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Research Gap – Types, Examples and How to Identify

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Research Gap

Definition:

Research gap refers to an area or topic within a field of study that has not yet been extensively researched or is yet to be explored. It is a question, problem or issue that has not been addressed or resolved by previous research.

How to Identify Research Gap

Identifying a research gap is an essential step in conducting research that adds value and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. Research gap requires critical thinking, creativity, and a thorough understanding of the existing literature . It is an iterative process that may require revisiting and refining your research questions and ideas multiple times.

Here are some steps that can help you identify a research gap:

• Review existing literature: Conduct a thorough review of the existing literature in your research area. This will help you identify what has already been studied and what gaps still exist.
• Identify a research problem: Identify a specific research problem or question that you want to address.
• Analyze existing research: Analyze the existing research related to your research problem. This will help you identify areas that have not been studied, inconsistencies in the findings, or limitations of the previous research.
• Brainstorm potential research ideas : Based on your analysis, brainstorm potential research ideas that address the identified gaps.
• Consult with experts: Consult with experts in your research area to get their opinions on potential research ideas and to identify any additional gaps that you may have missed.
• Refine research questions: Refine your research questions and hypotheses based on the identified gaps and potential research ideas.
• Develop a research proposal: Develop a research proposal that outlines your research questions, objectives, and methods to address the identified research gap.

Types of Research Gap

There are different types of research gaps that can be identified, and each type is associated with a specific situation or problem. Here are the main types of research gaps and their explanations:

Theoretical Gap

This type of research gap refers to a lack of theoretical understanding or knowledge in a particular area. It can occur when there is a discrepancy between existing theories and empirical evidence or when there is no theory that can explain a particular phenomenon. Identifying theoretical gaps can lead to the development of new theories or the refinement of existing ones.

Empirical Gap

An empirical gap occurs when there is a lack of empirical evidence or data in a particular area. It can happen when there is a lack of research on a specific topic or when existing research is inadequate or inconclusive. Identifying empirical gaps can lead to the development of new research studies to collect data or the refinement of existing research methods to improve the quality of data collected.

Methodological Gap

This type of research gap refers to a lack of appropriate research methods or techniques to answer a research question. It can occur when existing methods are inadequate, outdated, or inappropriate for the research question. Identifying methodological gaps can lead to the development of new research methods or the modification of existing ones to better address the research question.

Practical Gap

A practical gap occurs when there is a lack of practical applications or implementation of research findings. It can occur when research findings are not implemented due to financial, political, or social constraints. Identifying practical gaps can lead to the development of strategies for the effective implementation of research findings in practice.

Knowledge Gap

This type of research gap occurs when there is a lack of knowledge or information on a particular topic. It can happen when a new area of research is emerging, or when research is conducted in a different context or population. Identifying knowledge gaps can lead to the development of new research studies or the extension of existing research to fill the gap.

Examples of Research Gap

Here are some examples of research gaps that researchers might identify:

• Theoretical Gap Example : In the field of psychology, there might be a theoretical gap related to the lack of understanding of the relationship between social media use and mental health. Although there is existing research on the topic, there might be a lack of consensus on the mechanisms that link social media use to mental health outcomes.
• Empirical Gap Example : In the field of environmental science, there might be an empirical gap related to the lack of data on the long-term effects of climate change on biodiversity in specific regions. Although there might be some studies on the topic, there might be a lack of data on the long-term effects of climate change on specific species or ecosystems.
• Methodological Gap Example : In the field of education, there might be a methodological gap related to the lack of appropriate research methods to assess the impact of online learning on student outcomes. Although there might be some studies on the topic, existing research methods might not be appropriate to assess the complex relationships between online learning and student outcomes.
• Practical Gap Example: In the field of healthcare, there might be a practical gap related to the lack of effective strategies to implement evidence-based practices in clinical settings. Although there might be existing research on the effectiveness of certain practices, they might not be implemented in practice due to various barriers, such as financial constraints or lack of resources.
• Knowledge Gap Example: In the field of anthropology, there might be a knowledge gap related to the lack of understanding of the cultural practices of indigenous communities in certain regions. Although there might be some research on the topic, there might be a lack of knowledge about specific cultural practices or beliefs that are unique to those communities.

Examples of Research Gap In Literature Review, Thesis, and Research Paper might be:

• Literature review : A literature review on the topic of machine learning and healthcare might identify a research gap in the lack of studies that investigate the use of machine learning for early detection of rare diseases.
• Thesis : A thesis on the topic of cybersecurity might identify a research gap in the lack of studies that investigate the effectiveness of artificial intelligence in detecting and preventing cyber attacks.
• Research paper : A research paper on the topic of natural language processing might identify a research gap in the lack of studies that investigate the use of natural language processing techniques for sentiment analysis in non-English languages.

How to Write Research Gap

By following these steps, you can effectively write about research gaps in your paper and clearly articulate the contribution that your study will make to the existing body of knowledge.

Here are some steps to follow when writing about research gaps in your paper:

• Identify the research question : Before writing about research gaps, you need to identify your research question or problem. This will help you to understand the scope of your research and identify areas where additional research is needed.
• Review the literature: Conduct a thorough review of the literature related to your research question. This will help you to identify the current state of knowledge in the field and the gaps that exist.
• Identify the research gap: Based on your review of the literature, identify the specific research gap that your study will address. This could be a theoretical, empirical, methodological, practical, or knowledge gap.
• Provide evidence: Provide evidence to support your claim that the research gap exists. This could include a summary of the existing literature, a discussion of the limitations of previous studies, or an analysis of the current state of knowledge in the field.
• Explain the importance: Explain why it is important to fill the research gap. This could include a discussion of the potential implications of filling the gap, the significance of the research for the field, or the potential benefits to society.
• State your research objectives: State your research objectives, which should be aligned with the research gap you have identified. This will help you to clearly articulate the purpose of your study and how it will address the research gap.

