primary research interviews advantages and disadvantages

Advantages and Disadvantages of Interview in Research

Approaching the Respondent- according to the Interviewer’s Manual, the introductory tasks of the interviewer are: tell the interviewer is and whom he or she represents; telling him about what the study is, in a way to stimulate his interest. The interviewer has also ensured at this stage that his answers are confidential; tell the respondent how he was chosen; use letters and clippings of surveys in order to show the importance of the study to the respondent. The interviewer must be adaptable, friendly, responsive, and should make the interviewer feel at ease to say anything, even if it is irrelevant.

Dealing with Refusal- there can be plenty of reasons for refusing for an interview, for example, a respondent may feel that surveys are a waste of time, or may express anti-government feeling. It is the interviewer’s job to determine the reason for the refusal of the interview and attempt to overcome it.

Conducting the Interview- the questions should be asked as worded for all respondents in order to avoid misinterpretation of the question. Clarification of the question should also be avoided for the same reason. However, the questions can be repeated in case of misunderstanding. The questions should be asked in the same order as mentioned in the questionnaire, as a particular question might not make sense if the questions before they are skipped. The interviewers must be very careful to be neutral before starting the interview so as not to lead the respondent, hence minimizing bias.

listing out the advantages of interview studies, which are noted below:

• It provides flexibility to the interviewers
• The interview has a better response rate than mailed questions, and the people who cannot read and write can also answer the questions.
• The interviewer can judge the non-verbal behavior of the respondent.
• The interviewer can decide the place for an interview in a private and silent place, unlike the ones conducted through emails which can have a completely different environment.
• The interviewer can control over the order of the question, as in the questionnaire, and can judge the spontaneity of the respondent as well.

There are certain disadvantages of interview studies as well which are:

• Conducting interview studies can be very costly as well as very time-consuming.
• An interview can cause biases. For example, the respondent’s answers can be affected by his reaction to the interviewer’s race, class, age or physical appearance.
• Interview studies provide less anonymity, which is a big concern for many respondents.
• There is a lack of accessibility to respondents (unlike conducting mailed questionnaire study) since the respondents can be in around any corner of the world or country.

INTERVIEW AS SOCIAL INTERACTION

The interview subjects to the same rules and regulations of other instances of social interaction. It is believed that conducting interview studies has possibilities for all sorts of bias, inconsistency, and inaccuracies and hence many researchers are critical of the surveys and interviews. T.R. William says that in certain societies there may be patterns of people saying one thing, but doing another. He also believes that the responses should be interpreted in context and two social contexts should not be compared to each other. Derek L. Phillips says that the survey method itself can manipulate the data, and show the results that actually does not exist in the population in real. Social research becomes very difficult due to the variability in human behavior and attitude. Other errors that can be caused in social research include-

• deliberate lying, because the respondent does not want to give a socially undesirable answer;
• unconscious mistakes, which mostly occurs when the respondent has socially undesirable traits that he does not want to accept;
• when the respondent accidentally misunderstands the question and responds incorrectly;
• when the respondent is unable to remember certain details.

Apart from the errors caused by the responder, there are also certain errors made by the interviewers that may include-

• errors made by altering the questionnaire, through changing some words or omitting certain questions;
• biased, irrelevant, inadequate or unnecessary probing;
• recording errors, or consciously making errors in recording.

Bailey, K. (1994). Interview Studies in Methods of social research. Simonand Schuster, 4th ed. The Free Press, New York NY 10020.Ch8. Pp.173-213.

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interviews in research advantages and disadvantages

Interviews are a widely used research method that allows researchers to gather valuable information directly from participants. This article explores the advantages and disadvantages of conducting interviews in research, providing insights into the strengths and weaknesses of this approach.

Advantages of Interviews in Research

1. rich and in-depth data:.

Interviews provide researchers with the opportunity to delve deep into a topic and obtain detailed information from participants. Through open-ended questions, researchers can explore various aspects and gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

2. Flexibility:

Interviews offer flexibility in terms of location, timing, and format. Researchers can choose to conduct interviews face-to-face, over the phone, or even through video conferencing. This flexibility allows for convenience and increases the likelihood of participation.

3. Probing and Clarification:

Unlike other research methods, interviews allow for immediate clarification and probing. Researchers can ask follow-up questions, seek elaboration, or request examples during the interview, ensuring a clearer understanding of the participant’s responses.

4. Personal Connection:

Interviews foster a personal connection between the researcher and the participant. This connection often leads to a greater level of trust, resulting in participants sharing more detailed and honest responses. It also provides an opportunity to observe non-verbal cues, gestures, and emotions that may contribute to the research findings.

5. Adaptability:

Researchers can adapt their interviews based on the participant’s background, knowledge, or cultural context. This adaptability allows for a tailored approach that enhances the quality and relevance of the data obtained.

Disadvantages of Interviews in Research

1. potential for bias:.

Interviews may introduce bias as the researcher’s personal presence and interaction can influence the participant’s responses. Researchers must remain impartial and minimize any potential bias or leading questions.

2. Time-consuming:

Conducting interviews can be time-consuming as it requires scheduling, preparation, execution, and transcription of the recorded data. Researchers must allocate ample time and resources to ensure thorough data collection and analysis.

3. Difficulty in Generalizing Findings:

While interviews provide rich and detailed data, it can be challenging to generalize the findings to a larger population. The sample size is often limited, making it difficult to draw broad conclusions from interview-based research.

4. Interviewer Influence:

The presence and behavior of the interviewer may impact the participant’s responses. Participants might alter their answers based on their perception of the researcher’s expectations, potentially leading to skewed or inaccurate data.

5. Resource-Intensive:

Conducting interviews requires significant resources, including time, manpower, and financial investment. Expenses may include travel costs, transcription services, and compensation for participants, making interviews a more resource-intensive research method.

Benefits of Knowing the Interviews in Research Advantages and Disadvantages

Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of interviews in research can significantly benefit researchers in several ways:

• Improved Research Design: Knowledge of the strengths and limitations of interviews helps researchers design studies that leverage the advantages while mitigating potential drawbacks.
• Informed Decision-Making: Researchers can make informed choices about when to use interviews as a research method and when to employ other techniques better suited to their objectives.
• Data Quality Enhancement: Awareness of the disadvantages allows researchers to implement strategies to minimize bias and increase the reliability and validity of the data collected through interviews.
• Ethical Considerations: Understanding the advantages and disadvantages helps researchers navigate potential ethical dilemmas during the interview process and ensures the protection of participants’ rights and well-being.

In conclusion, interviews offer valuable advantages in research, including rich and in-depth data, flexibility, probing capabilities, personal connection, and adaptability. However, there are also disadvantages to consider, such as the potential for bias, time consumption, difficulty in generalizing findings, interviewer influence, and resource intensiveness. By understanding these advantages and disadvantages, researchers can make more informed decisions, enhance their research methodologies, and ensure the validity and integrity of their findings.

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Better Knowledge. Your Insight Is Sharper

Primary Research: Methods, Advantages, and Disadvantages

On: Market Research , Marketing Modified: April 15, 2022

What’s it:  Primary research is a type of research where the researcher directly takes data from the original source. In other words, researchers are the first to collect data.

Data may be qualitative or quantitative information. Qualitative information cannot be measured, calculated, and described using numbers, such as education, gender, preferences, or respondents’ opinions. Meanwhile, qualitative information has a value that can be measured by numbers, such as income or the number of products purchased per month.

Researchers may collect data on their own. Or, they hire a third party to do research on their behalf. The main advantage of primary research is that data quality is more guaranteed. But it can also be expensive to do.

Difference between primary research and secondary research

Based on data sources, research falls into two types:

• Primary research or field research
• Secondary research or desk research

If primary research collects data from original sources directly, secondary research relies on existing data. It may come from external parties such as reports from other companies, government institutions, research agencies, or international organizations.

Although cheaper, researchers cannot confirm the quality of secondary data. They have no control over the sampling process and data collection. Data may not be up to date due to more time lag between data collection and publication results. For some time series data, they may not be updated regularly.

Primary research methods

There are four primary research methods:

Focus group

Observation.

In the survey, the researcher collected data from a predetermined group of respondents (sample). Topics vary depending on the research objectives. In consumer research, for example, it might examine the attitudes, impressions, opinions, and levels of consumer satisfaction with a product or brand.

Before doing the survey, researchers determined which samples to take. The process we call sampling , which falls into two categories:

• Random sampling.  Here, the sample has the same chance of being selected. Examples of methods are simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster random sampling, and multi-stage random sampling.
• Non-random sampling . Under this approach, the sample chances of being selected are unequal. The methods are quota sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling, judgmental sampling, and self-selection.

After determining a sample, researchers conducted a survey, either by themselves or through a third party on their behalf. In addition to meeting face to face with respondents, researchers may do so by telephone or online channels such as email. For direct consumer research, they ask consumers or potential customers directly, usually using a questionnaire.

The questionnaire usually contains some quantitative or qualitative information. The initial page may contain questions about the consumer’s background, such as education, number of family members, and income. The next section contains some key questions to answer the objectives of the study.

The questions in the questionnaire might be:

• Closed question
• Open question

In closed questions, researchers provide alternative answers, and the respondent chooses the appropriate answer. The main advantage of closed questions is that the results are easy and fast to process and analyze. However, the weakness is that the answers are developed from the researchers’ perspective rather than the respondent. Thus, it has less room to explain the reasons behind consumer answers.

Meanwhile, in open questions, alternative answers are unavailable. Researchers encourage respondents to provide their own answers, thus providing opportunities to dig deeper into information. But, unfortunately, answers will vary between respondents. They would be challenging to compose and represent numerically.

An interview is similar to a survey, in which the researcher interacts directly with the respondent. It may be over the phone or in person. The interview process can be conducted anywhere, whether on the street or at home, depending on the sample selected.

However, instead of relying on a few closed questions, interviews mostly relied on open-ended questions. They delved deeper into the answers of respondents. Unlike surveys, the interviewer does not have a guide, resulting in more bias in asking questions. To avoid bias, they may carry notes with questions to ask.

In this case, the researcher gathered several people to discuss a problem. They may be consumers or experts.

Discussion topics vary depending on the type of research. It might be about a new product, service, advertisement, or style of packaging. The researcher then posed these questions to group members and encouraged them to actively discuss their responses.

All group members are free to give their point of view. Here, the researcher usually acts as the discussion leader and records or notes the critical points.

The main advantage of focus groups is that the information is more realistic and accurate. Because they involve respondents with similar characteristics, their answers or opinions may be less biased than the responses to individual interviews or questionnaires. Group members are free to state their opinions rather than simply answering questions as in surveys and interviews.

However, this method also has drawbacks. Members may be passive in the discussion, so the researcher takes a dominant role, thus influencing too much discussion. That will lead to biased conclusions in the end.

Observation does not involve direct interaction with respondents. Instead, the researcher watches and observes the respondents and makes notes about them. Take an example, customer behavior research at a retail store. The researcher might note the number of visitors, their gender, what products they first turn to when they enter the store, what they put in a shopping cart, what they pay at the checkout, and how much.

This research is relatively inexpensive because the researcher does not ask the respondents one by one. Instead, they determined several observation locations to retrieve information.

However, a major drawback of observational research is the relatively limited amount of information. Also, bias often occurs. For example, in an observation at a retail store, visitors may show an unnatural attitude when they know they are being watched. They try to show their ideal self instead of behaving as usual.

