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• Published: 23 September 2022

Modeling narrative features in TV series: coding and clustering analysis

• Marta Rocchi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3449-4737 1 &
• Guglielmo Pescatore   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5206-6464 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  9 , Article number:  333 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Cultural and media studies

TV series have gained both economic and cultural relevance. Their development over time can hardly be traced back to the simple programmatic action of creative intentionality. Instead, TV series might be studied as narrative ecosystems with emergent trends and patterns. This paper aims to boost quantitative research in the field of media studies, first considering a comparative and data-driven study of the narrative features in the US medical TV series, one of the most popular and longest-running genres on global television. Based on a corpus of more than 400 h of video, we investigate the storytelling evolution of eight audiovisual serial products by identifying three main narrative features (i.e., isotopies). The implemented schematization allows to grasp the basic components of the social interactions showing the strength of the medical genre and its ability to rebuild, in its microcosm, the essential traits of the human macrocosm where random everyday life elements (seen in the medical cases plot) mix and overlap with working and social relationships (professional plot) and personal relationships (sentimental plot). This study relies on data-driven research that combines content analysis and clustering analysis. It significantly differs from traditional studies regarding the narrative features of medical dramas and broadly the field of television studies. We proved that the three isotopies are good descriptors for the medical drama genre and identified four narrative profiles which emphasize the strong stability of these serial products. Contrary to what is often taken for granted in many interpretative studies, creative decisions rarely significantly change the general narrative aspects of the wider series.

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Introduction.

This paper aims to boost studies on the systemic aspects of television series, first considering a comparative and data-driven study of the narrative features. The goal is to enrich the understanding of the narrative dynamics of these products and their evolution over time. This work is part of a broader research project that sees television series as fully-fledged narrative ecosystems Footnote 1 (Innocenti and Pescatore, 2012 , 2018 ; Pescatore et al., 2014 ; Rocchi and Pescatore, 2019 ): complex systems enduring in time and extended in media space, whose evolution is driven by multiple factors, both internal (narrative trends and constraints) and external (production, distribution, consumption, regulatory and more generally social context trends and constraints). The main purpose is to combine the theory represented by the paradigm of narrative ecosystems with a methodology useful to identify, quantify and analyse the narrative structure of serial fictional products from a data-driven perspective.

Serial products differ from other cultural objects—which are usually closely tied to the author’s intent—in that they develop, at least partially, independently from a single predefined project, and evolve in relation to a range of contingent factors (i.e., internal to the text and/or in response to production and reception). Within this context, the development of serial products over time can hardly be traced back to the simple programmatic action of creative intentionality. For this reason, limiting ourselves for the moment to narrative features, we have set aside categories such as authorship and textuality, in favour of a data-oriented vision that considers the objects of investigation in their entirety as datasets. Through an exploratory study, we aim to analyse the evolutionary dynamics and identify specific patterns that mainly concern the narrative aspects of serial audiovisual products (i.e., narrative profiles). The investigation is conducted on a sample related to serial products that belong to the medical drama genre, which is one of the most popular and longest-running genres on global television. The medical genre has taken on significant weight and relevance in light of the broad interest of the academic community (Chung, 2014 ; Harris and Willoughby, 2009 ; Albuquerque and Meimaridis, 2016 ; Hoffman et al., 2018 ; Rocchi, 2019 ; Warner, 2015 ) and the recent public health emergency. Moreover, medical drama has the advantage of being a genre almost completely ascribed to broadcast television. This has allowed it to constitute a rather homogeneous corpus that avoids analytical results attributable to different production and/or distribution models rather than to the analysed phenomena.

We restricted our corpus to the US medical drama over the last 20 years, considering the extremely wide international diffusion of American productions. In particular, our exploratory data analysis is based on eight medical TV series: Grey’s Anatomy (ABC, 2005–), Miami Medical (CBS, 2010), The Night Shift (NBC, 2014–2017), Chicago Med (NBC, 2015–), Code Black (CBS, 2015–2018), The Good Doctor (ABC, 2017–), The Resident (Fox, 2018–), and New Amsterdam (NBC, 2018–). Footnote 2 For these products, we have built a dataset related to their narrative structure that employs content analysis. This methodology is widely used for the study of media products (Barker et al., 2020 ; Blanco-Herrero and Rodríguez-Contreras, 2019 ; Chapoton et al., 2020 ; Fernandez‐Collado et al., 1978 ; González-de-Garay et al., 2020 ; Himes and Thompson, 2007 ; Lo and Huang, 2021 ; Signorielli and Bacue, 1999 ) and consists of qualitative and quantitative tools. The essay relies on previous work based on interpretative hypotheses and methodological aspects related to the study of medical dramas, and in particular, to the assumption of the presence of isotopies Footnote 3 outlined by the characters’ interactions (Rocchi and Pescatore, 2019 ). According to these hypotheses, in this paper, we investigate for the first time from a quantitative point of view the narrative structure of the selected products through three isotopies that distinguish the medical genre: the medical cases plot, the professional plot, and the sentimental plot. Footnote 4 If the medical cases plot is related to patients and diseases that normally change within each episode (anthology plot), the professional and the sentimental plots define the inter-episodic narration that extends through the whole series and refers to the relationships between the main characters (running plot). Footnote 5

Within this context we are guided by three main research questions:

RQ1: Are isotopies (i.e., the medical cases plot, the professional plot, and the sentimental plot) good descriptors for the medical drama genre?

RQ2: Are there any differences within the formulaic aspects Footnote 6 of these series? Are there any significant differences considering the relationship between the three isotopies within different series? Does the sentimental plot, professional plot, or medical cases plot articulate themself differently from a quantitative point of view considering different series?

RQ3: How do the narrative plots of a medical drama change over time?

Thanks to this exploratory data analysis we aim to think critically about how ‘answerable’ the above research questions are if they match our expectations, and what insights we can gain. To our knowledge, this study is the first exploratory data analysis based on a corpus of more than 400 h of video and it significantly differs from traditional studies regarding the narrative structure of medical dramas (Rocchi and Pescatore, 2019 ). To answer the research questions, the paper is organized into four main sections: (i) presentation of the content analysis protocol developed for the analysis of audiovisual products; (ii) clustering analysis method; (iii) exploratory data analysis of the dataset; and (iv) conclusions.

Building a dataset: audiovisual content analysis

Coding is a key aspect of the analysis process and represents how a researcher breaks down data to offer “the opportunity for reflexivity, a critical self-evaluation of the research process” (Cope, 2010 , p. 285). The objectives of coding are data reduction, organization, and initial exploration and analysis (Elliott, 2018 ).

To determine whether and how the three isotopies of medical products change over time and thus assess their evolution patterns, we developed an ad hoc experimental protocol to measure the “narrative space” occupied by each one. Footnote 7 The methodology implemented included a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods based on the coding process (Saldaña, 2016 ; Elliott, 2018 ) and data collection. In particular, the coding process relied on a priori approach (deductive coding) Footnote 8 in which a pre-set of codes was identified (i.e., the three isotopies characterizing medical serial products).

The coding process consists of several steps and involves a body of analysis consisting of eight different medical dramas for a total of 32 seasons and 608 coded episodes (Table 1 ).

STEP 1. Definition and characterization of serial product isotopies

The following part provides a brief description of the interpretive hypothesis about the three isotopies identified: the medical cases plot, the professional plot, and the sentimental plot (Rocchi and Pescatore, 2019 ). As previously underlined, the medical cases plot is related to those storylines that usually change within each episode allowing the introduction of new narrative elements into the hospital environment. The medical cases plot provides the opportunity to include a particularly large number of new characters in the story, through which the main characters interface and are challenged both professionally (through the resolution of cases) and emotionally (through the self-reflections that are triggered). In addition to the specific clinical treatments, the medical cases plot includes also all the storylines connected to the characters introduced. The clinical cases thus guarantee the continuous introduction of elements of novelty and help shape the vertical narrative that makes up the anthology plot. Footnote 9 In addition to the medical cases plot, we considered the other two isotopies (i.e., the professional plot and the sentimental plot) that tie together the episodes of the entire series maintaining the continuity of the story and offering the viewer a complete narrative, consisting of small clinical cases grafted into a larger and more complex story. Therefore, they allow the development and the narrative evolution of the running plot. In particular, the professional plot detects those relationships related to the professional sphere between doctors, residents, nurses, and head physicians within the hospital. It refers to coded relationships in the medical genre such as professional and power hierarchical relationships, career competition, and ethical choices. Instead, the sentimental plot considers the wide sphere of emotional and intimate relationships (e.g., friendship, love, empathy, conflict) between the main characters that persist throughout the series.

STEP 2. Definition of the units of analysis of the audiovisual product

To evaluate the time devoted to each plot, it was necessary to adopt a breakdown process of the narrative flow, considering a unit of analysis (which we call a segment) a specific portion of the audiovisual product that is characterized both by space–time–action continuity and invariance in the thematic-narrative elements (i.e., isotopies). Since there were no automated methods available for the segment selection, considering our dual definition, we proceeded with data collection for each episode by implementing a manual division through the identification of start times and end times. Footnote 10 The boundary between one segment and another is established when a content unit (i.e., segment) characterized by space–time–action continuity ends and another begins and/or when there is a change in isotopy.

STEP 3. Assignment of isotopies to the analysis units

This is the actual coding phase in which the appropriate isotopy is assigned, where possible, to each previously identified segment. The isotopies must be considered in their syntagmatic development and not as a sequence of independent segments. For this reason, coders are required to have prior knowledge of the series they are dealing with. The categorization refers to the thematic-narrative elements that underlie the three isotopies (professional plot, sentimental plot, and medical cases plot) and that are articulated in various types of relationships Footnote 11 such as power/hierarchy relationships, competition and training relationships, conflict relationships for the professional plot that refer to the work environment and therefore only to the relationships between colleagues; couple and sexual relationships, friendship and family relationships, conflict relationships for friendship/love issues for a sentimental plot that is related to the emotional sphere of the main protagonist; detection relationships, empathic relationships and/or moral support for the medical cases plot that refers to the doctor–patient relationship or the history of the individual patient. To each segment deemed categorizable, plot assignment was accompanied by the attribution of weight from 1 to 6. When a segment was attributable to a single plot, a weight of 6 was assigned to the corresponding plot. However, there were cases in which a segment could not be attributed to a single plot because there were overlaps between narrative lines. In these cases, the attribution of weights was based on both the main frame of reference and the amount of time devoted to the overlapping plots within the single segment (Rocchi and Pescatore, 2019 , p. 114). In other cases, segments were not attributable to one of the three isotopies and were therefore classified as uncoded (e.g., landscape contextualization scenes, initial titles).

STEP 4. From weight to time

After decomposing the audiovisual products into segments and assigning them one or more isotopies, we calculated for each segment the time devoted to the professional plot, the sentimental plot, and the medical case plot on the basis of code and weight assignment. For example, if a 66-s segment was assigned to the sentimental plot with a weight of 4 and to the professional plot with a weight of 2, we would assign 44 s to the sentimental plot and 22 s to the professional plot. In this way, we obtained for each analysed series a time series describing the narrative evolution of the isotopies derived from the segmentation and coding process.