Importance of Research Gap

The importance of research gaps can be summarized as follows:

• Advancing knowledge: Identifying research gaps is crucial for advancing knowledge in a particular field. By identifying areas where additional research is needed, researchers can fill gaps in the existing body of knowledge and contribute to the development of new theories and practices.
• Guiding research: Research gaps can guide researchers in designing studies that fill those gaps. By identifying research gaps, researchers can develop research questions and objectives that are aligned with the needs of the field and contribute to the development of new knowledge.
• Enhancing research quality: By identifying research gaps, researchers can avoid duplicating previous research and instead focus on developing innovative research that fills gaps in the existing body of knowledge. This can lead to more impactful research and higher-quality research outputs.
• Informing policy and practice: Research gaps can inform policy and practice by highlighting areas where additional research is needed to inform decision-making. By filling research gaps, researchers can provide evidence-based recommendations that have the potential to improve policy and practice in a particular field.

Applications of Research Gap

Here are some potential applications of research gap:

• Informing research priorities: Research gaps can help guide research funding agencies and researchers to prioritize research areas that require more attention and resources.
• Identifying practical implications: Identifying gaps in knowledge can help identify practical applications of research that are still unexplored or underdeveloped.
• Stimulating innovation: Research gaps can encourage innovation and the development of new approaches or methodologies to address unexplored areas.
• Improving policy-making: Research gaps can inform policy-making decisions by highlighting areas where more research is needed to make informed policy decisions.
• Enhancing academic discourse: Research gaps can lead to new and constructive debates and discussions within academic communities, leading to more robust and comprehensive research.

Advantages of Research Gap

Here are some of the advantages of research gap:

• Identifies new research opportunities: Identifying research gaps can help researchers identify areas that require further exploration, which can lead to new research opportunities.
• Improves the quality of research: By identifying gaps in current research, researchers can focus their efforts on addressing unanswered questions, which can improve the overall quality of research.
• Enhances the relevance of research: Research that addresses existing gaps can have significant implications for the development of theories, policies, and practices, and can therefore increase the relevance and impact of research.
• Helps avoid duplication of effort: Identifying existing research can help researchers avoid duplicating efforts, saving time and resources.
• Helps to refine research questions: Research gaps can help researchers refine their research questions, making them more focused and relevant to the needs of the field.
• Promotes collaboration: By identifying areas of research that require further investigation, researchers can collaborate with others to conduct research that addresses these gaps, which can lead to more comprehensive and impactful research outcomes.

Disadvantages of Research Gap

While research gaps can be advantageous, there are also some potential disadvantages that should be considered:

• Difficulty in identifying gaps: Identifying gaps in existing research can be challenging, particularly in fields where there is a large volume of research or where research findings are scattered across different disciplines.
• Lack of funding: Addressing research gaps may require significant resources, and researchers may struggle to secure funding for their work if it is perceived as too risky or uncertain.
• Time-consuming: Conducting research to address gaps can be time-consuming, particularly if the research involves collecting new data or developing new methods.
• Risk of oversimplification: Addressing research gaps may require researchers to simplify complex problems, which can lead to oversimplification and a failure to capture the complexity of the issues.
• Bias : Identifying research gaps can be influenced by researchers’ personal biases or perspectives, which can lead to a skewed understanding of the field.
• Potential for disagreement: Identifying research gaps can be subjective, and different researchers may have different views on what constitutes a gap in the field, leading to disagreements and debate.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Writing Tips

How to Identify a Research Gap

• 5-minute read
• 10th January 2024

If you’ve been tasked with producing a thesis or dissertation, one of your first steps will be identifying a research gap. Although finding a research gap may sound daunting, don’t fret! In this post, we will define a research gap, discuss its importance, and offer a step-by-step guide that will provide you with the essential know-how to complete this critical step and move on to the rest of your research project.

What Is a Research Gap?

Simply put, a research gap is an area that hasn’t been explored in the existing literature. This could be an unexplored population, an untested method, or a condition that hasn’t been investigated yet. 

Why Is Identifying a Research Gap Important?

Identifying a research gap is a foundational step in the research process. It ensures that your research is significant and has the ability to advance knowledge within a specific area. It also helps you align your work with the current needs and challenges of your field. Identifying a research gap has many potential benefits.

1. Avoid Redundancy in Your Research

Understanding the existing literature helps researchers avoid duplication. This means you can steer clear of topics that have already been extensively studied. This ensures your work is novel and contributes something new to the field.

2. Guide the Research Design

Identifying a research gap helps shape your research design and questions. You can tailor your studies to specifically address the identified gap. This ensures that your work directly contributes to filling the void in knowledge.

3. Practical Applications

Research that addresses a gap is more likely to have practical applications and contributions. Whether in academia, industry, or policymaking, research that fills a gap in knowledge is often more applicable and can inform decision-making and practices in real-world contexts.

4. Field Advancements

Addressing a research gap can lead to advancements in the field . It may result in the development of new theories, methodologies, or technologies that push the boundaries of current understanding.

5. Strategic Research Planning

Identifying a research gap is crucial for strategic planning . It helps researchers and institutions prioritize areas that need attention so they can allocate resources effectively. This ensures that efforts are directed toward the most critical gaps in knowledge.

6. Academic and Professional Recognition

Researchers who successfully address significant research gaps often receive peer recognition within their academic and professional communities. This recognition can lead to opportunities for collaboration, funding, and career advancement.

