is the thesis in the abstract or introduction

• Manuscript Preparation

Differentiating between the abstract and the introduction of a research paper

• 3 minute read
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Table of Contents

While writing a manuscript for the first time, you might find yourself confused about the differences between an abstract and the introduction. Both are adjacent sections of a research paper and share certain elements. However, they serve entirely different purposes. So, how does one ensure that these sections are written correctly?

Knowing the intended purpose of the abstract and the introduction is a good start!

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a very short summary of all the sections of your research paper—the introduction, objectives, materials and methods, results, and conclusion. It ends by emphasising the novelty or relevance of your study, or by posing questions for future research. The abstract should cover all important aspects of the study, so that the reader can quickly decide if the paper is of their interest or not.

In simple terms, just like a restaurant’s menu that provides an overview of all available dishes, an abstract gives the reader an idea of what the research paper has to offer. Most journals have a strict word limit for abstracts, which is usually 10% of the research paper.

What is the purpose of an abstract?

The abstract should ideally induce curiosity in the reader’s mind and contain strategic keywords. By generating curiosity and interest, an abstract can push readers to read the entire paper or buy it if it is behind a paywall. By using keywords strategically in the abstract, authors can improve the chances of their paper appearing in online searches.

What is an introduction?

The introduction is the first section in a research paper after the abstract, which describes in detail the background information that is necessary for the reader to understand the topic and aim of the study.

What is the purpose of an introduction?

The introduction points to specific gaps in knowledge and explains how the study addresses these gaps. It lists previous studies in a chronological order, complete with citations, to explain why the study was warranted.

A good introduction sets the context for your study and clearly distinguishes between the knowns and the unknowns in a research topic.

Often, the introduction mentions the materials and methods used in a study and outlines the hypotheses tested. Both the abstract and the introduction have this in common. So, what are the key differences between the two sections?

Key differences between an abstract and the introduction:

• The word limit for an abstract is usually 250 words or less. In contrast, the typical word limit for an introduction is 500 words or more.
• When writing the abstract, it is essential to use keywords to make the paper more visible to search engines. This is not a significant concern when writing the introduction.
• The abstract features a summary of the results and conclusions of your study, while the introduction does not. The abstract, unlike the introduction, may also suggest future directions for research.
• While a short review of previous research features in both the abstract and the introduction, it is more elaborate in the latter.
• All references to previous research in the introduction come with citations. The abstract does not mention specific studies, although it may briefly outline previous research.
• The abstract always comes before the introduction in a research paper.
• Every paper does not need an abstract. However, an introduction is an essential component of all research papers.

If you are still confused about how to write the abstract and the introduction of your research paper while accounting for the differences between them, head over to Elsevier Author Services . Our experts will be happy to guide you throughout your research journey, with useful advice on how to write high quality research papers and get them published in reputed journals!

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Abstract Vs. Introduction — Do you know the difference?

Ross wants to publish his research. Feeling positive about his research outcomes, he begins to draft his manuscript. After completing the abstract, he proceeds to write the introduction. That’s when he pauses in confusion. Do the abstract and introduction mean the same? How is the content for both the sections different?

This is a dilemma faced by several young researchers while drafting their first manuscript. An  abstract  is similar to a summary except that it is more concise and direct. Whereas, the  introduction  section of your paper is more detailed. It states why you conducted your study, what you wanted to accomplish, and what is your hypothesis.

This blog will allow us to learn more about the difference between the abstract and the introduction.

What Is an Abstract for a Research Paper?

An abstract provides the reader with a clear description of your research study and its results without the reader having to read the entire paper. The details of a study, such as precise methods and measurements, are not necessarily mentioned in the abstract. The abstract is an important tool for researchers who must sift through hundreds of papers from their field of study.

The abstract  holds more significance  in articles without open access. Reading the abstract would give an idea of the articles, which would otherwise require monetary payment for access. In most cases, reviewers will read the abstract to decide whether to continue to review the paper, which is important for you.

Your abstract should begin with a background or objective to clearly state why the research was done, its importance to the field of study, and any previous roadblocks encountered. It should include a very concise version of your methods, results, and conclusions but no references. It must be brief while still providing enough information so that the reader need not read the full article. Most journals ask that the abstract be no more than 200–250 words long.

Format of an Abstract

There are two general   formats — structured and unstructured. A  structured abstract   helps the reader find pertinent information  very quickly. It is divided into sections clearly defined by headings as follows:

• Background : Latest information on the topic; key phrases that pique interest (e.g., “…the role of this enzyme has never been clearly understood”).
• Objective : The research goals; what the study examined and why.
• Methods : Brief description of the study (e.g., retrospective study).
• Results : Findings and observations.
• Conclusions : Were these results expected? Whether more research is needed or not?

Authors get tempted to write too much  in an abstract but it is helpful to remember that there is usually a maximum word count. The main point is to relay the important aspects of the study without sharing too many details so that the readers do not have to go through the entire manuscript text for finding more information.

The  unstructured abstract  is often used in fields of study that do not fall under the category of science. This type of abstracts does not have different sections. It summarizes the manuscript’s objectives, methods, etc., in one paragraph.

Related: Create an impressive manuscript with a compelling abstract.   Check out these resources and improve your abstract writing process!

Lastly, you must check the author guidelines of the target journal. It will describe the format required and the maximum word count of your abstract.

What Is an Introduction?

Your introduction is the first section of your research paper . It is not a repetition of the abstract. It does not provide data about methods, results, or conclusions. However, it  provides more in-depth information  on the background of the subject matter. It also explains your hypothesis , what you attempted to discover, or issues that you wanted to resolve. The introduction will also explain if and why your study is new in the subject field and why it is important.

It is often a good idea to wait until the rest of the paper is completed before drafting your introduction. This will help you to stay focused on the manuscript’s important points. The introduction, unlike the abstract, should contain citations to references. The information will help guide your readers through the rest of your document. The key tips for writing an effective introduction :

• Beginning:  The importance of the study.
• Tone/Tense:  Formal, impersonal; present tense.
• Content:  Brief description of manuscript but without results and conclusions.
• Length:  Generally up to four paragraphs. May vary slightly with journal guidelines.

Once you are sure that possible doubts on the difference between the abstract and introduction are clear, review and submit your manuscript.

What struggles have you had in writing an abstract or introduction? Were you able to resolve them? Please share your thoughts with us in the comments section below.

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• Writing Tips

Abstract vs. Introduction—What’s the Difference?

3-minute read

• 21st February 2022

If you’re a student who’s new to research papers or you’re preparing to write your dissertation , you might be wondering what the difference is between an abstract and an introduction.

Both serve important purposes in a research paper or journal article , but they shouldn’t be confused with each other. We’ve put together this guide to help you tell them apart.

What’s an Introduction?

In an academic context, an introduction is the first section of an essay or research paper. It should provide detailed background information about the study and its significance, as well as the researcher’s hypotheses and aims.

But the introduction shouldn’t discuss the study’s methods or results. There are separate sections for this later in the paper.

An introduction must correctly cite all sources used and should be about four paragraphs long, although the exact length depends on the topic and the style guide used.

What’s an Abstract?

While the introduction is the first section of a research paper, the abstract is a short summary of the entire paper. It should contain enough basic information to allow you to understand the content of the study without having to read the entire paper.