The application of this protocol to audiovisual products allowed for the measuring of “narrative biomass” through the time used by each isotopy (a priori coding). However, there were some critical aspects. The first concerned the reliability of the coding process, which was strongly influenced by the analyst’s skills. Errors can be accidental or systemic. The former, due to the lack of accuracy of the coder (e.g., mistiming or randomly reversing isotopy attribution), can be contained by duplicating or multiplying the coding process. The second, due to a misunderstanding of the coding methods (e.g., the coder attributes a kiss between two patients to the sentimental plot), is easily replicated from one coder to another and can be contained by training the coders. In our case the first type of error is less significant because it is not directional and on aggregate data and mean values such as ours it tends to compensate. On the contrary, the second one exhibits a directionality always acting in the same direction (e.g., decreasing the medical cases plot and increasing the sentimental plot), and therefore in our case, it is much more dangerous because it alters the relationships between isotopies. To minimize this problem, the coders were properly trained with a detailed description of the plots to help them in the decision-making process related to the assignment of isotopies to segments. Also, all coding activity was reviewed by the same supervisor. Finally, we assessed the consistency of the coding process through the intra-coder reliability (i.e., the consistency over time with the same researcher) which together with the inter-coder reliability (i.e., the consistency between researchers) is a type of reliability suggested in the literature (Elliott, 2018 , p. 2858). Footnote 12 Reliability in the main sample was measured by having 15% of the episodes Footnote 13 recoded by the supervisor after 2 years and by computing the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (Krippendorf, 1980 ) since the content-coding involved variables in the form of continuous scales and frequency sums of each isotopy at the episode level. All the measured Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for the episode-level variables were above the accepted level of 0.80 (Kassarjian, 1977 ) [sentimental plot (0.97), professional plot (0.81), medical cases plot (0.92)]. The second critical aspect concerned the time required for coding. This was a time-consuming analysis and, unfortunately, we could not mitigate the impact of this factor.

The clustering analysis method

In order to answer the identified research questions, we made use of cluster analysis, a relevant and popular data mining method for discovering knowledge in multidimensional data in many fields (e.g., cancer research, marketing, and city planning). The goal of clustering is to identify patterns or groups of similar units within a dataset of interest (i.e., clusters). A cluster refers to a collection of data aggregated together because of certain similarities. Each group contains observations with a similar profile according to specific criteria. Cluster analysis is one type of unsupervised machine learning—“unsupervised” because we are not guided by a priori ideas of which variables belong in which clusters (Kassambara, 2017 , p. 3). According to the literature, “unsupervised clustering algorithms identify inherent groupings within the unlabelled data and subsequently assign a label to each data value” (cf. Alloghani et al., 2020 ).

To answer RQ1 we aggregated our dataset into single seasons. Footnote 14 In particular, we considered for each of the 32 seasons a vector of four values defined by the median values of the three isotopies Footnote 15 and the median value of the uncoded content (i.e., referring to those aspects that could not be traced back to the three main isotopies). Before applying any clustering method, it is important to evaluate whether the dataset contains meaningful clusters (i.e., non-random structures). To assess clustering tendency, we used a statistical method called the Hopkins statistic (Lawson and Jurs, 1990 ), which tests the spatial randomness of the data by measuring the probability that a given dataset is generated by uniform data distribution. The null and the alternative hypotheses are defined as follows: (i) null hypothesis: the dataset D is uniformly distributed (i.e., no meaningful clusters H  < 0.5); (ii) alternative hypothesis: the dataset D is not uniformly distributed (i.e., contains meaningful clusters H  > 0.5). After this check, is possible to apply different types of clustering methods Footnote 16 and before their implementation, it was considered important to determine the optimal number of clusters Footnote 17 , the best clustering method for a given dataset Footnote 18 and evaluate how stable a given cluster is (i.e., we assess if the identified cluster structure holds up under plausible variations in the dataset).

Results: exploratory data analysis

We divided the presentation of results according to the identified research questions.

RQ1: Are isotopies good descriptors for the medical drama genre?

The first research question aimed at first determining whether the interpretive hypotheses (i.e., the three isotopies in the medical drama genre) used in the coding process are indeed good descriptors of the medical genre and therefore validate the method. We measured the goodness of descriptors in two main steps by using the Hopkins statistic test and by the analysis of the results of the clustering method. First of all, we conducted the Hopkins statistic test and rejected the null hypothesis ( H  = 0.634). We conclude that the medical dramas dataset is a considerable clusterizeable one and contains meaningful clusters. After this check, we continued with the application of the methods. From our investigation, it was not possible to define an optimal number of clusters in the dataset. Indeed, each method (Elbow, silhouette, and gap statistic methods) showed a different optimal number of clusters when applied to the medical drama dataset (respectively, four clusters with Elbow method, three clusters with silhouette, and two with gap statistic). Therefore we decided to implement hierarchical clustering because it does not require pre-specifying the number of clusters to be generated and because it is the method that performs best according to internal measures Footnote 19 and stability measures. Footnote 20

The result of hierarchical clustering Footnote 21 is a tree-based representation of the objects, also known as a dendrogram where observations can be subdivided into groups (Fig. 1 ).

Cluster dendrogram ( a ) and cluster plot ( b ).

The data showed that the three isotopies identified for the analysis of medical dramas are effectively good descriptors of these products. Indeed, individual seasons, considered according to these parameters, group together in four clusters that tend to reconstruct the series they belong to. We could have also obtained another result: if we had a random distribution of the seasons belonging to the various series in the clusters this would have invalidated the ability of the descriptors considered to discriminate different products. Through the clusterboot algorithm (Hennig, 2007 , 2008 ) we evaluate how stable are the four identified clusters using 100 bootstrap iterations and all four values are close to 1 indicating stable clusters. The chosen variables (the narrative isotopies) are able to discriminate between the single series and/or groups of series with similar characteristics. The cluster distinguished by triangles in the cluster plot (Fig. 1b ), for example, groups most of the seasons of Grey’s Anatomy (GA) (cluster stability = 0.978) except the first two, which cluster with The Resident (TR) (cluster stability = 0.925), in the cluster identified by round dots (Fig. 1b ). In the cluster marked by crosses (Fig. 1b ), we find a heterogeneous cluster made up of seasons of Chicago Med (CM), The Night Shift (TNS), The Good Doctor (TGD), and New Amsterdam (NA) (cluster stability = 0.992). The one characterized by squares (Fig. 1b ) is the cluster identified by Code Black (CB) and Miami Medical (MM) (cluster stability = 0.955).

Having validated the coding system and the legitimacy of the interpretative hypotheses, we move on to the second research question.

RQ2: Are there any differences within the formulaic aspects of this series?

The second research question is aimed at providing an overall static vision of what we can define as the serial formula of the medical drama genre. We started out wondering if there might be differences to identify and analyse. Considering the value of individual isotopies in each episode, there are significant differences between the series (i.e., each series shows differences from the others comparing the same isotopy), Footnote 22 thus it makes sense to proceed with further analysis.

To answer RQ2 we calculated the typical episode of each series. The typical episode represents a fictitious episode in which each series is defined by four percentage values, one for each isotopy and one for the not coded content (i.e., referring to those aspects that could not be traced back to the three isotopies). The typical episode represents the ratio between the narrative biomasses and in particular how much the three isotopies are quantitatively present. These values are calculated by considering the median of the isotopy values for the entire series (i.e., throughout the episodes and seasons).

A 3D scatter plot is useful to display the data on three axes ( x , y , and z ; often called an XYZ plot) to show an overview and the relationship between the three isotopies. Footnote 23 For this diversification the preliminary investigations highlight how Grey’s Anatomy differs from all the other products considered so far, thus proving to be the series with the largest soap component (the sentimental plot actually occupies 48% of the narrative space—Fig. 2 and Table 2 ).

The dots identify in space the characteristics of the eight medical series under preliminary investigation considering the average percentage for the three isotopies identified within the genre (sentimental plot, professional plot, medical cases).

To understand how similar or different the typical episodes of the series are from each other, we applied the procedure of cluster analysis previously described. While we formerly used a dataset consisting of median values for individual seasons (32 seasons defined by a vector of four values), we now consider values for individual series (eight series defined by a vector of four values). The result Footnote 24 of hierarchical clustering is the dendrogram in Fig. 3 . From the analysis of the clusters of typical episodes of each series, the differentiation of Grey’s Anatomy from the rest of the medical productions is evident. In Grey’s Anatomy , the sentimental plot is the most represented, while the other products show a prevalence of a plot dedicated to medical cases (anthology plot). In particular, Miami Medical and Code Black present a higher incidence of the anthology plot compared to the other series analysed. The medical cases plot in the typical episode of Miami Medical represents 70% of the narrative time, while in Code Black the figure is 67%. The remaining five series ( Chicago Med , The Night Shift , The Good Doctor , New Amsterdam , The Resident ) all belong to the same branch of the dendrogram but are split into two clusters. Specifically, the cluster of Chicago Med , The Night Shift , and The Good Doctor differs from that of New Amsterdam and The Resident primarily in the professional plot. In Chicago Med , The Night Shift , and The Good Doctor the professional plot accounts for 8%, 6%, and 9%, respectively, while in New Amsterdam and The Resident its presence in the typical episode is much higher (16% and 19%, respectively).

Clustering dendrogram.

Based on the formulaic aspects taken into consideration we can identify four possible profiles within medical dramas:

The soap formula : Grey’s Anatomy . As we have seen, Grey’s Anatomy differs from all the other medical series examined for the strong prevalence of sentimental isotopy. A comparative analysis extended to other serial genres (such as teen drama) might highlight a similarity with series that particularly stress the sentimental dimension. It is easy to think that the particular narrative formula could be connected with the long duration of the series, however, it must be said that procedurals series are usually among the longest-running (e.g., Law & Order , CSI , NCIS ), even though they privilege the anthology dimension. We are in the process of coding ER (NBC, 1994–2009) and House (Fox, 2004–2012), two long-running medical dramas that, compared with Grey’s Anatomy , may offer additional insight. It should be noted that Grey’s Anatomy debuted with a narrative formula that was quite similar to that of the other medical dramas (see Fig. 4 ). The change occurred, as shown in the graph, from the third season, probably due to a different arrangement of the series that coincided with the change of position in the ABC network schedule from Sunday to Thursday.

The figure shows the time series of seven series of the corpus ( Miami Medical is not present because it has only one season). The legend at the top right applies to all series.

The anthology formula : Miami Medical and Code Black . In addition to having a preponderance of medical case plots and the smaller presence of the sentimental plot, these series also present the largest number of uncoded segments (3% against an average of 1%). The two CBS series, though visually different ( Code Black was designed to capture the spirit of Ryan McGarry’s documentary of the same title, Miami Medical was much glossier), both focus on early intervention following a medical emergency. Both series showcase the fight against time to save the lives of the medical cases that arise in each episode and tend to favour real-time action.