Disadvantages of primary research 

Some of the advantages of primary research are:

More up to date.  The researcher collects data at the time were needed. This is different from secondary data, where there is more time lag between data collection and publication. Besides, researchers can also update data regularly, as needed.

More relevant . Researchers take data by the objectives and questions they want to answer. For example, if they studied the shopping habits of consumers aged 20-30 years, they could determine a suitable sample.

In contrast, the available secondary data may only be for consumers aged 20-25 years. So, taking secondary data for research becomes less relevant.

Confidential.  Only researchers have access to data. Other people cannot use it without their permission.

Also, researchers can sell data to other parties for money. It is one of the business models of several research companies. They collect some primary data and sell it to several clients. They incur a one-time cost but can sell the same data to multiple parties.

More controllable.  Indeed, primary research is also biased. However, some of it is within the control of researchers. For example, in choosing a sample, they control the selected respondents and the data collected, so they are more representative. That is difficult to get from secondary data.

Disadvantages of primary research

Drawbacks of primary research are:

Expensive . Researchers have to spend more to get to the data. The amount depends on the preparation or the primary research method used. The number and geographic reach of respondents also affect costs. For example, in a survey, the costs may be higher and include surveyor wages, data entry fees, and questionnaire printing costs.

Time-consuming.  Surveys and interviews, for example, may take several days, depending on the number of respondents. After the data is obtained, the researcher must enter the data, clean it, and put it in a database. They may also have to classify answers to some open-ended questions. On the other hand, secondary data is faster to obtain, process, and analyze.

Lower variety.  Primary data contains only the topics under study. In contrast, secondary data is more varied because it comes from various sources.

Invalid sample.  Sampling errors render work pointless. Although there were no problems with the questionnaire or respondent’s answers, an unrepresentative sample produced biased conclusions. So, choosing the right sample is the initial and critical stage of the research.

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Chapter 10: Qualitative Data Collection & Analysis Methods

10.7 Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Interviews

As the preceding sections have suggested, qualitative interviews are an excellent way to gather detailed information. Whatever topic is of interest to the researcher can be explored in much more depth by employing this method than with almost any other method. Not only are participants given the opportunity to elaborate in a way that is not possible with other methods, such as survey research, but, in addition, they are able share information with researchers in their own words and from their own perspectives, rather than attempting to fit those perspectives into the perhaps limited response options provided by the researcher. Because qualitative interviews are designed to elicit detailed information, they are especially useful when a researcher’s aim is to study social processes, or the “how” of various phenomena. Yet another, and sometimes overlooked, benefit of qualitative interviews that occurs in person is that researchers can make observations beyond those that a respondent is orally reporting. A respondent’s body language, and even her or his choice of time and location for the interview, might provide a researcher with useful data.

As with quantitative survey research, qualitative interviews rely on respondents’ ability to accurately and honestly recall whatever details about their lives, circumstances, thoughts, opinions, or behaviors are being examined. Qualitative interviewing is also time-intensive and can be quite expensive. Creating an interview guide, identifying a sample, and conducting interviews are just the beginning of the process. Transcribing interviews is labor-intensive, even before coding begins. It is also not uncommon to offer respondents some monetary incentive or thank-you for participating, because you are asking for more of the participants’ time than if you had mailed them a questionnaire containing closed-ended questions. Conducting qualitative interviews is not only labor intensive but also emotionally taxing. Researchers embarking on a qualitative interview project with a subject that is sensitive in nature should keep in mind their own abilities to listen to stories that may be difficult to hear.

Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Interviews in Social Research: Advantages and Disadvantages

The strengths of unstructured interviews are that they are respondent led, flexible, allow empathy and can be empowering, the limitations are poor reliability due to interviewer characteristics and bias, time, and low representativeness.

Table of Contents

Last Updated on September 11, 2023 by Karl Thompson

An interview involves an interviewer asking questions verbally to a respondent. Interviews involve a more direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent than questionnaires. Interviews can either be conducted face to face, via phone, video link or social media.

This post has primarily been written for students studying the Research Methods aspect of A-level sociology, but it should also be useful for students studying methods for psychology, business studies and maybe other subjects too!

Types of interview

Structured or formal interviews are those in which the interviewer asks the interviewee the same questions in the same way to different respondents. This will typically involve reading out questions from a pre-written and pre-coded structured questionnaire, which forms the interview schedule. The most familiar form of this is with market research, where you may have been stopped on the street with a researcher ticking boxes based on your responses.

Unstructured or Informal interviews (also called discovery interviews) are more like a guided conversation. Here the interviewer has a list of topics they want the respondent to talk about, but the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the specific questions from respondent to respondent, so they can follow whatever lines of enquiry they think are most appropriated, depending on the responses given by each respondent.

Semi-Structured interviews are those in which respondents have a list of questions, but they are free to ask further, differentiated questions based on the responses given. This allows more flexibility that the structured interview yet more structure than the informal interview.

Group interviews – Interviews can be conducted either one to one (individual interviews) or in a a group, in which the interviewer interviews two or more respondents at a time. Group discussions among respondents may lead to deeper insight than just interviewing people along, as respondents ‘encourage’ each other.

Focus groups are a type of group interview in which respondents are asked to discuss certain topics.

Interviews: key terms

The Interview Schedule – A list of questions or topic areas the interviewer wishes to ask or cover in the course of the interview. The more structured the interview, the more rigid the interiew schedule will be. Before conducting an interview it is usual for the reseracher to know something about the topic area and the respondents themselves, and so they will have at least some idea of the questions they are likely to ask: even if they are doing ‘unstructred interviews’ an interviewer will have some kind of interview schedule, even if it is just a list of broad topic areas to discuss, or an opening question.

Transcription of interviews -Transcription is the process of writing down (or typing up) what respondents say in an interview. In order to be able to transcribe effectively interviews will need to be recorded.

The problem of Leading Questions – In Unstructured Interviews, the interviewer should aim to avoid asking leading questions.

The Strengths and Limitations of Unstructured Interviews 

The strengths of unstructured interviews

The key strength of unstructured interviews is good validity , but for this to happen questioning should be as open ended as possible to gain genuine, spontaneous information rather than ‘rehearsed responses’ and questioning needs to be sufficient enough to elicit in-depth answers rather than glib, easy answers.

Respondent led – unstructured interviews are ‘respondent led’ – this is because the researcher listens to what the respondent says and then asks further questions based on what the respondent says. This should allow respondents to express themselves and explain their views more fully than with structured interviews.

Flexibility – the researcher can change his or her mind about what the most important questions are as the interview develops. Unstructured Interviews thus avoid the imposition problem – respondents are less constrained than with structured interviews or questionnaires in which the questions are written in advance by the researcher. This is especially advantageous in group interviews, where interaction between respondents can spark conversations that the interviewer hadn’t thought would of happened in advance, which could then be probed further with an unstructured methodology.

Rapport and empathy – unstructured interviews encourage a good rapport between interviewee and interviewer. Because of their informal nature, like guided conversations, unstructured interviews are more likely to make respondents feel at ease than with the more formal setting of a structured questionnaire or experiment. This should encourage openness, trust and empathy.

Checking understanding – unstructured interviews also allow the interviewer to check understanding. If an interviewee doesn’t understand a question, the interviewer is free to rephrase it, or to ask follow up questions to clarify aspects of answers that were not clear in the first instance.

Unstructured interviews are good for sensitive topics because they are more likely to make respondents feel at ease with the interviewer. They also allow the interviewer to show more sympathy (if required) than with the colder more mechanical quantitative methods.

They are good for finding out why respondents do not do certain things . For example postal surveys asking why people do not claim benefits have very low response rates, but informal interviews are perfect for researching people who may have low literacy skills.

Empowerment for respondents – the researcher and respondents are on a more equal footing than with more quantitative methods. The researcher doesn’t assume they know best. This empowers the respondents. Feminists researchers in particular believe that the unstructured interview can neutralise the hierarchical, exploitative power relations that they believe to be inherent in the more traditional interview structure. They see the traditional interview as a site for the exploitation and subordination of women, with the interviewers potentially creating outcomes against their interviewees’ interests. In traditional interview formats the interviewer directs the questioning and takes ownership of the material; in the feminist (unstructured) interview method the woman would recount her experiences in her own words with the interviewer serving only as a guide to the account.

Practical advantages – there are few practical advantages with this method, but compared to full-blown participant observation, they are a relatively quick method for gaining in-depth data. They are also a good method to combine with overt participant observation in order to get respondents to further explain the meanings behind their actions. So in short, they are impractical, unless you’re in the middle of a year long Participant Observation study (it’s all relative!).

The Limitations of unstructured interviews

The main theoretical disadvantage is the lack of reliability – unstructured Interviews lack reliability because each interview is unique – a variety of different questions are asked and phrased in a variety of different ways to different respondents.

They are also difficult to repeat, because the s uccess of the interview depends on the bond of trust between the researcher and the respondent – another researcher who does not relate to the respondent may thus get different answers. Group interviews are especially difficult to repeat, given that the dynamics of the interview are influenced not just by the values of the researcher, but also by group dynamics. One person can change the dynamic of a group of three or four people enormously.

Validity can be undermined in several ways:

• respondents might prefer to give rational responses rather than fuller emotional ones (it’s harder to talk frankly about emotions with strangers)
• respondents may not reveal their true thoughts and feelings because they do not coincide with their own self-image, so they simply withhold information
• respondents may give answers they think the interviewer wants to hear, in attempt to please them!

We also need to keep in mind that interviews can only tap into what people SAY about their values, beliefs and actions, we don’t actually get to see these in action, like we would do with observational studies such as Participant Observation. This has been a particular problem with self-report studies of criminal behaviour. These have been tested using polygraphs, and follow up studies of school and criminal records and responses found to be lacking in validity, so much so that victim-surveys have become the standard method for measuring crime rather than self-report studies.

Interviewer bias might undermine the validity of unstructured interviews – this is where the values of the researcher interfere with the results. The researcher may give away whether they approve or disapprove of certain responses in their body language or tone of voice (or wording of probing questions) and this in turn might encourage or discourage respondents from being honest.

The characteristics of the interviewer might also bias the results and undermine the validity – how honest the respondent is in the course of an hour long interview might depend on the class, gender, or ethnicity of the interviewer.

Sudman and Bradburn (1974) conducted a review of literature and found that responses varied depending on the relative demographics of the interviewer and respondent. For example white interviewers received more socially acceptable responses from black respondents than they did from white respondents. Similar findings have been found with different ethnicities, age, social class and religion.

Unstructured interviews also lack representativeness – because they are time consuming, it is difficult to get a large enough sample to be representative of large populations.

It is difficult to quantify data , compare answers and find stats and trends because the data gained is qualitative.

Practical disadvantages – unstructured Interviews may take a relatively long time to conduct. Some interviews can take hours. They also need to be taped and transcribed, and in the analysis phase there may be a lot of information that is not directly relevant to one’s research topic that needs to be sifted through.

Interpersonal skills and training – A further practical problem is that some researchers may lack the interpersonal skills required to conduct informal unstructured interviews. Training might need to be more thorough for researchers undertaking unstructured interviews – to avoid the problem of interviewer bias.

Shapiro and Eberhart (1947) showed that interviewers who were more prepared to probe received fuller answers, and both response rate and extensiveness of response are greater for more experienced interviewers.

