essay on education as a means of livelihood

Transforming lives through education

Transforming education to change our world

UNESCO provides global and regional leadership on all aspects of education from pre-school to higher education and throughout life. It works through its Member States and brings together governments, the private sector and civil society to strengthen education systems worldwide in order to deliver quality education for all. As a thought leader it publishes landmark reports and data for policy-makers, implements programmes on the ground from teacher training to emergency responses and establishes and monitors norms and standards for all to guide educational developments.  

Right to education in a ruined world

Southern Italy, 1950. Three children are huddled around a makeshift desk made out of reclaimed wood, scribbling in their notebooks. The classroom has an earthen floor and roughly clad walls. The children’s clothes are ragged. They are wearing home-made slippers because shoes and the money to buy them are rare commodities in the war-ravaged south. 

Although World War II ended five years earlier, the scars of conflict are still visible in this black and white photo from a report commissioned by UNESCO from legendary photojournalist David Seymour. 

At the time when the photograph was taken, less than half of Italy’s population could read and write and just a third completed primary school. 70 years later, these children’s grandchildren enjoy an over 99% literacy rate. In the wake of the war, UNESCO led a major education campaign in Europe to respond to the education crisis, to rebuild links between people and to strengthen democracy and cultural identities after years of conflict. The emphasis then was on the fundamental learning skill of literacy.  

Immediately after World War two UNESCO led a major education campaign in Europe to respond to the education crisis, fix and rebuild links between people and strengthen cultural identities after years of conflict. David Seymour’s images show the extent of the fight against illiteracy led by the post-war Italian government and non-governmental organisations backed by UNESCO. 

Looking back at the deprived surroundings Seymour captured in his photo essay, one can see the extent of success. Seventy-one years later, those children’s grandchildren enjoy a 99.16 per cent literacy rate. 

Similar programmes were held across the globe, for instance in devastated Korea where UNESCO led a major education textbook production programme in the 1950s. Several decades after, the former Secretary-General of the United Nations and Korean citizen Ban Ki-Moon expressed the importance of such a programme for the country's development: 

The flowering of literacy

In a Korea devastated by war and where UNESCO led a major education textbook production programme in the 1950s, one student, Ban Ki-Moon, now Former Secretary-General of the United Nations, saw the world open up to him through the pages of a UNESCO textbook. Several decades after, he expressed the importance of such a programme for his country's development on the world stage.

Reaching the remote villages perched atop the Andes in Peru during the early 1960s wasn’t without its challenges for UNESCO’s technical assistance programme to bring literacy to disadvantaged communities. While Peru’s economy was experiencing a prolonged period of expansion, not all Peruvians were able to benefit from this growth which was limited to the industrialised coast. Instead, Andes communities were grappling with poverty, illiteracy and depopulation. 

Today, the number of non-literate youths and adults around the world has decreased dramatically, while the global literacy rate for young people aged 15-24 years has reached 92 %. These astonishing successes reflect improved access to schooling for younger generations.

Photojournalist Paul Almasy has left us the poignant image of a barefoot older man while he’s deciphering a newspaper thanks to his newfound literacy skills.

The classroom at the UNESCO mission in Chinchera, in the Andean highlands of Peru, had allowed the old man to discover the world beyond his tiny village.

However, there are still huge obstacles to overcome. Data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics shows that 617 million children and adolescents worldwide are not achieving minimum proficiency levels in reading and mathematics. Since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 it is still the case that globally more than 450 million children - six out of 10 - have failed to gain basic literacy skills by the age of 10. And beyond literacy programmes, massive investments in skills for work and life, teacher training, and education policies are needed in a world that is changing ever faster. 

Global priorities

Africa, home to the world’s youngest population, is not on track to achieve the targets of SDG 4. Sub-Saharan Africa alone is expected to account for 25% of the school-age population by 2030, up from 12% in 1990, yet it remains the region with the highest out-of-school rates. Girls are more likely to be permanently excluded from education than boys. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated inequalities, with 89% of learners not having access to computers and 82% lacking internet access to benefit from distance learning. The lack of trained teachers further jeopardizes progress towards SDG4: pre-pandemic only 64% of whom were trained at the primary level and 58% at the lower secondary level.

As part of its Priority Africa Flagship 2022 – 2029 , UNESCO has launched Campus Africa: Reinforcing Higher Education in Africa with the objective to build integrated, inclusive, and quality tertiary education systems and institutions, for the development of inclusive and equitable societies on the continent.

Gender    

There are immense gender gaps when it comes to access, learning achievement and education, most often at the expense of girls and women. It is estimated that some 127 million girls are out of school around the world. For many girls and women around the world, the classroom remains an elusive, often forbidden space. UNESCO monitors the educational rights of girls and women around the world and shares information on the legal progress toward securing the right to education for women in all countries. Despite important progress in recent decades, the right to education is still far from being a reality for many girls and women. Discriminatory practices stand in the way of girls and women fully exercising their right to participate in, complete, and benefit from education. And while girls have difficulty with access, boys face increasing challenges, and particularly disengagement , from education at later stages. Globally only 88 men are enrolled in tertiary education for every 100 women. In 73 countries, fewer boys than girls are enrolled in upper-secondary education.

UNESCO's Her Atlas analyzes the legal frameworks of nearly 200 states to track which laws are enabling---or inhibiting---the right to education for girls and women. This interactive world map uses a color-coded scoring system to monitor 12 indicators of legal progress towards gender equality in the right to education.

Monitoring the right to education for girls and women

What makes me proud is that soon I will finish building a new house. I have already been able to buy a cow and I will soon be able to have another pond

Madagascar’s coastal Atsinanana region is known for its lush rainforests and fish breeding.

The country has a young population, but only one out of three children can complete primary education. Among those who are able to finish primary school, only 17% have minimum reading skills, while just a fifth of them have basic maths competencies. Once they leave school, children face a precarious labour market and unstable jobs, just like their parents.

Natacha Obienne is only 21 years old, but she is already in charge of a small fish farm, a career that is usually pursued by men. As one of the many out-of-school women in her area, she was able to set up her own business after vocational training taught her the basics of financial management and entrepreneurship, as well as the practicalities of breeding fish.

She understood that fish feeding depends on the temperature of the water. If it’s well managed, a higher number of fish is produced. ‘I immediately applied everything I learnt’ she says.

The classroom she attended changed the course of her life and she hopes other young people will follow in her footsteps.

I no longer depend on my parents and I am financially independent

She’s not alone. Around 3,000 youths in Madagascar have been trained since the start of the UNESCO-backed programme, some of whom have set up their own business and achieved financial independence. Education was the best way to ease people's emancipation.

Like Emma Claudia, 25, who after her vocational training started a restaurant with just a baking tray and a saucepan.

What does my family think? They are surprised and amazed by my evolution because I haven’t been able to complete my studies. I don’t have any school diplomas.

While Natacha and Emma Claudia have been able to transform their world through education, millions of children out of school around the world are still denied that dream.

Discrimination against girls remains widespread and nearly one billion adults, mostly women, are illiterate. The lack of qualified teachers and learning materials continues to be the reality in too many schools.

Challenging these obstacles is getting harder as the world grapples with the acceleration of climate change, the emergence of digitization and artificial intelligence, and the increasing exclusion and uncertainty brought by the Covid-19 pandemic.

We resumed school a while ago and it’s been stressful. We are trying to retrieve what we lost during quarantine, the worst thing about not being in school is the number of things you miss. Learning behind a screen and learning in person are incomparable.

Aicha is lucky to be able to continue her education. Her country has the highest rate of out-of-school children in the world – 10.5 million – and nearly two-thirds are women. To compound the problem, Nigeria’s northern states suffer from the violence that targets education.

In Russia, too, Alexander and his school friends had to cope with virtual learning and the lack of interactions.

All Russian students were moved to online studying. Needless to say, it was a rough year for all of us, several friends were struggling with depressive moods. They were missing their friends and teachers. So did I.

To protect their right to education during this unprecedented disruption and beyond, UNESCO has launched the Global Education Coalition , a platform for collaboration and exchange that brings together more than 175 countries from the UN family, civil society, academia and the private sector to ensure that learning never stops.

Building skills where they are most needed

Crouched over a pedal-powered sewing machine, Harikala Buda looks younger than her 30 years. Her slim fingers fold a cut of turquoise brocade before deftly pushing it under the needle mechanism.

Harikala lives in rural Nepal, where many villagers, particularly women, don’t have access to basic education. Women like Harikala rely on local community UNESCO-supported learning centres to receive literacy and tailoring skills. In a country where 32% of people over 15 are illiterate, particularly women and those living in rural areas, education is the only route to becoming self-reliant.