The abstract is especially important if the paper isn’t open access because it allows researchers to sift through many different studies before deciding which one to pay for.

Since the abstract contains only the essentials, it’s usually much shorter than an introduction and normally has a maximum word count of 200–300 words. It also doesn’t contain citations.

The exact layout of an abstract depends on whether it’s structured or unstructured. Unstructured abstracts are usually used in non-scientific disciplines, such as the arts and humanities, and usually consist of a single paragraph.

Structured abstracts, meanwhile, are the most common form of abstract used in scientific papers. They’re divided into different sections, each with its own heading. We’ll take a closer look at structured abstracts below.

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Structuring an Abstract

A structured abstract contains concise information in a clear format with the following headings:

●  Background: Here you’ll find some relevant information about the topic being studied, such as why the study was necessary.

●  Objectives: This section is about the goals the researcher has for the study.

●  Methods: Here you’ll find a summary of how the study was conducted.

●  Results: Under this heading, the results of the study are presented.

●  Conclusions: The abstract ends with the researcher’s conclusions and how the study can inform future research.

Each of these sections, however, should contain less detail than the introduction or other sections of the main paper.

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• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Abstract and Introduction

On the other hand, the abstract is like a short summary of an academic article or research paper, which discusses the purpose of the study and the outcome of the research. It usually summarizes the research topic, questions, participants, methods, outcome, data collected, analysis and conclusions. The article excerpt given hereunder discusses the difference between abstract and introduction.

Content: Abstract Vs Introduction

Comparison chart, definition of abstract.

An abstract can be described as a concise summary, often found in research work like thesis, dissertations, research articles, review, etc. which helps the reader to have an instant idea of the main purpose of the work. It is about a paragraph long of 150 to 250 words in general.

The information contained in the abstract should be sufficient enough to help the readers judge the nature and importance of the topic, the reasonableness of the strategy used in the investigation, nature of results and conclusions.

An abstract serves a number of purposes such as it allows the readers to get the gist of your paper, so as to decide whether to go through with the rest of the work. It is usually written after the writing of the paperwork is over and that too in the past tense.

An abstract rolls all the important information of the work into a single page, such as the context, general topic, central questions, problem under study, main idea, previous research findings, reasons, research methodology, findings, results, arguments, implications, conclusion and so on. To create an abstract one should pick the main statements from the above-mentioned sections, to draft an abstract.

Types of Abstract

• Descriptive Abstract : It briefly describes the abstract and the length is usually 100-200 words. It indicates the type of information contained in the paper, discusses the purpose of writing, objectives and methods used for research.
• Informative Abstract : As the name suggests, it is a detailed abstract which summarizes all the important points of the study. It includes results and conclusions, along with the purpose, objective, and methods used.

Definition of Introduction

Introduction means to present something to the readers, i.e. by giving a brief description or background information of the document. It is the first and foremost section which expresses the purpose, scope and goals, concerning the topic under study. As an introduction gives an overview of the topic, it develops an understanding of the main text.

An introduction is a gateway to the topic, as it is something which can create interest in the readers to read the document further. It is the crux of the document, which states what is to be discussed in the main body.

Elements of Introduction

An introduction has four basic elements namely: hook, background information, connect and thesis statement.

• Hook is the preliminary sentence of the introduction which is used to fasten the attention of the readers, and so it has to be interesting, attention-grabbing, and readable of course, so as to stimulate the readers to read the complete text.
• Background Information is the main part of the introduction, which presents the background of the research topic, including the problem under study, real-world situation, research questions, and a sneak peek of what the readers can expect from the main body.
• Connect , is a simple line which is used to link or say relate the background information with the research statement, by using words ideas or phrases, so as to ensure the flow and logic of writing the text.
• Thesis statement is the central point of the argument, which is usually a single sentence, whose points of evidence are to be talked about in the following text, i.e. the main body.

Key Differences Between Abstract and Introduction

The difference between abstract and introduction are discussed in the points:

• An abstract is a concise and accurate representation which gives an overview of the main points from the entire document. On the other hand, Introduction is the first section which makes the reader aware of the subject, by giving a brief description of the work, i.e. why the research is needed or important.
• While an abstract will give you an immediate overview of the paper, the introduction is the initial exposure to the subject under study.
• An abstract reports key points of the research, as well as it states why the work is important, what was the main purpose of research, what is the motivation behind choosing the subject, what you learned from the research, what you found out during the research and what you concluded, in a summarized way. As against, an introduction presents a direction to understand what exists in the upcoming portion of the document or book.
• As an abstract has its own introduction, main body and conclusion, it is a standalone document which summarizes the result of the findings and not just the list of topics discussed. As against, the introduction is not a standalone document or piece.
• The main purpose of an abstract is to provide a succinct summary of the research. Conversely, introduction aims at convincing the reader about the need for the research.
• An abstract contains the purpose, problem, methods used, result and conclusion. On the contrary, the introduction includes a hook, background information, connect and thesis statement.
• While abstract is found in a research paper, thesis and dissertations, the introduction is found in a wide range of texts.

An abstract gives a preview of the work, outlines the main points and helps the audience in decision making, i.e. whether they want to read the complete text or not. On the other hand, an introduction is the very first section of the work, which clarifies the purpose of writing.

Without an abstract and introduction, the readers might not be able to know what the work contains and what is the reason or motivation behind the research. So, these two are like thread which goes through the writing and creates an understanding in the reader about the topic under study. While writing these two, one should ensure that they accurately reflect what you cover in the document or book.

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• How to Write an Abstract for a Dissertation or Thesis
• Doing a PhD

What is a Thesis or Dissertation Abstract?

The Cambridge English Dictionary defines an abstract in academic writing as being “ a few sentences that give the main ideas in an article or a scientific paper ” and the Collins English Dictionary says “ an abstract of an article, document, or speech is a short piece of writing that gives the main points of it ”.

Whether you’re writing up your Master’s dissertation or PhD thesis, the abstract will be a key element of this document that you’ll want to make sure you give proper attention to.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

The aim of a thesis abstract is to give the reader a broad overview of what your research project was about and what you found that was novel, before he or she decides to read the entire thesis. The reality here though is that very few people will read the entire thesis, and not because they’re necessarily disinterested but because practically it’s too large a document for most people to have the time to read. The exception to this is your PhD examiner, however know that even they may not read the entire length of the document.

Some people may still skip to and read specific sections throughout your thesis such as the methodology, but the fact is that the abstract will be all that most read and will therefore be the section they base their opinions about your research on. In short, make sure you write a good, well-structured abstract.

How Long Should an Abstract Be?

If you’re a PhD student, having written your 100,000-word thesis, the abstract will be the 300 word summary included at the start of the thesis that succinctly explains the motivation for your study (i.e. why this research was needed), the main work you did (i.e. the focus of each chapter), what you found (the results) and concluding with how your research study contributed to new knowledge within your field.

Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President of the United States of America, once famously said:

The point here is that it’s easier to talk open-endedly about a subject that you know a lot about than it is to condense the key points into a 10-minute speech; the same applies for an abstract. Three hundred words is not a lot of words which makes it even more difficult to condense three (or more) years of research into a coherent, interesting story.