The doctors and patients formula : Chicago Med , The Night Shift , The Good Doctor . These three series belong to quite different product categories. The NBC Chicago Med series is part of the One Chicago franchise, dedicated to public services in the US city. The Night Shift , also from NBC, is a summer series, with a smaller budget and fewer episodes. The ABC series The Good Doctor is based on a Korean product with the same title and has achieved high ratings, presenting some innovative elements, such as the main character, who is a young autistic surgeon. However, the three series adopt the same traditional narrative formula, with a balanced mix of patient and doctor stories, which are intertwined with references and similarities, while aspects related to the medical profession remain in the background. Moreover, The Good Doctor —if we look at the development of the series (Fig. 4 )—presents a possible inversion between sentimental plot and medical cases plot starting from the third season; we do not know if it will be confirmed, and if it could be similar to that of Grey’s Anatomy . Footnote 25

The social formula : New Amsterdam , The Resident . These two series show a substantial prominence of the professional plot (16% New Amsterdam and 19% The Resident ) compared to the average of all other series (9%), which is justified by the focus on the ethical aspects of the medical profession ( The Resident ) and the social and public aspects of medicine ( New Amsterdam ). In the Fox series The Resident , one of the main themes is the hospital industry and the fight against bad health care, while in the NBC series New Amsterdam , the medical director of the public hospital New Amsterdam faces the distortions of the health care system. In both cases, these aspects are flanked by the stories of doctors and patients, as for profile 3, in fact, the two profiles belong to the same branch of the dendrogram in Fig. 3 .

After identifying the different narrative profiles within the medical genre, we consider the last research question aimed at providing a dynamic view of our dataset. We prefer to present the graphs organized by season, as we did above, to make the overall trends of each series more visible.

Figure 4 confirms earlier observations: Grey’s Anatomy differs from other shows in that, during its evolution, the prevalent plot has become the sentimental one. In all the other cases, the prevailing plot is that related to medical cases followed by the sentimental plot, and finally by the professional one that always remains in the background in all the series analysed. Also visible are some shifts already mentioned above: the change of formula in Grey’s Anatomy in the third season and the trend of possible reversal between sentimental plot and professional plot in The Resident and New Amsterdam . The development of a soap trend in The Good Doctor is also significant, due to the time devoted to the sentimental vicissitudes of the protagonist, which tends to bring The Good Doctor closer to Grey’s Anatomy . It should also be noted that the particularity of the first season of The Resident confirms the importance of the themes related to the medical profession in the series. However, if we consider the dataset as a whole, it is evident that the formulaic aspects relating to the quantitative relationships between isotopies are very stable: we recorded only two cases of inversion between isotopies out of 32 seasons considered. This shows that—at least in the case of sufficiently codified serial products such as medical drama—self-regulating mechanisms are at work that tend to keep the product adherent to a defined narrative target. This is in some ways surprising if we consider that a serial product, to maintain the attention of its audience, needs a “narrative engine” that constantly produces new characters and new plots. The continuous alternation of new narrative elements occurs without much change in the narrative formula and without explicit control of these parameters in creative decisions. The mechanisms of self-regulation thus seem to be linked to a systemic response that legitimizes the ecosystemic approach within which this work moves. Footnote 26

Conclusions

In this article, we proposed an exploratory data-driven study useful for triggering a process of transforming data into useful information. We applied this knowledge process in the context of media studies with a focus on the US medical serial audiovisual products. This research line can have implications both for consumers and producers. While producers may have a better understanding of the type of product and its evolution, consumers may have more efficient recommendation systems at their disposal. Indeed, if the outputs of this work were generalized over a larger corpus of series in the future they could be used in the development of content-based recommendation systems.

In particular, we validated the interpretative hypotheses related to the isotopies characterizing medical drama in contemporary seriality: the sentimental plot, the professional plot, and the medical cases plot. Using this schematization, it was possible to grasp the basic components of the social interactions showing the strength of the medical genre and its ability to rebuild, in its microcosm, the essential traits of the human macrocosm where random everyday life elements (seen in the medical cases plot) mix and overlap with working and social relationships (professional plot) and personal relationships (sentimental plot). The identification and quantification of these aspects in the corpus of investigation allowed us to reconstruct four possible narrative profiles: the soap formula, the anthology formula, the doctor and patients formula, and the social formula.

In this work, we started from the idea of the medical genre and we deconstructed the concept, showing how the analysis of serial discourse, more than the genre, could be crucial in identifying the balance between codified aspects, called isotopies or plots, which constitute the formula of the product. Footnote 27 Since these isotopies refer to fundamental aspects in the construction of a fictional world (Boni, 2017 ; Jenkins, 2006 ), one can hypothesize using them for the analysis of other serial genres that involve the construction of communities or microcosms organized according to individual and social relationships. Therefore, it is possible to generalize the three isotopies into a form that eliminates references to medical drama. In the first investigations we are carrying out on legal drama, teen drama, and superhero series, we have called soap plot the isotopy related to sentimental aspects and individual relationships, genre plot that one related to aspects characterizing the genre and/or the context and anthology plot is related to self-contained narrative arcs. By comparing different genres, we believe we can show that, beyond surface differences, the series share strongly codified formulaic elements that allow us to connect distant products with similar narrative profiles. Therefore, we suggest that the process of clustering and the construction of related profiles can be extended across multiple genres and products outside the medical drama.

The dynamic analysis of our dataset showed us that the evolution of the narrative variables over time—at least for the series considered—presents a character of strong stability. This demonstrates a significant confirmation of how, in serial products with characteristics of the narrative ecosystem, contrary to what is often taken for granted in many interpretative studies, creative decisions certainly do have great importance at the local level (for one or a few episodes), but rarely significantly change the general narrative aspects of the wider series. This is because the narrative variables considered are strongly self-regulated: they tend to self-correct, realigning themselves to values that change little and slowly. In the ecosystem context, to say that a variable is self-regulated is equivalent to saying that external factors act on that variable to limit its variation. For example, it is evident that the high stability of the duration of each episode of the series examined (about 43 min), limits the maximum value that the variables can assume. Similarly, it is possible to hypothesize that other economic, production, distribution, and audience factors affect narrative variables. For this reason, several scenarios emerge from the perspective of future developments in the research. Although the dynamic analysis confirms the stability of the narrative variables, more detailed analysis could be done to comparatively examine the narrative trajectories in detail such as sequence analysis (Abbott, 1995 ; Abbott and Tsay, 2000 ). Furthermore, if on the one hand it is appropriate to expand the dataset and the cases considered, trying to generalize the analytical model proposed to genres other than medical drama, on the other hand, it is essential to make explicit the external factors that act on the narrative variables and integrate them into the dataset, building a model that reconnects in a systemic vision the narrative features with those of production and consumption, as well as with regulatory and contextual aspects.

Data availability

The dataset generated and analysed during the current study are available on Open Science Framework https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/24TUS .

The ecosystem approach aims to adopt both traditional and innovative research tools, in particular through methodologies that seek to construct dynamic models that systematize narrative, economic and production components of serial products. Through this kind of approach, it will be possible to identify emergent trends and patterns, both within the single instances that are analysed and in the broader context of the contemporary media industry.

The seasons analysed for each series are shown in Table 1 .

Greimas and Courtés ( 1979 (1982), pp. 163–165) define the term isotopy as the continuous presence of different words with semantical traits in common within the syntagmatic units (sentences and/or texts). Eco ( 1979 , p. 93) underlines how the term isotopy is “an umbrella term that covers various semiotic phenomena that could generally be defined as the coherence of a reading path to the various textual levels” (our translation). In this paper, we refer to the term isotopy as defined by Eco, which is more inclusive and implies the definition of plot. The term plot emphasizes the narrative aspect and is often used in the scientific literature about seriality. Here, we use the terms isotopy and plot interchangeably: with the term plot, we do not refer to a coherent and concise story, but to a recurrence of narrative elements.

By considering these isotopies we follow the methodological framework expressed in Rocchi and Pescatore ( 2019 ) and a schematic approach that captures the essential components of the serial object even if they do not exhaust its complexity.

See below for further discussion.

Schatz ( 1981 ) has underlined the relevance of formulaic aspects for film genres, and recently Jovanović ( 2021 ) investigate formulaic aspects and aesthetic pleasure in generic television series. Within the medical genre, Albuquerque and Meimaridis ( 2016 ) have dissected narrative formula considering the imbalance between a common world and an extraordinary world. In this paper we address as formulaic aspects those related to the narrative domain and consider the narrative formula as the relationship between different isotopies.

We intended to measure the amount of narrative biomass independently of the hypothesizable relationship between time and narrative prominence, which is beyond the scope of this study (i.e., the amount of time devoted by a narrative to a thematic-narrative element does not necessarily correspond to the prominence of that same element in the narrative structure). We assume that in vast narratives the time devoted to a given thematic-narrative element is a reliable proxy for the narrative prominence of that element.

The coding process can also be emergent if we do not consider a set of pre-set codes and thus allow them to emerge directly from the data (inductive coding).

The majority of the medical cases appear only in the show for a short time (a single episode); however, some cases occupy more than one episode and sometimes the characters become recurring within the narration, playing a role within the sentimental and/or professional plot.

We used ELAN, an annotation tool that allowed us to create, edit, visualize and search annotations for video and audio data (Estrada et al., 2017 ).

These relationships in many cases involve the same characters who may play different social roles.

Intra-coder reliability is less common than inter-coder reliability (O’Connor and Joffe, 2020 ), but often inter-coder reliability is used on large projects with multiple coders and considering our research group we adopt the intra-coder reliability, one of the two possibilities offered by the literature. In addition, different studies compare the two types of reliability without any conclusive result in favour of one way or the other (Hu et al., 2011 ; Painczyk et al., 2018 ).

The percentage of episodes was decided on the basis of the literature (Himes and Thompson, 2007 ; Manganello et al., 2008 ; Fernández-Villanueva et al., 2009 ; Greenberg et al., 2009 ; Russell and Russell, 2009 ; Dillman Carpentier et al., 2017 ; Sink and Mastro, 2017 ; Timmermans and Van den Bulck, 2018 ; Blanco-Herrero and Rodríguez-Contreras, 2019 ; Nitsch et al., 2019 ; Ramos et al., 2019 ; Barker et al., 2020 ; Chapoton et al., 2020 ; Krongard and Tsay-Vogel, 2020 ; González-de-Garay et al., 2020 ; Lo and Huang, 2021 ). We selected the episodes through stratified random sampling (Sharma, 2017 , p. 750). In particular, we randomly choose 15% of episodes from each of the eight TV series (Table 1 ).

We decided to look at individual seasons and not individual episodes because there is high variability between individual episodes of all series, and this leads to distorted and meaningless effects in the aggregation of clusters (e.g., the outlier episodes of the various series aggregate together).

The median value of each isotopy per season was calculated by considering the isotopy values of the episodes belonging to that season.

The principal clustering methods are partitioning methods ( k -means, PAM, CLARA) that subdivide the datasets into a set of k groups, where k is the number of groups pre-specified by the analyst; hierarchical clustering, that identifies groups in the data without subdividing it; fuzzy clustering; density-based clustering; and model-based clustering (for more details see Jain et al., 1999 ; Rokach and Maimon, 2005 ; Berkhin, 2006 ).