I have saved a small amount. My husband’s income goes towards running the house, mine is saved. We must save today to secure our children’s future

Having access to a classroom is the first step to creating a better world for the student, the student’s children and the student’s community. This is a lesson that matters a lot to

Kalasha Khadka Khatri, a 30-year-old Nepali mother. She grew up in a family of 21, with no option to go to school. Two of her children didn’t survive infancy because she was unable to pay for medical treatment. After acquiring sewing skills at her local community learning centre, Kalasha can now provide for her family.

Harikala and Kalasha were able to learn their skills through the support of the UNESCO’s Capacity Development for Education Programme (CapED), an initiative that operates in some 26 least-developed and fragile countries. 

Reimagining the future of education

As the world slowly recovers after the COVID-19 crisis, 244 million children and youth worldwide are still out of school. And a 2022 survey by UNESCO, UNICEF, World Bank and OECD finds that one quarter of countries have yet to collect information on children who have and have not returned to school since the pandemic started.

Rebuilding how and where we learn requires policy advice, stronger education legislation, funds mobilisation, advocacy, targeted programme implementation based on sound analysis, statistics and global information sharing. Quality education also calls for the teaching of skills far beyond literacy and maths, including critical thinking against fake news in the digital era, living in harmony with nature and the ethics of artificial intelligence, to name a few of the critical skills needed in the 21st century. 

UNESCO  captured the debate around the futures of education in its landmark report from 2022 entitled Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education.

The Transformative Education Summit , that took place during the United Nations General Assembly in September 2022, as well as the Pre-Summit hosted by UNESCO to forge new approaches to education after the COVID-19 crisis, address the toughest bottlenecks to achieving SDG 4 and inspire young people to lead a global movement for education. World leaders committed to put education at the top of the political agenda. UNESCO has been mobilizing and consulting all stakeholders and partners to galvanize the transformation of every aspect of learning. UNESCO launched a number of key initiatives such as expanding public digital learning, making education responsive to the climate and environmental emergency, and improving access for crisis-affected children and youth.

The two children sitting at their makeshift desk in Italy in 1950 could not have imagined what a modern learning space might look like or how a modern curriculum or the tools and teacher training to deliver it might have been thought out and shaped to offer them the most from education. They could not have imagined the global drive to ensure that everyone was given a chance to learn throughout life. The only thing that has not changed since the photo was taken is the fact that education remains a fundamental and universal human right that can change the course of a life. To the millions still living in conditions of poverty, exclusion displacement and violence it opens a door to a better future.

Explore all the work and expertise of UNESCO in education

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Essay on Education for School Students and Children

500+ words essay on education.

Education is an important tool which is very useful in everybody’s life. Education is what differentiates us from other living beings on earth. It makes man the smartest creature on earth. It empowers humans and gets them ready to face challenges of life efficiently. With that being said, education still remains a luxury and not a necessity in our country. Educational awareness needs to be spread through the country to make education accessible. But, this remains incomplete without first analyzing the importance of education. Only when the people realize what significance it holds, can they consider it a necessity for a good life. In this essay on Education, we will see the importance of education and how it is a doorway to success.

Importance of Education

Education is the most significant tool in eliminating poverty and unemployment . Moreover, it enhances the commercial scenario and benefits the country overall. So, the higher the level of education in a country, the better the chances of development are.

In addition, this education also benefits an individual in various ways. It helps a person take a better and informed decision with the use of their knowledge. This increases the success rate of a person in life.

Subsequently, education is also responsible for providing with an enhanced lifestyle. It gives you career opportunities that can increase your quality of life.

Similarly, education also helps in making a person independent. When one is educated enough, they won’t have to depend on anyone else for their livelihood. They will be self-sufficient to earn for themselves and lead a good life.

Above all, education also enhances the self-confidence of a person and makes them certain of things in life. When we talk from the countries viewpoint, even then education plays a significant role. Educated people vote for the better candidate of the country. This ensures the development and growth of a nation.

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Doorway to Success

To say that education is your doorway to success would be an understatement. It serves as the key which will unlock numerous doors that will lead to success. This will, in turn, help you build a better life for yourself.

An educated person has a lot of job opportunities waiting for them on the other side of the door. They can choose from a variety of options and not be obligated to do something they dislike. Most importantly, education impacts our perception positively. It helps us choose the right path and look at things from various viewpoints rather than just one.

With education, you can enhance your productivity and complete a task better in comparison to an uneducated person. However, one must always ensure that education solely does not ensure success.

It is a doorway to success which requires hard work, dedication and more after which can you open it successfully. All of these things together will make you successful in life.

In conclusion, education makes you a better person and teaches you various skills. It enhances your intellect and the ability to make rational decisions. It enhances the individual growth of a person.

Education also improves the economic growth of a country . Above all, it aids in building a better society for the citizens of a country. It helps to destroy the darkness of ignorance and bring light to the world.

FAQs on Education

Q.1 Why is Education Important?

A.1 Education is important because it is responsible for the overall development of a person. It helps you acquire skills which are necessary for becoming successful in life.

Q.2 How does Education serve as a Doorway to Success?

A.2 Education is a doorway to success because it offers you job opportunities. Furthermore, it changes our perception of life and makes it better.

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Migrant Education and Livelihoods

Home » Toolkits » Humanitarian Service Points Toolkit » HSP Implementation: Migrant Programmes and Activities » Migrant Education and Livelihoods

Education is a learning process that enables individuals to acquire knowledge, skills and values that contribute to their personal, social and professional development with a view to ensuring that they build their resilience, achieve their potential, and live in dignity, solidarity and peace together. 

Livelihoods

A livelihood is a means of making a living. It encompasses people’s capabilities, assets, income and activities required to secure the necessities of life. A livelihood is sustainable when it enables people to cope with and recover from shocks and stresses (such as natural disasters and economic or social upheavals) and enhance their well-being and that of future generations without undermining the natural environment or resource base.

Education and livelihoods are often deprioritised in acute humanitarian contexts, particularly when people are displaced or on the move. This is partly because attention goes first to the basic needs of survival and partly because they can be perceived as too difficult or outside of the scope of humanitarian work. The terms ‘education’ and ‘livelihoods’ are also used to apply to a wide range of activities, at a variety of levels.

Education and livelihoods are vital to migrants, and programmes and activities should be considered whenever possible. They build resilience, create opportunity, support economic, social and psychological well-being, and facilitate meaningful social connection and integration.

Key issues migrants face

Some of the most important barriers that face migrants in accessing education and livelihoods include language, legal status, and recognition of credentials or of past educational level and achievements in other education systems, including those along the migration journey.

Irregular migrants’ rights to study or work are rarely guaranteed, though a few countries do explicitly recognise migrant children’s right to access primary and secondary education. 

Even if irregular migrants are entitled to work or study, they may avoid doing so for fear of being detected and detained. Separated and unaccompanied children may fear being taken into care.

Under the Refugee Convention , refugees have the right to work and study, but in many countries, this is restricted while their asylum claim is being considered, which can take years.

Migrants may struggle to find meaningful work if their qualifications are not recognised or they cannot access certificates or diplomas. The costs of (re)certification are usually high.

Migrants may struggle even to be hired for lower-skilled work or work outside of their profession if they have no local or national work experiences or references. 

As a result of these factors, migrants can end up missing vital years of education, with potentially serious impacts on future prospects. They may face immediate and longer-term economic hardship, including destitution and homelessness.

As many jobs for migrants may be in the informal economy they may also lead to exploitation or make migrants vulnerable to trafficking. 

Key Learning

A study on livelihoods in urban areas recommends all programming target both nationals and non-nationals. This can improve livelihoods for migrants, as bringing nationals and non-nationals together (e.g. in training programmes) supports networking, partnerships, increased understanding of the local context, and building social capital. Governments may also look more favourably on such programs, and they can help reduce resentment in the host community.

Feinstein Centre Refugee Livelihoods in Urban Areas , 2012. 

“Undocumented migrant children should have access to all levels of education, and their attendance of primary education should be compulsory and free (Article 13, ICESCR). The Committee interpreting the ICESCR in its General Comment No. 13 (1999) on the right to education "confirm[ed] that the principle of non-discrimination extends to all persons of school age residing in the territory of a State party, including non-nationals, and irrespective of their legal status.”

Undocumented Migrant Children’s Right to Education: Human Rights Watch Letter to Jordanian Minister of Education, September 9, 2010

A study in Europe found that “Although all children have a fundamental right to basic education, in practice the type, quality, and duration of schooling offered to asylum-seeking, refugee and migrant children depend more on where they are in the migrant/asylum process than on their educational needs.”