How Do I Identify a Research Gap?

1. clearly define your research topic .

Begin by clearly defining your research topic. A well-scoped topic serves as the foundation for your studies. Make sure it’s not too broad or too narrow; striking the right balance will make it easier to identify gaps in existing literature.

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2. Conduct a Thorough Literature Review

A comprehensive literature review is a vital step in any research. Dive deep into the existing research related to your topic. Look for patterns, recurring themes, and consensus among scholars. Pay attention to areas where conflicting opinions or gaps in understanding emerge.

3. Evaluate Existing Studies

Critically evaluate the studies you encounter during your literature review. Assess the paradigms , methodologies, findings, and limitations of each. Note any discrepancies, unanswered questions, or areas where further investigation is warranted. These are potential indicators of research gaps.

4. Identify Unexplored Perspectives

Consider the perspectives presented in the existing literature. Are there alternative viewpoints or marginalized voices that haven’t been adequately explored? Identifying and incorporating diverse perspectives can often lead to uncharted territory and help you pinpoint a unique research gap.

Additional Tips

Stay up to date with emerging trends.

The field of research is dynamic, with new developments and emerging trends constantly shaping the landscape. Stay up to date with the latest publications, conferences, and discussions in your field and make sure to regularly check relevant academic search engines . Often, identifying a research gap involves being at the forefront of current debates and discussions.

Seek Guidance From Experts

Don’t hesitate to reach out to experts in your field for guidance. Attend conferences, workshops, or seminars where you can interact with seasoned researchers. Their insights and experience can provide valuable perspectives on potential research gaps that you may have overlooked. You can also seek advice from your academic advisor .

Use Research Tools and Analytics

Leverage tech tools to analyze patterns and trends in the existing literature. Tools like citation analysis, keyword mapping, and data visualization can help you identify gaps and areas with limited exploration.

Identifying a research gap is a skill that evolves with experience and dedication. By defining your research topic, meticulously navigating the existing literature, critically evaluating studies, and recognizing unexplored perspectives, you’ll be on your way to identifying a research gap that will serve as the foundation for your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

If you need any help with proofreading your research paper , we can help with our research paper editing services . You can even try a sample of our services for free . Good luck with all your research!

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Write Like a Scientist

A Guide to Scientific Communication

Gap Statements

  A gap is something that remains to be done or learned in an area of research; it’s a gap in the knowledge of the scientists in the field of research of your study. Every research project must, in some way, address a gap–that is, attempt to fill in some piece of information missing in the scientific literature. Otherwise, it is not novel research and is therefore not contributing to the overall goals of science.

Identify the gap.

  A gap statement is found in the Introduction section of a journal article or poster or in the Goals and Importance section of a research proposal and succinctly identifies for your audience the gap that you will attempt to address in your project.

A gap might be a lack of understanding about how well a particular instrument works in a certain situation. It could be introducing a new method that needs to be tested. Or it could be that you are studying a whole new organism, system, or part of a process. Your project may also address multiple gaps, in which case you should be sure to identify each of them clearly!

In a class, you might not always be studying something brand “new.” But, in most cases, you should still try to come up with something unique about your project, however small. Talk to your professor about what they expect for your gap statement if nothing seems to work.

Here, the authors signal to us that this is a gap because they use the words “has not yet been clarified.” Other phrases that might help you identify (or form!) a gap statement are:

• …has/have not been… (studied/reported/elucidated)
• …is required/needed…
• …the key question is/remains…
• …it is important to address…

Fill the gap.

  Once you identify the gap in the literature, you must tell your audience how you attempt to at least somewhat address in your project this lack of knowledge or understanding . In a journal article or poster, this is often done in a new paragraph and should be accomplished in one summary statement, such as:

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of lead on the hepatobiliary system, especially on the liver and on the gallbladder (adapted from Sipos et al. 2003 ).

You’ll often find that the first sentence of the last paragraph in a paper’s introduction will start somewhat like this, indicating the gap fill.  

Remember–always keep your voice professional! Colloquial phrases such as “we looked into” or “we checked if” should be avoided when introducing your gap fill.

So let’s look at this idea in context by looking at some examples from a couple of types of papers. The gap statements are underlined; the fills are italicized.  

In the second and third examples, the gap may be a little less obvious–it doesn’t use any phrases to signal to you that there’s something missing, such as “has not been clarified” or “have not been reported.” But because of the way the paragraph is laid out–following the conventions of our move structures–we can see that the underlined section of text is indeed the missing information in the literature that the group sought to address in their project.

How To Find A Research Gap, Quickly

A step-by-step guide for new researchers

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewer: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) | April 2023

If you’ve got a dissertation, thesis or research project coming up, one of the first (and most important) things you’ll need to do is find a suitable research gap . In this post, we’ll share a straightforward process to help you uncover high-quality, original research gaps in a very time-efficient manner.

Overview: Finding Research Gaps

• What exactly is a research gap?
• Research gap vs research topic
• How to find potential research gaps
• How to evaluate research gaps (and topics)
• Key takeaways

What is a research gap?

As a starting point, it’s useful to first define what we mean by research gap, to ensure we’re all on the same page. The term “research gap” gets thrown around quite loosely by students and academics alike, so let’s clear that up.

Simply put, a research gap is any space where there’s a lack of solid, agreed-upon research regarding a specific topic, issue or phenomenon. In other words, there’s a lack of established knowledge and, consequently, a need for further research.

Let’s look at a hypothetical example to illustrate a research gap.