The optimal number of clusters is a central issue in partitioning clustering such as k -means clustering. Indeed, it necessitates the user to specify the number of clusters k to be produced. There are different methods for determining the optimal number of clusters; we considered direct methods (elbow and silhouette methods) and statistical testing methods (gap statistics). In order to decide the best number of clusters the literature suggests following the “majority rule” (Charrad et al., 2014 , p. 29).

The clValid package in R compares clustering algorithms using two cluster validation measures: (I) Internal measures , which uses intrinsic information in the data to assess the quality of the clustering. Internal measures include the connectivity, the silhouette coefficient and the Dunn index; and (II) Stability measures which evaluate the consistency of a clustering result by comparing it with the clusters obtained after each column is removed, one at a time (Brock et al., 2008 ).

In our case hierarchical clustering performs best in two cases (for Dunn and Silhouette measures), and regardless of the clustering algorithm adopted, the optimal number of clusters is four.

In our case for the AD and FOM measures, hierarchical clustering with five clusters gives the best score; considering other measures, k -means with four clusters have the best score.

We implement two types of hierarchical clustering: (I) agglomerative clustering (AGNES) which works in a “bottom-up” perspective in which each observation is initially considered as a cluster of its own. Then, the most similar clusters are successively merged until there is just one single big cluster; (II) divisive clustering (DIANA) that works in a “top-down” perspective, beginning with the root, in which all objects are included in one cluster. Then the most heterogeneous clusters are successively divided until all observations are in their own cluster. Since there are no major differences between the two methods, we decided to use hierarchical divisive clustering (DIANA) for the scope of this paper.

We used a Kruskal–Wallis test, a non-parametric alternative to the one-way ANOVA test. It extends the two-sample Wilcoxon test in the situation where there are more than two groups to compare. It is recommended when the assumptions of one-way ANOVA test are not met, as in our case. Our dataset showed that there is a statistically significant difference in the professional plot ( χ 2 (7) = 132.95, p  < 0.0001, n  = 608), sentimental plot ( χ 2 (7) = 272.56, p  < 0.0001, n  = 608) and medical cases plot ( χ 2 (7) = 348.87, p  < 0.0001, n  = 608) scores between different series. From these outputs, we know that there is a significant difference between groups, but we do not know which pairs of groups are different. This in-depth examination is beyond the scope of this article, but we believe it to be an interesting aspect of future study.

For the display requirements of the 3D scatter plot, we did not consider the values of uncoded segments.

We conducted the Hopkins statistic test and rejected the null hypothesis ( H  = 0.535), and as noted previously from our investigation, it was not possible to define an optimal number of clusters in the dataset.

It’s unclear at this early stage whether The Good Doctor will develop in the same way as Grey’s Anatomy because it is a ‘younger’ show.

In the writing process, producers and scriptwriters often follow conventions formulated in different manuals (e.g., Campbell, 1949 ; Snyder, 2005 ; Vogler, 2007 ). However, we can consider these rules as part of the self-regulatory systems since the ecosystem approach aims to consider all mechanisms within the narrative ecosystem.

There is a wide-ranging debate regarding the television genre (for details see Mittel, 2001; Creeber, 2015 ).

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Rocchi, M., Pescatore, G. Modeling narrative features in TV series: coding and clustering analysis. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 9 , 333 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01352-9

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The impact of TV series consumption on cultural knowledge: An empirical study based on gratification–cultivation theory

Tanin tirasawasdichai.

1 School of Media and Communication, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

2 Faculty of Liberal Arts and Management Science, Kasetsart University, Chalermphrakiat Sakon Nakhon, Thailand

Bojan Obrenovic

3 Zagreb School of Economics and Management, Zagreb, Croatia

4 Luxembourg School of Business, Luxembourg, Luxembourg

Hussain Zaid H. Alsharif

5 Business School of Hunan University, Changsha, China

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

This study aims to clarify the media-induced trends of cross-cultural transmission and examine the implicit promotional potential for cultural branding. The gratification and cultivation theories are used to explore the promotional media prospect in forming perceptions of foreign cultures’ traditions, habits, norms, and values to contribute to international communication. We analyzed the theoretical applicability in the case of China–Thailand contemporary media culture. A total of 856 Chinese series watchers were surveyed. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the path effect of consumption of Chinese TV series on other endogenous variables. Results showed that cross-cultural media product consumption strengthens bilateral relations. Moreover, the acceptance and appropriation during engagement with media characters and producers lead to favorable attitudes toward the target culture. Results confirm the positive mutual association between the gratification and cultivation theories and their applicability in the current context. This study offers an important contribution through its finding that the need for gratification significantly and positively impacts consumption and cross-cultural learning and raises cross-cultural awareness, thereby leading to sustainable practices.

Introduction

Cultural products are tangible and intangible assets that include performing and visual arts, heritage conversation, and content media ( Aiello, 2014 ). The technological development of media and communication increases cultural product consumption as it facilitates media access via online platforms ( Siddharthan and Narayanan, 2018 ; Pacheco, 2020 ). Advanced technology and methods are also used for semantic reasoning ( Zheng et al., 2021a , b , 2022a ). Natural language inference ( Zheng et al., 2022b ) and extracting core information from images and texts ( Zheng et al., 2021c ) are conducive to mapping knowledge, which is especially useful in media interpretation. Knowledge Foreign consumers are considered potential promotional targets internationally, and brands and destination managers are increasingly collaborating with producers to capitalize on these consumers’ interests ( Mendes et al., 2017 ). Aside from entertainment and educational purposes, the export of cultural products such as tv shows and movies, facilitated by online access, can significantly boost the domestic economy and create a favorable climate for international trade, employment and tourism ( Lee, 2019 ), increasing the income from fashion, entertainment, food and tours. Thus, with widespread and easy access through digital channels, cultural product expansion has increased significantly ( Wei and Rafael, 2021 ). The concept of this issue has been quite popular over last decades as creativeness not only brings financial added value, but also in the non-monetary sense it contributes to establishment of soft power ( McClory, 2016 ). Scholars even pay more attention to soft power, which is defined as cultural power as well, rather than hard power, since they believe that soft power could convince people from inside by their mind without using any coercive or financial tools ( Nye, 2021 ). The cultural sector can promote economic growth through different activities and across industries (e.g., export expansion through sales in tourism, creative industries, fashion, and food). Hence, culture is a key factor for country development in several dimensions. Chinese TV series played a key role in the development of cross-cultural product consumption among Thai people, particularly via Chinese online applications, and consequently increased diffussion of other cultural, traditional and lyfestle products and services. Return on the national creative and tourist industry is immense, and subsequent consumption will additionally boost GDP and national economy. Acceptance and appropriation in the identification process and engagement with media content led to favorable attitudes toward the target culture, ultimately reinforcing positive convictions and attitudes regarding the culture in question.

To enter global trading of the cultural products, China has rigorously sought the advancement of communication channels ( Keane, 2019 ). Over a billion internet users globally access Chinese applications via online platforms to consume Chinese TV series ( Gilardi et al., 2018 ). In Thailand, Chinese TV series are popular among internet consumers. Thai people spend about 3 h and 44 min using online media, with 98% of this time dedicated to online videos ( Chankisean, 2020 ). Tencent Video, one of the largest online video platforms, prioritized the Thailand market to expand its service through We TV, an online video application that grew by more than 700% in less than 2 years ( Branded Content, 2020 ). The growing popularity of Chinese TV series serves as a diffusion mechanism for the transmission of cultural values, ideas, attitudes, and perspectives.

Thailand has a large population of Thai Chinese that migrated from China more than a thousand years ago ( Prattanasanti, 2019 ). Chinese culture has undoubtedly been crucial in shaping Thai culture for centuries ( Jiang, 1966 ). With the increasing dissemination of cultural products, Chinese culture has become increasingly influential ( Han, 2021 ). Chinese cultural product consumption is pivotal in foreign consumers’ cultural learning through the promotion of the country’s image, reputation, and status, as well as the diplomacy arising through the nurturing of favorable relations ( Guo et al., 2012 ). With the appropriate and comprehensive understanding of media consumption and drivers of the cross-cultural learning process, authorities could propose a sustainable international communication policy.

Culture is the culmination of societal historical achievements which can be generationally passed down, and as such, it encompasses enduring behavioral norms, values and attitudes ( Matsumoto and Juang, 2007 ). According to Hofstede et al. (2010) , cultural dissimilarities can be identified through a layer-like set of diverse characteristics. Based on such a characterization, we can derive a concept of a ‘foreign’ culture as that which diverges from another society due to its particular symbols, including verbal and non-verbal language and mannerisms, its unique national heroes, historical or current otherwise especially admired and esteemed by ethnicity, and set of moral and behavioral values that are homogenously pursued across the community. Even though Thailand and China are seemingly quite similar to each other, the Chinese language is still not as popular or mandatory as English ( Rojanaphruk, 2022 ).

Thai and Chinese cultures use different contextual metaphors, metonymy, euphemisms and rhetorical methods to express and identify feelings, attitudes and emotions. Furthermore, there are significant clashes in their respective political systems and religious beliefs, lifestyles, cuisine, and celebrities ( Duan, 2020 ). Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2002) argue culture constitutes three layers – the outer layer consists of language, buildings, art, fashion and cuisine, the middle layer consists of peculiar norms and values and the core layer concerning basic existential assumptions. Following provided classification, despite the many implicit resemblances between Thai and Chinese citizens, Chinese culture is legitimately both conceptually and tangibly foreign with respect to Thailand’s value hierarchy, linguistic background and moral sensibilities. Furthermore, Chinese cultural products significantly intensify cross-cultural contact by increasing Thai citizens’ understanding and acceptance of Chinese culture and act as facilitators of cross-cultural competencies, traditional assimilation and boost international relations ( Spitzberg and Changnon, 2009 ; Budzanowska-Drzewiecka et al., 2016 ).

To develop a functional research framework, we integrate the gratification and cultivation theories in this study. Cultivation theory effect has been linked to attitudes in prior studies ( Arendt, 2010 ) and to explain social media impact on behavior formation ( Tsoy et al., 2021 , 2022 ). In this study we combine the uses and gratification theory (U&G) and cultivation theory ( Tapper, 1995 ; Minnebo, 2000 ). The integration of these two theoretical frameworks promotes our understanding of the effects of media consumption and cross-cultural learning. In other words, this combination could provide a clearer picture of how theoretical processes work ( Bilandzic and Rössler, 2004 ). Nevertheless, to the best of our knowledge, studies on gratification–cultivation theory are scarce despite being regarded as a core theory in the media and communication field.

Culture is a key role in many significant aspects of development. Previous studies focused on culture as an intangible asset or resource for increasing the tourism industry’s attractiveness ( Fainstein et al., 2003 ). Furthermore, some authors uniquely emphasize distinct cultures through the very presence of the cultural industry which has been turned into a creative industry or creative economy. Cultural promotion and branding through the entertainment industry are relatively established and widely researched phenomena, especially among Western nations. Although online media promotional and advertising potential and drivers of consumption are fairly familiar to governors, marketers and international relations specialists and vast evidence on the effectiveness of marketing and management strategies is generated daily, explanatory methodological frameworks deployed therein are strictly applicable to English-speaking, highly individualist and capitalist societies. However, such groundwork may not be suitable in collectivist, reserved and closed-off societies and there is an evident lack of empirical explanation of cross-cultural product consumption and branding through media advertising among Asian societies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind concerning Chinese-Thai cultural product consumption. The current paper presents a preliminary attempt to broaden our knowledge of cultural branding in collectivist societies. We seek to evaluate the pertinence and usefulness of Anglophonic U&G and Cultivation frameworks in Asian communities.