UNHCR/UNICEF/IOM, Access to Education for Refugee and Migrant Children in Europe, 2019. 

Education for migrant children

All children have a right to education, without discrimination, however, in many countries access to education is a challenge.

This challenge is greater for non-nationals, and can seem insurmountable for children without documents. Irregular migrants may simply assume education is not open to them.

This is not necessarily true. For example, seven EU states explicitly recognise undocumented migrant children`s entitlement to basic formal education, and in most European countries, the right to education is provided to all children, a guarantee that implicitly includes children without documents.

HSPs can provide key information to migrants about their rights and entitlements. Assess what access migrant children have to education and share this information with HSP visitors. Provide information – or even support/accompaniment, if capacity allows – on enrolment procedures. Consider running programmes in schools discussing issues of migration, non-discrimination and respect for diversity, violence prevention, etc. (e.g., YABC), helping foster a supportive environment for integration.

Don’t forget your risk assessment! Migrants need to be sure they understand not only their rights and how the system works, but where there are potential risks or pitfalls. For example, in countries where governments impose a reporting obligation on schools, irregular migrants need to know they may be at risk. However, in some countries migrants may have the right to refuse if they are requested to show proof of residence or nationality.

Key Resources

The aim of these  guidelines  is to support Red Cross and Red Crescent (RCRC) staff, volunteers, and technical practitioners working in different contexts of migration and displacement to design, review and organise livelihood interventions.

The guidelines include potential impacts on livelihood assets of migrants and displaced persons, response options, cross-cutting isssues (Targeting and Community Engagement and Accountability (CEA), Protection, gender and inclusion (PGI) and Social cohesion) and cases examples.

This guidance is informed by years of lessons learned from the RCRC Movement’s work in livelihoods support in diff erent humanitarian settings, yet it provides  only a brief insight into what is being done at country/National Society (NS) level. For further understanding, references to key resources have been included throughout the document.

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Humanitarian Education enables individuals to interpret situations from a humanitarian perspective and  empowers them to address challenges and take action in the spirit of the Fundamental Principles and humanitarian values of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

The purpose of this document is to outline how and to what extent the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) will engage in operations and policy in education. Our primary objective is to respond, reactively or preventively, to the disruption of the education sector in situations of conflict and violence by enabling safe access for children, teachers and families.

The School-in-a-Box kit has become part of the UNICEF standard response in emergencies, used in many back-to-school operations around the world. The kit contains supplies and materials for a teacher and up to 40 students. The purpose of the kit is to ensure the continuation of children's education by the first 72 hours of an emergency.

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The impact of Education on our livelihood Essay

Education plays a huge role in one’s livelihood. In fact, people who don’t have a college degree are almost twice as likely, on average, to be unemployed. The impact of education on our livelihood is really that important, especially for low income individuals. Education is only going to get more important in the coming years, so it is important to get educated. Below down is the impact of Education on our livelihood Essay.

Education is something that a society can provide that will help people improve their lives. It is the process of learning, teaching, and/or training that takes place in a school, college, university, or other similar institutions. Education also takes place within a family or group of families, and is meant to help people get a better understanding of the world around them.

Education is the key for people to progress in life. Education is the place where you learn about new things, broaden your horizons, and build new skills. With education, you have the power to change your life for the better. Education has the power to change people’s lives in positive and significant ways.

Education is the key because it gives you access to new opportunities and it helps you become more aware of both yourself and the world around you. Education is the key because of its power to make the world a better place and change the lives of its people.

Education is both a blessing and a curse. Education is a blessing because it is a way for a person to learn about their future and prosper. Education is a curse since it is often hard to find and it costs a lot of money.

Education has the ability to change lives, it can also change lives for the worse. Education has such a big impact on our livelihood that looking back on it as an individual can be difficult. Education is important because it sets up an individual to succeed. Education is the most important tool in defending ourselves against technological changes and economic turmoil. Education is the most important factor in ensuring that individuals are comfortable in the advancements of the technological revolution.

In today’s society, education is the key to many opportunities. Education allows for individuals to have a greater understanding of a topic, which can potentially lead to a more successful life. Education helps children grow into greater citizens and adults.

Education is the key to getting a better job, helping the economy and contributing to society in a positive way. When people have a higher education, they are also more likely to have a positive outlook on life and to live a better life. Education also helps people to develop a stronger sense of community and have a stronger sense of civic responsibility.

There are many benefits of education. Education is one of the most important sources of individual power. Education not only improves one’s lifestyle and quality of life, but education also creates economic power. Education will also have a long-term impact on the future of humankind. Education also has a major impact on the society as a whole. In recent years, education has played a significant role in increasing efficiency of the society. Education is a powerful tool to build a fairer and more just society.

Without education, it would be impossible to find a job, start a career, and make a living. Education allows us to be able to start a business, and it allows us to be able to make a living. Education is crucial for the future of our country. Education is not only the key to a successful and prosperous future, but education is also the key to a successful and prosperous society. Education is the most important factor to a successful society.

Education is a fundamental building block of society that is the key to a proper livelihood. It teaches the way we communicate and establishes the understanding of how we treat each other. Education is about giving the younger generation a chance to succeed in life. It is about giving them the opportunity to create a better world for themselves and their children. An education is about giving the youth the ability to act in a responsible and moral manner and with the proper abilities to contribute to society.

Education is a key ingredient to a sustainable and meaningful livelihood. Education is a key to the creation and achievement of a sustainable livelihood. As the world becomes more technologically advanced and the economy lessens the need for manual labour, education is becoming more and more necessary.

Education is important because it helps individuals and communities reach their aspirations and provide a basis for informed decision-making. Education is also critical in the global context in which we live. Education also ensures that individuals and communities maintain and improve their knowledge, skills, values, and behavior across the continuum of life’s experiences.

We hope you found the impact of Education on our livelihood essay helpful. Education is not just something that we learn at school, it is something that shapes our lives in many different ways. We hope you will take some time to read through this blog and find ways that your education has impacted you and your life. If you have any questions, please reach out to us through the contact form on www.edukar.in Thanks!

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Education and Livelihoods

Young people leading in shaping the education and opportunities that impact their lives..

We want all young people to have the skills, knowledge and opportunities that set them up to thrive. When young people have a quality education, and are able to achieve a decent living, then they can drive wider, sustainable economies.

A World Bank study in 2015 estimated that one billion young people would enter the labour market in the next decade, and that only 400 million would be expected to find work if nothing changed. A major target to substantially reduce the proportion of young people not in employment education or training by 2020 was missed. Against this backdrop, came the huge setbacks to the global economy from the Covid-19 pandemic, disproportionately felt by young people.

Covid-19 has also created an education crisis.  Young people’s career aspirations and working lives are often decided by their education, but not all education is equipping young people in the right way. According to research by the Malala Fund, 20 million girls in low and lower-middle-income countries may never return to the classroom after the pandemic. 

Along with climate change, youth education and livelihoods are among the defining challenges of our time. The meaningful employment, education and empowerment of the biggest youth generation in history reflects a critical opportunity to accelerate global progress not just economically, but also socially and environmentally, by tapping into the agency, potential and scale of the group constituting the majority of most of the developing world: youth.

We need to prioritise education as a means of social justice. Education relieves poverty, increases social justice, empowers youth and women. It helps each person to reach their full potential and brings significant economic returns in the country. Hadia, Somaliland, as part of our Youth at Heart research.

Our approach to Education and Livelihoods

We have over 30 years experience supporting young people’s transition to a decent, sustainable living. We have successfully supported young people to remain in education; to gain essential skills; to access formal employment opportunities; and to set up their own businesses.

We’ve built up a bank of youth-led research and insights on the challenges young people face transitioning from education to a sustainable living.  All too often national and global policies and practices to address the youth unemployment crisis have been set up uninformed by  young people – our approach is to rectify that, putting young people’s realities, lived experience at the forefront of tackling the crisis.  

I run community savings groups. The impact on young people has been great. Theresa

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Our track record

Our work has strengthened the employability skills of young people; their awareness of their career options; and supported them to access employment and entrepreneurship opportunities. For example:

• In Uganda our DYNAMIC programme increased the employment, income and resilience of out-of-school youth aged 15-24 through a market-driven and holistic approach, engaging public and private sector actors. 20,400 young people increased their income and 4,000 youth saving groups were established.
• In Tanzania , the East Africa Youth Inclusion Project (EAYIP) was a groundbreaking programme that specifically targeting young people in agriculture. We equipped 25,000 young people aged 15-24 with the skills to create youth owned and managed businesses accompanied by employment opportunities around dairy hubs and other agricultural value chains. 92% of young people engaged in the programme acquired employment opportunities; young people saw a 22% increase in their incomes,  and over £30,000 has been saved by more than 2,000 young people in 2019.
• In India , our Disha (Hindi for ‘Direction’) programme created employment and entrepreneurship opportunities for young women from disadvantaged communities in New Delhi. The model is transformative and tested: more than 5,400 young women between the ages of 18 and 35 gained access to skills education training centres. The programme is delivered through motivated and trained Young Leaders (Skills Sakhi’s).