There are few ethical problems , assuming that informed consent is gained and confidentially ensured. Although having said this, the fact that the researcher is getting more in-depth data, more of an insight into who the person really is, does offer the potential for the information to do more harm to the respondent if it got into the wrong hands (but this in turn depends on the topics discussed and the exact content of the interviews.

Sociological perspectives on interviews

Interviews of any kind are not a preferred method for positivists because there is no guarantee that responses aren’t artefacts of the interview situation, rather than a reflection of underlying social reality.

If interviews must be used, Positivists prefer structured interviews that follow a standardised schedule, with each question asked to each respondent in the same way. Interviewers should be neutral, show no emotion, avoid suggesting replies, and not skip questions.

Fo r Interactionists , interviews are based on mutual participant observation. The context of the interview is intrinsic to understanding responses and no distinction between research interviews and other social interaction is recognised. Data are valid when mutual understanding between interviewer and respondent is agreed.

Interactionists prefer non-standardised interviews because they allow respondents to shape the interview according to their own world view.

Denzin (2009) goes as far as to argue that what positivists might perceive as problems with interviews are not problems, just part of the process and thus as valid as the data collected. Thus issues of self-presentation, the power relations between interviewer and respondent and opportunities for fabrication are all part of the context and part of the valid-reality that we are trying to get to.

Related Posts

For more posts on research methods please see my research methods page.

Examples of studies using interviews – Using Interviews to research education .

Participant Observation  –   A related qualitative research method – detailed class notes on overt and covert participant observation. 

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Recommended further reading: Gilbert and Stoneman (2016) Researching Social Life

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Interviews can be defined as a qualitative research technique which involves “conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a particular idea, program or situation.” [1]

There are three different formats of interviews: structured, semi-structured and unstructured.

Structured interviews consist of a series of pre-determined questions that all interviewees answer in the same order. Data analysis usually tends to be more straightforward because researcher can compare and contrast different answers given to the same questions.

Unstructured interviews are usually the least reliable from research viewpoint, because no questions are prepared prior to the interview and data collection is conducted in an informal manner. Unstructured interviews can be associated with a high level of bias and comparison of answers given by different respondents tends to be difficult due to the differences in formulation of questions.

Semi-structured interviews contain the components of both, structured and unstructured interviews. In semi-structured interviews, interviewer prepares a set of same questions to be answered by all interviewees. At the same time, additional questions might be asked during interviews to clarify and/or further expand certain issues.

Advantages of interviews include possibilities of collecting detailed information about research questions.  Moreover, in in this type of primary data collection researcher has direct control over the flow of process and she has a chance to clarify certain issues during the process if needed. Disadvantages, on the other hand, include longer time requirements and difficulties associated with arranging an appropriate time with perspective sample group members to conduct interviews.

When conducting interviews you should have an open mind and refrain from displaying disagreements in any forms when viewpoints expressed by interviewees contradict your own ideas. Moreover, timing and environment for interviews need to be scheduled effectively. Specifically, interviews need to be conducted in a relaxed environment, free of any forms of pressure for interviewees whatsoever.

Respected scholars warn that “in conducting an interview the interviewer should attempt to create a friendly, non-threatening atmosphere. Much as one does with a cover letter, the interviewer should give a brief, casual introduction to the study; stress the importance of the person’s participation; and assure anonymity, or at least confidentiality, when possible.” [2]

There is a risk of interviewee bias during the primary data collection process and this would seriously compromise the validity of the project findings. Some interviewer bias can be avoided by ensuring that the interviewer does not overreact to responses of the interviewee. Other steps that can be taken to help avoid or reduce interviewer bias include having the interviewer dress inconspicuously and appropriately for the environment and holding the interview in a private setting.  [3]

My e-book, The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance offers practical assistance to complete a dissertation with minimum or no stress. The e-book covers all stages of writing a dissertation starting from the selection to the research area to submitting the completed version of the work within the deadline.John Dudovskiy

[1] Boyce, C. & Neale, P. (2006) “Conducting in-depth Interviews: A Guide for Designing and Conducting In-Depth Interviews”, Pathfinder International Tool Series

[2] Connaway, L.S.& Powell, R.P.(2010) “Basic Research Methods for Librarians” ABC-CLIO

[3] Connaway, L.S.& Powell, R.P.(2010) “Basic Research Methods for Librarians” ABC-CLIO

Qualitative Interviewing

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• Sally Nathan 2 ,
• Christy Newman 3 &
• Kari Lancaster 3  

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Qualitative interviewing is a foundational method in qualitative research and is widely used in health research and the social sciences. Both qualitative semi-structured and in-depth unstructured interviews use verbal communication, mostly in face-to-face interactions, to collect data about the attitudes, beliefs, and experiences of participants. Interviews are an accessible, often affordable, and effective method to understand the socially situated world of research participants. The approach is typically informed by an interpretive framework where the data collected is not viewed as evidence of the truth or reality of a situation or experience but rather a context-bound subjective insight from the participants. The researcher needs to be open to new insights and to privilege the participant’s experience in data collection. The data from qualitative interviews is not generalizable, but its exploratory nature permits the collection of rich data which can answer questions about which little is already known. This chapter introduces the reader to qualitative interviewing, the range of traditions within which interviewing is utilized as a method, and highlights the advantages and some of the challenges and misconceptions in its application. The chapter also provides practical guidance on planning and conducting interview studies. Three case examples are presented to highlight the benefits and risks in the use of interviewing with different participants, providing situated insights as well as advice about how to go about learning to interview if you are a novice.

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Nathan, S., Newman, C., Lancaster, K. (2019). Qualitative Interviewing. In: Liamputtong, P. (eds) Handbook of Research Methods in Health Social Sciences. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5251-4_77

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Advantages of Primary Research – Types & Advantages

Published by Jamie Walker at October 21st, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

Are you confused between primary and secondary research ? Not sure whether primary research is the right choice for your research project? Don’t panic! This article provides the key advantages of primary research over secondary research so you can make an informed decision.

Primary research is a data collection method where the researcher gathers all the data him/herself without relying on data acquired in previous studies. That means the collected data can be used to investigate a specific problem or a relationship between different variables.

To carry out primary research, a profound analysis is required, which is one of the reasons why primary research tends to be so valuable.

There are many different types of primary research that can be performed, and it is essential to know the differences between them so you can be sure that you are choosing the right method for your research.

Some of the most common primary research methods include surveys, interviews, ethnographic research, and observations.

Primary research is a valuable research tool that allows researchers and academicians to improve the reliability and validity of their research. It not only facilitates your research work but also enables you to make a mark in your area of study. It is most commonly used when writing a dissertation, thesis, report, journal paper or business report.

Primary research provides researchers with a rich source of in-depth knowledge about a particular research topic. For example, a focus group asks specific questions about a topic. It guides the researcher in drafting their research questions and creating other tools for research.

This makes the material highly tailored to the needs of the primary researcher. Similarly, a survey will enable you to collect responses from the participants of the study against your research questions.

To read about the advantages of secondary research

To read about the disadvantages of secondary research

To read about the disadvantages of primary research .

Types of Primary Research

Primary research must be conducted where secondary data is irrelevant or insufficient and where real first hand data is required. There are four specific forms that researchers use for primary research.

• Interviews: Conduct the interview with the participants in small sitting using interview guide
• Focus group discussions:  Conduct small groups for discussion on a particular topic.
• Surveys: Using a brief questionnaire, participants were asked about their thoughts about the specific topic.
• Observations:  Observing and reckoning the surroundings, for example, people and other phenomena that can be observed.

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Advantages of Primary Research

• The data is drawn from first-hand sources and will be highly accurate and, perhaps that is the most significant advantage of primary research. The questions or experimental set-ups can be constructed as a unique method to achieve the research objectives.
• Doing so, ensures that the data you gather is related and relevant to the research you are conducting and is intended to address your research objectives.
• Primary research ought to be directed towards addressing the core problem or objective of the research study. In other words, there is a clearly defined problem and the design of the research, the data collection methods and the final data set can all be tailored to that problem.
• You can be sure that the collected data is aligned with your specific problem, improving the probability that the data will give you the desired responses. In other words, the data you will gather for your research will be concrete and unambiguous, and directly related to your research objectives.
• With primary data collection, you don’t need to modify the data collected (secondary data), by another researcher who may have a slightly different focus, because you are the owner of your own data.
• Maintaining this degree of scrutiny means that the data you collect from primary sources will be more pertinent and therefore more effective for your research. Since you will be in charge of the data, it is easier to regulate the time span, the scope and the volume of the dataset being used.

The main emphasis of primary research will be on the research topic . This research approach enables the researcher to address the problem and find the most appropriate responses. Moreover, this method is valid and has been tested thousands of times, which makes its use more reliable and increases the probability of obtaining valid data.

Once you understand the nature of primary research and what it entails, you can begin to understand the requirements of your own research project and discover how to locate the specific type of data that you need in order to address your research questions and prepare the best possible research work.

Need Help with Primary Research?

If you are a student, a researcher, or a business looking to collect primary data for a report, a dissertation, an essay, or another type of project, feel free to get in touch with us. You can also read about our primary data collection service here . Our experts include highly qualified academicians, doctors, and researchers who are sure to collect authentic, reliable, up to date and relevant sources for your research study.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to perform primary research.

Performing primary research involves:

• Defining research goals.
• Choosing methods (surveys, interviews, etc.).
• Designing tools and questions.
• Collecting data from sources directly.
• Analyzing data for insights.
• Drawing conclusions based on findings.

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• Published: 05 October 2018

Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age

• P. Gill 1 &
• J. Baillie 2  

British Dental Journal volume  225 ,  pages 668–672 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Highlights that qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry. Interviews and focus groups remain the most common qualitative methods of data collection.

Suggests the advent of digital technologies has transformed how qualitative research can now be undertaken.

Suggests interviews and focus groups can offer significant, meaningful insight into participants' experiences, beliefs and perspectives, which can help to inform developments in dental practice.

Qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry, due to its potential to provide meaningful, in-depth insights into participants' experiences, perspectives, beliefs and behaviours. These insights can subsequently help to inform developments in dental practice and further related research. The most common methods of data collection used in qualitative research are interviews and focus groups. While these are primarily conducted face-to-face, the ongoing evolution of digital technologies, such as video chat and online forums, has further transformed these methods of data collection. This paper therefore discusses interviews and focus groups in detail, outlines how they can be used in practice, how digital technologies can further inform the data collection process, and what these methods can offer dentistry.

You have full access to this article via your institution.

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Interviews in the social sciences

Professionalism in dentistry: deconstructing common terminology

A review of technical and quality assessment considerations of audio-visual and web-conferencing focus groups in qualitative health research, introduction.

Traditionally, research in dentistry has primarily been quantitative in nature. 1 However, in recent years, there has been a growing interest in qualitative research within the profession, due to its potential to further inform developments in practice, policy, education and training. Consequently, in 2008, the British Dental Journal (BDJ) published a four paper qualitative research series, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 to help increase awareness and understanding of this particular methodological approach.

Since the papers were originally published, two scoping reviews have demonstrated the ongoing proliferation in the use of qualitative research within the field of oral healthcare. 1 , 6 To date, the original four paper series continue to be well cited and two of the main papers remain widely accessed among the BDJ readership. 2 , 3 The potential value of well-conducted qualitative research to evidence-based practice is now also widely recognised by service providers, policy makers, funding bodies and those who commission, support and use healthcare research.