What Makes a Good PhD Thesis Abstract?

Whilst the abstract is one of the first sections in your PhD thesis, practically it’s probably the last aspect that you’ll ending up writing before sending the document to print. The reason being that you can’t write a summary about what you did, what you found and what it means until you’ve done the work.

A good abstract is one that can clearly explain to the reader in 300 words:

• What your research field actually is,
• What the gap in knowledge was in your field,
• The overarching aim and objectives of your PhD in response to these gaps,
• What methods you employed to achieve these,
• You key results and findings,
• How your work has added to further knowledge in your field of study.

Another way to think of this structure is:

• Introduction,
• Aims and objectives,
• Discussion,
• Conclusion.

Following this ‘formulaic’ approach to writing the abstract should hopefully make it a little easier to write but you can already see here that there’s a lot of information to convey in a very limited number of words.

How Do You Write a Good PhD Thesis Abstract?

The biggest challenge you’ll have is getting all the 6 points mentioned above across in your abstract within the limit of 300 words . Your particular university may give some leeway in going a few words over this but it’s good practice to keep within this; the art of succinctly getting your information across is an important skill for a researcher to have and one that you’ll be called on to use regularly as you write papers for peer review.

Keep It Concise

Every word in the abstract is important so make sure you focus on only the key elements of your research and the main outcomes and significance of your project that you want the reader to know about. You may have come across incidental findings during your research which could be interesting to discuss but this should not happen in the abstract as you simply don’t have enough words. Furthermore, make sure everything you talk about in your thesis is actually described in the main thesis.

Make a Unique Point Each Sentence

Keep the sentences short and to the point. Each sentence should give the reader new, useful information about your research so there’s no need to write out your project title again. Give yourself one or two sentences to introduce your subject area and set the context for your project. Then another sentence or two to explain the gap in the knowledge; there’s no need or expectation for you to include references in the abstract.

Explain Your Research

Some people prefer to write their overarching aim whilst others set out their research questions as they correspond to the structure of their thesis chapters; the approach you use is up to you, as long as the reader can understand what your dissertation or thesis had set out to achieve. Knowing this will help the reader better understand if your results help to answer the research questions or if further work is needed.

Keep It Factual

Keep the content of the abstract factual; that is to say that you should avoid bringing too much or any opinion into it, which inevitably can make the writing seem vague in the points you’re trying to get across and even lacking in structure.

Write, Edit and Then Rewrite

Spend suitable time editing your text, and if necessary, completely re-writing it. Show the abstract to others and ask them to explain what they understand about your research – are they able to explain back to you each of the 6 structure points, including why your project was needed, the research questions and results, and the impact it had on your research field? It’s important that you’re able to convey what new knowledge you contributed to your field but be mindful when writing your abstract that you don’t inadvertently overstate the conclusions, impact and significance of your work.

Thesis and Dissertation Abstract Examples

Perhaps the best way to understand how to write a thesis abstract is to look at examples of what makes a good and bad abstract.

Example of A Bad Abstract

Let’s start with an example of a bad thesis abstract:

In this project on “The Analysis of the Structural Integrity of 3D Printed Polymers for use in Aircraft”, my research looked at how 3D printing of materials can help the aviation industry in the manufacture of planes. Plane parts can be made at a lower cost using 3D printing and made lighter than traditional components. This project investigated the structural integrity of EBM manufactured components, which could revolutionise the aviation industry.

What Makes This a Bad Abstract

Hopefully you’ll have spotted some of the reasons this would be considered a poor abstract, not least because the author used up valuable words by repeating the lengthy title of the project in the abstract.

Working through our checklist of the 6 key points you want to convey to the reader:

• There has been an attempt to introduce the research area , albeit half-way through the abstract but it’s not clear if this is a materials science project about 3D printing or is it about aircraft design.
• There’s no explanation about where the gap in the knowledge is that this project attempted to address.
• We can see that this project was focussed on the topic of structural integrity of materials in aircraft but the actual research aims or objectives haven’t been defined.
• There’s no mention at all of what the author actually did to investigate structural integrity. For example was this an experimental study involving real aircraft, or something in the lab, computer simulations etc.
• The author also doesn’t tell us a single result of his research, let alone the key findings !
• There’s a bold claim in the last sentence of the abstract that this project could revolutionise the aviation industry, and this may well be the case, but based on the abstract alone there is no evidence to support this as it’s not even clear what the author did .

This is an extreme example but is a good way to illustrate just how unhelpful a poorly written abstract can be. At only 71 words long, it definitely hasn’t maximised the amount of information that could be presented and the what they have presented has lacked clarity and structure.

A final point to note is the use of the EBM acronym, which stands for Electron Beam Melting in the context of 3D printing; this is a niche acronym for the author to assume that the reader would know the meaning of. It’s best to avoid acronyms in your abstract all together even if it’s something that you might expect most people to know about, unless you specifically define the meaning first.

Example of A Good Abstract

Having seen an example of a bad thesis abstract, now lets look at an example of a good PhD thesis abstract written about the same (fictional) project:

Additive manufacturing (AM) of titanium alloys has the potential to enable cheaper and lighter components to be produced with customised designs for use in aircraft engines. Whilst the proof-of-concept of these have been promising, the structural integrity of AM engine parts in response to full thrust and temperature variations is not clear.

The primary aim of this project was to determine the fracture modes and mechanisms of AM components designed for use in Boeing 747 engines. To achieve this an explicit finite element (FE) model was developed to simulate the environment and parameters that the engine is exposed to during flight. The FE model was validated using experimental data replicating the environmental parameters in a laboratory setting using ten AM engine components provided by the industry sponsor. The validated FE model was then used to investigate the extent of crack initiation and propagation as the environment parameters were adjusted.

This project was the first to investigate fracture patterns in AM titanium components used in aircraft engines; the key finding was that the presence of cavities within the structures due to errors in the printing process, significantly increased the risk of fracture. Secondly, the simulations showed that cracks formed within AM parts were more likely to worsen and lead to component failure at subzero temperatures when compared to conventionally manufactured parts. This has demonstrated an important safety concern which needs to be addressed before AM parts can be used in commercial aircraft.

What Makes This a Good Abstract

Having read this ‘good abstract’ you should have a much better understand about what the subject area is about, where the gap in the knowledge was, the aim of the project, the methods that were used, key results and finally the significance of these results. To break these points down further, from this good abstract we now know that:

• The research area is around additive manufacturing (i.e. 3D printing) of materials for use in aircraft.
• The gap in knowledge was how these materials will behave structural when used in aircraft engines.
• The aim was specifically to investigate how the components can fracture.
• The methods used to investigate this were a combination of computational and lab based experimental modelling.
• The key findings were the increased risk of fracture of these components due to the way they are manufactured.
• The significance of these findings were that it showed a potential risk of component failure that could comprise the safety of passengers and crew on the aircraft.

The abstract text has a much clearer flow through these different points in how it’s written and has made much better use of the available word count. Acronyms have even been used twice in this good abstract but they were clearly defined the first time they were introduced in the text so that there was no confusion about their meaning.

The abstract you write for your dissertation or thesis should succinctly explain to the reader why the work of your research was needed, what you did, what you found and what it means. Most people that come across your thesis, including any future employers, are likely to read only your abstract. Even just for this reason alone, it’s so important that you write the best abstract you can; this will not only convey your research effectively but also put you in the best light possible as a researcher.