Girls Education

We have also supported thousands of girls and young women across the world to remain in or transition to education, which will involve focusing more widely on the multiple barriers they face.

• In Zambia our Girls 2030 programme provided weekly career and skills clubs in schools to help girls and young women take control of their lives by navigating the issues that lead to them dropping out. Sessions cover sexual and reproductive health; financial literacy; the basic skills neeed to start enterprises; and career’s guidance. The programme resulted in girls staying in school.  Readmission to school of girls who became pregnant went from 9% to 82%, and that the number of girls transitioning from grades 9 to 10 from 47% to 57%.
• In Sierra Leone our Leave No Girl Behind works with adolescent girls (13-17 years) who have never been to school or dropped out for more than two  years at primary level to have significantly improved learning outcomes and have transitioned to education, training or employment. We provide safe spaces for them to learn; mentoring; and community facilitators engage in conversations with communities to ensure the rights of the girls are respected and barriers faced by out-of-school girls are removed. In 2020 alone we closely supported almost 33,000 girls to enrol in the programme, across 120 communities.

Youth-led research

Our youth-led research has generated unique insights to influence and inform policy and practice.

• Across Africa: Leading the Mastercard Foundation’s Youth Think Tank , Restless Development has recruited, trained and supported young researchers to create vital insights on the youth employment challenge in Africa, developing policy-level insight on areas ranging from how young people make a living; to the application of technological innovation in agricultural value chains; to the role of young people in the hospitality sector.  Working in strategic partnership, we have supported the Mastercard Foundation to create rigorous insights on critical thematic issues in the youth employment space. 
• Partnering with The University of Cambridge , we developed and launched a report, Getting by: Young People’s Working Lives , exploring young people’s experiences and opinions of work in developing and emerging economies. This collaboration between academic and young leaders was launched in a workshop with decision-makers including the World Bank, ILO, DFID and Mastercard leading to a policy agenda for youth employment: Making a Life: a Youth Employment Agenda that will be used to inform and shape youth livelihoods and education policy discourses.

As a young person, I want to have my voice heard and participate in decision making for the future of youth employment and making a living. Working with Restless Development was an opportunity to share my frustrations, worries and views as a young person struggling to make a living. Moneera Yassien, a 22-year-old social entrepreneur from Sudan

• In 2021 Restless Development worked with the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs to recruit, train, and support 12 young researchers across the Sahel, MENA, and Horn of Africa to develop the It’s Our Future report . The research – and subsequent Youth at Heart conference – has resulted in three Youth at Heart Principles – along with recommendations for governments, civil society, private and public sector, bi- and multilaterals and knowledge institutions to work in partnership with young people and to invest in the prospects of young people so that they can build better education and work for young people in a post pandemic world.
• RewirEd Global Education summit: In 2021, twelve young researchers from twelve different countries led research into young people’s pathways to learning and livelihoods; their aspirations; and their active citizenship. They surveyed 3,294 young people from 70 countries across the planet. They found an outdated education system not fit for purpose in a fast-changing world. At the rewir Ed Summit , Restless Development supported eight youth delegates to share their Curriculum for Change with policymakers at the summit and call on world leaders to MakeEducationWork. The MakeEducationWork campaign was launched in the lead up to the RewirED summit, alongside the publication of the research: By Us For Us: Rewiring Education for a New Generation . 

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Livelihoods

Livelihood is defined as ‘a means of securing the necessities of life’. It is a vital part of the work that we do to secure a ‘holistic’ solution to health. In all places, a community’s livelihood, food and health are tightly interconnected. We work with people to improve livelihoods in a number of ways:

Education:  Educational initiatives can be the difference between poverty and a profitable small business. Adult literacy and numeracy, even for just one person in a community can empower the whole community, allowing them to fill out forms and access government services.

Women’s Empowerment:  Often women in the communities we work alongside are without an income. Helping women to empower themselves through education and training, capacity building, awareness activities and facilitation of self-help groups and access to government schemes can help them to start a small business.

An indigenous San mother waits for her check up at a health centre in a rural Tsumkwe, Namibia.

Skill Development:  Training in basic business and technical skills can allow communities to increase the variety of their outputs. Employability skills can mean that young people find opportunities that might not have otherwise been available to them. Often, the people we work with go on to set up their own businesses.

Agriculture:  We support communities to innovate. Families are encouraged to use their own resources, make their own compost and diversify their crops. The variety of food produced means more sustainable harvests and farmers are able to sell the surplus to support themselves or produce a more profitable product – such as mango juice or fritters.

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Rural Livelihood

• First Online: 12 February 2016

Cite this chapter

• Fingani Annie Mphande 2  

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In most rural areas of the world, approximately 90 % of the population is involved in farming as a way of earning a living. Small-scale farming, fishing, raising livestock and non-farm activities are some of the common livelihoods that these populations survive on. Rural livelihood poses a great challenge as these populations are often in a state of poverty where they lack the basic necessities for survival . A rural household with diverse sources of income earning activities has better chances of survival financially than a household which has only one source. Delivery of quality education and training in a variety of skills in rural areas is therefore needed to attain sustainable rural livelihoods . In order for a rural population to strive there is need for livelihoods that would sustain and support their households and communities.

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• Rural livelihood
• Human capital
• Sustainable livelihood
• Social capital
• Financial capital
• Natural capital
• Natural disasters and livelihoods
• Vector-borne diseases
• Environmental and ecological changes
• Infectious diseases

Rural Area : An open piece of land sparsely populated with scattered houses. Rural areas have low population densities and minimal infrastructure compared to cities and urban areas.

Rural population : Refers to people living in rural areas , as per definition of national statistical offices. Rural population is calculated as the difference between total population and urban population.

2.1 What Is a Livelihood?

A Livelihood can be defined as the activities, the assets and the access that jointly determine the living gained by an individual or household (Ellis 1998 ). When it comes to an individual, a livelihood is the ability of that individual to obtain the basic necessities in life, which are food, water, shelter and clothing. Therefore all activities involved in finding food, searching for water, shelter, clothing and all necessities required for human survival at individual and household level are referred to as a livelihood. Approximately 90 % of rural households are involved in farming activities (Davis et al. 2010a , b ). In Africa , 70 % of the household income in rural areas is from farming activities, while in Asia and Latin America , 50 % of the income is from farming activities (Davis et al. 2010a , b ). In these rural populations small-scale farming, fishing, raising livestock and non-farm activities are some of the common livelihoods that these populations survive on as a source of income (Fig.  2.1 ).

Rural livelihoods as a source of income. Rural livelihood is a complex structure comprising of mostly agriculture, with part of the population diversifying into non-farm activities in order to attain a sustainable livelihood to get better income for their households

Due to variations in ability to access the basic necessities, there are people who are rich, able to acquire all their basic necessities without difficulty and those that are poor, and lack one or more of the their basic necessities. The livelihood of the poor is gruelling as they find themselves in a state of poverty and lack basic necessities . Therefore to address the issue of poverty and its eradication , a concept called sustainable livelihood was proposed by Chambers and Conway ( 1991 ).

2.1.1 Livelihood Determinants

Livelihoods are determined by several factors which include (Ellis 2000 ; Fabusoro et al. 2010 ; Khatun and Roy 2012 );

Unintended birth into a predisposed livelihood ; a designated system which defines an individual’s livelihood, e.g. the caste system in India.

Gender ; where a livelihood is determined by the gender of an individual.

Inherited livelihoods ; where an individual takes up a livelihood that has been passed on in the family , for example cultivation, pastoralists , fisherman, shopkeeper, artisanal work, etc.

Spontaneous livelihoods ; that are taken up due to desperate situations where what an individual does is in principle determined by social economic and ecological situation.

Education and migration ; where qualifications determine which field of work an individual can exploit . People move to new areas in search for work and a better life, this migration determines the choice of livelihoods.

Those with wealth have a wider choice of a livelihood than those without. This is because with more resources one is able to afford an education or training which can complement or augment their skills thereby widening their livelihood capabilities, which is not the case for those without resources. A wider economic growth of a household or community creates a wider choice of livelihoods .