Within the existing research regarding factors affect job satisfaction , there may be a wealth of established and agreed-upon empirical work within a US and UK context , but very little research within Eastern nations such as Japan or Korea . Given that these nations have distinctly different national cultures and workforce compositions compared to the West, it’s plausible that the factors that contribute toward job satisfaction may also be different. Therefore, a research gap emerges for studies that explore this matter.

This example is purely hypothetical (and there’s probably plenty of research covering this already), but it illustrates the core point that a research gap reflects a lack of firmly established knowledge regarding a specific matter . Given this lack, an opportunity exists for researchers (like you) to go on and fill the gap.

So, it’s the same as a research topic?

Not quite – but they are connected. A research gap refers to an area where there’s a lack of settled research , whereas a research topic outlines the focus of a specific study . Despite being different things, these two are related because research gaps are the birthplace of research topics. In other words, by identifying a clear research gap, you have a foundation from which you can build a research topic for your specific study. Your study is unlikely to resolve the entire research gap on it’s own, but it will contribute towards it .

If you’d like to learn more, we’ve got a comprehensive post that covers research gaps (including the different types of research gaps), as well as an explainer video below.

How to find a research gap

Now that we’ve defined what a research gap is, it’s time to get down to the process of finding potential research gaps that you can use as a basis for potential research topics. Importantly, it’s worth noting that this is just one way (of many) to find a research gap (and consequently a topic). We’re not proposing that it’s the only way or best way, but it’s certainly a relatively quick way to identify opportunities.

Step 1: Identify your broad area of interest

The very first step to finding a research gap is to decide on your general area of interest . For example, if you were undertaking a dissertation as part of an MBA degree, you may decide that you’re interested in corporate reputation, HR strategy, or leadership styles. As you can see, these are broad categories – there’s no need to get super specific just yet. Of course, if there is something very specific that you’re interested in, that’s great – but don’t feel pressured to narrow it down too much right now.

Equally important is to make sure that this area of interest is allowed by your university or whichever institution you’ll be proposing your research to. This might sound dead obvious, but you’ll be surprised how many times we’ve seen students run down a path with great excitement, only to later learn that their university wants a very specific area of focus in terms of topic (and their area of interest doesn’t qualify).

Step 2: Do an initial literature scan

Once you’ve pinned down your broad area (or areas) of interest, the next step is to head over to Google Scholar to undertake an initial literature scan . If you’re not familiar with this tool, Google Scholar is a great starting point for finding academic literature on pretty much any topic, as it uses Google’s powerful search capabilities to hunt down relevant academic literature. It’s certainly not the be-all and end-all of literature search tools, but it’s a useful starting point .

Within Google Scholar, you’ll want to do a few searches using keywords that are relevant to your area of interest. Sticking with our earlier example, we could use the key phrase “job satisfaction”, or we may want to get a little more specific – perhaps “job satisfaction for millennials” or “job satisfaction in Japan”.

It’s always a good idea to play around with as many keywords/phrases as you can think up.  Take an iterative approach here and see which keywords yield the most relevant results for you. Keep each search open in a new tab, as this will help keep things organised for the next steps.

Once you’ve searched for a few different keywords/phrases, you’ll need to do some refining for each of the searches you undertook. Specifically, you’ll need to filter the results down to the most recent papers . You can do this by selecting the time period in the top left corner (see the example below).

Filtering to the current year is typically a good choice (especially for fast-moving research areas), but in some cases, you may need to filter to the last two years . If you’re undertaking this task in January or February, for example, you’ll likely need to select a two-year period.

Need a helping hand?

Step 3: Review and shortlist articles that interest you

Once you’ve run a few searches using different keywords and phrases, you’ll need to scan through the results to see what looks most relevant and interesting to you. At this stage, you can just look at the titles and abstracts (the description provided by Google Scholar) – don’t worry about reading the actual article just yet.

Next, select 5 – 10 articles that interest you and open them up. Here, we’re making the assumption that your university has provided you with access to a decent range of academic databases. In some cases, Google Scholar will link you directly to a PDF of the article, but in most cases, you’ll need paid access. If you don’t have this (for example, if you’re still applying to a university), you can look at two options:

Open-access articles – these are free articles which you can access without any journal subscription. A quick Google search (the regular Google) will help you find open-access journals in your area of interest, but you can also have a look at DOAJ and Elsevier Open Access.

DeepDyve – this is a monthly subscription service that allows you to get access to a broad range of journals. At the time of shooting this video, their monthly subscription is around $50 and they do offer a free trial, which may be sufficient for your project.

Step 4: Skim-read your article shortlist

Now, it’s time to dig into your article shortlist and do some reading. But don’t worry, you don’t need to read the articles from start to finish – you just need to focus on a few key sections.

Specifically, you’ll need to pay attention to the following:

• The abstract (which you’ve probably already read a portion of in Google Scholar)
• The introduction – this will give you a bit more detail about the context and background of the study, as well as what the researchers were trying to achieve (their research aims)
• The discussion or conclusion – this will tell you what the researchers found

By skimming through these three sections for each journal article on your shortlist, you’ll gain a reasonable idea of what each study was about, without having to dig into the painful details. Generally, these sections are usually quite short, so it shouldn’t take you too long.

Step 5: Go “FRIN hunting”

This is where the magic happens. Within each of the articles on your shortlist, you’ll want to search for a few very specific phrases , namely:

• Future research
• Further research
• Research opportunities
• Research directions

All of these terms are commonly found in what we call the “FRIN” section . FRIN stands for “further research is needed”. The FRIN is where the researchers explain what other researchers could do to build on their study, or just on the research area in general. In other words, the FRIN section is where you can find fresh opportunities for novel research . Most empirical studies will either have a dedicated FRIN section or paragraph, or they’ll allude to the FRIN toward the very end of the article. You’ll need to do a little scanning, but it’s usually pretty easy to spot.