Besides increasing standalone use, qualitative methods are now also routinely incorporated into larger mixed method study designs, such as clinical trials, as they can offer additional, meaningful insights into complex problems that simply could not be provided by quantitative methods alone. Qualitative methods can also be used to further facilitate in-depth understanding of important aspects of clinical trial processes, such as recruitment. For example, Ellis et al . investigated why edentulous older patients, dissatisfied with conventional dentures, decline implant treatment, despite its established efficacy, and frequently refuse to participate in related randomised clinical trials, even when financial constraints are removed. 7 Through the use of focus groups in Canada and the UK, the authors found that fears of pain and potential complications, along with perceived embarrassment, exacerbated by age, are common reasons why older patients typically refuse dental implants. 7

The last decade has also seen further developments in qualitative research, due to the ongoing evolution of digital technologies. These developments have transformed how researchers can access and share information, communicate and collaborate, recruit and engage participants, collect and analyse data and disseminate and translate research findings. 8 Where appropriate, such technologies are therefore capable of extending and enhancing how qualitative research is undertaken. 9 For example, it is now possible to collect qualitative data via instant messaging, email or online/video chat, using appropriate online platforms.

These innovative approaches to research are therefore cost-effective, convenient, reduce geographical constraints and are often useful for accessing 'hard to reach' participants (for example, those who are immobile or socially isolated). 8 , 9 However, digital technologies are still relatively new and constantly evolving and therefore present a variety of pragmatic and methodological challenges. Furthermore, given their very nature, their use in many qualitative studies and/or with certain participant groups may be inappropriate and should therefore always be carefully considered. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a detailed explication regarding the use of digital technologies in qualitative research, insight is provided into how such technologies can be used to facilitate the data collection process in interviews and focus groups.

In light of such developments, it is perhaps therefore timely to update the main paper 3 of the original BDJ series. As with the previous publications, this paper has been purposely written in an accessible style, to enhance readability, particularly for those who are new to qualitative research. While the focus remains on the most common qualitative methods of data collection – interviews and focus groups – appropriate revisions have been made to provide a novel perspective, and should therefore be helpful to those who would like to know more about qualitative research. This paper specifically focuses on undertaking qualitative research with adult participants only.

Overview of qualitative research

Qualitative research is an approach that focuses on people and their experiences, behaviours and opinions. 10 , 11 The qualitative researcher seeks to answer questions of 'how' and 'why', providing detailed insight and understanding, 11 which quantitative methods cannot reach. 12 Within qualitative research, there are distinct methodologies influencing how the researcher approaches the research question, data collection and data analysis. 13 For example, phenomenological studies focus on the lived experience of individuals, explored through their description of the phenomenon. Ethnographic studies explore the culture of a group and typically involve the use of multiple methods to uncover the issues. 14

While methodology is the 'thinking tool', the methods are the 'doing tools'; 13 the ways in which data are collected and analysed. There are multiple qualitative data collection methods, including interviews, focus groups, observations, documentary analysis, participant diaries, photography and videography. Two of the most commonly used qualitative methods are interviews and focus groups, which are explored in this article. The data generated through these methods can be analysed in one of many ways, according to the methodological approach chosen. A common approach is thematic data analysis, involving the identification of themes and subthemes across the data set. Further information on approaches to qualitative data analysis has been discussed elsewhere. 1

Qualitative research is an evolving and adaptable approach, used by different disciplines for different purposes. Traditionally, qualitative data, specifically interviews, focus groups and observations, have been collected face-to-face with participants. In more recent years, digital technologies have contributed to the ongoing evolution of qualitative research. Digital technologies offer researchers different ways of recruiting participants and collecting data, and offer participants opportunities to be involved in research that is not necessarily face-to-face.

Research interviews are a fundamental qualitative research method 15 and are utilised across methodological approaches. Interviews enable the researcher to learn in depth about the perspectives, experiences, beliefs and motivations of the participant. 3 , 16 Examples include, exploring patients' perspectives of fear/anxiety triggers in dental treatment, 17 patients' experiences of oral health and diabetes, 18 and dental students' motivations for their choice of career. 19

Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured, 3 according to the purpose of the study, with less structured interviews facilitating a more in depth and flexible interviewing approach. 20 Structured interviews are similar to verbal questionnaires and are used if the researcher requires clarification on a topic; however they produce less in-depth data about a participant's experience. 3 Unstructured interviews may be used when little is known about a topic and involves the researcher asking an opening question; 3 the participant then leads the discussion. 20 Semi-structured interviews are commonly used in healthcare research, enabling the researcher to ask predetermined questions, 20 while ensuring the participant discusses issues they feel are important.

Interviews can be undertaken face-to-face or using digital methods when the researcher and participant are in different locations. Audio-recording the interview, with the consent of the participant, is essential for all interviews regardless of the medium as it enables accurate transcription; the process of turning the audio file into a word-for-word transcript. This transcript is the data, which the researcher then analyses according to the chosen approach.

Types of interview

Qualitative studies often utilise one-to-one, face-to-face interviews with research participants. This involves arranging a mutually convenient time and place to meet the participant, signing a consent form and audio-recording the interview. However, digital technologies have expanded the potential for interviews in research, enabling individuals to participate in qualitative research regardless of location.

Telephone interviews can be a useful alternative to face-to-face interviews and are commonly used in qualitative research. They enable participants from different geographical areas to participate and may be less onerous for participants than meeting a researcher in person. 15 A qualitative study explored patients' perspectives of dental implants and utilised telephone interviews due to the quality of the data that could be yielded. 21 The researcher needs to consider how they will audio record the interview, which can be facilitated by purchasing a recorder that connects directly to the telephone. One potential disadvantage of telephone interviews is the inability of the interviewer and researcher to see each other. This is resolved using software for audio and video calls online – such as Skype – to conduct interviews with participants in qualitative studies. Advantages of this approach include being able to see the participant if video calls are used, enabling observation of non-verbal communication, and the software can be free to use. However, participants are required to have a device and internet connection, as well as being computer literate, potentially limiting who can participate in the study. One qualitative study explored the role of dental hygienists in reducing oral health disparities in Canada. 22 The researcher conducted interviews using Skype, which enabled dental hygienists from across Canada to be interviewed within the research budget, accommodating the participants' schedules. 22

A less commonly used approach to qualitative interviews is the use of social virtual worlds. A qualitative study accessed a social virtual world – Second Life – to explore the health literacy skills of individuals who use social virtual worlds to access health information. 23 The researcher created an avatar and interview room, and undertook interviews with participants using voice and text methods. 23 This approach to recruitment and data collection enables individuals from diverse geographical locations to participate, while remaining anonymous if they wish. Furthermore, for interviews conducted using text methods, transcription of the interview is not required as the researcher can save the written conversation with the participant, with the participant's consent. However, the researcher and participant need to be familiar with how the social virtual world works to engage in an interview this way.

Conducting an interview

Ensuring informed consent before any interview is a fundamental aspect of the research process. Participants in research must be afforded autonomy and respect; consent should be informed and voluntary. 24 Individuals should have the opportunity to read an information sheet about the study, ask questions, understand how their data will be stored and used, and know that they are free to withdraw at any point without reprisal. The qualitative researcher should take written consent before undertaking the interview. In a face-to-face interview, this is straightforward: the researcher and participant both sign copies of the consent form, keeping one each. However, this approach is less straightforward when the researcher and participant do not meet in person. A recent protocol paper outlined an approach for taking consent for telephone interviews, which involved: audio recording the participant agreeing to each point on the consent form; the researcher signing the consent form and keeping a copy; and posting a copy to the participant. 25 This process could be replicated in other interview studies using digital methods.

There are advantages and disadvantages of using face-to-face and digital methods for research interviews. Ultimately, for both approaches, the quality of the interview is determined by the researcher. 16 Appropriate training and preparation are thus required. Healthcare professionals can use their interpersonal communication skills when undertaking a research interview, particularly questioning, listening and conversing. 3 However, the purpose of an interview is to gain information about the study topic, 26 rather than offering help and advice. 3 The researcher therefore needs to listen attentively to participants, enabling them to describe their experience without interruption. 3 The use of active listening skills also help to facilitate the interview. 14 Spradley outlined elements and strategies for research interviews, 27 which are a useful guide for qualitative researchers:

Greeting and explaining the project/interview

Asking descriptive (broad), structural (explore response to descriptive) and contrast (difference between) questions

Asymmetry between the researcher and participant talking

Expressing interest and cultural ignorance

Repeating, restating and incorporating the participant's words when asking questions

Creating hypothetical situations

Asking friendly questions

Knowing when to leave.

For semi-structured interviews, a topic guide (also called an interview schedule) is used to guide the content of the interview – an example of a topic guide is outlined in Box 1 . The topic guide, usually based on the research questions, existing literature and, for healthcare professionals, their clinical experience, is developed by the research team. The topic guide should include open ended questions that elicit in-depth information, and offer participants the opportunity to talk about issues important to them. This is vital in qualitative research where the researcher is interested in exploring the experiences and perspectives of participants. It can be useful for qualitative researchers to pilot the topic guide with the first participants, 10 to ensure the questions are relevant and understandable, and amending the questions if required.

Regardless of the medium of interview, the researcher must consider the setting of the interview. For face-to-face interviews, this could be in the participant's home, in an office or another mutually convenient location. A quiet location is preferable to promote confidentiality, enable the researcher and participant to concentrate on the conversation, and to facilitate accurate audio-recording of the interview. For interviews using digital methods the same principles apply: a quiet, private space where the researcher and participant feel comfortable and confident to participate in an interview.

Box 1: Example of a topic guide

Study focus: Parents' experiences of brushing their child's (aged 0–5) teeth

1. Can you tell me about your experience of cleaning your child's teeth?

How old was your child when you started cleaning their teeth?

Why did you start cleaning their teeth at that point?

How often do you brush their teeth?

What do you use to brush their teeth and why?

2. Could you explain how you find cleaning your child's teeth?

Do you find anything difficult?

What makes cleaning their teeth easier for you?

3. How has your experience of cleaning your child's teeth changed over time?

Has it become easier or harder?

Have you changed how often and how you clean their teeth? If so, why?

4. Could you describe how your child finds having their teeth cleaned?

What do they enjoy about having their teeth cleaned?

Is there anything they find upsetting about having their teeth cleaned?

5. Where do you look for information/advice about cleaning your child's teeth?

What did your health visitor tell you about cleaning your child's teeth? (If anything)

What has the dentist told you about caring for your child's teeth? (If visited)

Have any family members given you advice about how to clean your child's teeth? If so, what did they tell you? Did you follow their advice?

6. Is there anything else you would like to discuss about this?

Focus groups

A focus group is a moderated group discussion on a pre-defined topic, for research purposes. 28 , 29 While not aligned to a particular qualitative methodology (for example, grounded theory or phenomenology) as such, focus groups are used increasingly in healthcare research, as they are useful for exploring collective perspectives, attitudes, behaviours and experiences. Consequently, they can yield rich, in-depth data and illuminate agreement and inconsistencies 28 within and, where appropriate, between groups. Examples include public perceptions of dental implants and subsequent impact on help-seeking and decision making, 30 and general dental practitioners' views on patient safety in dentistry. 31

Focus groups can be used alone or in conjunction with other methods, such as interviews or observations, and can therefore help to confirm, extend or enrich understanding and provide alternative insights. 28 The social interaction between participants often results in lively discussion and can therefore facilitate the collection of rich, meaningful data. However, they are complex to organise and manage, due to the number of participants, and may also be inappropriate for exploring particularly sensitive issues that many participants may feel uncomfortable about discussing in a group environment.