2.1.2 What Is a Household ?

A household can be defined as human groups which share the same roof and resources. Categories of a household include:

People —that is, the individuals and their livelihood capabilities.

Activities —which encompass what they do.

Assets or possessions— this is what they own be it food, property, clothing, houses, livestock, stocks and all things that provide material and social income.

Gains and outputs —These are the resources derived from what they do that allows them to earn a living.

Some of the activities that fall under rural livelihood include :

Agriculture (Cultivation, farming);

Animal herding including livestock farming ;

Hunting and gathering

Wage labour

Trading and hawking

Artisan work , for example, weaving and carving;

Providing services in transport and other available services;

Fetching and carrying;

Basket weaving

2.2 Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SL)

Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway defined sustainable livelihood and I quote;

A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources , claims and access) and activities required for a means of living: a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks , maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the short and long term (Chambers and Conway 1991 ).

The sustainable livelihood approach offers a holistic and integrative approach with the capacity to analyse and understand the complexity of rural development (Chambers and Conway 1991 ; Solesbury 2003 ).

Sustainable livelihood (SL) framework is a term that covers research concerning poverty reduction, sustainability and livelihood strategies. The SL framework is applicable to both rural and urban survival strategies. The five assets in sustainable livelihood are human capital , physical capital, social capital, financial capital and natural capital. These assets play an important role in survival strategies both in rural and urban livelihoods.

2.2.1 Human Capital

Human capital is a combination of knowledge, habits, social behaviour and personality that contribute to economic benefits for an individual and/or community (Ellis 1996 ) . This knowledge can be attained through education , creativity, availability of skills and talents, experience, training and exposure. Human capital also includes health of an individual, household and community.

Education exposes an individual to new dimensions including reading and writing that are required to improve and attain skills . Therefore education is a necessary investment for human capital. Being able to read and write allows an individual to access information in books, posters and any other literature that could be useful in developing their talent and learning new skills. Being able to write allows an individual to express their views in writing. With education come skills; an individual will acquire certain skills through their education, thus an educated household has a higher chance of gaining skills than a household without any education.

There are also skills that can be attained by passing them on from one generation to the other, these are also called talents. Such artistic skills may not require an education at all, but if an individual is educated they are able to boost their talents, for example exploiting markets that would not be accessible to someone without an education.

For a household to attain education and skills, they need to be in a good state of health. Illness disrupts a household in many ways, a sick individual will not be able to work, and this directly affects the flow of income. And if the individual who is sick is the one who provides for the household (bread winner), illness may result in serious disruption of the household status.

2.2.2 Physical Capital

Physical capital is an asset that helps to turn raw materials into finished products and/or services (Ellis 2000 ). Examples of physical capital include equipment such as a tractor on a farm, a sewing machine for a tailor, buildings and computers. Availability of physical capital boosts productivity and enhances income earned by a household. Physical capital allows for work to be accomplished faster as well as for diversification. To be able to make full use of physical capital, there is need for human capital, that is, the required skills, for example to operate machinery and to manage assets.

2.2.3 Social Capital

Social capital plays a major role in productivity of an individual, organization and community (Ellis 2000 ) . Social capital refers to relationships, institutions and norms that shape societal interactions. Social networks are considered as horizontal associations between individuals, which increase productivity by reducing the costs of doing business and facilitate coordination and cooperation. Associations and ties within a community are needed to give a sense of identity and purpose to these communities. These ties are also a basis for access to information that can be of great assistance to the community. One example is obtaining loans and/or credit and funding (microfinance) for community projects which is a common occurrence in most developing countries.

2.2.3.1 Microfinance

Microfinance can be defined as services in form of financial assistance for entrepreneurs and small businesses lacking access to banking and comparable services. Microfinance can be categorized as a tool for economic empowerment, health research development and for human development.

Microfinance and Economic Empowerment

Microfinance has brought financial security, social security and improved lives for many in developing countries. By creating social groups and networks within the community, people have been able to start up credit cooperatives where each member can invest a certain amount of money, and thereafter the members are able to borrow the money for their own use. Community participation in microfinance activities has been successful because individuals see the benefits from their participation (Kondo et al. 2008 ; Moll 2005 ; Quirós and Gonzalez-Vega 2007 ; Yadav 2014 ). Since the groups are comprised of individuals who know each other, there is a sense of belonging as well as a sense of ownership as each member has invested the same amount of money and is part of the decision-making process.

Saving and credit cooperatives and social cash transfer programmes have improved livelihoods but also brought challenges to many. Those who are not able to repay loans have lost their property to the credit organizations to which they owed money. For the successful ones, members of the groups are able to finance their businesses, support their households and are able to diversify their livelihoods because they have a financial security through the cooperative (Gibbs et al. 2012 ). These credit groups also provide money as start-up capital for small businesses. Most of these social credit groups are comprised of women who donate cash to a group account organized by the group members. After a period of time they rotate who can borrow the money from the group and the individual has to pay back the money within a certified period with interest. The social and financial security provided by the credit cooperatives allows for compliance, thereby success of the groups.

Microfinance and Health

The link between health, poverty and livelihoods is critical when analysing the importance of microfinance. Lack of employment and/or loss of livelihood, the impact of HIV/AIDS and other chronic illnesses on a household and lack of income have rendered both men and women vulnerable to poverty. This in turn fuels inequalities and vulnerable communities resort to livelihoods that are unsustainable, affecting the health and well-being of both men and women in different ways (Kim et al. 2009 ). Microfinance is therefore not only a source of income, but one way to develop a community to attain sustainable livelihoods.

Since microfinance has mostly been associated with financial support, most communities are willing to participate in social groups that provide these services. Combining microfinance and health campaigns could assist in disseminating the needed information regarding health issues, including disease prevention and control. This concept was tested in South Africa where a health training component was added to group-based microfinance programmes. The outcomes showed that it is possible to achieve broader health benefits when there is partnership between health, economic and social sectors when implementing interventions (Kim et al. 2009 ).

Apart from economic empowerment for small-scale entrepreneurs can microfinance be beneficial in health research? Most developing countries suffer shortages of well trained-health personnel which have contributed to the underperformance of health systems and primary health care. Is it possible to create saving and credit cooperatives that can support health research and health service delivery in developing countries? A concept of micro Research or microgrants was put forward where small grants could be provided to researchers in developing countries (Boccia et al. 2011 ; Geissler and Leatherman 2015 ; Kollmann et al. 2015 ; Seiber and Robinson 2007 ). The challenges associated with this concept though, have been that most often the donors for the microgrants already have selected subjects that they are interested in, which most often are not the pressing needs in the affected countries (MacDonald and Kabakyenga 2008 ). Secondly, this is not a sustainable solution as microgrants are only given for a short period of time and when the grant runs out, the study is abandoned. This creates not only false hopes in the communities where the studies are conducted but also a lack of trust in groups that come with health interventions into the community due to lack of long-term benefits.

Microfinance and Human Development

The BRAC Story

A great example of micro credit and human development is the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC). The programme which started in Bangladesh in 1972 has over the years expanded into 10 countries in Asia (Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Philippines), Africa (Tanzania, Liberia, Uganda, Sierra Leone and South Sudan) and in the Caribbean (Haiti). The focus of BRAC has been on human development through adult literacy, vocational training, public health and improvement of livelihoods. The target populations for BRAC are the poorest of the poor, the landless, small farmers, artisans and vulnerable women. Through provision of micro loans, including follow-up and careful evaluation of their work, BRAC is a success story in the use of microfinance for human development.

Microfinance and Livelihoods

Even though microfinance has helped others to boost their businesses and attain financial security to others, it is the contrary (Kondo et al. 2008 ; Odi et al. 2013 ; Sharma 2001 ). Instead of improving their livelihoods, to some microfinance has plunged them into utter poverty. This has led to lack of willingness in participating in development projects with a microfinance component. This has also led to the development of local microfinance schemes based in social networks within the community. Since members decide on the conditions of repayment, the conditions are manageable. Most people in rural areas in developing countries are already struggling with poverty and while microfinance schemes might provide financial security to some, shocks such as disease can easily affect the financial stability of a poor household. In case of illness within the household, finances might be easily channelled from businesses to support the health expenditures, thereby affecting the business. For the very poor, microfinance schemes may seem out of their reach, because they have neither the resources nor collateral to obtain the loans (Buckley 1997 ; Littlefield et al. 2003 ; Nasir 2013 ; Swope 2007 ). Training schemes that can instill skills in disciplines such as sustainable agriculture, and how communities can use the available resources sustainably at the same time improving their livelihoods, could also be of greater benefit to the rural poor.