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The difference between an abstract and an introduction.

Introductions and abstracts are two things that seem very similar, but are actually quite different. However, once you know the difference, they are easy to keep separate from each other.

An abstract is, at its most basic level, a summary. It outlines all of the important parts of your paper to the reader, so they can figure out if your paper is worth reading. This is why abstracts are important in the scientific field. They are a fast way for someone to analyze what is going to be said, and if that information is going to be beneficial for them.

An introduction provides the reader with detailed background information about a topic. This helps the reader make sense of what is going to be said later in the paper. If they do not understand the most basic parts of your topic, then they are not going to understand what you are trying to convey.

Now that you know the difference between the two, here is some advice for writing them:

The abstract is easiest to write last. By that point, you will have already written everything else, and you should know the important takeaways of your work. In the abstract, you should introduce your topic, discuss why you choose this topic, state your hypothesis, and reveal the results of your study. Remember, the abstract is like a summary. You should not go into a lot of detail here. Provide the reader with enough information that they can digest what you are saying. You will explain everything else in detail later in your paper. 

The introduction is one of the most important parts of your paper. However, introductions vary based on the genre of paper. For this blog post, introductions for scientific papers are going to be discussed because abstracts are a staple of scientific reports. An introduction for a scientific paper should explain the reasoning behind why you choose this experiment, provide background information about the topic, reference other studies done on similar topics, and state your hypothesis. You want to make sure your reader can understand what is going to be said later in the paper. 

Here are a few websites that have some more information about the two:

https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/writing-resources/different-genres/writing-an-abstract

https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/graduate_writing/graduate_writing_genres/graduate_writing_genres_abstracts_new.html

Introduction:

https://guides.lib.uci.edu/c.php?g=334338&p=2249903

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4548565/

https://dept.writing.wisc.edu/wac/writing-an-introduction-for-a-scientific-paper/

https://abrilliantmind.blog/how-to-write-the-introduction-of-scientific-article/

An Abstract or an Introduction — What’s the Difference?

Are you working on a paper or scholarly article? Need to know the difference between an abstract and an introduction? Here’s what you need to know. 

An abstract and an introduction are two different sections of a research paper, thesis, or dissertation. An abstract is a short summary of the entire piece, and it comes before the table of contents. An introduction is a full-length chapter, and often includes a layout of the rest of the piece.

Abstract vs. Introduction — Key Takeaways

An abstract.

• Can be very short — a basic abstract only needs four sentences.
• A summary of the entire work. 
• Used in scholarly, academic, or scientific papers and articles.
• Comes before the table of contents. The page is not numbered.

An Introduction

• Is a full-length chapter.
• Often includes a map or layout of the piece to come. 
• Found in papers, articles, books, essays, compendiums, and more.
• After the table of contents. Considered a part of the work itself.

An abstract is a brief summary of the entire paper, that provides a concise overview of the research question, methods, results, and conclusions. According to the Chicago Manual of Style, an abstract may be “as many as a few hundred words but often much shorter.” 

It should be able to stand alone as a summary of the paper, allowing readers to quickly determine whether the paper is relevant to their interests.

An Example Abstract Format

For those in the sciences, the American Medical Association says, “Abstracts should summarize the main point(s) of an article and include the objective, methods, results, and conclusions of a study.”

In the arts and humanities — my field — a basic abstract format includes four statements:

• They say/I say

Methodology

What do these all mean? Let’s dive in.

They Say/I say

This is where you position your research within the broader field of scholarship. For example: 

Many scholars believe that vampires don’t like sunshine (they say), but most aren’t considering all the vampires who do like sunshine (I say). Tweet

This is where you discuss the kind of research you did. For example:

Over the course of one year, I trekked across Transylvania looking at ancient records and interviewing contemporary vampires.

This is where you summarize the main argument (thesis) that your paper asserts. For example:

This paper reveals that 77% of vampires do in fact tolerate or even enjoy sunshine.

The takeaway answers the question, So what? This is where you make a case for the broader implications of your claim. For example:

By understanding the diurnal (daytime) nature of most vampires, we can renovate our understanding of their culture and begin to break down barriers between vampires and non-vampires.

Introductions

As opposed to an abstract, which comes before a paper, the introduction is the first section of the paper , which introduces the research question, provides background information on the topic, and outlines the purpose and objectives of the study. The introduction sets the stage for the research and helps readers understand why the research was conducted and what it hopes to achieve. I had a professor who used to say that the introduction “sets the table for the meal of the paper to come.”

Information from the abstract may appear in the introduction, but it will be expanded upon and more detailed. 

The Format of an Introduction

An introduction, unlike most abstracts, will contain multiple paragraphs. While the abstract comes before the table of contents, the introduction comes after, and, according to the Oxford Style guide and common academic practice, begins on page #1. 

An introduction will often include the following information:

• Opening Gambit — An anecdote, joke, personal narrative, etc. to ‘hook’ the reader.
• They Say/I say — Position your work in the broader field of study. This will be more fleshed out than in the abstract. 
• Thesis Statement — Your main argument.
• Methodology — An overview of the kind of research you conducted. (Note that the methodology comes after the thesis statement in an introduction, unlike in the abstract.)
• Map of the Paper — This is where you tell your reader what to expect from each section of the paper. “In chapter 1, I look at…” etc.
• Restate the Thesis — Restate your main argument.

As to the “map of the paper,” I should note that not everyone agrees on this — the Chicago Manual of Style advises against it. And yet, it is a common academic practice. When in doubt, always check with your teacher or publisher.

Abstracts and Introductions

The main difference between an abstract and an introduction is that an abstract is a brief summary of the entire paper which appears before the table of contents, while an introduction provides a more in-depth view of the research question, background information, and the purpose of the study. Unlike abstracts, many introductions include a map of the paper that follows.

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What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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Abstract Vs Introduction: Key Similarities and Differences

Is an abstract the same as an introduction? This is one of the questions we receive most frequently, so we thought it would be a good idea to write an article about the abstract vs introduction problem. Most students don’t know how to differentiate between the two, especially if they are new to academic writing. Even though the two things are somewhat similar, there is at least one major difference between introduction and abstract. In this article, we will discuss the similarities and differences between the two. What is the difference between an abstract and an introduction? Let’s find out!

The Abstract Vs Introduction Problem

Introduction vs abstract: which one does what? Because many professors don’t explain these two terms to their students, it’s easy to confuse them. We consider that this is not the students’ fault. If they don’t know the difference between an abstract and an introduction, it’s easy to make a grave mistake. Of course, you will get penalized harshly for this. This blog post aims to provide information about abstract vs introduction scientific paper writers need to make sure they don’t get an F on their next essay.

Abstract and Introduction: What Are They?

So, let’s discuss abstract vs introduction APA style. An abstract is basically a summary of a complex paper (such as a thesis or a research paper).

The abstract summarizes all the different parts of the paper, including the research problem, the objectives, the methods, the results, and the conclusion. After reading the abstract, the reader should know exactly what the paper is about and how it is structured. The length of an abstract is around 250-300 words. The introduction, on the other hand, is there to give your readers an idea of what you are about to talk about and introduce your thesis statement.