Focus groups are primarily undertaken face-to-face but can now also be undertaken online, using appropriate technologies such as email, bulletin boards, online research communities, chat rooms, discussion forums, social media and video conferencing. 32 Using such technologies, data collection can also be synchronous (for example, online discussions in 'real time') or, unlike traditional face-to-face focus groups, asynchronous (for example, online/email discussions in 'non-real time'). While many of the fundamental principles of focus group research are the same, regardless of how they are conducted, a number of subtle nuances are associated with the online medium. 32 Some of which are discussed further in the following sections.

Focus group considerations

Some key considerations associated with face-to-face focus groups are: how many participants are required; should participants within each group know each other (or not) and how many focus groups are needed within a single study? These issues are much debated and there is no definitive answer. However, the number of focus groups required will largely depend on the topic area, the depth and breadth of data needed, the desired level of participation required 29 and the necessity (or not) for data saturation.

The optimum group size is around six to eight participants (excluding researchers) but can work effectively with between three and 14 participants. 3 If the group is too small, it may limit discussion, but if it is too large, it may become disorganised and difficult to manage. It is, however, prudent to over-recruit for a focus group by approximately two to three participants, to allow for potential non-attenders. For many researchers, particularly novice researchers, group size may also be informed by pragmatic considerations, such as the type of study, resources available and moderator experience. 28 Similar size and mix considerations exist for online focus groups. Typically, synchronous online focus groups will have around three to eight participants but, as the discussion does not happen simultaneously, asynchronous groups may have as many as 10–30 participants. 33

The topic area and potential group interaction should guide group composition considerations. Pre-existing groups, where participants know each other (for example, work colleagues) may be easier to recruit, have shared experiences and may enjoy a familiarity, which facilitates discussion and/or the ability to challenge each other courteously. 3 However, if there is a potential power imbalance within the group or if existing group norms and hierarchies may adversely affect the ability of participants to speak freely, then 'stranger groups' (that is, where participants do not already know each other) may be more appropriate. 34 , 35

Focus group management

Face-to-face focus groups should normally be conducted by two researchers; a moderator and an observer. 28 The moderator facilitates group discussion, while the observer typically monitors group dynamics, behaviours, non-verbal cues, seating arrangements and speaking order, which is essential for transcription and analysis. The same principles of informed consent, as discussed in the interview section, also apply to focus groups, regardless of medium. However, the consent process for online discussions will probably be managed somewhat differently. For example, while an appropriate participant information leaflet (and consent form) would still be required, the process is likely to be managed electronically (for example, via email) and would need to specifically address issues relating to technology (for example, anonymity and use, storage and access to online data). 32

The venue in which a face to face focus group is conducted should be of a suitable size, private, quiet, free from distractions and in a collectively convenient location. It should also be conducted at a time appropriate for participants, 28 as this is likely to promote attendance. As with interviews, the same ethical considerations apply (as discussed earlier). However, online focus groups may present additional ethical challenges associated with issues such as informed consent, appropriate access and secure data storage. Further guidance can be found elsewhere. 8 , 32

Before the focus group commences, the researchers should establish rapport with participants, as this will help to put them at ease and result in a more meaningful discussion. Consequently, researchers should introduce themselves, provide further clarity about the study and how the process will work in practice and outline the 'ground rules'. Ground rules are designed to assist, not hinder, group discussion and typically include: 3 , 28 , 29

Discussions within the group are confidential to the group

Only one person can speak at a time

All participants should have sufficient opportunity to contribute

There should be no unnecessary interruptions while someone is speaking

Everyone can be expected to be listened to and their views respected

Challenging contrary opinions is appropriate, but ridiculing is not.

Moderating a focus group requires considered management and good interpersonal skills to help guide the discussion and, where appropriate, keep it sufficiently focused. Avoid, therefore, participating, leading, expressing personal opinions or correcting participants' knowledge 3 , 28 as this may bias the process. A relaxed, interested demeanour will also help participants to feel comfortable and promote candid discourse. Moderators should also prevent the discussion being dominated by any one person, ensure differences of opinions are discussed fairly and, if required, encourage reticent participants to contribute. 3 Asking open questions, reflecting on significant issues, inviting further debate, probing responses accordingly, and seeking further clarification, as and where appropriate, will help to obtain sufficient depth and insight into the topic area.

Moderating online focus groups requires comparable skills, particularly if the discussion is synchronous, as the discussion may be dominated by those who can type proficiently. 36 It is therefore important that sufficient time and respect is accorded to those who may not be able to type as quickly. Asynchronous discussions are usually less problematic in this respect, as interactions are less instant. However, moderating an asynchronous discussion presents additional challenges, particularly if participants are geographically dispersed, as they may be online at different times. Consequently, the moderator will not always be present and the discussion may therefore need to occur over several days, which can be difficult to manage and facilitate and invariably requires considerable flexibility. 32 It is also worth recognising that establishing rapport with participants via online medium is often more challenging than via face-to-face and may therefore require additional time, skills, effort and consideration.

As with research interviews, focus groups should be guided by an appropriate interview schedule, as discussed earlier in the paper. For example, the schedule will usually be informed by the review of the literature and study aims, and will merely provide a topic guide to help inform subsequent discussions. To provide a verbatim account of the discussion, focus groups must be recorded, using an audio-recorder with a good quality multi-directional microphone. While videotaping is possible, some participants may find it obtrusive, 3 which may adversely affect group dynamics. The use (or not) of a video recorder, should therefore be carefully considered.

At the end of the focus group, a few minutes should be spent rounding up and reflecting on the discussion. 28 Depending on the topic area, it is possible that some participants may have revealed deeply personal issues and may therefore require further help and support, such as a constructive debrief or possibly even referral on to a relevant third party. It is also possible that some participants may feel that the discussion did not adequately reflect their views and, consequently, may no longer wish to be associated with the study. 28 Such occurrences are likely to be uncommon, but should they arise, it is important to further discuss any concerns and, if appropriate, offer them the opportunity to withdraw (including any data relating to them) from the study. Immediately after the discussion, researchers should compile notes regarding thoughts and ideas about the focus group, which can assist with data analysis and, if appropriate, any further data collection.

Qualitative research is increasingly being utilised within dental research to explore the experiences, perspectives, motivations and beliefs of participants. The contributions of qualitative research to evidence-based practice are increasingly being recognised, both as standalone research and as part of larger mixed-method studies, including clinical trials. Interviews and focus groups remain commonly used data collection methods in qualitative research, and with the advent of digital technologies, their utilisation continues to evolve. However, digital methods of qualitative data collection present additional methodological, ethical and practical considerations, but also potentially offer considerable flexibility to participants and researchers. Consequently, regardless of format, qualitative methods have significant potential to inform important areas of dental practice, policy and further related research.

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Gill, P., Baillie, J. Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age. Br Dent J 225 , 668–672 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2018.815

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Accepted : 02 July 2018

Published : 05 October 2018

Issue Date : 12 October 2018

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2018.815

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Semistructured interviewing in primary care research: a balance of relationship and rigour

Melissa dejonckheere.

1 Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

Lisa M Vaughn

2 Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

3 Division of Emergency Medicine, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Associated Data

fmch-2018-000057supp001.pdf

Semistructured in-depth interviews are commonly used in qualitative research and are the most frequent qualitative data source in health services research. This method typically consists of a dialogue between researcher and participant, guided by a flexible interview protocol and supplemented by follow-up questions, probes and comments. The method allows the researcher to collect open-ended data, to explore participant thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a particular topic and to delve deeply into personal and sometimes sensitive issues. The purpose of this article was to identify and describe the essential skills to designing and conducting semistructured interviews in family medicine and primary care research settings. We reviewed the literature on semistructured interviewing to identify key skills and components for using this method in family medicine and primary care research settings. Overall, semistructured interviewing requires both a relational focus and practice in the skills of facilitation. Skills include: (1) determining the purpose and scope of the study; (2) identifying participants; (3) considering ethical issues; (4) planning logistical aspects; (5) developing the interview guide; (6) establishing trust and rapport; (7) conducting the interview; (8) memoing and reflection; (9) analysing the data; (10) demonstrating the trustworthiness of the research; and (11) presenting findings in a paper or report. Semistructured interviews provide an effective and feasible research method for family physicians to conduct in primary care research settings. Researchers using semistructured interviews for data collection should take on a relational focus and consider the skills of interviewing to ensure quality. Semistructured interviewing can be a powerful tool for family physicians, primary care providers and other health services researchers to use to understand the thoughts, beliefs and experiences of individuals. Despite the utility, semistructured interviews can be intimidating and challenging for researchers not familiar with qualitative approaches. In order to elucidate this method, we provide practical guidance for researchers, including novice researchers and those with few resources, to use semistructured interviewing as a data collection strategy. We provide recommendations for the essential steps to follow in order to best implement semistructured interviews in family medicine and primary care research settings.

Introduction

Semistructured interviews can be used by family medicine researchers in clinical settings or academic settings even with few resources. In contrast to large-scale epidemiological studies, or even surveys, a family medicine researcher can conduct a highly meaningful project with interviews with as few as 8–12 participants. For example, Chang and her colleagues, all family physicians, conducted semistructured interviews with 10 providers to understand their perspectives on weight gain in pregnant patients. 1 The interviewers asked questions about providers’ overall perceptions on weight gain, their clinical approach to weight gain during pregnancy and challenges when managing weight gain among pregnant patients. Additional examples conducted by or with family physicians or in primary care settings are summarised in table 1 . 1–6

Examples of research articles using semistructured interviews in primary care research

From our perspective as seasoned qualitative researchers, conducting effective semistructured interviews requires: (1) a relational focus, including active engagement and curiosity, and (2) practice in the skills of interviewing. First, a relational focus emphasises the unique relationship between interviewer and interviewee. To obtain quality data, interviews should not be conducted with a transactional question-answer approach but rather should be unfolding, iterative interactions between the interviewer and interviewee. Second, interview skills can be learnt. Some of us will naturally be more comfortable and skilful at conducting interviews but all aspects of interviews are learnable and through practice and feedback will improve. Throughout this article, we highlight strategies to balance relationship and rigour when conducting semistructured interviews in primary care and the healthcare setting.

Qualitative research interviews are ‘attempts to understand the world from the subjects’ point of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations’ (p 1). 7 Qualitative research interviews unfold as an interviewer asks questions of the interviewee in order to gather subjective information about a particular topic or experience. Though the definitions and purposes of qualitative research interviews vary slightly in the literature, there is common emphasis on the experiences of interviewees and the ways in which the interviewee perceives the world (see table 2 for summary of definitions from seminal texts).

Definitions of qualitative interviews

The most common type of interview used in qualitative research and the healthcare context is semistructured interview. 8 Figure 1 highlights the key features of this data collection method, which is guided by a list of topics or questions with follow-up questions, probes and comments. Typically, the sequencing and wording of the questions are modified by the interviewer to best fit the interviewee and interview context. Semistructured interviews can be conducted in multiple ways (ie, face to face, telephone, text/email, individual, group, brief, in-depth), each of which have advantages and disadvantages. We will focus on the most common form of semistructured interviews within qualitative research—individual, face-to-face, in-depth interviews.