2.2.4 Case Scenarios—Microfinance

Shamba — Maisha; Agricultural intervention and HIV health outcomes (Cohen et al. 2015 )

This was a multi - sectoral agricultural and microfinance intervention carried out in two districts in Kenya which depend on farming and fishing. The study area is vulnerable to drought and has an HIV prevalence of 15.3   % ( Kenya National Bureau of Statistics and ICF Macro 2010 ) . The project was designed to:

Improve food security

HIV clinical outcomes

Women Empowerment.

Interventions included:

A microfinance loan to purchase

Micro - irrigation pump, seeds and fertilizer.

The outcomes of this pilot study were that there was high acceptability in recruitment; the micro - irrigation water pump proved to be labour saving and the initiative delivered strong financial and agricultural training. Despite these successes, the challenges experienced were:

Weather patterns that affected agricultural productivity;

A challenging partnership with microfinance institutions;

Concerns on repayment of loans.

BRAC in Afghanistan — A collaboration between developing countries (Chowdhury et al. 2006 )

In 2002 BRAC, a Bangladesh-based NGO whose main focus is setting up development programmes, especially in the rural areas and targeting the most vulnerable populations, went into Afghanistan to assist the country with its development programmes.

In Afghanistan, BRAC managed to set up development programmes in health, education, agriculture, community development and provided microfinance services by providing loans to small businesses. Through the loans, some women who lost their husbands to the war and were selling fruit and vegetables to earn a living were able to educate their children and expand their businesses.

Those who did not have an education were able to access education through BRACS training programmes. BRAC was also able to train community health workers who served the health needs in their communities.

2.2.5 Financial Capital

Financial capital refers to any liquid medium or mechanism that represents wealth such as money, purchasable items, savings, credit , etc. It can also be defined as saved-up wealth that can be used to start-up or maintain a business. Availability of capital allows for growth of a business through innovation, diversification and skill enhancement; i.e. engaging in activities that will assist in earning income and resources needed by the household.

2.2.6 Natural Capital

Natural capital is the basis of all human economic activity. Natural capital includes land , water , air, living organisms and all ecosystems on the Earth that are necessary for human survival and well-being. In general, natural capital refers to natural resources (Barbier and Hochard 2014 ; Ellis 1996 , 2000 ) .

All the five SL assets outlined above are important aspects to livelihood both in the urban and rural setting. In order for a livelihood to be sustainable, and for a household to survive, there is need for a household to diversify.

2.3 Rural Livelihood Diversification

Diversification can be defined as activities undertaken by household members in order to improve their social status and standard of living (Ellis 1996 ). Diversification can also refer to attempts undertaken by an individual or a household to find new ways of survival to raise income and endure shocks such as disasters and disease outbreaks (Khatun and Roy 2012 ).

In the past decades, there has been a reduction in farming as a source of livelihood in rural areas and an increase in participation in non-farm activities or a combination of both to sustain a household (Ellis 1996 , 2000 ) . The reliance on agriculture though tends to decrease when household income levels rise, as observed in sub-Saharan Africa . In India and many parts of sub-Saharan Africa and most developing countries, farmers are opting for diversification rather than farming only as the small-scale farming or land -based livelihood are proving unsustainable and cannot support their families for food and fodder for their livestock. This trend has been observed in Uganda , Kenya , Nigeria , and Malawi . Small-scale businesses such as hawking, selling of second-hand clothes, car parts and scrapped metal and goods, selling readymade food are on the rise. This small-scale market boom has also resulted in the rise of theft for those who want to make quick money. There is a common pattern in most developing countries where the very poor and those who are relatively well-off tend to have a more diverse livelihood than the middle range income earners (Ellis 1996 ). When a rural household has diverse sources of income earning activities, its chances of survival financially are better than those of a household which has only one source (Ellis 1996 ). But there are also cases where a household may have less diversification, that is, only one or two income sources with a strong income base and well-established platforms and are achieving more from their livelihoods.

2.3.1 Determinants of Livelihood Diversification

Factors that determine diversification include age, access and level of education , size of the family , dependency ratio , access and availability of land , assets, access and availability of irrigation facility, access to credit and ability to borrow, distance from town, training/skill development , and membership to social groups (Khatun and Roy 2012 ) .

Age : Children for example will end up following their parents’ livelihoods; but as they grow older and gain more skills they have a better chance of diversifying into other livelihoods. Young people are more energetic than older folks; hence the types of livelihoods that can be acquired by these two age groups will be different.

Access and Level of Education : education is the key to literacy . If an individual is able to read and write they have a higher chance of choosing an appropriate field of work or further skills training in order to advance their livelihoods . Most of the information for skills and application that can sustain and offer technological advances in livelihoods are in writing and if one is not able to read and write the chances of advancing are low. Literacy opens channels that can help access credit and loans that can be used as start-up capital and or extra capital to advance a particular livelihood .

Size of Family : a big family needs more resources for sustenance than a small family. People with big families will venture into as many ways as possible to gain the required resources to support their families. If each member of such a household is able to attain a skill that brings in income, there is a high probability that the big family will do well. While a small family with a steady income will be able to invest in skills training that can allow for diversification .

Dependency ratio : measures the pressure on the productive population . Dependency ratio measures the population of dependants (people younger than 15 and those older than 64) against the productive population (ages 15–64). In a household dependency ratio measures the ability of the household to sustain and meet their needs. Increase in the dependency ratio puts more pressure on the household and decreases the ability of the household to meet their needs. An increased dependency ratio will push the household into diversifying into other activities that can bring more income to the household (Khatun and Roy 2012 ).

Availability of Land : apart from human capital , availability of land is also fundamental in rural livelihoods (Barbier and Hochard 2014 ) . Land, being a natural capital is a valuable asset for the rural poor. People need the land for agriculture , to build homes and as a base for their small-scale businesses and non-farm activities . Therefore, lack of land directly affects the development for rural households and pushes populations to diversifying into other activities and livelihoods that will not require acquisition and/or ownership of land ( http://web.undp.org/drylands/docs/Governance.pdf ). Land is a source of food and income for the rural poor, lack of land therefore leads to lack of food and income hence hunger and malnutrition . According to the World Bank, world development indicators, as of 2013, 47 % of the world’s population lives in rural areas with a 0.1 % annual growth. Lower income countries have higher rural population compared to high income countries , with South Asia having the highest rural population followed by sub-Saharan Africa (http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/3.1#).

Assets : Availability of assets in a household increases the chances of investing into new markets and or activities that will enhance the economy of the household. Availability of assets allows for collateral that can be used to obtain loans and credit that can be used to boost capital and start up new businesses and income generating activities. A poor asset base limits a household’s ability to diversify and/or acquire loans or credit.

Access and availability of irrigation facility : technology such as irrigation and availability of irrigation facilities to farmers can help boost the income of farmers and their households . A farmer who has access to an irrigation facility will be able to make multiple harvests which provide the needed food for the household as well as extra that can be sold as a source of income. This income can also be used to acquire assets as well as invest in other activities that will bring more income into the household, thereby improving livelihoods and allowing for diversification .

Access to credit and ability to borrow : Access to credit and ability to obtain loans allows for diversification . With enough capital to start up a new business or acquire assets that can be used to advance a livelihood , access to credit is beneficial to a household . However, ability to raise collateral and to pay back the loan is critical in fuelling diversification; otherwise poverty levels have increased with resultant loss of assets for non-payment of loans.

Distance from town : rural populations that are closer to a town are able to source markets for their produce and also have a chance to access facilities and infrastructure such as markets, banks, credit facilities and health facilities that can further develop their livelihood . Access to town also means access to non-farm activities and skills that can be of benefit to a household . A household or community that is further from town has poor access to these facilities and has less chance of diversifying.

Training/skill development : in order for a household to diversify, there is need for human capital . Human capital is an asset in diversification for rural livelihoods because the more the skills attained by a household the easier it is to diversify. At the family level, the more the skills in a household, the more they can venture into different markets thereby widening their ability to make money and support their family. At an individual level, diversification in markets and ways of making a living can also aid in raising social capital and status. Better-off families are able to diversify more favourably than poor families as they possess the financial and social capital that is lacking in the poor families. Delivery of quality education and training in rural areas is required to attain sustainable rural livelihoods. Owing to low human capital, the rural poor tend to diversify in less profitable labour markets than their wealthier counterparts. The rural poor will mostly be involved in part-time and casual labour that does not require skills. As a result the poor make very little income, which results in failure to create opportunities that could earn them more money, and they are denied opportunities to improve their status—an example of low human capital (Ellis 1996 ).