It can contain a bit of background information, but it does not delve into the specifics of your research methods or results. Also, the introduction does not discuss the conclusion of the paper in any way.

The Key Difference Between Abstract and Introduction

OK, but what is the major difference between abstract and introduction? In simple terms, the abstract is a summary of the entire research paper. It briefly discusses the methods, results and conclusion. The introduction, on the other hand, is there to entice the reader to read the entire paper. It discusses just the background of the problem and the objectives of the paper. You will never see the conclusion being discussed in an introduction.

Is an APA abstract vs introduction different from MLA or other types of academic writing? No, the abstract and the introduction are just as different regardless of the academic writing style. You should never confuse one for the other because the consequences can be a rejected paper or at the very least a very low grade.

Introduction vs Abstract: The Similarities

Now that you know the main difference between an abstract and introduction, it’s time to talk about similarities. This should help you avoid any confusion:

• Both the introduction and the abstract are placed at the beginning of a research paper. In fact, an abstract can be considered a de-facto introduction.
• Both the abstract and the introduction are there to provide some information about the subject and about the objectives of your research paper.
• Both can be used as a way to attract the interest of a reader.

However, this is where the similarities end. Never assume that you can write an introduction in place of an abstract. Of course, you can’t write an abstract in place of an introduction either. This is the information about abstract vs introduction lab report writers need to know before they start writing their first paper. We know that sometimes writing an abstract can be more difficult than the introduction to abstract algebra in high school. However, with practice, you will quickly get the hang of it.

Abstract and Introduction Examples

To help you understand the meaning and role of an abstract better, we have written an example abstract for you and broken it down into pieces:

As of 2023, residual herbicide that is accumulating in certain crops is posing a growing threat to the rice-wheat rotation in northern India. (The background part) When it comes to pesticides and pesticide metabolites, green manure has been shown to stimulate ample co-mineralization. By incorporating it into the soil, the effects of the herbicide residue can be mitigated. (The objectives part) During a three-year study at the North Indian Wheat Research Institute, Azolla Pinata and A. Carolingiana have been used as green manure. The effects of the green manure on the Propanil and Buthachlor herbicides has been evaluated, as well as the mineralization and co-metabolization of the herbicides, using a process known as liquid chromatography. (The material and methods part) Initial results indicate that Azolla Pinata caused the Propanil herbicide to co-mineralize in 14 days. However, the green manure did not have the intended effect on the Buthachlor herbicide during the study. (The findings part) After analyzing the findings of the study, we can say for certain that Azolla Pinata used as green manure can prevent residual Propanil accumulation. (The conclusion part)

An example introduction for the paper would look something like this:

Residual herbicides are posing a growing threat to the systems of rice-wheat rotation in Northern India. According to a recent study by the North Indian Wheat Research Institute, Azolla Pinata is able to co-mineralize some herbicides. Understanding the process by which this happens is important for the future of Indian rice and wheat crops. This research paper aims to answer the following question: how does green manure co-mineralize certain herbicides? We will first analyze the soil and the herbicide accumulation, then we will discuss the effects of green manure, and finally we will analyze the potential applications.

Need Assistance?

Abstract versus introduction: I still don’t understand the difference! No problem, you are certainly not the only one. Many students are emailing us to get more information about these two important parts of their research papers. Instead of struggling to write something you don’t understand, why don’t you get some one on one help from our academic writing experts? In case you don’t know how to write the abstract or are struggling to write an excellent introduction for your paper, we can help you.

We can not only write you an abstract introduction, but also help you with the research and analysis part of your paper. It goes without saying that our writers and editors can also write your paper from scratch from start to finish. You will get an awesome essay that will thrill your professor. Getting a top grade is now easier than ever with our help.

We know that you are probably reluctant to get help from an online academic writing service. However, we can assure you that our experts will do a great job. All our papers are 100% original, written from scratch. We do not sell pre-written papers, period. And remember, getting quality assistance with your introduction and abstract is just one message away. What are you waiting for?

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How to write a fantastic thesis introduction (+15 examples)

The thesis introduction, usually chapter 1, is one of the most important chapters of a thesis. It sets the scene. It previews key arguments and findings. And it helps the reader to understand the structure of the thesis. In short, a lot is riding on this first chapter. With the following tips, you can write a powerful thesis introduction.

Disclosure: This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you make a purchase using the links below at no additional cost to you . I only recommend products or services that I truly believe can benefit my audience. As always, my opinions are my own.

Elements of a fantastic thesis introduction

Open with a (personal) story, begin with a problem, define a clear research gap, describe the scientific relevance of the thesis, describe the societal relevance of the thesis, write down the thesis’ core claim in 1-2 sentences, support your argument with sufficient evidence, consider possible objections, address the empirical research context, give a taste of the thesis’ empirical analysis, hint at the practical implications of the research, provide a reading guide, briefly summarise all chapters to come, design a figure illustrating the thesis structure.

An introductory chapter plays an integral part in every thesis. The first chapter has to include quite a lot of information to contextualise the research. At the same time, a good thesis introduction is not too long, but clear and to the point.

A powerful thesis introduction does the following:

• It captures the reader’s attention.
• It presents a clear research gap and emphasises the thesis’ relevance.
• It provides a compelling argument.
• It previews the research findings.
• It explains the structure of the thesis.

In addition, a powerful thesis introduction is well-written, logically structured, and free of grammar and spelling errors. Reputable thesis editors can elevate the quality of your introduction to the next level. If you are in search of a trustworthy thesis or dissertation editor who upholds high-quality standards and offers efficient turnaround times, I recommend the professional thesis and dissertation editing service provided by Editage . 

This list can feel quite overwhelming. However, with some easy tips and tricks, you can accomplish all these goals in your thesis introduction. (And if you struggle with finding the right wording, have a look at academic key phrases for introductions .)

Ways to capture the reader’s attention

A powerful thesis introduction should spark the reader’s interest on the first pages. A reader should be enticed to continue reading! There are three common ways to capture the reader’s attention.

An established way to capture the reader’s attention in a thesis introduction is by starting with a story. Regardless of how abstract and ‘scientific’ the actual thesis content is, it can be useful to ease the reader into the topic with a short story.

This story can be, for instance, based on one of your study participants. It can also be a very personal account of one of your own experiences, which drew you to study the thesis topic in the first place.

Start by providing data or statistics

Data and statistics are another established way to immediately draw in your reader. Especially surprising or shocking numbers can highlight the importance of a thesis topic in the first few sentences!

So if your thesis topic lends itself to being kick-started with data or statistics, you are in for a quick and easy way to write a memorable thesis introduction.

The third established way to capture the reader’s attention is by starting with the problem that underlies your thesis. It is advisable to keep the problem simple. A few sentences at the start of the chapter should suffice.

Usually, at a later stage in the introductory chapter, it is common to go more in-depth, describing the research problem (and its scientific and societal relevance) in more detail.

You may also like: Minimalist writing for a better thesis

Emphasising the thesis’ relevance

A good thesis is a relevant thesis. No one wants to read about a concept that has already been explored hundreds of times, or that no one cares about.

Of course, a thesis heavily relies on the work of other scholars. However, each thesis is – and should be – unique. If you want to write a fantastic thesis introduction, your job is to point out this uniqueness!