The complementary objective is to shed light on media-induced trends of cross-cultural transmission and examine the implicit promotional potential for product and destination branding. The applicability of Gratification Cultivation theory as the basic conceptual framework through cultural product consumption is also our objective to provide the characterization of Cultural knowledge and cross-cultural consumption between China and Thailand. As aforementioned although there is a closeness between these two countries, adapting the main theoretical Western origin model could provide a wider context application of cultural dissimilarities through cross-cultural consumption.

All these concepts and backgrounds bring to the fort research questions to fulfill this gap in cultural knowledge and learning through cross-cultural consumption. For example, as individuals consume cultural products, does the gratification impact their cultural learning? How does cultural product consumption affect cross-cultural acceptance and knowledge and how it contributes to other aspects of development?

The rest of the paper is structured as follows: The theoretical background and literature review, serving as the basis of the research hypotheses, are presented. Then, the methodology is described, and the findings and discussion are provided. Finally, the limitations and future directions are proposed.

Theoretical background

Our theoretical framework is expected to account for how the learning of a dissimilar culture results from the cultural acceptance, which can be predicted by enjoyment and narrative engagement ( Rubenking and Bracken, 2018 ). Gratification stands as an antecedent and a motivational driver for viewer engagement while the cultivation effect stems from several parallel processes ( Soto-Sanfiel et al., 2021 ). The engagement component of gratification affects the social construction of mediated reality, and the perceived reality is the result of the cultivation effect ( Busselle and Bilandzic, 2009 ). What is being cultivated through cinematic experience is primarily the consumption of cultural products (e.g., TV series), out of which producing nations cultivate cultural and sociopsychological awareness, favorable attitudes, and the desired behavior ( Fu et al., 2020 ). The outcome, that is, the cultivated behavior, can range from cultural acceptance to an increase in consumption of other industrial products (e.g., tours, fashion, food, and technology).

Gratification–cultivation theory, which combines the U&G and cultivation theories, is adopted as the theoretical framework of this study. Although the two theories seemingly differ in theoretical directions, examining them under the scene of cultural digital product consumption clarifies their association. U&G theory explores people’s demand in media usage, the objectives and satisfaction levels of which differ from those of media consumption ( Dhir et al., 2017 ). Such demand is supposed to fulfill users’ expectations and gratifications. Various media types provide different or specific features depending on which media aspects can serve users’ needs ( Katz, 1959 ).

Gratification could go beyond the entertainment and relaxation purposes of media use. For example, Rubin (1983) stated that some people watch TV programs to avoid escapism and stay informed rather than seek enjoyment. In the online fandom community, fans socialize regarding content consumption while encouraging the participation of others, thus resulting in high consumer involvement ( Jenkins, 2007 ; Fiske, 2012 ). Papacharissi (2009a) mentioned that people consume media to meet their demands, wants, or desires. Apart from amusement, information search, communication with other consumers, and participation in digital or online communities, individuals use media for self-expression ( Choi et al., 2015 ). New media platforms enable the global broadcast of TV content ( Pacheco, 2020 ; Choi et al., 2021 ), thus transcending physical boundaries and linguistic differences and increasing cultural diplomacy and cultural promotion ( Jin, 2020 ).

Cultivation theory was initially introduced to account for how media consumption im-pacts consumers’ world views ( Gerbner and Gross, 1976 ). At that time, television was the primary media source. As technology developed, consumers could access media conveniently and spend more time absorbing content ( Park et al., 2014 ). Gerbner et al. (2002) stated that intensive viewers tend to believe that their lives are similar to those they see on TV. Many previous studies have confirmed parasocial interaction, in which identification with fictional characters shape audiences’ attitudes, viewpoints, behaviors, etc. ( Madison and Porter, 2016 ; Aytulun and Sunai, 2020 ; Javed et al., 2022 ). Viewers identify media characters as similar to themselves or others close to them ( Cohen, 2009 ; Tsoy et al., 2021 ). The management of a narrative and reinforcement of mediated perception of a foreign culture is explained according to cultivation theory. The theory accounts for how the integration of cinematic and cultural context portrayed in particular content is to be interpreted by consumers ( Lovric, 2018 ). This in turn spikes viewers’ interest and prompts audiences to further explore the culture of their favorite characters and their respective histories ( Lee, 2019 ; Javed et al., 2022 ).

The two theories seemingly differ in their theoretical directions, but their association can be clarified by examining them in the modern media landscape fueled by the need for instantaneous gratification and motivation for consumption in the context of globalization. They relate to each other in parasocial interaction and knowledge acquisition, especially in the recent collaboration between the advertising industry and production, that is, the globalization trend of TV fashion. Parasocial interaction, that is, the identification with fictional characters, has been confirmed to be related to changes in audiences’ attitudes, habits, and behaviors ( Madison and Porter, 2016 ; Aytulun and Sunai, 2020 ; Javed et al., 2022 ).

Prior studies have indicated that media exposure results from motivations and not from beliefs ( Bilandzic and Rössler, 2004 ). Although this concept may not be valid in every cultivation measure and genre, Tapper (1995) confirmed that motivations are crucial in analyzing and explaining cultivation in television use. Motivation and cultivation effects thus overlap, and some researchers have tried to follow the U&G theoretical concept while using the dataset of cultivation theory synchronously ( Minnebo, 2000 ). The motives in media exposure are indicated as the initiation, which later impacts users. Bilandzic and Rössler (2004) identified that cultivation is initiated with the gratification sought by viewers from television. Thus, U&G could be regarded as a potential feature in television programs. Al-Shaqsi (2000) argued about the dynamic relationship between audiences, messages, and effects of media consumption. Therefore, U&G should be included in the investigation of cultivation effects.

The two theories are crucial to explaining viewers’ attitudes and perceptions ( Atkin et al., 1983 ). Regardless of the contradiction between these two theories among active and passive viewers, they appear to complement each other. U&G theory focuses on the psychological need from media use, whereas cultivation theory focuses on how media shapes users’ attitudes and perceptions. Thus, the combination of these theories could explain how the theories work.

Understanding the process of cultural learning from foreign media consumption plays a very crucial role in international communication policy authorities. Especially, in era of media volatility among globalization and diversity, the good comprehension would bring to the appropriateness of international media and communication manners.

Research model development

Tv series consumption.

To understand the motivation and gratification in TV series viewing, this study applied U&G theory. The theory was used to identify the motivations behind media use ( Papacharissi, 2009b ). Technological development has changed consumption processes, as well as consumers’ gratification gained and sought ( Eighmey and McCord, 1998 ). Currently, consumption is greater through online digital platforms than through traditional media. The instantaneous on-demand content availability could shape consumers’ views, values, and attitudes.

The concepts and values consumers associate with certain cultures are modified and reinforced by audiovisual products, such as popular and engaging TV shows and movies that highlight inherent culture through narratives or character identification ( Lee, 2019 ; Vila et al., 2021 ). Cultivation theory explains how mediated reality may cultivate perception and even lead to identification. One of the fundamental drivers upon which viewers are incentivized to consume the content of cross-cultural products is the need for gratification. Consumers receive gratification through the very act of consumption that extends from spectators’ need for entertainment and excitement. Meanwhile, gratification can arise from viewers’ engagement, feeding into the need for socialization based on common interests, as in the case of fandom communities. Therefore, cultural awareness resulting from consuming cross-cultural products increases with the productions’ ability to convey essence and heritage through narrative stories ( Pacheco, 2020 ). Characters and places portrayed can differ significantly from viewers’ personal backgrounds, in which case audiences become incentivized to learn more of the foreign folklore or even visit filming locations ( Vila et al., 2021 ). The consumption of the content of individual TV programs results in enjoyment ( Stafford et al., 2004 ), as in the case of TV series watching among college students ( Huang et al., 2015 ). Gratification sought and obtained could also stem from the new functions of technological tools ( Sun and Zhong, 2020 ), applications, operating systems in gadgets, and internet availability. Luo and Remus (2014) suggested that U&G is the fundamental theoretical framework of cultural product consumptions, specifically in the context of the diversity of media technology and content. Audiovisual media has been found to play a massive role in contemporary visual centricity ( Nicolaou and Kalliris, 2020 ).

Thus, we hypothesize the following:

H1 : The gratification sought by consumers positively influences TV series consumption.

H2 : TV series consumption positively influences the gratification obtained.

TV series consumption and cultural awareness

Cultural awareness is the first step in the acknowledgment of cultural product consumption. Nicolaou (2021) found that audiovisual media supports learning through streaming and that the depicted international genealogical characteristics and habits, culturally inherent characteristics, and sociocultural identity can influence knowledge acquisition. Cultural awareness is how one can perceive values of culture and cultural habits that are dissimilar to himself/herself ( Vacc et al., 2003 ). Cultural awareness is also a capability to realize a culture’s impacts on human behavior and values ( Wunderle, 2006 ). In creating cultural products, the attractiveness of content and the inherent culture of the producer are developed spontaneously. The producer side seems to be more influential in cultural transmission ( Morgan and Shanahan, 1997 ). The producer’s experience, emotional engagement, and cultural viewpoint are ingrained in the generation process of content creation ( Wang, 2020 ). By being exposed to information regarding dissimilar cultures through cultural products such as TV series, learners develop awareness and make critical judgments regarding their beliefs, practices, and perspectives by comparing them with those of other cultures ( Yanhao and Mustafa, 2021 ). As different aspects of culture are transferred from the content of a story ( Pacheco, 2020 ) we suggest the following:

H3a : TV series consumption positively influences cultural awareness.

TV series consumption and cultural acceptance

Cultural acceptance is defined as the embrace of other cultures or others’ cultural identities. Kwon (2015) stated that culture acceptance is the willingness to accept or try something unfamiliar, such as ethnic food from outside one’s group. Similarity is very crucial for consumers’ acceptance of new culture ( Rentfrow et al., 2011 ). To realize effective communication, communicators intend to enhance the conformity of communication between audiences ( Gevorgyan and Manucharova, 2015 ; Gao et al., 2020 ). In the case of global brand digital marketing, Almeida (2015) found that successful marketers understand cultures deeply. The notion of similarity in communication could increase consumer acceptance and purchasing intent ( Akdeniz and Talay, 2013 ; Hersleth et al., 2015 ). As per Lee (2019) , “Film has a long history of not only entertaining but also educating, breaking stereotypes, and transcending borders at different levels to foster mutual understanding through the exchange of ideas, information, art, and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples.”

Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

H3b : TV series consumption positively influences cultural acceptance.