Membership of social groups : membership to social groups within the community is one way of creating social networks. These networks are beneficial in obtaining knowledge that can be used to further livelihoods . Social clubs have also been used in developing countries as ways of obtaining credit loans and as training grounds in skills that are necessary in livelihood diversification and improvement for communities in rural areas .

2.3.2 Constraints of Diversification

Depending on the location of an individual or a household , they can be faced with assorted constraints and challenges . These challenges can determine whether and how this individual or household will diversify. These include:

Lack of Road Network and Transport Facilities

Poor road network has resulted in certain communities being isolated (GIZ 2013 ). Isolation implies that a community may be cut off from the nearest health facility, nearest bank or the nearest institutions that may offer loans and/or the nearest education facility that could assist in upgrading skills for the people in the community. These effects in turn reduce that community’s chances of diversification .

Poor Asset Base

Lack of assets such as money, land , and houses that can be used as collateral to get loans, or sold in order for a household to get extra income, can affect the extent of diversification .

Climatic dispositions can pose challenges in livelihood diversification . Areas that are associated with harsh climates may avert investors. The lack of necessary infrastructure deters development of new activities and markets in such regions. Availability of new markets encourages communities to diversify as they try to exploit the new opportunities.

Lack of Credit

Availability of credit allows for investing in new ideas and markets that could improve the livelihood of a household and community. Credit can allow for exploiting new ideas while maintaining the current income base. Lack of credit is a constraint to diversification as the risk of failure of the new market can heavily affect the financial status of the household––hence most households are less willing to diversify.

Lack of Awareness and Training

Lack of information can lead to households missing opportunities that could be beneficial for their skill development and market opportunities.

Lack of Infrastructure

Most rural areas in developing countries are isolated and lack the basic infrastructure such as schools, hospitals , transportation and markets that are beneficial for the health and development of the community . Lack of infrastructure for education also denies communities the basic education that is needed in order to obtain further skills .

2.4 Natural Disasters/Shocks and Rural Livelihood

Some of the challenges that have affected rural livelihoods include natural disasters and disease outbreaks . These bring serious threats to livelihoods with the rural poor being the most affected. Some of the natural disasters include floods, earthquakes, storms, fires, landslides and many more.

Natural disasters result in loss of lives, property and livelihoods . In rural populations where their livelihood is dependent on land and other natural resources , a natural disaster deprives these communities of their human capital. People lose their crop, livestock and source of income resulting in loss of their financial capital . Apart from these, people also lose their homes; communities are left with nothing and struggle to recover from the disaster. Natural disasters can lead to poverty due to loss of income and income generating resources. This is further complicated by diseases that emerge after the natural disaster.

The threat of disease outbreak in a disaster zone is also heightened by the presence of dead bodies that are often left out for days and start decomposing, poor sanitation, overcrowding and lack of basic amenities.

Some of the infectious diseases that have been associated with occurrence of natural disasters include the following.

2.4.1 Diseases Associated with Contaminated Water

Lack of safe water is a major problem after occurrence of a natural disaster . Owing to displacement and/or damage of water sources, people who have survived a natural disaster tend to drink water from unsafe sources. This is very common in developing countries where there is lack of rapid response and availability of aid to the victims. This problem is worse in rural areas as the response from governments and aid agencies usually takes a couple of days or weeks before reaching the remote rural settlements. Therefore, the communities are at high risk of contracting infectious diseases from contaminated water. Diarrheal diseases caused by Vibrio cholera , enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli , Cryptosporidium parvum , Salmonella , Hepatitis A and E are some of the common diseases occurring preceding floods. Zoonotic diseases that can be passed on through water contaminated by rodent and livestock urine such as Leptospirosis can also be a major threat to the communities that have survived a natural disaster such as flooding. Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that affects humans and is passed on from animals to humans through contact with urine from infected livestock and rodents.

2.4.2 Diseases Associated with Crowding

After a natural disaster people move to camps or other areas of safety, which in most occasions are very crowded. There is then a high risk of transmission of infectious diseases including measles, meningitis , cholera, malaria and other acute respiratory diseases . Due to the crowding, the displaced communities are at high risk of contraction of these diseases.

2.4.3 Vector-Borne Diseases

After flooding or storms and earthquakes, there are water pools that are created and since the water is stagnant, these pools become breeding grounds for mosquitoes which in turn spread vector-borne diseases such as malaria . The natural disaster may cause changes in the environment which can end up introducing vectors in new areas resulting in emergence of the vector-borne diseases in new areas and potential outbreaks.

2.5 Disease Outbreaks and Livelihoods

What influences emergence and re-emergence of diseases?

Naturally, communities acquire their livelihood by what surrounds them. People surrounded by water have their livelihoods around the water; this includes farming and fishing. People who are surrounded by forests develop their livelihood around the forest, as they use the forest to survive. These communities will hunt animals in the forest as their source of food and will eat fruits and berries and other plant products that are available in the forest, they also cut down trees to harvest firewood and timber, and wild mushrooms for sale to realize income. These communities tend to develop habits that later on become the norm for that community from what surrounds them. But how does this contribute to emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases ? The two communities described above are exposed to two different environments and will likely be exposed to different animals and insects in their habitats. This also means that these people are very likely to be exposed to different disease causing agents that are found in their surroundings. Any change in their living conditions and/or their surroundings could result in elimination of a certain disease and/or introduction of another.

There are several factors that affect emergence and re-emergence of diseases, these include:

Human behaviour; such as

acquisition and keeping of exotic pets,

use of companion animals,

consumption of exotic foods , e.g. wild/bush meat, raw sea food and raw vegetables,

changes in land use patterns,

alteration of livestock management practices,

human migration.

Climatic change which has affected arthropods;

Migration of animals;

Pathogens acquiring new virulence traits.

In the context of rural livelihood I will discuss mainly human behaviour and how this has contributed to emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases .

2.5.1 Human Behaviour

Human behaviour has resulted in a range of environmental and ecological changes, some of which have influenced emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases .

Consumption of exotic foods ; in rural areas , consumption of exotic foods such as bush meat is a common practice. Unfortunately, this has also led to introduction of diseases from wild animals to the human population . Most of the current emerging diseases are zoonotic meaning that they are transferred from animals to humans. Changes in land use patterns have led to people encroaching into forest areas bringing individuals into close proximity to wild animals and new pathogens. Due to the growing global population, people are moving into areas that were uninhabited in search for land for agriculture and for construction of homes, and for pasture lands to sustain their livestock. Search for new pasture lands has resulted in domestic animals coming into close proximity with wild animals hence exposure to new diseases for the domestic animals.

Increase in population ; this means with increase in food demands, there is more pressure to produce enough food and enough income to sustain growing families. In rural areas this has led to diversification of livelihoods where people are moving away from farm activities and opting to migrate to areas where they can earn more money to sustain their households. This migration involves moving to areas where they can find work in the form of hired labour, or to towns where they can start up more businesses. This movement exposes populations to new pathogens that exist in their new found home, at the same time these migrants bring new pathogens to this new environment.

Increased migration ; this has also resulted in development of squatter homes with poor sanitation. Poor sanitation is a good source of infectious diseases such as malaria , dengue, leishmaniasis, cysticercosis (tapeworm), cholera and other diarrheal diseases that can easily spread in densely populated areas with poor sanitation. Spread of other infectious diseases such as HIV and the risk of disease outbreaks such as measles, chicken pox and scabies are also common.

Conflicts ; amongst others conflicts are the main causes of migration that have resulted in introducing diseases across borders . Many people running away from civil wars and/or regional wars have found themselves hiding in the wild and thereafter migrating to neighbouring countries. This has allowed for acquisition and introduction of new disease pathogens and/or re-emergence of diseases that were eradicated. Conflicts have resulted in breakdown of public health measures, including vaccinations and surveillance ; populations from these regions may miss out on vaccinations necessary to protect them from certain infectious diseases . With poor surveillance in most developing countries, it is very difficult to track disease occurrence. Re-emergence of polio in countries surrounding Afghanistan , Pakistan and parts of Nigeria and surrounding countries is an example of this.

International cross-border travel ; there has been an increase in international cross-border travel for work, leisure and/or study. This cross-border travel is also another route of spreading infectious diseases . The SARS, MERS and Ebola outbreaks are some examples of how international travel can allow for spread of infectious diseases across borders and continents. The SARS outbreak originated from China, spread through Hong Kong and other parts of Asia , to Europe and America . MERS virus spread from the Middle East into South Korea, and the Ebola virus crossed borders from Guinea to Liberia, Sierra Leone, Senegal, Mali and Nigeria.