It’s worth mentioning that naturally, the FRIN doesn’t hand you a list of research gaps on a platter. It’s not a silver bullet for finding research gaps – but it’s the closest thing to it. Realistically, the FRIN section helps you shortcut the gap-hunting process  by highlighting novel research avenues that are worth exploring.

This probably sounds a little conceptual, so let’s have a look at a few examples:

The impact of overeducation on job outcomes: Evidence from Saudi Arabia (Alzubaidi, 2020)

If you scroll down to the bottom of this article, you’ll see there’s a dedicated section called “Limitations and directions for future research”. Here they talk about the limitations of the study and provide suggestions about how future researchers could improve upon their work and overcome the limitations.

Perceived organizational support and job satisfaction: a moderated mediation model of proactive personality and psychological empowerment (Maan et al, 2020)

In this article, within the limitations section, they provide a wonderfully systematic structure where they discuss each limitation, followed by a proposal as to how future studies can overcome the respective limitation. In doing so, they are providing very specific research opportunities for other researchers.

Medical professionals’ job satisfaction and telemedicine readiness during the COVID-19 pandemic: solutions to improve medical practice in Egypt (El-Mazahy et al, 2023)

In this article, they don’t have a dedicated section discussing the FRIN, but we can deduct it based on the limitations section. For example, they state that an evaluation of the knowledge about telemedicine and technology-related skills would have enabled studying their independent effect on the perception of telemedicine.

Follow this FRIN-seeking process for the articles you shortlisted and map out any potentially interesting research gaps . You may find that you need to look at a larger number of articles to find something interesting, or you might find that your area of interest shifts as you engage in the reading – this is perfectly natural. Take as much time as you need to develop a shortlist of potential research gaps that interest you.

Importantly, once you’ve developed a shortlist of potential research gaps, you need to return to Google Scholar to double-check that there aren’t fresh studies that have already addressed the gap. Remember, if you’re looking at papers from two years ago in a fast-moving field, someone else may have jumped on it . Nevertheless, there could still very well be a unique angle you could take – perhaps a contextual gap (e.g. a specific country, industry, etc.).

Ultimately, the need for originality will depend on your specific university’s requirements and the level of study. For example, if you’re doing an undergraduate research project, the originality requirements likely won’t be as gruelling as say a Masters or PhD project. So, make sure you have a clear understanding of what your university’s expectations are. A good way to do this is to look at past dissertations and theses for your specific programme. You can usually find these in the university library or by asking the faculty.

How to evaluate potential research gaps

Once you’ve developed a shortlist of potential research gaps (and resultant potential research topics) that interest you, you’ll need to systematically evaluate  them  to choose a winner. There are many factors to consider here, but some important ones include the following:

• Originality and value – is the topic sufficiently novel and will addressing it create value?
• Data access – will you be able to get access to the sample of interest?
• Costs – will there be additional costs involved for data collection and/or analysis?
• Timeframes – will you be able to collect and analyse the data within the timeframe required by your university?
• Supervisor support – is there a suitable supervisor available to support your project from start to finish?

To help you evaluate your options systematically, we’ve got a topic evaluation worksheet that allows you to score each potential topic against a comprehensive set of criteria. You can access the worksheet completely free of charge here .

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered quite a lot of ground in this post. Here are the key takeaways:

• A research gap is any space where there’s a lack of solid, agreed-upon research regarding a specific topic/issue/phenomenon.
• Unique research topics emerge from research gaps , so it’s essential to first identify high-quality research gaps before you attempt to define a topic.
• To find potential research gaps, start by seeking out recent journal articles on Google Scholar and pay particular attention to the FRIN section to identify novel opportunities.
• Once you have a shortlist of prospective research gaps and resultant topic ideas, evaluate them systematically using a comprehensive set of criteria.

If you’d like to get hands-on help finding a research gap and research topic, be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the research journey, step by step.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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Very useful for me, but i am still confusing review of literature review, how to find out topic related previous research.

Powerful notes! Thanks a lot.

This is helpful. Thanks a lot.

Thank you very much for this. It is really a great opportunity for me to learn the research journey.

Very Useful

It nice job

You have sharpened my articulations of these components to the core. Thanks so much.

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Identifying Research Gaps to Pursue Innovative Research

This article is an excerpt from a lecture given by my Ph.D. guide, a researcher in public health. She advised us on how to identify research gaps to pursue innovative research in our fields.

What is a Research Gap?

Today we are talking about the research gap: what is it, how to identify it, and how to make use of it so that you can pursue innovative research. Now, how many of you have ever felt you had discovered a new and exciting research question , only to find that it had already been written about? I have experienced this more times than I can count. Graduate studies come with pressure to add new knowledge to the field. We can contribute to the progress and knowledge of humanity. To do this, we need to first learn to identify research gaps in the existing literature.

A research gap is, simply, a topic or area for which missing or insufficient information limits the ability to reach a conclusion for a question. It should not be confused with a research question, however. For example, if we ask the research question of what the healthiest diet for humans is, we would find many studies and possible answers to this question. On the other hand, if we were to ask the research question of what are the effects of antidepressants on pregnant women, we would not find much-existing data. This is a research gap. When we identify a research gap, we identify a direction for potentially new and exciting research.

How to Identify Research Gap?

Considering the volume of existing research, identifying research gaps can seem overwhelming or even impossible. I don’t have time to read every paper published on public health. Similarly, you guys don’t have time to read every paper. So how can you identify a research gap?

