Research : Action research studies are mainly used in the field of education.

Case Study : Case studies are used in many fields; they can be specially used with community problems such as unemployment, poverty, etc.

Action Research : Action research always involve providing a solution to a problem.

Case Study : Case studies do not provide a solution to a problem.

Participants

Action Research : Researchers can also act as participants of the research.

Case Study : Researchers generally don’t take part in the research study.

Zainal, Zaidah.  Case study as a research method . N.p.: n.p., 7 June 2007. PDF.

 Soy, Susan K. (1997).  The case study as a research method . Unpublished paper, University of Texas at Austin.

Sagor, Richard.  Guiding school improvement with action research . Ascd, 2000.

Image Courtesy: Pixabay

About the Author: Hasa

Hasanthi is a seasoned content writer and editor with over 8 years of experience. Armed with a BA degree in English and a knack for digital marketing, she explores her passions for literature, history, culture, and food through her engaging and informative writing.

​You May Also Like These

Leave a reply cancel reply.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts

Latest science news, discoveries and analysis

Could a rare mutation that causes dwarfism also slow ageing?

Bird flu in US cows: is the milk supply safe?

Future of Humanity Institute shuts: what's next for ‘deep future’ research?

Judge dismisses superconductivity physicist’s lawsuit against university

Nih pay raise for postdocs and phd students could have us ripple effect, hello puffins, goodbye belugas: changing arctic fjord hints at our climate future, china's moon atlas is the most detailed ever made, ‘shut up and calculate’: how einstein lost the battle to explain quantum reality, ecologists: don’t lose touch with the joy of fieldwork chris mantegna.

Should the Maldives be creating new land?

Lethal AI weapons are here: how can we control them?

Algorithm ranks peer reviewers by reputation — but critics warn of bias

How gliding marsupials got their ‘wings’

Bird flu virus has been spreading in us cows for months, rna reveals, audio long read: why loneliness is bad for your health, nato is boosting ai and climate research as scientific diplomacy remains on ice, rat neurons repair mouse brains — and restore sense of smell.

Retractions are part of science, but misconduct isn’t — lessons from a superconductivity lab

Any plan to make smoking obsolete is the right step

Citizenship privilege harms science

European ruling linking climate change to human rights could be a game changer — here’s how charlotte e. blattner, will ai accelerate or delay the race to net-zero emissions, current issue.

The Maldives is racing to create new land. Why are so many people concerned?

Surprise hybrid origins of a butterfly species, stripped-envelope supernova light curves argue for central engine activity, optical clocks at sea, research analysis.

Ancient DNA traces family lines and political shifts in the Avar empire

A chemical method for selective labelling of the key amino acid tryptophan

Robust optical clocks promise stable timing in a portable package

Targeting RNA opens therapeutic avenues for Timothy syndrome

Bioengineered ‘mini-colons’ shed light on cancer progression, galaxy found napping in the primordial universe, tumours form without genetic mutations, marsupial genomes reveal how a skin membrane for gliding evolved.

Scientists urged to collect royalties from the ‘magic money tree’

Breaking ice, and helicopter drops: winning photos of working scientists

Shrouded in secrecy: how science is harmed by the bullying and harassment rumour mill

Want to make a difference try working at an environmental non-profit organization, how ground glass might save crops from drought on a caribbean island, books & culture.

How volcanoes shaped our planet — and why we need to be ready for the next big eruption

Dogwhistles, drilling and the roots of Western civilization: Books in brief

Cosmic rentals

Las borinqueñas remembers the forgotten puerto rican women who tested the first pill, dad always mows on summer saturday mornings, nature podcast.

Latest videos

Nature briefing.

An essential round-up of science news, opinion and analysis, delivered to your inbox every weekday.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

Read our research on:

Full Topic List

Regions & Countries

• Publications
• Our Methods
• Short Reads
• Tools & Resources

Read Our Research On:

Americans and affirmative action: How the public sees the consideration of race in college admissions, hiring

The term “affirmative action” has a long history in the United States. One early reference appears in an executive order that President John F. Kennedy signed in 1961 , directing federal contractors to “take affirmative action” to prevent discrimination against job applicants and employees on the basis of race or other factors.