In academic research, a research gap signifies a research area or research question that has not been explored yet, that has been insufficiently explored, or whose insights and findings are outdated.

Every thesis needs a crystal-clear research gap. Spell it out instead of letting your reader figure out why your thesis is relevant.

* This example has been taken from an actual academic paper on toxic behaviour in online games: Liu, J. and Agur, C. (2022). “After All, They Don’t Know Me” Exploring the Psychological Mechanisms of Toxic Behavior in Online Games. Games and Culture 1–24, DOI: 10.1177/15554120221115397

The scientific relevance of a thesis highlights the importance of your work in terms of advancing theoretical insights on a topic. You can think of this part as your contribution to the (international) academic literature.

Scientific relevance comes in different forms. For instance, you can critically assess a prominent theory explaining a specific phenomenon. Maybe something is missing? Or you can develop a novel framework that combines different frameworks used by other scholars. Or you can draw attention to the context-specific nature of a phenomenon that is discussed in the international literature.

The societal relevance of a thesis highlights the importance of your research in more practical terms. You can think of this part as your contribution beyond theoretical insights and academic publications.

Why are your insights useful? Who can benefit from your insights? How can your insights improve existing practices?

Formulating a compelling argument

Arguments are sets of reasons supporting an idea, which – in academia – often integrate theoretical and empirical insights. Think of an argument as an umbrella statement, or core claim. It should be no longer than one or two sentences.

Including an argument in the introduction of your thesis may seem counterintuitive. After all, the reader will be introduced to your core claim before reading all the chapters of your thesis that led you to this claim in the first place.

But rest assured: A clear argument at the start of your thesis introduction is a sign of a good thesis. It works like a movie teaser to generate interest. And it helps the reader to follow your subsequent line of argumentation.

The core claim of your thesis should be accompanied by sufficient evidence. This does not mean that you have to write 10 pages about your results at this point.

However, you do need to show the reader that your claim is credible and legitimate because of the work you have done.

A good argument already anticipates possible objections. Not everyone will agree with your core claim. Therefore, it is smart to think ahead. What criticism can you expect?

Think about reasons or opposing positions that people can come up with to disagree with your claim. Then, try to address them head-on.

Providing a captivating preview of findings

Similar to presenting a compelling argument, a fantastic thesis introduction also previews some of the findings. When reading an introduction, the reader wants to learn a bit more about the research context. Furthermore, a reader should get a taste of the type of analysis that will be conducted. And lastly, a hint at the practical implications of the findings encourages the reader to read until the end.

If you focus on a specific empirical context, make sure to provide some information about it. The empirical context could be, for instance, a country, an island, a school or city. Make sure the reader understands why you chose this context for your research, and why it fits to your research objective.

If you did all your research in a lab, this section is obviously irrelevant. However, in that case you should explain the setup of your experiment, etcetera.

The empirical part of your thesis centers around the collection and analysis of information. What information, and what evidence, did you generate? And what are some of the key findings?

For instance, you can provide a short summary of the different research methods that you used to collect data. Followed by a short overview of how you analysed this data, and some of the key findings. The reader needs to understand why your empirical analysis is worth reading.

You already highlighted the practical relevance of your thesis in the introductory chapter. However, you should also provide a preview of some of the practical implications that you will develop in your thesis based on your findings.

Presenting a crystal clear thesis structure

A fantastic thesis introduction helps the reader to understand the structure and logic of your whole thesis. This is probably the easiest part to write in a thesis introduction. However, this part can be best written at the very end, once everything else is ready.

A reading guide is an essential part in a thesis introduction! Usually, the reading guide can be found toward the end of the introductory chapter.

The reading guide basically tells the reader what to expect in the chapters to come.

In a longer thesis, such as a PhD thesis, it can be smart to provide a summary of each chapter to come. Think of a paragraph for each chapter, almost in the form of an abstract.

For shorter theses, which also have a shorter introduction, this step is not necessary.

Especially for longer theses, it tends to be a good idea to design a simple figure that illustrates the structure of your thesis. It helps the reader to better grasp the logic of your thesis.

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Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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Difference Between Abstract and Introduction

If you are a final-year university student, chances are you are currently struggling with writing your thesis. This is a process that can be very daunting, but by following a few simple tips, you can make the process a lot less stressful.

One of the most important things to remember while writing a thesis is knowing the difference between an abstract and an introduction. After all, they’re the very beginning part people will read of your thesis.

Are you curious? You can read more on the differences between an abstract and an introduction in this article.

An abstract is a brief summary of your thesis, while the introduction is a more detailed overview of your thesis. Make sure you are clear on the difference between these two sections and make sure you are writing each one correctly.

An abstract acts as a teaser for your thesis, so make sure it is interesting and engaging. It should be no more than one paragraph long and should give the reader a brief overview of your thesis.

The introduction, on the other hand, should be around 3-5 paragraphs long and should give the reader a detailed overview of your thesis.

In an abstract, you should not include any of your own personal opinions or analysis. The purpose of an abstract is to summarize your thesis, not to provide your own analysis. The introduction, on the other hand, should include your own analysis and opinions.

In an introduction, you should also provide a brief overview of the literature that you will be discussing in your thesis. You should not include a detailed analysis of this literature in the introduction, but you should provide a brief overview so that the reader understands the context of your thesis.

To write an abstract or introduction that is effective, you need to be clear and concise. Make sure your sentences are short and to the point. You should also avoid using complex language, as this can be confusing for the reader.

As the first part of your thesis, an introduction should be clear, concise, and well-written. Make sure you take the time to write it properly and ensure that it is well-organized. If you are struggling to write a good introduction, you may want to consult with your supervisor or with a writing tutor.

A good abstract and introduction can make a big difference in the overall quality of your thesis. Make sure you take the time to write them correctly and ensure that they are well-written.

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Abstract vs Introduction: Academic Writing Guide

Are you always torn between abstract vs. introduction when writing academic papers? Maybe you’re wondering whether these parts of a research paper are the same. Well, the difference between abstract and introduction is mainly the purpose that each serves. Each of the two sections provides something to your readers. However, they exist for different reasons.

Unfortunately, many students don’t know the purpose of each of these sections when writing academic papers. And, most research projects or studies require the author to include an abstract and an introduction. So, what is the difference between an abstract and an introduction?

To answer this question, it’s crucial to start by explaining the purpose of each of these sections of a research paper. Read on to find all answers from our custom thesis writing service .

Introduction vs. Abstract: Definition and Purpose

To explain how abstract and introduction differ, it’s crucial to know the meaning of each and its purpose.

What is an abstract? An abstract can be defined as a summary at the beginning of a research paper, thesis, or scholarly article. The purpose of an abstract is to state the main purpose of a paper and the main conclusion. Essentially, an abstract summarizes what has been studied and the results. In the abstract, the author should not delve deeper into the background information. They should also not provide research details extensively. An abstract should have a length of around 200 words. As such, it should just tell your readers what was studied, the used method, and what was discovered.