There are different techniques in various disciplines, but we can reduce most of them down to a few steps, which are:

• Identify your key motivating issue/question
• Identify key terms associated with this issue
• Review the literature, searching for these key terms and identifying relevant publications
• Review the literature cited by the key publications which you located in the above step
• Identify issues not addressed by  the literature relating to your critical  motivating issue

It is the last step which we all find the most challenging. It can be difficult to figure out what an article is  not  saying. I like to keep a list of notes of biased or inconsistent information. You could also track what authors write as “directions for future research,” which often can point us towards the existing gaps.

Different Types of Research Gaps

Identifying research gaps is an essential step in conducting research, as it helps researchers to refine their research questions and to focus their research efforts on areas where there is a need for more knowledge or understanding.

1. Knowledge gaps

These are gaps in knowledge or understanding of a subject, where more research is needed to fill the gaps. For example, there may be a lack of understanding of the mechanisms behind a particular disease or how a specific technology works.

2. Conceptual gaps

These are gaps in the conceptual framework or theoretical understanding of a subject. For example, there may be a need for more research to understand the relationship between two concepts or to refine a theoretical framework.

3. Methodological gaps

These are gaps in the methods used to study a particular subject. For example, there may be a need for more research to develop new research methods or to refine existing methods to address specific research questions.

4. Data gaps

These are gaps in the data available on a particular subject. For example, there may be a need for more research to collect data on a specific population or to develop new measures to collect data on a particular construct.

5. Practical gaps

These are gaps in the application of research findings to practical situations. For example, there may be a need for more research to understand how to implement evidence-based practices in real-world settings or to identify barriers to implementing such practices.

Examples of Research Gap

Limited understanding of the underlying mechanisms of a disease:.

Despite significant research on a particular disease, there may be a lack of understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the disease. For example, although much research has been done on Alzheimer’s disease, the exact mechanisms that lead to the disease are not yet fully understood.

Inconsistencies in the findings of previous research:

When previous research on a particular topic has inconsistent findings, there may be a need for further research to clarify or resolve these inconsistencies. For example, previous research on the effectiveness of a particular treatment for a medical condition may have produced inconsistent findings, indicating a need for further research to determine the true effectiveness of the treatment.

Limited research on emerging technologies:

As new technologies emerge, there may be limited research on their applications, benefits, and potential drawbacks. For example, with the increasing use of artificial intelligence in various industries, there is a need for further research on the ethical, legal, and social implications of AI.

How to Deal with Literature Gap?

Once you have identified the literature gaps, it is critical to prioritize. You may find many questions which remain to be answered in the literature. Often one question must be answered before the next can be addressed. In prioritizing the gaps, you have identified, you should consider your funding agency or stakeholders, the needs of the field, and the relevance of your questions to what is currently being studied. Also, consider your own resources and ability to conduct the research you’re considering. Once you have done this, you can narrow your search down to an appropriate question.

Tools to Help Your Search

There are thousands of new articles published every day, and staying up to date on the literature can be overwhelming. You should take advantage of the technology that is available. Some services include  PubCrawler ,  Feedly ,  Google Scholar , and PubMed updates. Stay up to date on social media forums where scholars share new discoveries, such as Twitter. Reference managers such as  Mendeley  can help you keep your references well-organized. I personally have had success using Google Scholar and PubMed to stay current on new developments and track which gaps remain in my personal areas of interest.

The most important thing I want to impress upon you today is that you will struggle to  choose a research topic  that is innovative and exciting if you don’t know the existing literature well. This is why identifying research gaps starts with an extensive and thorough  literature review . But give yourself some boundaries.  You don’t need to read every paper that has ever been written on a topic. You may find yourself thinking you’re on the right track and then suddenly coming across a paper that you had intended to write! It happens to everyone- it happens to me quite often. Don’t give up- keep reading and you’ll find what you’re looking for.

Class dismissed!

How do you identify research gaps? Share your thoughts in the comments section below.

Frequently Asked Questions

A research gap can be identified by looking for a topic or area with missing or insufficient information that limits the ability to reach a conclusion for a question.

Identifying a research gap is important as it provides a direction for potentially new research or helps bridge the gap in existing literature.

Gap in research is a topic or area with missing or insufficient information. A research gap limits the ability to reach a conclusion for a question.

Thank u for your suggestion.

Very useful tips specially for a beginner

Thank you. This is helpful. I find that I’m overwhelmed with literatures. As I read on a particular topic, and in a particular direction I find that other conflicting issues, topic a and ideas keep popping up, making me more confused.

I am very grateful for your advice. It’s just on point.

The clearest, exhaustive, and brief explanation I have ever read.

Thanks for sharing

Thank you very much.The work is brief and understandable

Thank you it is very informative

Thanks for sharing this educative article

Thank you for such informative explanation.

Great job smart guy! Really outdid yourself!

Nice one! I thank you for this as it is just what I was looking for!😃🤟

Thank you so much for this. Much appreciated

Thank you so much.

Thankyou for ur briefing…its so helpful

Thank you so much .I’ved learn a lot from this.❤️

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Table of Contents

If you are a young researcher, or even still finishing your studies, you’ll probably notice that your academic environment revolves around certain research topics, probably linked to your department or to the interest of your mentor and direct colleagues. For example, if your department is currently doing research in nanotechnology applied to medicine, it is only natural that you feel compelled to follow this line of research. Hopefully, it’s something you feel familiar with and interested in – although you might take your own twists and turns along your career.

Many scientists end up continuing their academic legacy during their professional careers, writing about their own practical experiences in the field and adapting classic methodologies to a present context. However, each and every researcher dreams about being a pioneer in a subject one day, by discovering a topic that hasn’t been approached before by any other scientist. This is a research gap.