Today, affirmative action generally refers to programs aimed at boosting educational or employment opportunities for racial and ethnic minority groups that historically have faced discrimination. But the idea has sparked many debates in recent years . Some Americans see these programs as an effective way to address past wrongs and increase racial and ethnic diversity in higher education and the workplace. Others view them as discriminatory in their own right.

Here’s a closer look at what recent surveys have found about Americans’ views of affirmative action, both in a broad sense and in specific settings.

Pew Research Center published this backgrounder about affirmative action in the United States because the issue is currently in the news. The U.S. Supreme Court is expected to decide a high-profile case in the weeks ahead about the consideration of race and ethnicity in college admissions decisions.

All public opinion findings cited here come from surveys conducted by the Center or Gallup. Information about the field dates and sample sizes of each survey, as well as additional methodological details, are available by following the links in the text.

For more detailed information about how Americans see the consideration of race and ethnicity in college admissions decisions, read our recent reports: “More Americans Disapprove Than Approve of Colleges Considering Race, Ethnicity in Admissions Decisions” and “Asian Americans Hold Mixed Views Around Affirmative Action.”

How familiar is the public with affirmative action?

In a December 2022 Pew Research Center survey, around eight-in-ten U.S. adults (79%) said they had ever heard the phrase “affirmative action.”

College graduates, those with higher incomes and older people were among the groups most likely have heard the term. For instance, 90% of Americans 65 and older said they had heard the phrase, compared with 65% of those ages 18 to 29. White and Black adults were also more likely than Asian or Hispanic adults to have heard the phrase.

How do Americans feel about affirmative action?

Public attitudes about affirmative action depend on how Americans are asked about it.

Americans who had heard the phrase affirmative action in the Center’s December survey were asked whether they saw it as a good or a bad thing. Among those who had ever heard the term, 36% said affirmative action is a good thing, 29% said it is a bad thing and a third weren’t sure.

By comparison, Gallup has asked U.S. adults whether they “generally favor or oppose affirmative action programs for racial minorities.” In 2021, the last time Gallup asked this question, a 62% majority of Americans favored such programs .

Public attitudes about affirmative action can also vary depending on the specific context in which it is being discussed, such as in higher education or the workplace.

How do Americans view race and ethnicity as a factor in college admissions?

A larger share of Americans disapprove than approve of higher education institutions taking race and ethnicity into account when admitting students, according to several recent Center surveys.

In a survey conducted in spring 2023 , half of U.S. adults said they disapprove of selective colleges and universities taking race and ethnicity into account in admissions decisions in order to increase racial and ethnic diversity. A third of adults approved of this, while 16% were not sure.

In the same survey, 49% of Americans said the consideration of race and ethnicity makes the overall admissions process less fair, while only 20% said it makes the process fairer. Another 17% said it does not affect the fairness of the admissions process, while 13% said they weren’t sure.

Other Center surveys have also found more opposition than support for the consideration of race and ethnicity in college admissions decisions.

In the December 2022 survey, for example, 82% of U.S. adults said colleges should not consider race or ethnicity when deciding which students to accept, while only 17% said colleges should take this into account. Americans were far more likely to say that colleges should consider other factors, particularly high school grades and standardized test scores.

How do Americans view race and ethnicity as a factor in hiring?

Most Americans say companies should not take race and ethnicity into account when hiring or promoting workers, according to a 2019 Center survey .

In that survey, 74% of U.S. adults said that, when making decisions about hiring and promotions, companies and organizations should take only a person’s qualifications into account, even if it results in less diversity. Around a quarter (24%) said companies and organizations should take a person’s race and ethnicity into account – in addition to qualifications – to increase diversity.

While most Americans disapprove of the consideration of race and ethnicity in hiring and promotion decisions, they still see value in a diverse workplace. Three-quarters of adults said in the 2019 survey that it was very or somewhat important for companies and organizations to promote racial and ethnic diversity in their workplace. Around a quarter (24%) said this was not too or not at all important.

How do Americans view recent efforts related to diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) in the workplace? While public attitudes on DEI efforts in the workplace are much more positive than negative, a sizeable share of Americans say it is neither good nor bad, according to a February 2023 Center survey of employed Americans .