TV series consumption and involvement with series

Involvement constitutes how deeply consumers become engaged with cultural products. Higher levels of involvement are supposed to attract and encourage the participation of consumers. As television watching could be triggered by the desire to socialize with others ( Rubin, 1983 ), consumers can also participate and interact with other users through media consumption, which could bring socializing gratifications in media usage ( Apaolaza et al., 2015 ). Unlike traditional consumers, modern consumers of cultural products who build fan communities on online platforms ( Page and Thomas, 2011 ) are not passive audiences as they could influence producers and production processes ( Pearson, 2010 ). Fan communities are assembled according to similar preferences for cultural patterns ( Mulyana et al., 2019 ). Community members like to discuss their interests and idols with other fans via the internet ( Jenkins, 2007 ). Fandom plays a crucial role between producers and consumers as fans tend to be heavily engaged ( Fiske, 2012 ). The greater the fan interaction, the higher the level of involvement expected. Consequently, the consumption of cultural products would affect consumers’ involvement with series.

Thus, we suggest the following:

H3c : TV series consumption positively influences involvement with series.

Cultural awareness and cultural acceptance

Cultural acceptance is the way consumers embrace a new culture. Cultural products are not limited to amusement as they involve performing or acting and are constantly present ( Hall, 1992 ). As producers try to increase communication ( Gevorgyan and Manucharova, 2015 ), consumers accordingly perceive a culture’s identity in their consumption ( Satrio et al., 2020 ). Media consumption’s cultivation effect also influences viewers’ worldview ( Gerbner et al., 2002 ). With the aspects of new media (e.g., video on demand), Steiner and Xu (2018) stated that cultural integration is a motivation for continued viewing (binge watching) habits. Consumer acceptance could also come in the form of purchase intent ( Hersleth et al., 2015 ), which is a challenging issue for digital marketers ( Almeida, 2015 ). National representations of history, heritage, myths, and folklores that comprise the cultural foundation can also be used as national resources, particularly in the technological era where diverse international products are available at a click. Perception as the first stage of cultural product consumption could affect cultural acceptance. As cultural awareness is the antecedent to the decision to learn more and exchange cultural background knowledge, spectators’ awareness of depicted culture arguably leads to effective acceptance.

Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H4 : Cultural awareness positively influences cultural acceptance.

Involvement with series and cultural acceptance

When engaging in cultural branding through films, production must consider the complex and unforeseeable nature of associations that overseas audiences will form. Goffman (1974) identified that engagement relates to emotional reactions resulting from social interactions, whereas marketing specialists consider it as an indicator of the level of intention ( Scott and Craig-Lees, 2010 ). Consumers absorb cultural context from media and become engaged during consumption. Cross-cultural entertainment fosters lasting bonds between viewers and characters from foreign cultures including purchase intention ( Adamczyk, 2017 ; Sun et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, the media aids in the formation of social and communication networks among fandoms and diverse social structures. Audiences are also characterized as keen readers in web novel communities, story co-producers ( Grey, 2010 ), and participants willingly aiding media distribution to a broader group of consumers. Socialization and interaction also bring user-generated content to enhance involvement ( Gilardi et al., 2018 ). Consumers of cultural products seem to trust user-generated online reviews more than other sources ( Camacho-Otero et al., 2019 ). Mulyana et al. (2019) found that active fans drive others to support their favorite products through merchandise (e.g., bags and clothes). This reflects the increased knowledge intent concerning foreign culture resulting from cultural product consumption.

Therefore, we infer that involvement with cultural products drives consumers to embrace foreign culture and propose the following:

H5 : Involvement with series positively influences cultural acceptance.

Cultural awareness and cultural knowledge

Culture learning is defined as a cultural adaptation process that is free from significant psychological strain on learners and is considered a facilitator of cultural appropriation ( Lefdahl-Davis and Perrone-McGovern, 2015 ; Belford, 2017 ). Psychological distress emerges when individuals are culture shocked after entry into a foreign environment without a prior adjustment period. Culture learning acts as a buffer and facilitator of intercultural transmission ( Pacheco, 2020 ), which is often cultivated through media content, whereby learners are primed to a second culture through familiarization with content that evokes positive associations related to a foreign culture (e.g., norms, values, and beliefs; Mahmood, 2014 ). Cultural knowledge is characterized by the understanding and mindfulness of social groups, products, and practices. As cross-cultural knowledge is mainly relational and social ( Elola and Oskoz, 2008 ), it concerns the awareness and perceptions of the interlocutor’s country and cognizance of the general process of societal interaction.

The knowledge of other cultures is a product of not only one-sided media portrayal but also socialization and cultural learning through online interaction ( Elola and Oskoz, 2008 ). Media cultural products facilitate the dissemination of values and ideas, thus raising cultural awareness and extending cultural knowledge among foreign consumers. Such strategy of creating fandom communities based on domestic characters and myths encourages international communication. Cultural knowledge from cultural product consumption could vary with consumers’ psychological aspects ( Khan et al., 2012 ; Senivongse and Bennet, 2022 ). Additionally, consumers can now learn about traditional cultures and gain awareness through advanced information technology ( Huang et al., 2015 ; Siddharthan and Narayanan, 2018 ).

We infer that consumers’ higher cultural awareness could increase knowledge and understanding. Consequently, we suggest the following:

H6 : Cultural awareness positively influences cultural knowledge.

Cultural acceptance and cultural knowledge

Cultural acceptance could be in the form of cultural hybridization ( Pieterse, 2009 ), particularly in cultural products. Kogut and Singh (1988) found that cultural product consumption and acceptance reduces the cultural gap between countries. For instance, through K-pop culture, overseas fans often consume Korean fashion and beauty products and even travel to Korea ( Kwak et al., 2019 ). Consumers easily respond to cultural products with broader cultural acceptance ( Moon et al., 2016 ). Having profound cultural knowledge ensures the successful dissemination of cultural products. Akdeniz and Talay (2013) identified that cultural variation is due to influential factors (e.g., actors’ persona and presence) in movie sales. Titling and movie synchronization to other languages must be comprehensive to achieve natural sounds and accurately convey meaning ( Gao et al., 2020 ). Moreover, consumers often look for content that matches their circumstances, culture, characteristics, and preferences ( Rentfrow et al., 2011 ). Following the definitions and impact of variables and conceptualized relationships, we conclude that cultural knowledge demonstrates a higher degree of cultural engagement. Cultural knowledge consists of cultural comprehension and leads to cross-cultural appropriation ( Elola and Oskoz, 2008 ).

Therefore, we suggest the following:

H7 : Cultural acceptance positively influences cultural knowledge.

Involvement with series and cultural knowledge

Cultural product consumers trust user-generated online reviews more than other sources ( Camacho-Otero et al., 2019 ). Trust among consumers has been observed in media cultural products such as cultural blogs ( Magno, 2017 ), online literature ( Tian and Adorjan, 2016 ), and webtoon and web novel communities ( Shim et al., 2020 ). Readers create communities to share and exchange information and achieve a common understanding of cultural products ( Tian and Adorjan, 2016 ). The fandom of readers can be considered a vital transmitter in expanding information and knowledge ( Dwyer, 2019 ). Their base of trust is important in the percentage of the global gross domestic product that creative and cultural industries generate annually as they are willing to translate and share content with community members voluntarily ( Shim et al., 2020 ). They would have the deep relation between their feelings and commitment with their involved brand ( Bian and Yan, 2022 ). With a higher level of involvement, consumers voluntarily share their knowledge and information with community members.

Consequently, we hypothesize the following:

H8 : Involvement with series positively influences cultural knowledge.

The research model is illustrated in Figure 1 .

Research model of the study.

Research methodology

Measurement and data collection.

A survey through online questionnaire was conducted to evaluate the respondents’ attitudes and behavior and illustrate different scenarios of how the respondents feel, think, or behave. The variables included the gratification sought, Chinese TV series consumption, the gratification obtained, cultural awareness, cultural acceptance, involvement with series, and cultural knowledge. The 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1) was used as a measurement tool.

The measurement questions of each variable were formulated by adopting keywords and concepts from previous studies. Each variable consisted of five item questions for measuring the respondents’ scenarios.

The study’s target population consisted of Thai netizens who watch Chinese TV series. As the population is unknown, estimation by samples was used. Purposive voluntary sampling was conducted to accumulate data from the participants. The online questionnaire was back-translated. The questionnaire in the Thai language was posted on the public social media websites of Chinese TV series lovers in Thailand. The data collection was anonymous and was conducted between October and December 2021. There were 856 respondents included in the sample for analysis. Young adults or older first-jobbers aged 26–30 years comprised the largest percentage of respondents (78%; Wisetwongchai, 2020 ). The mean of all respondents’ ages was 25.27 years. Moreover, there was a higher proportion of female viewers (90%) than male viewers. More than half of respondents (497 or 58.1%) spent between 0 and10 hours per week watching series.

To confirm the reliability of the measurement tool, we calculated the Cronbach’s alpha for each scale ( Table 1 ). The cultural acceptance scale had the highest Cronbach’s alpha of 0.895, followed by cultural knowledge and level of TV series consumption at 0.888 and 0.874, respectively. The Cronbach’s alpha of the gratification sought scale was 0.772. As all the values were higher than 0.7, the instrument was found to have sufficient reliability.

Measurement and reliability test.

Statistical analysis and results

Statistical analysis was conducted using STATA version 16 MP. As part of the statistical analysis, we calculated descriptive statistics, reliability, correlation analysis, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural model testing.

Correlation analysis

Correlation analysis was performed to indicate appropriate correlation ( Table 2 ). All correlation coefficients showed a moderate relationship level ranging from 0.4 to 0.8. Thus, we confidently included fitting factors in our research model. The highest correlation coefficient among all pairs of analysis was 0.745, which was the correlation coefficient between cultural acceptance and cultural knowledge. Variance of inflation factor (VIF) was calculated to test for multicollinearity. All correlation values showed no serious multicollinearity problem; the highest and lowest VIF values were less than 10 at 3.009 and 1.927, respectively ( Schober et al., 2018 ).

Correlation analysis.

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)

CFA was performed, and the degree of model fit is shown in Table 3 . Hair et al. (2014) recommended that a fit model should have normed chi-square values less than 3, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) less than 0.08, standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) less than 0.08, and comparative fit index (CFI) higher than 0.90; values higher than 0.95 indicate excellent fitness.

Degree of model fit for CFA.

Table 3 shows that the RMSEA is less than 0.80 at 0.053, the SRMR is also less than 0.80 at 0.053, and the CFI is higher than 0.90 at 0.930, thereby indicating good model fit ( Bentler, 1990 ; Byrne, 2010 ). Only the normed Chi-square exceeds 3 (χ^2/df = 3.425). Nevertheless, chi-square is very sensitive to large sample sizes and could decrease the value of p. Excessive emphasis on chi-square might lead to a preference for the null hypothesis not being rejected ( Alavi et al., 2020 ).

The factor loadings of each variable item scale are shown in Table 4 . All factor loadings exceed 0.55, as suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981) . Furthermore, all items are statistically significant at the 0.01 level.

Factor loadings.

The CFA for each variable, along with the item scales, is shown in Figure 2 .

Confirmatory factor analysis.

Structural equation model (SEM) testing

The model was tested using a structural equation model (SEM) and path analysis. The degree of model fit for the structural model was calculated to confirm that the structural model is consistent with the theoretical model. In Table 5 , we compare the hypothesized model with a modified SEM.