Research gaps are particularly useful for the advance of science, in general. Finding a research gap and having the means to develop a complete and sustained study on it can be very rewarding for the scientist (or team of scientists), not to mention how its new findings can positively impact our whole society.

How to Find a Gap in Research

How many times have you felt that you have finally formulated THAT new and exciting question, only to find out later that it had been addressed before? Probably more times than you can count.

There are some steps you can take to help identify research gaps, since it is impossible to go through all the information and research available nowadays:

• Select a topic or question that motivates you: Research can take a long time and surely a large amount of physical, intellectual and emotional effort, therefore choose a topic that can keep you motivated throughout the process.
• Find keywords and related terms to your selected topic: Besides synthesizing the topic to its essential core, this will help you in the next step.
• Use the identified keywords to search literature: From your findings in the above step, identify relevant publications and cited literature in those publications.
• Look for topics or issues that are missing or not addressed within (or related to) your main topic.
• Read systematic reviews: These documents plunge deeply into scholarly literature and identify trends and paradigm shifts in fields of study. Sometimes they reveal areas or topics that need more attention from researchers and scientists.

Keeping track of all the new literature being published every day is an impossible mission. Remember that there is technology to make your daily tasks easier, and reviewing literature can be one of them. Some online databases offer up-to-date publication lists with quite effective search features:

• Elsevier’s Scope
• Google Scholar

Of course, these tools may be more or less effective depending on knowledge fields. There might be even better ones for your specific topic of research; you can learn about them from more experienced colleagues or mentors.

Find out how FINER research framework can help you formulate your research question.

Literature Gap

The expression “literature gap” is used with the same intention as “research gap.” When there is a gap in the research itself, there will also naturally be a gap in the literature. Nevertheless, it is important to stress out the importance of language or text formulations that can help identify a research/literature gap or, on the other hand, making clear that a research gap is being addressed.

When looking for research gaps across publications you may have noticed sentences like:

…has/have not been… (studied/reported/elucidated) …is required/needed… …the key question is/remains… …it is important to address…

These expressions often indicate gaps; issues or topics related to the main question that still hasn’t been subject to a scientific study. Therefore, it is important to take notice of them: who knows if one of these sentences is hiding your way to fame.

Language Editing Services by Elsevier Author Services:

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Identifying the gap

Research involves highlighting the questions that remain unanswered in your area of research. This is often referred to as ‘identifying the gap’ in the literature and tells the reader what areas need further investigation in your research area. Identifying ‘the gap’ in your research is fundamental to finding your position in an ongoing conversation by deciding how much you accept, question, or reject the claims that your sources make.

When you start to write about that research, you need to figure out how to signal that position, as you quote, summarize, or paraphrase from your sources.

Read the following text and note the way the researcher identifies the gap in the research as a way of positioning themselves in the research field.

This research project sets out to discover if an experience of Antarctica, specifically mine, could be interpreted through the creation of souvenirs and jewellery. Although Antarctica is considered to be a very remote place it has a long and significant history of science and exploration and most recently has become the destination for tourism [a] . However, unlike most tourist destinations Antarctica has not been memorialised through jewellery and souvenirs in the way of historic tourist locations in the world [b]. Throughout Antarctica’s history explorers have painted images and more recently documented it through photography [c] . Whalers and fishermen have made their own representations of this isolated and uninhabited continent, however, none of these matches the proliferation of souvenirs that have been produced to provide memories and reminders of Europe for example during the times of the Grand Tour or the commonly available souvenirs of popular resorts, sites and locations today [d] .

Excerpt from Kirsten Haydon’s dissertation  Antarctic landscapes in the souvenir and jewellery  (used with permission)

Check your understanding

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Library Guide to Capstone Literature Reviews: Find a Research Gap

Find a research gap: tips to get started.

Finding a research gap is not an easy process and there is no one linear path. These tips and suggestions are just examples of possible ways to begin. 

In Ph.D. dissertations, students identify a gap in research. In other programs, students identify a gap in practice. The literature review for a gap in practice will show the context of the problem and the current state of the research. 

Research gap definition

A research gap exists when:

• a question or problem has not been answered by existing studies/research in the field 
• a concept or new idea has not been studied at all
• all the existing literature on a topic is outdated 
• a specific population/location/age group etc has not been studied 

A research gap should be:

• grounded in the literature
• amenable to scientific study
• Litmus Test for a Doctoral-Level Research Problem (Word) This tool helps students determine if they have identified a doctoral level research problem.

Identify a research gap

To find a gap you must become very familiar with a particular field of study. This will involve a lot of research and reading, because a gap is defined by what does (and does not) surround it.

• Search the research literature and dissertations (search all university dissertations, not just Walden!).
• Understand your topic! Review background information in books and encyclopedias . 
• Look for literature reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses.
• Take notes on concepts, themes, and subject terms . 
• Look closely at each article's limitations, conclusions, and recommendations for future research. 
• Organize, analyze, and repeat! 

• Quick Answer: How do I find dissertations on a topic?

Start with broad searches

Use the Library Search (formerly Thoreau)  to do a broad search with just one concept at a time . Broad searches give you an idea of the academic conversation surrounding your topic.