In the survey, 56% of workers said that, in general, focusing on increasing diversity, equity and inclusion at work is mainly a good thing, while far fewer (16%) said it is a bad thing. Another 28% said it is neither good nor bad.

Still, relatively few workers attached a great deal of importance to diversity in their workplace. Only about a third (32%) said it’s extremely or very important to them to work somewhere with a mix of employees of different races and ethnicities.

How do attitudes on these topics vary by race and ethnicity? Racial and ethnic minorities – especially Black Americans – are more likely than White Americans to support the consideration of race and ethnicity in college admissions and hiring decisions.

In the Center’s spring 2023 survey, around half of Black adults (47%) approved of selective colleges considering race and ethnicity in their admissions decisions, compared with 39% of Hispanic adults, 37% of Asian adults and 29% of White adults. In fact, Black adults were the only racial or ethnic group more likely to approve than disapprove of such efforts. Hispanic adults were evenly divided, while Asian and White adults were more likely to disapprove than approve. (These figures refer only to English-speaking Asian adults. For a closer look at views among Asian Americans – including those who do not speak English – read our recent report, “Asian Americans Hold Mixed Views Around Affirmative Action.” )

When it comes to hiring and promotion decisions in the workplace, about four-in-ten Black adults (37%) said in the Center’s 2019 survey that companies and organizations should take a person’s race and ethnicity into account – in addition to their qualifications – in order to increase diversity. Hispanic (27%) and White (21%) adults were less likely to express this view. (There were not enough Asian adults in the survey sample to report their results separately.) Are there partisan differences on these issues?

Yes. Democrats are far more likely than Republicans to approve of colleges and employers considering race and ethnicity.

In the Center’s spring 2023 survey, more than half of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (54%) approved of selective colleges and universities taking race and ethnicity into account when making admissions decisions. Roughly three-quarters of Republicans and Republican leaners (74%) disapproved.

There were also wide partisan differences over how the consideration of race and ethnicity affects the college admissions process. Democrats were divided over whether it makes the overall admissions process fairer or less fair (33% and 30%, respectively, held these views). But by a margin of 70% to 7%, Republicans said it makes the process less fair.

In the 2019 survey about hiring and promotion decisions, majorities of Democrats and Republicans alike said companies and organizations should take only a person’s qualifications into account, even if it results in less diversity. But Republicans were far more likely than Democrats to express this view (90% vs. 62%).

• Affirmative Action
• Business & Workplace
• Higher Education

John Gramlich is an associate director at Pew Research Center

Striking findings from 2023

Private, selective colleges are most likely to use race, ethnicity as a factor in admissions decisions, asian americans hold mixed views around affirmative action, more americans disapprove than approve of colleges considering race, ethnicity in admissions decisions, hispanic enrollment reaches new high at four-year colleges in the u.s., but affordability remains an obstacle, most popular.

1615 L St. NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036 USA (+1) 202-419-4300 | Main (+1) 202-857-8562 | Fax (+1) 202-419-4372 |  Media Inquiries

Research Topics

• Age & Generations
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Economy & Work
• Family & Relationships
• Gender & LGBTQ
• Immigration & Migration
• International Affairs
• Internet & Technology
• Methodological Research
• News Habits & Media
• Non-U.S. Governments
• Other Topics
• Politics & Policy
• Race & Ethnicity
• Email Newsletters

ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of  The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Copyright 2024 Pew Research Center

Terms & Conditions

Privacy Policy

Cookie Settings

Reprints, Permissions & Use Policy

Prime energy, sports drinks contain PFAS and excessive caffeine, class action suits say

YouTubers Logan Paul and KSI founded Prime Hydration in 2022, and while their products have become increasingly popular and profitable, the company continues to face class action suits over the ingredients in their energy and sports drinks.

Prime Hyrdation LLC was sued April 8 in the Southern District of New York over "misleading and deceptive practices" regarding the company's 12-ounce energy drinks containing between 215-225 milligrams of caffeine as opposed to the advertised 200 milligrams, according to the class action suit.

Lara Vera, a Poughkeepsie, New York resident, filed the suit in federal court on behalf of herself and others who bought Prime products across the U.S., the complaint says. Vera purchased Prime's Blue Raspberry products several times in August 2022 for about $3 to $4 each, but she would have never bought the drinks if she had known the actual caffeine content, according to the suit.