Degree of Model Fitness Statistics.

The degree of model fitness illustrates an adequate fit. The chi-square (χ^2) value is 0.267 (χ^2 = 0.267), indicating the model’s likelihood ratio test. Fit is achieved when the value of p is higher than 0.05 ( Schumacker and Lomax, 2010 ). The value of p of 0.605 indicates appropriate model fit. The RMSEA of the analysis should not exceed 0.05 ( Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000 ). Similarly, the SRMR should not exceed 0.05. Finally, the CFI value should be higher than 0.90–0.95 to define model fitness; values higher than 0.95–1.00 indicate good fitness ( Schumacker and Lomax, 2010 ). All the indices are of appropriate values, thus indicating a fit ( Table 5 ).

The research model was modified to show acceptable model fit. A path from gratification obtained to cultural knowledge was added. The hypothesis testing indicated that H1 is accepted, with the coefficient value (B) and value of p being 0.850 and less than 0.01, respectively. This result confirms that gratification sought has a positive impact on Chinese TV series consumption (B = 0.850, value of p  < 0.01). H2 is also accepted, with the coefficient value (B) and value of p   being 1.041 and less than 0.01, respectively (B = 1.041, value of p  < 0.01). This result confirms that Chinese TV series consumption has a positive impact on the gratification obtained. H3a is accepted, with the coefficient value (B) and value of p being 0.775 and less than 0.01, respectively (β = 0.775, value of p  < 0.01). This result confirms that Chinese TV series consumption has a positive impact on cultural awareness. H3b is also accepted, with the coefficient value and value of p being 4.923 and less than 0.01, respectively (B = 4.923, value of p  = < 0.01). This result confirms that Chinese TV series consumption has a positive impact on cultural acceptance. H3c is accepted, with the coefficient value and value of p being 0.867 and less than 0.01, respectively (B = 0.867, value of p  < 0.01). Hence, Chinese TV series consumption has a positive impact on involvement with series. Meanwhile, H4 is also accepted, with the coefficient value (B) and value of p being 12.606 and less than 0.01, respectively (B = 12.606, z = 4.42, value of p  < 0.01). The result indicates that cultural awareness has a positive impact on cultural acceptance. H5 is rejected as the coefficient value (B) and value of p are −15.900 and less than 0.01, respectively (B = −15.900, value of p  < 0.01). This result shows that involvement with series has a positive impact on cultural acceptance. As for H6, it is accepted, with the coefficient value (B) and value of p being 0.242 and less than 0.01, respectively (B = 0.242, value of p  < 0.01). This result confirms that cultural acceptance has a positive impact on cultural knowledge. H7 is accepted, with the coefficient value (B) and value of p being 0.576 and less than 0.01, respectively (B = 0.576, value of p  < 0.01). This result shows that cultural acceptance has a positive impact on cultural knowledge. Finally, H8) is rejected, with the coefficient value and value of p being 0.050 and 0.552, respectively (B = 0.050, value of p  = 0.552). This result confirms that involvement with series positively impacts cultural knowledge but is not statistically significant ( Table 6 ).

Regression weights, errors, and p -values.

The path analysis in Table 6 is shown as a research model in Figure 3 . The decisions on research hypotheses are displayed in Table 7 .

Summary of research hypotheses.

Results of research model. ** is 0.01 level of significance.

The basic conceptual framework of this research was confirmed, that is, there are cultivation impacts from media usage initiated by gratification sought or motivation for gratification in media exposure. Intercultural engagement is fostered through sharing of immersive content using affordable technologies ( Siddharthan and Narayanan, 2018 ), in which cultural learning and intercultural adaptation can spontaneously occur by simply watching foreign movies and TV series ( Li and Chen, 2014 ; Pacheco, 2020 ). Contemporary technology, popular social platforms, and interactive features have domesticated the experience of cultural learning while eliminating culture shocks by fostering communication and engagement with other cultures, encouraging the exchange of intercultural norms, and promoting immersion in other lifestyles and thinking patterns ( Pacheco, 2020 ). Herein, we focused only on Chinese TV series watching as a form of cultural product consumption. The findings of the study correspond to those of the study of Bilandzic and Rössler (2004) . Chinese TV series consumption could provide satisfaction and fulfill consumers’ gratification need quite well because series watching could significantly respond to gratification sought and gratification obtained. The findings correspond to those of previous studies on U&G by Dhir et al. (2017) and Papacharissi (2009a) .

Furthermore, we combine two prominent theoretical frameworks to explore the educational prospect of audiovisual content in forming a perception of foreign culture’ traditions, habits, norms and values and gaining an understanding of inherent lifestyles, behavioral patterns, heritage and ethnicity. Our endeavor concerns itself with the investigation and analysis of theoretical applicability in the case of China-Thailand contemporary media culture. To that end, we provide a literature review and research results of numerous prior inquiries from media and communication, marketing and ethnology studies. Furthermore, our results on the effects of cinema and digital streaming provide confirmation for the positive mutual association between the Gratification and Cultivation theories, and their applicability in the current context. An important contribution of the study is that the need for gratification significantly and positively impacts consumption and cross-cultural learning and raises cross-cultural awareness. However, personal engagement, i.e., inner experiences, contrary to our assumptions, do not influence cultural knowledge and acceptance.

The empirical study showed that Chinese TV series consumption affects the cultural awareness, cultural acceptance, and cultural knowledxx`x`ge of Thai viewers. For cultural awareness, this research confirmed that consumers perceive and acknowledge cultural differences from what they experience in TV series. This finding corresponds to the study of Ferguson (2008) , which found that people can identify their perceptions from media usage. Chinese TV series consumption also influenced cultural acceptance, indicating that consumers not only acknowledge the differences between new and inherent cultures but also accept cultures portrayed in the series. This result corresponds to those in the study of Hersleth et al. (2015) and Almeida (2015) , who revealed that the distribution of media content should come with cultural acceptance among consumers. In other words, letting consumers accept culture is another crucial function of media. Additionally, cultural awareness and acceptance influence cultural knowledge due to Chinese TV series viewing. The participants reported that they could better understand Chinese culture, which are not only the external cultures that could be seen, but also the internal ones, including beliefs, attitudes, norms, and values. Corresponding to the study of Machová et al. (2022) found that cultural, social and personal factors (e.g., gender, reference group, social class, religious and ethnical group and the age of the customer) greatly influence consumer habits. These are the external factors, while the internal factors are psychological factors—including the following: motivation, perception, learning and attitude.

One variable that conflicted with previous studies is the involvement in series. This variable was measured by the respondents’ involvement with TV series, which could be in different forms or behaviors. Some consumers may be active fans who follow and support their favorite stars or series. Some consumers might prefer to socialize or interact with other viewers on social networking platforms, and some may contribute to their favorite series by encouraging others to watch the series. All these behaviors were found as significant factors in how consumers deal or interact with the consumption of cultural products.

The aforementioned additional path for model modification also plays a vital role among this cultural product consumption of individuals. Although the path shows insignificant value, it makes the model fit with theoretical concept. This finding brings us to a deeper question of future study regarding theoretical model in new media environment. Since the cultural knowledge is considered as the final outcome of cultural learning from cultivation effect, similarly gratification obtained is regarded as the final outcome of U&G or the satisfaction of media consumption. Consequently, this result implies us that individual could learn or gain knowledge and gratification simultaneously, by having media and communication as functional instrument ( Tirasawasdichai and Pookayaporn, 2021 ).

This study is valuable as it provides a contemporary reinterpretation of cultural learning, adaptation, and cross-cultural awareness in media psychology, as experienced by present-day foreign TV series consumers and accounting for the significant role of modern technology as the driver of cultural acceptance. The main contribution of the study is the critical review of the main yet underutilized media theories in the present-day digital global environment. The study provides an illuminating discussion on sociocultural acclimation and appropriation as an addition to scholarly thought regarding immersive mediated experiences causing cross-cultural knowledge diffusion. Our objective is to revitalize the discourse on the cultivation effect and transitional experiences as antecedents of affective culture learning perpetuating cultural branding. Our considerations are in line with modern experiences and current sociopsychological insights. This study also innovates by combining the U&G and cultivation theories; this combination is rare despite the two being core theories in the media and communication academic field. Moreover, the theories have been validated in the context of digital and online channels. The findings herein also shed light on sustainable international communication policymaking and the construction of a country’s image. They may also help producers design their products and market them internationally. Undeniably, cultural products, regarded as a part of soft power, are powerful as they drive economies and influence consumers’ attitudes and values ( Rabêlo Neto et al., 2019 ). Additionally, this study specified the current context of online and digital environment that consumers could access quite freely. Moreover, with the diversity of media channels in this era, the empirical results of this study could explain well that whether the impacts of cultivation effect from tv viewing are still existing among online and digital environment of media.

Limitations and future directions

The study suffers from usual limitations, which should be addressed in future studies. For example, the data were collected using self-reported measures. Additionally, the sample was heterogeneous given that internet users in Thailand cover a wide range of groups or segments. Moreover, each generation’s proportion or ratio of internet usage might differ, thus restricting the identification of segments or groups that best represent internet users. Another important limitation of the study is the accessibility of consumers to Chinese TV series in the current context. Nowadays, consumers can conveniently access media content via many channels or devices. Therefore, different channels could provide different experiences in consumption of media, especially TV series or serial video content ( Anghelcev et al., 2020 ). Future studies should investigate the effects of media channels as media plays a crucial role in consumer experience. Additionally, specific population segments and types of series should be investigated in the future. Future studies could also assess cultural acceptance as an outcome of cultural awareness and knowledge given that prior studies have also suggested such relationship.

Data availability statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Shanghai Jiao Tong University (IRB# 86413009). The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

TT: data curation and resources. TT and HA: formal analysis and methodology. TT and BO: investigation and writing – original draft. BO: project administration. TT, BO, and HA: writing – review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, how over-the-top (ott) platforms engage young consumers over traditional pay television service an analysis of changing consumer preferences and gamification.

Young Consumers

ISSN : 1747-3616

Article publication date: 8 April 2021

Issue publication date: 20 July 2021

This paper aims to analyse how the top over-the-top (OTT) platform is becoming a preferred source of entertainment amongst young consumers over traditional Pay TV service (Cable TV/DTH) in India and what factors play a vital role in such preferences along with gamification of content. The study follows the theoretical framework of use and gratifications theory and Niche analysis.

Design/methodology/approach

The study establishes a conceptual framework of understanding the preference of consumers, which triggers the shift from old media to new. This research develops an approach to understanding the relevant implications in responses of consumers through a structured online survey conducted amongst different age groups by applying exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. To further comprehend the relations between measured variables and constructs, the statistical technique is incorporated, i.e. logistic regression.

Empirical results and discussion insinuated the five factors which affect consumers’ choices concerning entertainment i.e. content and viewing behaviour, expenses incurred on services, shifts influenced by offerings/incentives, convenience and telecom. Logistic regression validated the strength of these factors which made content and viewing behaviour, expenses incurred on services and convenience the three most important factors.