Key characteristics of semistructured interviews.

Purpose of semistructured interviews

The overall purpose of using semistructured interviews for data collection is to gather information from key informants who have personal experiences, attitudes, perceptions and beliefs related to the topic of interest. Researchers can use semistructured interviews to collect new, exploratory data related to a research topic, triangulate other data sources or validate findings through member checking (respondent feedback about research results). 9 If using a mixed methods approach, semistructured interviews can also be used in a qualitative phase to explore new concepts to generate hypotheses or explain results from a quantitative phase that tests hypotheses. Semistructured interviews are an effective method for data collection when the researcher wants: (1) to collect qualitative, open-ended data; (2) to explore participant thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a particular topic; and (3) to delve deeply into personal and sometimes sensitive issues.

Designing and conducting semistructured interviews

In the following section, we provide recommendations for the steps required to carefully design and conduct semistructured interviews with emphasis on applications in family medicine and primary care research (see table 3 ).

Steps to designing and conducting semistructured interviews

Steps for designing and conducting semistructured interviews

Step 1: determining the purpose and scope of the study.

The purpose of the study is the primary objective of your project and may be based on an anecdotal experience, a review of the literature or previous research finding. The purpose is developed in response to an identified gap or problem that needs to be addressed.

Research questions are the driving force of a study because they are associated with every other aspect of the design. They should be succinct and clearly indicate that you are using a qualitative approach. Qualitative research questions typically start with ‘What’, ‘How’ or ‘Why’ and focus on the exploration of a single concept based on participant perspectives. 10

Step 2: identifying participants

After deciding on the purpose of the study and research question(s), the next step is to determine who will provide the best information to answer the research question. Good interviewees are those who are available, willing to be interviewed and have lived experiences and knowledge about the topic of interest. 11 12 Working with gatekeepers or informants to get access to potential participants can be extremely helpful as they are trusted sources that control access to the target sample.

Sampling strategies are influenced by the research question and the purpose of the study. Unlike quantitative studies, statistical representativeness is not the goal of qualitative research. There is no calculation of statistical power and the goal is not a large sample size. Instead, qualitative approaches seek an in-depth and detailed understanding and typically use purposeful sampling. See the study of Hatch for a summary of various types of purposeful sampling that can be used for interview studies. 12

‘How many participants are needed?’ The most common answer is, ‘it depends’—it depends on the purpose of the study, what kind of study is planned and what questions the study is trying to answer. 12–14 One common standard in qualitative sample sizes is reaching thematic saturation, which refers to the point at which no new thematic information is gathered from participants. Malterud and colleagues discuss the concept of information power , or a qualitative equivalent to statistical power, to determine how many interviews should be collected in a study. They suggest that the size of a sample should depend on the aim, homogeneity of the sample, theory, interview quality and analytic strategy. 14

Step 3: considering ethical issues

An ethical attitude should be present from the very beginning of the research project even before you decide who to interview. 15 This ethical attitude should incorporate respect, sensitivity and tact towards participants throughout the research process. Because semistructured interviewing often requires the participant to reveal sensitive and personal information directly to the interviewer, it is important to consider the power imbalance between the researcher and the participant. In healthcare settings, the interviewer or researcher may be a part of the patient’s healthcare team or have contact with the healthcare team. The researchers should ensure the interviewee that their participation and answers will not influence the care they receive or their relationship with their providers. Other issues to consider include: reducing the risk of harm; protecting the interviewee’s information; adequately informing interviewees about the study purpose and format; and reducing the risk of exploitation. 10

Step 4: planning logistical aspects

Careful planning particularly around the technical aspects of interviews can be the difference between a great interview and a not so great interview. During the preparation phase, the researcher will need to plan and make decisions about the best ways to contact potential interviewees, obtain informed consent, arrange interview times and locations convenient for both participant and researcher, and test recording equipment. Although many experienced researchers have found themselves conducting interviews in less than ideal locations, the interview location should avoid (or at least minimise) interruptions and be appropriate for the interview (quiet, private and able to get a clear recording). 16 For some research projects, the participants’ homes may make sense as the best interview location. 16

Initial contacts can be made through telephone or email and followed up with more details so the individual can make an informed decision about whether they wish to be interviewed. Potential participants should know what to expect in terms of length of time, purpose of the study, why they have been selected and who will be there. In addition, participants should be informed that they can refuse to answer questions or can withdraw from the study at any time, including during the interview itself.

Audio recording the interview is recommended so that the interviewer can concentrate on the interview and build rapport rather than being distracted with extensive note taking 16 (see table 4 for audio-recording tips). Participants should be informed that audio recording is used for data collection and that they can refuse to be audio recorded should they prefer.

Suggestions for successful audio recording of interviews

Most researchers will want to have interviews transcribed verbatim from the audio recording. This allows you to refer to the exact words of participants during the analysis. Although it is possible to conduct analyses from the audio recordings themselves or from notes, it is not ideal. However, transcription can be extremely time consuming and, if not done yourself, can be costly.

In the planning phase of research, you will want to consider whether qualitative research software (eg, NVivo, ATLAS.ti, MAXQDA, Dedoose, and so on) will be used to assist with organising, managing and analysis. While these tools are helpful in the management of qualitative data, it is important to consider your research budget, the cost of the software and the learning curve associated with using a new system.

Step 5: developing the interview guide

Semistructured interviews include a short list of ‘guiding’ questions that are supplemented by follow-up and probing questions that are dependent on the interviewee’s responses. 8 17 All questions should be open ended, neutral, clear and avoid leading language. In addition, questions should use familiar language and avoid jargon.

Most interviews will start with an easy, context-setting question before moving to more difficult or in-depth questions. 17 Table 5 gives details of the types of guiding questions including ‘grand tour’ questions, 18 core questions and planned and unplanned follow-up questions.

Questions and prompts in semistructured interviewing

To illustrate, online supplementary appendix A presents a sample interview guide from our study of weight gain during pregnancy among young women. We start with the prompt, ‘Tell me about how your pregnancy has been so far’ to initiate conversation about their thoughts and feelings during pregnancy. The subsequent questions will elicit responses to help answer our research question about young women’s perspectives related to weight gain during pregnancy.

Supplementary data

After developing the guiding questions, it is important to pilot test the interview. Having a good sense of the guide helps you to pace the interview (and not run out of time), use a conversational tone and make necessary adjustments to the questions.

Like all qualitative research, interviewing is iterative in nature—data collection and analysis occur simultaneously, which may result in changes to the guiding questions as the study progresses. Questions that are not effective may be replaced with other questions and additional probes can be added to explore new topics that are introduced by participants in previous interviews. 10

Step 6: establishing trust and rapport

Interviews are a special form of relationship, where the interviewer and interviewee converse about important and often personal topics. The interviewer must build rapport quickly by listening attentively and respectfully to the information shared by the interviewee. 19 As the interview progresses, the interviewer must continue to demonstrate respect, encourage the interviewee to share their perspectives and acknowledge the sensitive nature of the conversation. 20

To establish rapport, it is important to be authentic and open to the interviewee’s point of view. It is possible that the participants you recruit for your study will have preconceived notions about research, which may include mistrust. As a result, it is important to describe why you are conducting the research and how their participation is meaningful. In an interview relationship, the interviewee is the expert and should be treated as such—you are relying on the interviewee to enhance your understanding and add to your research. Small behaviours that can enhance rapport include: dressing professionally but not overly formal; avoiding jargon or slang; and using a normal conversational tone. Because interviewees will be discussing their experience, having some awareness of contextual or cultural factors that may influence their perspectives may be helpful as background knowledge.

Step 7: conducting the interview

Location and set-up.

The interview should have already been scheduled at a convenient time and location for the interviewee. The location should be private, ideally with a closed door, rather than a public place. It is helpful if there is a room where you can speak privately without interruption, and where it is quiet enough to hear and audio record the interview. Within the interview space, Josselson 15 suggests an arrangement with a comfortable distance between the interviewer and interviewee with a low table in between for the recorder and any materials (consent forms, questionnaires, water, and so on).

Beginning the interview

Many interviewers start with chatting to break the ice and attempt to establish commonalities, rapport and trust. Most interviews will need to begin with a brief explanation of the research study, consent/assent procedures, rationale for talking to that particular interviewee and description of the interview format and agenda. 11 It can also be helpful if the interviewer shares a little about who they are and why they are interested in the topic. The recording equipment should have already been tested thoroughly but interviewers may want to double-check that the audio equipment is working and remind participants about the reason for recording.

Interviewer stance

During the interview, the interviewer should adopt a friendly and non-judgemental attitude. You will want to maintain a warm and conversational tone, rather than a rote, question-answer approach. It is important to recognise the potential power differential as a researcher. Conveying a sense of being in the interview together and that you as the interviewer are a person just like the interviewee can help ease any discomfort. 15

Active listening

During a face-to-face interview, there is an opportunity to observe social and non-verbal cues of the interviewee. These cues may come in the form of voice, body language, gestures and intonation, and can supplement the interviewee’s verbal response and can give clues to the interviewer about the process of the interview. 21 Listening is the key to successful interviewing. 22 Listening should be ‘attentive, empathic, nonjudgmental, listening in order to invite, and engender talk’ 15 15 (p 66). Silence, nods, smiles and utterances can also encourage further elaboration from the interviewee.

Continuing the interview

As the interview progresses, the interviewer can repeat the words used by the interviewee, use planned and unplanned follow-up questions that invite further clarification, exploration or elaboration. As DiCicco-Bloom and Crabtree 10 explain: ‘Throughout the interview, the goal of the interviewer is to encourage the interviewee to share as much information as possible, unselfconsciously and in his or her own words’ (p 317). Some interviewees are more forthcoming and will offer many details of their experiences without much probing required. Others will require prompting and follow-up to elicit sufficient detail.

As a result, follow-up questions are equally important to the core questions in a semistructured interview. Prompts encourage people to continue talking and they can elicit more details needed to understand the topic. Examples of verbal probes are repeating the participant’s words, summarising the main idea or expressing interest with verbal agreement. 8 11 See table 6 for probing techniques and example probes we have used in our own interviewing.

Probing techniques for semistructured interviews (modified from Bernard 30 )

Step 8: memoing and reflection

After an interview, it is essential for the interviewer to begin to reflect on both the process and the content of the interview. During the actual interview, it can be difficult to take notes or begin reflecting. Even if you think you will remember a particular moment, you likely will not be able to recall each moment with sufficient detail. Therefore, interviewers should always record memos —notes about what you are learning from the data. 23 24 There are different approaches to recording memos: you can reflect on several specific ideas, or create a running list of thoughts. Memos are also useful for improving the quality of subsequent interviews.

Step 9: analysing the data

The data analysis strategy should also be developed during planning stages because analysis occurs concurrently with data collection. 25 The researcher will take notes, modify the data collection procedures and write reflective memos throughout the data collection process. This begins the process of data analysis.