2.6 Conclusion

Livelihoods are an important part of human existence . In order for a population to survive there is need for livelihoods that would sustain and support their households. Economic growth creates opportunities for a wider choice of livelihoods. Sustainable livelihoods are needed for economic growth and development of rural populations. There is need for human, social, economic, financial, physical and natural capital for livelihoods to be sustainable. Diversification of livelihoods increases chances of economic growth and survival of a household. Livelihoods have been affected by shocks such as natural disasters and disease outbreaks which have led to partial and/or complete loss of livelihoods. Natural disasters contribute to emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases. These diseases play a role in livelihood sustainability as well as diversification .

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Mphande, F.A. (2016). Rural Livelihood. In: Infectious Diseases and Rural Livelihood in Developing Countries. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0428-5_2

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Effectiveness of Technology and Livelihood Education (Tle) Learning Area as Perceived By the Grade 9 Students of Lumbangan National High School

• Pinky Apostol

INTRODUCTION

Technology Tools use in the teaching of Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) are being used more and more in educational settings that the government through the Department of Education, has made a commitment to bring technology to the classrooms. Technology tools can help expand the opportunities for Filipino students to improve their skills, maximize their potentials and prepare them for global competition in the 21st century.

For the last two years, Lumbangan National High School had NCII passers thru the initiative of Mr. Zany R. Gargullo, Principal II, Mr. Toriano A. Digno, Head Teacher III in TLE and all the TLE Teachers. Those students passed the NCII Assessment in Cookery, Technical Drafting, Housekeeping and Computer Systems Servicing. Because of this, the researcher wants to know the effectiveness of k to 12 program based on the perception of the grade 9 students who will also undergo the said assessment this year.

The research design used in this study was descriptive which was conducted to determine the effectiveness of Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) learning area as perceived by the Grade 9 students of Lumbangan National High School with the use of questionnaire as the main instrument of this study.

Respondents rated disagree that TLE learning area was effective in terms of understanding the lesson and they rated moderately agree that TLE was effective in terms of classifying the different areas, applying the concept learned from TLE, teaching strategies and using of instructional resources.

DISCUSSIONS

There was no significant relationship on the responses of the respondents regarding the effectiveness of Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) Learning Area as Perceived by the Grade 9 Students in Lumbangan National High School. (4) The proposed action plan was designed by the researcher.

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July 10, 2012  DO 67, s. 2012 – Guidelines on the Implementation of Strengthened Technical-Vocational Education Program (STVEP) and Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) Curriculum

To: Undersecretaries Assistant Secretaries Bureau Directors Regional Directors Schools Division/City Superintendents Heads, Public and Private Secondary Schools

• In support of the implementation of the K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum starting with the roll-out of Grades I and 7, this DepEd Order is issued to clarify the implementation of the Strengthened Technical-Vocational Education Program (STVEP) implementation and to provide guidelines on the implementation of Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) for Junior High School starting School Year (SY) 2012-2013.
• The guidelines on the implementation of STVEP and TLE are provided in the following enclosures: a. Enclosure No. 1 – Guidelines on the Implementation of STVEP; and b. Enclosure No. 2 – Guidelines on the Implementation of TLE in public and private secondary schools.
• For more information, all concerned may contact the  Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE)  through its  Curriculum Development Division (CDD)  at telephone no.: (02) 632-7746 and its  Technical-Vocational (Tech-Voc) Unit  at telephone no.: (02) 632- 0170, DepEd Complex, Meralco Avenue, Pasig City.
• Immediate dissemination of and strict compliance with this Order is directed.

Encls.: As stated Reference: DepEd Order: No. 31, s. 2012

To be indicated in the Perpetual Index under the following subjects: CURRICULUM Learning Area TECHNOLOGY and LIVELIHOOD EDUCATION PROGRAMS TECHNICAL EDUCATION VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

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Stinging Election Loss Leaves South Korean Leader at a Crossroads

President Yoon Suk Yeol, a key U.S. ally, faces the prospect of becoming a lame duck unless he starts negotiating with the opposition.

By Choe Sang-Hun

Reporting from Seoul

In political banners, campaign slogans and everyday conversations, South Koreans used two words to convey the high stakes of this week’s parliamentary election : “Judgment Day.” It was an opportunity to issue a verdict on the first two years of President Yoon Suk Yeol, a leader who has made strides on the global stage but is deeply unpopular and divisive at home.

The results, released on Thursday, were disastrous for Mr. Yoon.

Voters pushed him to the verge of being a lame duck, giving the opposition one of the biggest parliamentary majorities in recent decades. He becomes the first South Korean president in decades to contend with an opposition-controlled Parliament for his entire time in office.

The outcome — and the increasingly polarized South Korean political climate that Mr. Yoon helped intensify — heralded deepening deadlock in a country that is crucial to U.S. efforts to counter China and North Korea. It reduces the odds of Mr. Yoon achieving anything that requires bipartisan support. And it raises the prospect of him leaving office in 2027 with little to show other than redirecting his country’s foreign policy toward expanding military ties with Washington and Tokyo.

Mr. Yoon has been proud of his conservative foreign policy. But to many voters, this election was about domestic woes, such as inflation and signs of democratic backsliding . The opposition successfully framed the vote as a referendum on him.

For months, political analysts, local media and even critics within his own party had been warning Mr. Yoon about his “disconnect” from everyday people and his “hubris” in dealing with the opposition, a national disaster, a prolonged strike by doctors and allegations of corruption involving his wife , Kim Keon Hee.

“His leadership has been a runaway train,” said Ahn Byong-jin, a political scientist at Kyung Hee University in Seoul, referring to Mr. Yoon’s obstinacy in pushing unpopular decisions.

During his two years in office, Mr. Yoon’s business-friendly domestic agenda has remained paralyzed by his toxic relationship with the opposition-controlled National Assembly, South Korea’s unicameral legislature. He was more successful overseas, basking in the spotlight in Washington and European capitals for his foreign policy and his country’s growing importance in the war in Ukraine.

For the United States, South Korea under Mr. Yoon is a key and willing partner in building a coalition against China — an effort highlighted by President Biden’s meetings this week with the leaders of Japan and the Philippines.

And while foreign policy largely rests in the hand of the president, Mr. Yoon’s weakened domestic stature could hamper his diplomatic initiatives, some of which have been highly controversial at home.

Lee Jae-myung, whose progressive Democratic Party carried the election, has vehemently criticized Mr. Yoon for expanding military cooperation with Japan, a former colonial master of Korea, and for alienating China, South Korea’s biggest trading partner, on Washington’s behalf. Mr. Lee also prefers dialogue with North Korea, unlike the approach by Mr. Yoon and by Washington of prioritizing sanctions and military deterrence.

When Mr. Yoon won the presidency in 2022, he inherited the Assembly elected two years earlier . He often blamed the opposition-controlled Parliament for blocking or watering down his domestic agenda, such as labor and health care policies. But for this week’s election debacle and his party’s continued lack of parliamentary majority for the rest of his term, Mr. Yoon had few to blame, except for himself.

Still, the election result could have been even worse for him.

The opposition Democratic Party and its coalition partners won nearly 190 seats, falling short of a supermajority of 200 seats, which would have allowed lawmakers to override a presidential veto or pursue an impeachment of the president. Mr. Yoon’s People Power Party and its affiliates won 108 seats, down from the 114 they control in the outgoing Parliament.

“This wise decision from the people left President Yoon and the opposition with no option but to start dialogue,” said Sung Deuk Hahm, a political scientist at Kyonggi University. “If they don’t wake up, things can get really ugly.”

Mr. Yoon needs help from the opposition in addressing runaway housing prices , a rapidly aging population and a long-delayed overhaul of the national pension system. Mr. Lee, who was defeated by Mr. Yoon two years ago and hopes to run for president again, also needs to build his leadership credentials.

Stunned by the election result, Mr. Yoon showed signs of doing something observers had once said he would never do: admitting that he was at fault.

Prime Minister Han Duck-soo and many of Mr. Yoon’s top aides tendered their resignations on Thursday to open the way for the president to reorganize his government. The expected shake-up did not include foreign policy aides, a sign that Mr. Yoon intended to maintain his diplomatic initiatives.

Presidential aides also told reporters that Mr. Yoon would try to build a cooperative relationship with members of the opposition, whom his party had called “criminals” during the campaign. Mr. Yoon did not speak publicly, but his chief of staff, Lee Kwan-sup, relayed a message from the president.

“I will humbly accept the will of the people as reflected in the election result and will overhaul the way the government is run and do my best to stabilize the economy and the people’s livelihood,” Mr. Yoon was quoted as saying.

Choe Sang-Hun is the lead reporter for The Times in Seoul, covering South and North Korea. More about Choe Sang-Hun