What is an introduction? An introduction can be defined as the first section of a research paper. It’s the start or beginning of a write-up. Academic papers, novels, and introductions have the introduction section. The purpose of an introduction is to capture the attention of the reader and provide background information about the subject or topic. In the introduction, the writer should state the hypothesis while telling the readers what makes the topic interesting. A properly written introduction should let the readers know about the topic, understand the research, and decide whether the entire paper or essay is worth reading.

So, is an abstract the same as an introduction? Well, based on their definition and purpose, an abstract is not the same as an introduction. They are different sections of a write-up that serve different purposes.

Difference between an Abstract and an Introduction

A comparison of abstract versus introduction can’t be complete without highlighting the differences between these sections of an academic write-up. Here are some of the things that show the difference between introduction and abstract.

• An abstract includes the results of a study or experiment while an introduction does not.
• An abstract provides a conclusion while an introduction provides the major takeaways from the findings of a study.
• The abstract provides details about the study design and methods. The introduction, on the other hand, provides the briefest information only. This may include phrases like “using mice” and “this study of breast cancer patients”. Details that include numerical values are reserved for the methods and material sections of a paper.
• The abstract uses a more accessible language for non-specialists. Abbreviations and jargon are avoided in this section and the focus is on communicating the most important information briefly. On the other hand, the introduction can provide more details to capture the attention of interested people in the field. Even abbreviations can be used in the introduction.
• The abstract provides a brief background part with a maximum of two sentences. On the other hand, the introduction unfolds the background information succinctly and more expansively. This provides the context for asking the research questions and evidence that led you to conduct the study.
• Another thing that highlights the difference between an abstract and introduction is citations. An abstract will most likely not feature reference citations. On the other hand, an introduction will almost have reference citations always.
• In most cases, an abstract has a maximum of 250 words. In some journals, introductions are limited to less than 500 words. However, some journals and learning institutions accept introductions that are longer than this.

Abstract vs. Introduction APA: The Purpose Makes all the Difference

Perhaps, you’re wondering whether there is a comparison between APA abstract vs. introduction. Well, the purpose of each of these sections explains why they are not the same.

Based on the definition of an abstract, this section serves the purpose of saving your readers their precious time. Anybody that reads academic journals knows why this is important. Essentially, nobody wants to waste their time reading a paper or essay that they will eventually realize does not provide the information they are looking for. The inclusion of an abstract enables such people to engage in specialized reading. That way, they get the most from their time. By reading the abstract introduction, a reader can determine whether the entire page, paper, or essay is worth spending their time on.

The purpose of an introduction, on the other hand, is to entice and excite the general readers. It should compel or motivate them to read on. An introduction can feature a captivating quote or be anecdotal. It can also provide factual information. However, the presentation of this information should compel a reader to want to find out more. Often, an introduction combines all three elements.

Writing an Abstract and an Introduction

Whether you’re trying to compare abstract vs. introduction scientific paper or lab report, you probably know the difference by now. But, how do you write an abstract and an introduction?

How to write an Abstract

You can write an unstructured or a structured abstract. A structured abstract comprises the headings that guide readers while an unstructured abstract does not. Here are the steps to follow when writing an abstract .

• Provide a brief overview of what is known about the topic.
• Specify the objective and aim of your paper
• Highlight the methods and materials used in the study
• Provide an overview of the key findings
• Highlight the most important details of the discussion section and the conclusion.

Your abstract should be a concise summary of the important point of the paper. It should also be interesting to make the audience read it to the end.

How to write an introduction

An ideal introduction should have four paragraphs. Each paragraph should be brief and concise.

Here’s how to write an introduction:

• Provide background information to set the research study’s context.
• Describe what is known about the topic from the previous works and the existing research gap.
• Explain why the existing gap should be addressed or why your study is important
• Provide a broad overview of your study objectives, aims, and hypothesis.

Whether you had difficulties comparing abstract vs. introduction lab report or research paper, this explanation should guide you. Use it as a guide to help you draft better abstracts and introductions for future write-ups.

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Introduction to the TCFD and Climate Risk Reporting

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The Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures

The  Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD)  was established by the G20’s Financial Stability Board (FSB) in 2015 to develop recommendations for consistent, climate-related financial disclosures, that could be used by companies, banks and investors to make informed decisions.

In 2017, the  TCFD  published a set of voluntary, consistent disclosure recommendations for use by companies to provide information to investors, lenders, and insurance underwriters about their climate-related financial risks. The recommendations received unambiguous support from the investor community and have been made a priority by government bodies, financial regulators, central banks, and stock exchanges alike.

Core elements of the TCFD and climate risk reporting

Overview of the core elements of the TCFD recommendations. Source: TCFD Final Recommendations Report (2017)

Climate-related disclosures are recommended across four key areas – governance, strategy, risk management and metrics/targets

Strategy The strategy element is considered the central and most substantive portion of the disclosures. It covers the risks and opportunities identified as being material to the organisation, financial plans and strategies in place to address them, impacts they may have, and the resilience embedded into the organisation’s strategy by incorporating different scenarios.

Governance Companies must disclose the organisation’s governance in relation to climate-related risks and opportunities. This must include the board’s oversight and management’s role in assessing and managing risk.

Risk Management Detail how the organisation identifies and assesses climate risk, processes to manage risk and how these elements are incorporated into the overarching business strategy and risk management.

Metrics and Targets The metrics used to assess risks and opportunities must be transparently shared, include scope 1, 2 and potentially scope 3 emissions, and there must be detail on the targets and analysis of how the organisation is performing against these targets.

Understanding physical risk and transition risk

The TCFD framework categorises climate-related risks and opportunities into  physical  and  transition :

• Physical:  Risks and opportunities associated with rising aggregate global temperatures and the associated physical impacts. These physical risks can be event-driven ( acute ) or longer-term shifts ( chronic ) in climate patterns. Physical risks may have financial implications for organisations, such as direct damage to assets and indirect impacts from supply chain disruption. For example, the increasing intensity and frequency of extreme weather events or gradual changes such as rising sea levels may cause direct damage to buildings and infrastructure.
• Transition:  Risks and opportunities associated with the transition to a low carbon economy. These include  policy, legal, technology, market or reputational  changes that may (or may not) occur in the process of adjusting to a decarbonised economy. An example of a transition risk is carbon pricing imposed by regulatory authorities, which increases operating costs of emissions-intensive assets or lowers the demand for high-carbon products

Drivers of reporting to the TCFD and climate risk reporting

While disclosure of climate-related risks is currently not mandatory in Australia, there is a trend towards increased voluntary disclosure by Australian public companies.  Guidance and recommendations for climate-related disclosures have been provided by both the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) and Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) and the latter  ‘ recommends  listed companies with material exposure to climate risk consider reporting under the TCFD framework.’

ASIC considers that the law requires an operating and financial review to include a discussion of climate risk when it is a material risk that could affect the company’s achievement of its financial performance.” ASIC

Additionally, an increasing number of jurisdictions are mandating climate-related disclosures, including the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Singapore and potentially the United States, which may further influence Australian regulators to do so in the future.

Image: Drivers for organisations to address climate risks in public disclosures

Voluntary disclosures in line with the TCFD framework from private companies have also been increasing in response to the growing awareness that climate change will impact businesses of all sizes and across all sectors.

Businesses are realising that in order to continue operating profitably well into the future, climate change and the resulting risks and opportunities need to be integrated into business models, short and long-term strategies, and business continuity planning.