Vera's suit is seeking $5 million from the company owned by Paul and KSI, real name Olajide Olayinka Williams "JJ" Olatunji, court records show.

Court records do not say whether Prime Hydration retained legal counsel for Vera's suit.

How much caffeine is in Prime energy drinks?

Prime's advertised 200 milligrams of caffeine is equivalent to "half a dozen Coke cans or nearly two (12-ounce) Red Bulls," Vera's class action suit says.

A 12-ounce can of Red Bull energy drink contains 114 milligrams of caffeine, and a cup of coffee contains around 100 milligrams of caffeine, according to the suit.

The suit continues to say that "there is no proven safe dose of caffeine for children." Side effects of kids consuming caffeine could include rapid or irregular heartbeats, headaches, seizures, shaking, upset stomach and adverse emotional effects on mental health, according to the complaint.

Sen. Charles Schumer , D-N.Y., called on the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to investigate Prime energy drinks in 2023 because of dangerously high caffeine levels. Schumer alleged in a letter to the FDA that vague marketing targeting young people influenced parents to buy a “cauldron of caffeine" for their kids.

Schumer's call to action to the FDA is referenced in Vera's suit.

USA TODAY contacted Prime Hydration's attorneys Tuesday afternoon but did not receive an immediate response.

What are the Prime Hydration lawsuits?

Vera's legal battle is beginning, but Prime is still dealing with another class action suit from 2023 alleging a flavor of the company's sports drinks contains PFAS, or "forever chemicals."

Independent third-party testing determined the presence of PFAS chemicals in Prime Hydration grape flavor, according to a class action suit filed Aug. 2, 2023, in the Northern District of California by the Milberg law firm on behalf of Elizabeth Castillo and others similarly affected.

"Lead plaintiff Elizabeth Castillo, a resident of California, purchased Prime Hydration on multiple occasions but says she would not have bought it at all if the product had been accurately marketed and labeled as containing PFAS," the Milberg law firm said in an August 2023 news release . "These chemicals were not reasonably detectible to consumers like herself."

Castillo's suit is seeking a $5 million judgment, court records show.

As of April 18, the judge in the case has heard Prime's argument to dismiss the suit due to Castillo not alleging "a cognizable injury" and her not alleging "facts showing a concrete (and) imminent threat of future harm," according to the drink company's motion.

Paul addressed Castillo's claims Wednesday in a 3-minute TikTok video.

"First off, anyone can sue anyone at any time that does not make the lawsuit true," Paul said in the TikTok video. "And in this case, it is not… one person conducted a random study and has provided zero evidence to substantiate any of their claims."

What are forever chemicals?

PFAS are called forever chemicals because they "bioaccumulate, or accrue in the body over time," the Milberg law said in its news release.

"These man-made chemicals are well-studied and have been found to have adverse effects on the human body and environment," the New York City-headquartered law firm said.

Many PFAS are found in people's and animal's blood and can be detected at low levels in a variety of food products and in the environment, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said. Forever chemicals can be found in water, air, fish and soil at locations across the nation and the globe, according to the EPA.

"There are thousands of PFAS chemicals, and they are found in many different consumer, commercial, and industrial products," the EPA said. "This makes it challenging to study and assess the potential human health and environmental risks."

Who made Prime energy drinks?

Before founding Prime Hydration LLC, Logan Paul, 29, and KSI, 30, were YouTubers who turned their millions of subscribers into supporters of their boxing, wrestling, music, social media content and other endeavors.

Going into the drinks business proved to be profitable for both YouTubers as "Prime Hydration generated more than $250 million in retail sales in its first year, including $45 million in a single month," according to the Milberg law firm.

Paul and KSI continue to keep Prime products in the spotlight whether it is paying for an ad during Super Bowl 57 , having livestreamer IShowSpeed dress up in a Prime sports drink bottle during Wrestlemania 40 or signing athletes including Patrick Mahomes, Aaron Judge, Israel Adesanya, Tyreek Hill, Kyle Larson, Alisha Lehmann and others to sponsorship deals.