The data analysis strategy used in your study will depend on your research question and qualitative design—see the study of Creswell for an overview of major qualitative approaches. 26 The general process for analysing and interpreting most interviews involves reviewing the data (in the form of transcripts, audio recordings or detailed notes), applying descriptive codes to the data and condensing and categorising codes to look for patterns. 24 27 These patterns can exist within a single interview or across multiple interviews depending on the research question and design. Qualitative computer software programs can be used to help organise and manage interview data.

Step 10: demonstrating the trustworthiness of the research

Similar to validity and reliability, qualitative research can be assessed on trustworthiness. 9 28 There are several criteria used to establish trustworthiness: credibility (whether the findings accurately and fairly represent the data), transferability (whether the findings can be applied to other settings and contexts), confirmability (whether the findings are biased by the researcher) and dependability (whether the findings are consistent and sustainable over time).

Step 11: presenting findings in a paper or report

When presenting the results of interview analysis, researchers will often report themes or narratives that describe the broad range of experiences evidenced in the data. This involves providing an in-depth description of participant perspectives and being sure to include multiple perspectives. 12 In interview research, the participant words are your data. Presenting findings in a report requires the integration of quotes into a more traditional written format.

Conclusions

Though semistructured interviews are often an effective way to collect open-ended data, there are some disadvantages as well. One common problem with interviewing is that not all interviewees make great participants. 12 29 Some individuals are hard to engage in conversation or may be reluctant to share about sensitive or personal topics. Difficulty interviewing some participants can affect experienced and novice interviewers. Some common problems include not doing a good job of probing or asking for follow-up questions, failure to actively listen, not having a well-developed interview guide with open-ended questions and asking questions in an insensitive way. Outside of pitfalls during the actual interview, other problems with semistructured interviewing may be underestimating the resources required to recruit participants, interview, transcribe and analyse the data.

Despite their limitations, semistructured interviews can be a productive way to collect open-ended data from participants. In our research, we have interviewed children and adolescents about their stress experiences and coping behaviours, young women about their thoughts and behaviours during pregnancy, practitioners about the care they provide to patients and countless other key informants about health-related topics. Because the intent is to understand participant experiences, the possible research topics are endless.

Due to the close relationships family physicians have with their patients, the unique settings in which they work, and in their advocacy, semistructured interviews are an attractive approach for family medicine researchers, even if working in a setting with limited research resources. When seeking to balance both the relational focus of interviewing and the necessary rigour of research, we recommend: prioritising listening over talking; using clear language and avoiding jargon; and deeply engaging in the interview process by actively listening, expressing empathy, demonstrating openness to the participant’s worldview and thanking the participant for helping you to understand their experience.

Further Reading

• Edwards R, & Holland J. (2013). What is qualitative interviewing?: A&C Black.
• Josselson R. Interviewing for qualitative inquiry: A relational approach. Guilford Press, 2013.
• Kvale S. InterViews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. SAGE, London, 1996.
• Pope C, & Mays N. (Eds). (2006). Qualitative research in health care.

Correction notice: This article has been corrected. Reference details have been updated.

Contributors: Both authors contributed equally to this work.

Funding: The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests: None declared.

Patient consent for publication: Not required.

Provenance and peer review: Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

Interviewing one's peers: methodological issues in a study of health professionals

Affiliation.

• 1 Primary Care Musculoskeletal Research Centre, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK.
• PMID: 17118866
• DOI: 10.1080/02813430601008479

Objective: Although health professionals are increasingly undertaking qualitative interviews with professional peers, there is little literature regarding the methodological implications of this process. The aim of the study was to elicit from informants their views on being interviewed by a fellow health professional.

Design: Semi-structured interviews with nine general practitioners (GPs), three rheumatologists, and three physical therapists, with a substantive focus on perceptions of osteoarthritis. The interviewer was a GP, and informants were asked for their reactions to being interviewed by a fellow professional. Data were analysed by hand, using a thematic approach.

Setting: Primary care clinics and practices in the UK.

Results: Although reassured to the contrary, many informants viewed the interview as a test of their professional knowledge. The interview was also seen by some GPs as serving an educational process, with the interviewer as an authoritative source of clinical information. There were some indications of professional vulnerability among informants in relation to possible scrutiny of their practice or knowledge, though none reported a negative experience of the interview. Notions of professional identity appeared central to many of the issues that emerged.

Conclusion: The nature of the relationship in interviews involving professional peers creates specific methodological issues, which have important implications for qualitative research in primary healthcare. There are both advantages and disadvantages to interviewing professional peers, which should be considered in the light of the objectives of a particular study.

Publication types

• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Attitude of Health Personnel*
• Clinical Competence
• Family Practice / education
• Interprofessional Relations*
• Interviews as Topic / methods*
• Osteoporosis / diagnosis
• Osteoporosis / therapy
• Peer Group*
• Physical Therapy Specialty / education
• Physicians / psychology*
• Physicians, Family / education
• Physicians, Family / psychology
• Rheumatology / education

What are the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary research?

Advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary research

This is a detailed analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary research. Research can be categorised into different types. However, this article focuses on primary and secondary research only. They are different from each other because of the way they are carried out and have their own advantages and disadvantages.

List of the differences between primary and secondary research

The main differences between primary and secondary research are as follows:

Primary research

Primary research is also called field research. According to Gratton & Jones (2009) primary research refers to research that has involved the collection of original data specific to a particular research project, for example through using research methods such as questionnaires or interviews.

Secondary research

Secondary research is also called desk research. In this type of research, the researcher will not collect any primary data and rely on existing sources of data. Marketing research reports, census, company websites, news reports, magazine articles are some of the sources of secondary data. Secondary research is usually carried out at home or library with the help of both the Internet and printed materials.

Primary research is carried out by the researchers first-hand and they own the data that has been collected. On the contrary, secondary research is administered on the collected data from previous studies. 

One of the key differences between primary and secondary research is the cost. Primary research is often more expensive than secondary research because it requires more time and resources to collect the data. Secondary research is a more cost-effective option because it relies on existing data sources.

The accuracy of the data is also an important consideration. Primary research provides reliable and accurate data because it comes directly from the target audience. Secondary research is not always reliable because it relies on existing data sources that may not be up to date.

Having explored the differences between the primary and secondary research, the article now focuses on their advantages and disadvantages, and the tools/instruments that can be used in both type of research.

Advantages of secondary research

Convenience

Secondary research is usually convenient for researchers as it is carried out at home, in libraries, and other similar places. Going through a pile of books, magazines, journals etc. may be daunting; however, a cup of coffee and background music may make it convenient. Home environment and access to amenities are very useful which many researchers like very much.

Secondary research is usually cheaper than primary research. As the research is carried out mostly indoor, it does not usually cost that much. Similarly, a lot of online data and information are now-a-days available free of cost. In addition, secondary research saves a lot of time for the researchers as well (BBC, 2023).

Availability of information

Due to the advancement of technology, information is available online. Researchers can download a lot of documents very quickly with minimal efforts. Therefore, research can be conducted instantly.

Hardly there is any topic researchers can think of, which have not been researched enough in the past! Likewise, the Internet is an ocean of information. Researchers can use Google Scholar and other relevant platforms to explore past studies very easily.   

Disadvantages of secondary research

Old information

Secondary research may sometimes include information which is not valid any longer. Therefore, the researchers may waste their time by going through those data. Just imagine a study that was conducted a long time ago which may not have any relevance today.

Not specific

Secondary data may not be specific sometimes. In many cases, it is not presented in a way that would exactly address the researchers’ needs. Imagine going through a pile of books and other relevant documents and then realising that they are not specific! It may sometimes frustrate the researcher.

Advantages of primary research

Primary research meets the specific needs of the researchers. As it is based on the collection of original data, the researchers can be very specific about its aims, objectives, and rationale (Young, 2022). It is up to date and provides more detailed insights as well.

Greater control

Researchers have a good level of control in primary research. They may decide who the research respondents are, how they are hired, the size of sample, sampling strategies etc.

Proprietary rights

Data collected in primary research belongs to the researcher or the organisation sponsoring the research and therefore, others may not have access to it. Researchers can also take pride in what they have achieved.

Disadvantages of primary research

Time consuming

Collecting primary data is often time-consuming and difficult. If the research respondents are not supportive, it may become further complicated. Likewise, primary research may be costly as well. Imagine, sending a questionnaire consisting of 10 questions to 100 research respondents and then analysing their responses! It will take time for sure!

Misleading information

If the sample is not big enough, the results of the research may be misleading. Therefore, the researcher has to select a good research sample. Similarly, biasness may occur as well raising concerns about the validity of the research.

Primary research methods (tools/instruments)

Researchers can use a number of tools to conduct their primary research. Depending on whether the research is quantitative or qualitative, they can use observation, questionnaires, focus groups, interviews, test marketing etc. to gain useful insights concerning their area of study.

Quantitative researchers usually use surveys, and questionnaires, while qualitative researchers use interviews and focus groups. However, mixed studies require collection of both quantitative and qualitative data.

Secondary research methods (tools/instruments)

A variety of sources are at the disposal of the researchers to conduct secondary research. For instance, they can use the Internet in general, government, and non-government agencies, public libraries etc. to have access to business directories, newsletters, newspapers, magazines, and other relevant sources.

Examples of primary and secondary research

Primary research is often used to collect data about a specific audience or situation. For example, a business may conduct primary research through surveys or interviews to gain insights into customer preferences and behaviours. This type of research can also be used to test new products or services or to gauge customer satisfaction.

Secondary research is used to gain an understanding of an industry or market as a whole. For example, a business may use secondary research by exploring news reports, magazines, books etc. to gain insights into the competitive landscape, trends, and market opportunities.

Common mistakes to avoid when using primary and secondary research

When using primary and secondary research, it is important to avoid some common mistakes. First, it is important for researchers to make sure that they are collecting data from the right sources. They also need to ensure that that the data they are collecting is accurate, relevant, and up to date.

Researchers need to ensure that they select an appropriate sample size and develop an appropriate sampling strategy. For quantitative research, probability sampling such as simple random sampling, or systematic sampling is usually used. For qualitative research, non-probability sampling such as convenience sampling, judgement sampling, or snowball sampling is used.

When deciding which type of research to use, it is important researchers to consider their goals and budget. If they are looking for detailed insights into a specific audience or situation, primary research is usually the best option. However, if they are working with a tight budget, secondary research can still provide useful insights.

Finally, it is important to avoid relying too heavily on either primary or secondary research. Both types of research can provide valuable insights but relying too heavily on one type of research can lead to inaccurate or incomplete results.

Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary research

In conclusion, there are different advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary research, so are the differences between them. Therefore, researchers need to explore and understand them well before deciding what they should be employing for their work.

Using both primary and secondary research can provide valuable insights into any situation or industry. However, it is important to consider the accuracy of the data, the cost, and the goals of the research before making any decisions.

It should be noted that some academic research work such as undergraduate and postgraduate dissertation/thesis require students to do both primary and secondary research. Secondary research helps them develop a good literature review, while primary one helps them collect primary data.

We hope the article ‘What are the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary research?’ has been helpful. Please share the article link on social media to support our cause.

You may also like reading:

Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires

Differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research

Advantages and disadvantages of convenience sampling

What is literature review?