Examples of good practices in TCFD reporting

The  Climate Disclosure Standards Board  and the  We Mean Business Coalition  have published two editions of their  TCFD Good Practice Handbook , which highlights examples of good practice disclosures made by various companies which align with the TCFD framework’s recommendations.

Some key points they recommend include:

• Timescales are applied
• Key assumptions are defined and transparent
• Climate related scenario analysis for short-, medium- and long term with outcomes and implications listed
• Current and future performance targets are included
• Clearly outlining responsibilities at both board and management level and giving clarity on the roles different functions play in providing oversight on climate risks and opportunities and their accountability
• Detailing disclosure on the assessment of strategic resilience using climate scenarios with a clear presentation structure for both scenarios
• Using graphs, matrices, tables, organisational charts and infographics where relevant, to make data more visual and easier to communicate

Embarking on your TCFD and climate risk reporting journey

It has become clear that climate change poses real risks to businesses around the world, while also presenting opportunities in the transition to a low-carbon economy. Now is the ideal time for organisations to be assessing the risks and opportunities relevant and material to them and integrating these into their business planning.

Considering recommendations by the TCFD and climate risk reporting and disclosures, also sends a strong signal to stakeholders and customers that your business is prepared for the future.

3 steps businesses embarking on their TCFD reporting journey should take now

• Benchmark your current practices against the recommendations of the TCFD
• Identify gaps and areas where practices can be improved
• Engage with key stakeholders to develop an action plan for enhancing climate risk reporting

OES-Environmental 2024 State of the Science Report: Environmental Effects of Marine Renewable Energy Development Around the World

Ocean Energy Systems (OES)-Environmental has released a draft of the OES-Environmental 2024 State of the Science Report: Environmental Effects of Marine Renewable Energy Development Around the World for public comment.  

If you would like to provide feedback on the draft report, please complete this review form by 28 June 2024. We are looking for substantive comments on the report content and not for edits on wording, report formatting, or formatting of references. Those aspects will be standardized for the final report. 

The draft report serves as an update to the 2020 State of the Science Report and features several new sections, including resources to advance marine renewable energy and moving beyond stressor-receptor interactions.

Download the Full Report here

Executive Summary (coming soon) 

Section A: Introduction

     1. Marine Renewable Energy and Ocean Energy Systems 

     2. Progress in Understanding Environmental Effects of Marine Renewable Energy 

Section B: Updating the State of the Science 

     3. Marine Renewable Energy: Stressor-Receptor Interactions 

Section C: Human Dimensions of MRE 

     4. Social and Economic Effects of Marine Renewable Energy 

     5. Stakeholder Engagement for Marine Renewable Energy 

Section D: Resources to Advance MRE  

     6. Strategies to Aid Consenting Processes for Marine Renewable Energy 

     7. Education and Outreach Around Environmental Effects of Marine Renewable Energy 

     8. Marine Renewable Energy Data and Information Systems 

Section E: Beyond Stressor-receptor Interactions 

     9. Beyond Single Marine Renewable Energy Devices: A Systems-Wide Effects Approach 

     10. Environmental Effects of Marine Renewable Energy in Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems 

Section F: Looking Ahead

     11. Summary and Path Forward 

Short Science Summaries  (coming soon)

Chemical Science

Engineered π···π interactions favour supramolecular dimers x@[fel3]2 (x=cl, br, i): solid state and solution structure.

Ditopic bis-pyrazolylpyridine ligands usually react with divalent metal ions (M2+) to produce dinuclear triple-stranded helicates [M2L3]4+ or, via π···π interactions, dimers of monoatomic complexes ([ML3]2)4+. The introduction of an additional benzene ring at each end of ligand L increases the number of aromatic contacts within the supramolecular aggregate by 40%, driving the self-recognition process in an irreversible manner. Consequently, the mixing of new bis-pyrazolylquinoline L2 with FeX2 salts leads to crystallization of the tripartite high-spin assemblies (X@[Fe(L2)3]2)3+ (X=Cl, Br or I). The aggregates exhibit exceptional stability, as confirmed by a combination of paramagnetic 1H NMR techniques, demonstrating their persistence in solution. Our investigations further reveal that the guests Br− and I− are retained inside the associate in solution but Cl− is immediately released, resulting in the formation of the empty supramolecular dimer ([Fe(L2)3]2)4+.

Supplementary files

• Supplementary information PDF (3076K)
• Crystal structure data CIF (1094K)

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Engineered π···π interactions favour supramolecular dimers X@[FeL3]2 (X=Cl, Br, I): solid state and solution structure

A. Risa, L. A. Barrios, R. Diego, O. Roubeau, D. Y. Aleshin, Y. Nelyubina, V. Novikov, S. Teat, J. Ribas-Ariño and G. Aromi, Chem. Sci. , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4SC01365D

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Kluyver thesis award for neutrino researcher Rasa Muller

28 May 2024

Rasa Muller, on Zoom from Bologna, Italy. “I wanted to summarize my work in such a way that, so to speak, my grandmother would enjoy reading it. From my public talks and appearances in the media, I know pretty well what questions people on the outside have. Those questions form the line through my summary. What are neutrinos? Why an experiment in the deep sea? Could you see anything?”

When she got the call that she was awarded this prize, she reread that summary anyway. “It’s pretty much what I wanted to do, but I can see myself rushing it a little bit. Because that’s what it was, I had a fairly ridiculously tight schedule, the proofs were already coming off the printer. I didn’t really think about a possible Kluyver Prize at the time.”

Rasa Muller received her Ph.D. in summer 2023 for her doctoral work on the KM3NeT experiment, the undersea neutrino telescope under construction in the Mediterranean Sea. Her dissertation Getting to the Point is a first attempt to pinpoint sources of neutrinos in the sky with measurements from KM3NeT.

Muller on her result: “We couldn’t do that with the few lines that KM3NeT counted in the beginning, but we were able to set up an analysis method and show that with more lines in the sea we will indeed start to see neutrino sources.”

In the fall of 2023, she left for Italy and joined INFN’s KM3NeT group in Bologna as a postdoc. “A great personal adventure. It’s been said that it’s better to switch experiments for your academic career, but actually I wanted above all to finish what I had started: finding cosmic neutrino sources. I am now working on those analyses with now almost 30 lines in the sea.”

Notable in her dissertation is an Epilogue on science communication. During her doctoral work, she regularly appeared on television programs about science and was a speaker or presenter at events. From Italy, that is a little less for a while, but the dreams are certainly still there. “For example, I occasionally think about the intention to set up a science broadcaster,” she said.

“That last extra chapter actually stems from my frustration that there is a kind of public fear of science things. That’s not justified, of course, but does lie in part very much with science and scientists themselves. We are often arrogant and don’t make enough effort to engage people. Even among ourselves, by the way: all those incomprehensible stories at conferences and in talks, a terrible waste of time and money.”

In her opinion, the fact that the public is afraid of science subjects is certainly also due to the inadequate education in the Netherlands. “There are really far too few good teachers of science subjects. I would like scientists to realize that this is precisely where they have to roll up their sleeves if they want to keep their own discipline afloat. Give students or PhD students an extra year to contribute to teaching. I bet people will start to like teaching, too.”

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