Research limitations/implications

This study analyses the driving factors that are revolutionising the entertainment industry and can be applied in designing a comfortable and engaging experience for a consumer in the future.

Originality/value

This research is original in nature and the findings of this study are valuable for online streaming services, video-on-demand services, Cable TV operators and entertainment content producers.

• Consumer socialisation
• Quantitative methods
• Online media
• Other media and children

Sadana, M. and Sharma, D. (2021), "How over-the-top (OTT) platforms engage young consumers over traditional pay television service? An analysis of changing consumer preferences and gamification", Young Consumers , Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 348-367. https://doi.org/10.1108/YC-10-2020-1231

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / How to Cite Sources

How to Cite Sources

Here is a complete list for how to cite sources. Most of these guides present citation guidance and examples in MLA, APA, and Chicago.

If you’re looking for general information on MLA or APA citations , the EasyBib Writing Center was designed for you! It has articles on what’s needed in an MLA in-text citation , how to format an APA paper, what an MLA annotated bibliography is, making an MLA works cited page, and much more!

MLA Format Citation Examples

The Modern Language Association created the MLA Style, currently in its 9th edition, to provide researchers with guidelines for writing and documenting scholarly borrowings.  Most often used in the humanities, MLA style (or MLA format ) has been adopted and used by numerous other disciplines, in multiple parts of the world.

MLA provides standard rules to follow so that most research papers are formatted in a similar manner. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend the information. The MLA in-text citation guidelines, MLA works cited standards, and MLA annotated bibliography instructions provide scholars with the information they need to properly cite sources in their research papers, articles, and assignments.

• Book Chapter
• Conference Paper
• Documentary
• Encyclopedia
• Google Images
• Kindle Book
• Memorial Inscription
• Museum Exhibit
• Painting or Artwork
• PowerPoint Presentation
• Sheet Music
• Thesis or Dissertation
• YouTube Video

APA Format Citation Examples

The American Psychological Association created the APA citation style in 1929 as a way to help psychologists, anthropologists, and even business managers establish one common way to cite sources and present content.

APA is used when citing sources for academic articles such as journals, and is intended to help readers better comprehend content, and to avoid language bias wherever possible. The APA style (or APA format ) is now in its 7th edition, and provides citation style guides for virtually any type of resource.

Chicago Style Citation Examples

The Chicago/Turabian style of citing sources is generally used when citing sources for humanities papers, and is best known for its requirement that writers place bibliographic citations at the bottom of a page (in Chicago-format footnotes ) or at the end of a paper (endnotes).

The Turabian and Chicago citation styles are almost identical, but the Turabian style is geared towards student published papers such as theses and dissertations, while the Chicago style provides guidelines for all types of publications. This is why you’ll commonly see Chicago style and Turabian style presented together. The Chicago Manual of Style is currently in its 17th edition, and Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations is in its 8th edition.

Citing Specific Sources or Events

• Declaration of Independence
• Gettysburg Address
• Martin Luther King Jr. Speech
• President Obama’s Farewell Address
• President Trump’s Inauguration Speech
• White House Press Briefing

Additional FAQs

• Citing Archived Contributors
• Citing a Blog
• Citing a Book Chapter
• Citing a Source in a Foreign Language
• Citing an Image
• Citing a Song
• Citing Special Contributors
• Citing a Translated Article
• Citing a Tweet

6 Interesting Citation Facts

The world of citations may seem cut and dry, but there’s more to them than just specific capitalization rules, MLA in-text citations , and other formatting specifications. Citations have been helping researches document their sources for hundreds of years, and are a great way to learn more about a particular subject area.

Ever wonder what sets all the different styles apart, or how they came to be in the first place? Read on for some interesting facts about citations!

1. There are Over 7,000 Different Citation Styles

You may be familiar with MLA and APA citation styles, but there are actually thousands of citation styles used for all different academic disciplines all across the world. Deciding which one to use can be difficult, so be sure to ask you instructor which one you should be using for your next paper.

2. Some Citation Styles are Named After People

While a majority of citation styles are named for the specific organizations that publish them (i.e. APA is published by the American Psychological Association, and MLA format is named for the Modern Language Association), some are actually named after individuals. The most well-known example of this is perhaps Turabian style, named for Kate L. Turabian, an American educator and writer. She developed this style as a condensed version of the Chicago Manual of Style in order to present a more concise set of rules to students.

3. There are Some Really Specific and Uniquely Named Citation Styles

How specific can citation styles get? The answer is very. For example, the “Flavour and Fragrance Journal” style is based on a bimonthly, peer-reviewed scientific journal published since 1985 by John Wiley & Sons. It publishes original research articles, reviews and special reports on all aspects of flavor and fragrance. Another example is “Nordic Pulp and Paper Research,” a style used by an international scientific magazine covering science and technology for the areas of wood or bio-mass constituents.

4. More citations were created on  EasyBib.com  in the first quarter of 2018 than there are people in California.

The US Census Bureau estimates that approximately 39.5 million people live in the state of California. Meanwhile, about 43 million citations were made on EasyBib from January to March of 2018. That’s a lot of citations.

5. “Citations” is a Word With a Long History

The word “citations” can be traced back literally thousands of years to the Latin word “citare” meaning “to summon, urge, call; put in sudden motion, call forward; rouse, excite.” The word then took on its more modern meaning and relevance to writing papers in the 1600s, where it became known as the “act of citing or quoting a passage from a book, etc.”

6. Citation Styles are Always Changing

The concept of citations always stays the same. It is a means of preventing plagiarism and demonstrating where you relied on outside sources. The specific style rules, however, can and do change regularly. For example, in 2018 alone, 46 new citation styles were introduced , and 106 updates were made to exiting styles. At EasyBib, we are always on the lookout for ways to improve our styles and opportunities to add new ones to our list.

Why Citations Matter

Here are the ways accurate citations can help your students achieve academic success, and how you can answer the dreaded question, “why should I cite my sources?”

They Give Credit to the Right People

Citing their sources makes sure that the reader can differentiate the student’s original thoughts from those of other researchers. Not only does this make sure that the sources they use receive proper credit for their work, it ensures that the student receives deserved recognition for their unique contributions to the topic. Whether the student is citing in MLA format , APA format , or any other style, citations serve as a natural way to place a student’s work in the broader context of the subject area, and serve as an easy way to gauge their commitment to the project.

They Provide Hard Evidence of Ideas

Having many citations from a wide variety of sources related to their idea means that the student is working on a well-researched and respected subject. Citing sources that back up their claim creates room for fact-checking and further research . And, if they can cite a few sources that have the converse opinion or idea, and then demonstrate to the reader why they believe that that viewpoint is wrong by again citing credible sources, the student is well on their way to winning over the reader and cementing their point of view.

They Promote Originality and Prevent Plagiarism

The point of research projects is not to regurgitate information that can already be found elsewhere. We have Google for that! What the student’s project should aim to do is promote an original idea or a spin on an existing idea, and use reliable sources to promote that idea. Copying or directly referencing a source without proper citation can lead to not only a poor grade, but accusations of academic dishonesty. By citing their sources regularly and accurately, students can easily avoid the trap of plagiarism , and promote further research on their topic.

They Create Better Researchers

By researching sources to back up and promote their ideas, students are becoming better researchers without even knowing it! Each time a new source is read or researched, the student is becoming more engaged with the project and is developing a deeper understanding of the subject area. Proper citations demonstrate a breadth of the student’s reading and dedication to the project itself. By creating citations, students are compelled to make connections between their sources and discern research patterns. Each time they complete this process, they are helping themselves become better researchers and writers overall.

When is the Right Time to Start Making Citations?

Make in-text/parenthetical citations as you need them.

As you are writing your paper, be sure to include references within the text that correspond with references in a works cited or bibliography. These are usually called in-text citations or parenthetical citations in MLA and APA formats. The most effective time to complete these is directly after you have made your reference to another source. For instance, after writing the line from Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities : “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times…,” you would include a citation like this (depending on your chosen citation style):

(Dickens 11).

This signals to the reader that you have referenced an outside source. What’s great about this system is that the in-text citations serve as a natural list for all of the citations you have made in your paper, which will make completing the works cited page a whole lot easier. After you are done writing, all that will be left for you to do is scan your paper for these references, and then build a works cited page that includes a citation for each one.

Need help creating an MLA works cited page ? Try the MLA format generator on EasyBib.com! We also have a guide on how to format an APA reference page .

2. Understand the General Formatting Rules of Your Citation Style Before You Start Writing

While reading up on paper formatting may not sound exciting, being aware of how your paper should look early on in the paper writing process is super important. Citation styles can dictate more than just the appearance of the citations themselves, but rather can impact the layout of your paper as a whole, with specific guidelines concerning margin width, title treatment, and even font size and spacing. Knowing how to organize your paper before you start writing will ensure that you do not receive a low grade for something as trivial as forgetting a hanging indent.

Don’t know where to start? Here’s a formatting guide on APA format .

3. Double-check All of Your Outside Sources for Relevance and Trustworthiness First

Collecting outside sources that support your research and specific topic is a critical step in writing an effective paper. But before you run to the library and grab the first 20 books you can lay your hands on, keep in mind that selecting a source to include in your paper should not be taken lightly. Before you proceed with using it to backup your ideas, run a quick Internet search for it and see if other scholars in your field have written about it as well. Check to see if there are book reviews about it or peer accolades. If you spot something that seems off to you, you may want to consider leaving it out of your work. Doing this before your start making citations can save you a ton of time in the long run.

Finished with your paper? It may be time to run it through a grammar and plagiarism checker , like the one offered by EasyBib Plus. If you’re just looking to brush up on the basics, our grammar guides  are ready anytime you are.

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New York Times Again Waxes Nostalgic for Communism: ‘Not Everything Was Bad'

Text to Speech

From a June 2019 story about East Germany by Thomas Rogers: “ But it still arouses nostalgia among some former citizens who fondly remember its gender egalitarianism and social safety net or admire its utopian aspirations.”

In February 2018, the Times Katrin Bennhold hailed government child care, presumably accompanied by forced female labor, as a highlight of human liberation: “Eastern women, who were part of the work force and with free child care , were more emancipated than their western sisters, and proved to be more mobile than their male counterparts.”

An October 2008 book review carried the astounding headline "East Germany Had Its Charms, Crushed by Capitalism."

Moving east, nice things were said about Communist China under mass-murdering dictator Chairman Mao Tse-Tung, including “ greater rights ” for women, while dismissing the millions who died in the Great Leap Forward in a few words.

Don’t forget Communist Cuba under Fidel Castro , on the front of the Travel section in 2018, courtesy of contributor Tony Perrottet: “It’s a tribute to the resilience of the young rebels who -- whatever their later faults once they took power -- took on the brutal Batista dictatorship at great personal risk. The aura of idealism becomes particularly poignant today, as Cuba’s revolutionary dream has become as battered as the corrugated iron ceiling of the Presidio itself….”

Reporter Schuetze’s bio noted he also covers “the rise of populism and the far right, which is especially concerning given Germany’s past.” Evidently he has no such concerns for the far left represented by Communist tyranny.

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MRC 2024 Bulldog Award Winners: Hanson, Shapiro, Dillon, Zito, Prager