Qualitative vs quantitative research

Last update: 18 January 2023

References:

BBC (2023) Market research, available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zd4kq6f/revision/3 (accessed 18 January 2023)

Gratton, C. & Jones, I. (2009) Research Methods for Sports Studies, 2 nd edition, London: Routledge

Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2007) Research Methods for Business Students, 4 th edition, UK: Pearson Education Limited

Young, G. (2022) Market research, available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/market-research (accessed 18 January 2023)

Author: M Rahman

M Rahman writes extensively online and offline with an emphasis on business management, marketing, and tourism. He is a lecturer in Management and Marketing. He holds an MSc in Tourism & Hospitality from the University of Sunderland. Also, graduated from Leeds Metropolitan University with a BA in Business & Management Studies and completed a DTLLS (Diploma in Teaching in the Life-Long Learning Sector) from London South Bank University.

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Dissertations - Skills Guide

• Where to start
• Research Proposal
• Ethics Form

Primary Research

• Literature Review
• Methodology
• Downloadable Resources
• Further Reading

What is it?

Primary research involves collecting data from primary (original) sources. For example, your study may involve questioning participants through a questionnaire or interview, or it may analyse company or government documents, or study the impact of one variable on another.

What are the benefits of primary research?

There are advantages and disadvantages of any approach. The advantages of conducting primary research are that it is current, as you have collected up-to-date data, and is accurate to your topic, as it should directly answer your research question. The disadvantages are that it can be time-consuming to collect and analyse the information and to plan and organise the research (so you have to be extra organised).

How do I write it?

This is usually dependent on the data you are collecting. However, the layout when writing up primary research follows a similar pattern:

• Introduction
• Recommendations (if necessary)

There may be some forms of research, for example some interviews, where you are expected to merge your results and discussion sections together, as you discuss the results in depth as each result is announced.

Dissertations Further Reading

• << Previous: Ethics Form
• Next: Literature Review >>
• Last Updated: Oct 18, 2023 9:32 AM
• URL: https://libguides.derby.ac.uk/c.php?g=690330

Primary Market Research: Everything You Need to Know

P rimary market research supports businesses in gaining first-hand insights and information, which isn't already available about the market in which they operate. 

This supports decision-making and the growth of the business. Understanding your customers is key to business success, and primary market research is the most effective way to gain these insights. 

This guide will explore what is primary market research, the essentials of primary market research, its distinct advantages, methods and practical steps for conducting your own research.

Dive in to make informed decisions that drive growth.

What is Primary Market Research?

Primary market research is data that you gather from various techniques and sources, but it's all for a specific research purpose.

It involves the collection of new data and information that isn't already available for the business, typically conducted for a number of purposes including: identifying customer needs, identifying gaps in the market, reducing risk, and ultimately making better decisions.

The significance of primary market research lies in its ability to provide tailored insights and direct feedback from the target audience, which are essential for informed decision-making and strategic planning.

By engaging directly with the market, businesses can ensure that their decisions are based on up-to-date and relevant information, making their actions more effective and their strategies more aligned with consumer demands.

Importance of Primary Market Research

Primary market research offers the ability to design quantitative and qualitative questions tailored precisely to your needs.

It allows businesses to gather unique data, which can serve as a competitive edge and influence key strategic decisions. As highlighted, the main benefit is that it's research that is very focused on a particular research objective and it tends to be pretty up-to-date because the research data is gathered for that specific research objective.

This tailored and current data helps businesses minimize risks and make more informed decisions that are crucial for their growth and adaptation in a competitive market.

Primary vs. Secondary Market Research

Primary market research involves collecting data that has not been previously gathered, providing fresh insights directly tailored to the company's specific needs.

Secondary market research, on the other hand, involves utilizing data that was originally collected by others and already exists. For example, looking at industry sales and financial reports would be considered a secondary source.

The choice between these depends on the needs and resources of the business.

Primary research is vital when fresh, specific insights are needed, and secondary research is useful for broad, initial understandings, often at a lower cost and effort.

Before conducting primary research, you might want to see what secondary research is available to determine if the investment in primary research is justified.

Methods of Primary Market Research

Primary market research encompasses 5 main methods:

Surveys, whether conducted online or offline, are a popular method for gathering feedback. It's crucial to use a mixture of open and closed questions aimed at collecting information to ensure a comprehensive understanding. One effective strategy is making personality quizzes , which can be particularly engaging and insightful.

Best practices include keeping surveys concise to maintain participant engagement and ensuring a balanced number of questions to avoid respondent fatigue while still gathering sufficient data for analysis.

Focus Groups

Focus groups involve organizing five to ten people in a room, asking them questions about your product or a prospective product for the future. The benefits of this method include gaining deep insights through discussion and interaction, which can be more nuanced than those obtained via surveys.

However, the limitations include the potential for groupthink influencing individual opinions and the higher cost and logistical complexity of organizing these sessions.

In-Depth Interviews (IDIs)

In-depth interviews are one-on-one sessions that allow for a thorough exploration of individual opinions and experiences. Techniques for conducting effective IDIs include preparing a guide with open-ended questions to encourage detailed responses and actively listening to capture nuanced insights.

These interviews are invaluable for gathering detailed data but require skilled interviewers to manage the conversation and extract pertinent information.

Intercept Surveys

Intercept surveys are typically conducted in public places where researchers directly approach people to solicit immediate feedback on specific topics.

These are useful for collecting quick, on-the-spot impressions but can be challenging to implement due to the need for immediate participant engagement and the potential for bias in the responses collected in such a rushed environment.

In-Home Usage Tests (IHUTs)

IHUTs involve providing a product to consumers to use in their own homes, gathering authentic feedback on its usage in a real-world setting. Steps for conducting IHUTs include selecting appropriate participants, providing clear instructions for usage, and collecting feedback systematically.

This method offers the advantage of observing how a product is used in daily life, providing insights that can significantly enhance product development.

Step-by-Step Guide to Conducting Primary Market Research

Conducting effective primary market research involves several crucial steps, each designed to ensure that the data collected is both relevant and actionable.

Step 1: Define Objectives

The first step is to set clear, actionable goals which involve identifying what you want to achieve with the research. Objectives should be specific and directly related to the business challenges or opportunities you are addressing. This clarity ensures that the subsequent steps in the research process are aligned and focused on delivering the necessary insights.

Step 2: Choose the Right Method

Selecting the appropriate research method is crucial and should be based on the objectives you have set. For instance, if detailed, qualitative insights are needed, focus groups or in-depth interviews might be the best approach. Conversely, for broader quantitative data, surveys might be more appropriate. Each method has its strengths and should be chosen to best meet the research objectives.

Step 3: Design and Prepare

This stage involves developing questions and selecting participants. The design of the questions is critical as they must be structured to elicit clear, meaningful answers that directly address the research objectives. Selecting the right participants is equally important to ensure that the data collected is representative of the broader target audience.

Step 4: Collect Data

Data collection can be performed using a variety of techniques and tools depending on the chosen method. Whether through online surveys, face-to-face interviews, or observational studies, it's vital to collect data in a manner that minimizes bias and maximizes response rates and the quality of information received.

Step 5: Analyze Data

Once data is collected, it needs to be analyzed to extract meaningful insights. This can involve statistical analysis for quantitative data or content analysis for qualitative data. The aim is to interpret the data in a way that provides clear answers to the research questions posed at the outset.

Step 6: Report and Apply Findings

The final step in conducting primary market research is effectively reporting and applying the findings. This involves presenting findings and integrating them into business strategy. It's crucial to prepare reports that are both comprehensive and understandable, ensuring that key insights are accessible to all relevant stakeholders.

These findings should then be used to inform strategic decisions, such as entering new markets, adjusting marketing strategies, or improving products and services. Successfully applying research findings can lead to significant competitive advantages and better alignment with consumer needs and market trends.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary Market Research

Primary market research provides several significant advantages. One of the most crucial is data ownership, which gives businesses exclusive access to information that competitors cannot easily acquire.

This data is not only relevant but also extremely targeted, allowing businesses to gain deep insights into specific consumer behaviors and preferences. The targeted approach of primary research ensures that the data collected is directly applicable to the specific research objectives, leading to more effective decision-making and strategy development.

As noted, this method provides businesses with the ability to design questions tailored precisely to your needs, which in turn enhances the relevance and applicability of the research findings.

Disadvantages

Despite its many benefits, primary market research also comes with significant disadvantages, primarily related to its cost, time consumption, and the intensive resources required.

Conducting this type of research is often seriously time-consuming and involves considerable expense, not only in terms of financial outlay but also the human resources needed to design, execute, and analyze the research.

This method often requires a considerable investment in both staffing and technology, especially when handling large data sets or conducting detailed qualitative research.

Furthermore, the risk of research bias and the potential for non-representative sampling can further complicate the process, requiring additional controls and oversight to ensure validity and reliability of the research outcomes.

Best Practices for Primary Market Research

To maximize the effectiveness of primary market research, it's essential to follow several best practices. First, ensure that the research objectives are clearly defined and aligned with the strategic goals of the business.

This alignment helps in designing focused and relevant research tools and methodologies. Additionally, choosing the right sample size and demographic is crucial for obtaining representative and unbiased data. It's also important to use a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods to capture a broad spectrum of insights.

A common pitfall to avoid is the lack of thorough preparation, which can lead to poorly designed research that does not fully address the research questions. Also, avoid leading questions in surveys and interviews, which can introduce bias and affect the integrity of the data.

Ensuring respondent anonymity and confidentiality can improve the quality and honesty of the feedback received. Lastly, regularly review and adapt research methods to keep up with changes in the market and technology, thereby maintaining the relevance and accuracy of the data collected.

When to Hire a Primary Market Research Vendor

Outsourcing primary market research can be beneficial in several situations, particularly when the in-house team lacks the necessary expertise or resources to conduct comprehensive research.

Hiring a vendor is also advisable when the research requires extensive geographic reach or specialized knowledge that only professionals might possess.

When choosing a reliable vendor, it is crucial to assess their expertise and experience in your specific industry. Look for vendors with a proven track record of conducting effective research and those who can provide detailed case studies or references.

It's also important to evaluate the transparency of their research process and ensure they adhere to ethical standards and data protection laws.

Lastly, clear communication about goals, expectations, and research methodologies is essential to ensure that the vendor's approach aligns with your business needs and objectives

Business Applications of Primary Market Research

Primary market research is utilized across various industries to enhance product development, marketing strategies, and customer service.

In product development, businesses use primary research to test and trial new products or services before they are launched onto the market. This allows them to gather feedback and make necessary adjustments, reducing the risk of market failure.

For example, in the food industry, test marketing is often conducted in smaller geographical areas to gauge consumer response before a nationwide rollout.

In marketing, primary research helps companies understand consumer behavior and preferences, enabling them to tailor their advertising and promotional strategies.

The automotive industry provides a notable example, as seen with Chrysler Plymouth in the 1950s, which used focus groups to understand buyer preferences, leading to targeted advertising that significantly boosted sales.

Customer service also benefits greatly from primary research. Companies like Sky use surveys post-interaction to assess customer satisfaction and areas for improvement.

These insights help businesses refine their service offerings and enhance customer experience, ultimately contributing to customer retention and loyalty.

Primary market research is indispensable for businesses seeking to understand their market deeply and make informed decisions.

It provides targeted, up-to-date information that can significantly impact product development, marketing strategies, and customer service. By employing best practices and choosing the right methods, companies can avoid common pitfalls and maximize the effectiveness of their research efforts.

Ultimately, the thoughtful implementation of primary market research is crucial for maintaining competitive advantage and achieving sustainable growth.