• Try the terms you know (keywords) first.
• Look at the Subject Terms (controlled language) to brainstorm terms. 
• Subject terms help you understand what terms are most used, and what other terms to try.
• No matter what your topic is, not every researcher will be using the same terms. Keep an eye open for additional ways to describe your topic.
• Guide: Subject Terms & Index Searches: Index Overview

Keep a list of terms

• Create a list of terms
• Example list of terms

This list will be a record of what terms are: 

• related to or represent your topic
• synonyms or antonyms
• more or less commonly used
• keywords (natural language) or subject terms (controlled language)
• Synonyms & antonyms (database search skills)
• Turn keywords into subject terms

Term I started with:

culturally aware 

Subject terms I discovered:

cultural awareness (SU) 

cultural sensitivity (SU) 

cultural competence (SU) 

Search with different combinations of terms

• Combine search terms list
• Combine search terms table
• Video: Search by Themes

Since a research gap is defined by the absence of research on a topic, you will search for articles on everything that relates to your topic. 

• List out all the themes related to your gap.
• Search different combinations of the themes as you discover them (include search by theme video at bottom) 

For example, suppose your research gap is on the work-life balance of tenured and tenure-track women in engineering professions. In that case, you might try searching different combinations of concepts, such as: 

• women and STEM 
• STEM or science or technology or engineering or mathematics
• female engineering professors 
• tenure-track women in STEM
• work-life balance and women in STEM
• work-life balance and women professors
• work-life balance and tenure 

Topic adapted from one of the award winning Walden dissertations. 

• Walden University Award Winning Dissertations
• Gossage, Lily Giang-Tien, "Work-Life Balance of Tenured and Tenure-Track Women Engineering Professors" (2019). Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies. 6435.

Break your topic into themes and try combining the terms from different themes in different ways. For example: 

Theme 1 and Theme 4

Theme 2 and Theme 1

Theme 3 and Theme 4

Video: Search by Themes (YouTube)

(2 min 40 sec) Recorded April 2014 Transcript

Track where more research is needed

Most research articles will identify where more research is needed. To identify research trends, use the literature review matrix to track where further research is needed. 

• Download or create your own Literature Review Matrix (examples in links below).
• Do some general database searches on broad topics.
• Find an article that looks interesting.
• When you read the article, pay attention to the conclusions and limitations sections.
• Use the Literature Review Matrix to track where  'more research is needed' or 'further research needed'. NOTE:  you might need to add a column to the template.
• As you fill in the matrix you should see trends where more research is needed.

There is no consistent section in research articles where the authors identify where more research is needed. Pay attention to these sections: 

• limitations
• conclusions
• recommendations for future research 
• Literature Review Matrix Templates: learn how to keep a record of what you have read
• Literature Review Matrix (Excel) with color coding Sample template for organizing and synthesizing your research
• Previous Page: Scope
• Next Page: Get & Stay Organized
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Research Help

Gaps in the literature.

Gaps in the literature are missing pieces or insufficient information in the published research on a topic. These are areas that have opportunities for further research because they are unexplored, under-explored, or outdated. 

Finding Gaps

Gaps can be missing or incomplete:

• Population or sample: size, type, location etc…
• Research methods: qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
• Data collection or analysis
• Research variables or conditions

Conduct a thorough literature search to find a broad range of research articles on your topic. Search research databases ;  you can find recommended databases for your subject area in  research by subject  for your course or program.

Identifying Gaps

If you do not find articles in your literature search, this may indicate a gap.

If you do find articles, the goal is to find a gap for contributing new research. Authors signal that there is a gap using words such as:

• Has not been clarified, studied, reported, or elucidated
• Further research is required or needed
• Is not well reported
• Suggestions for further research
• Key question is or remains
• It is important to address
• Poorly understood or known
• Lack of studies
• These findings provide valuable insights into the potential benefits of mindfulness-based interventions for stress management,however, further study is needed to address several limitations and extend our understanding in this area .
• While this study provides preliminary evidence of the potential efficacy of VRET in reducing PTSD symptoms, several aspects related to its implementation and specific treatment outcomes  remain inadequately clarified, highlighting the need for further research .
• Although the studies reviewed provide valuable insights into the potential effects of climate change on species composition and ecosystem functioning.  The question of how climate change will interact with other anthropogenic stressors to influence the resilience and adaptive capacity of tropical rainforest ecosystems remains unanswered, highlighting the need for further research .

Questions & Help

If you have questions on this, or another, topic, contact a librarian for help!

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Introduction

The Creating a Research Space [C.A.R.S.] Model was developed by John Swales based upon his analysis of journal articles representing a variety of discipline-based writing practices. His model attempts to explain and describe the organizational pattern of writing the introduction to scholarly research studies. Following the C.A.R.S. Model can be useful approach because it can help you to: 1) begin the writing process [getting started is often the most difficult task]; 2) understand the way in which an introduction sets the stage for the rest of your paper; and, 3) assess how the introduction fits within the larger scope of your study. The model assumes that writers follow a general organizational pattern in response to two types of challenges [“competitions”] relating to establishing a presence within a particular domain of research: 1) the competition to create a rhetorical space and, 2) the competition to attract readers into that space. The model proposes three actions [Swales calls them “moves”], accompanied by specific steps, that reflect the development of an effective introduction for a research paper. These “moves” and steps can be used as a template for writing the introduction to your own social sciences research papers.

"Introductions." The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Coffin, Caroline and Rupert Wegerif. “How to Write a Standard Research Article.” Inspiring Academic Practice at the University of Exeter; Kayfetz, Janet. "Academic Writing Workshop." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. "The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks. 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004.

Creating a Research Space Move 1: Establishing a Territory [the situation] This is generally accomplished in two ways: by demonstrating that a general area of research is important, critical, interesting, problematic, relevant, or otherwise worthy of investigation and by introducing and reviewing key sources of prior research in that area to show where gaps exist or where prior research has been inadequate in addressing the research problem. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1 -- Claiming importance of, and/or  [writing action = describing the research problem and providing evidence to support why the topic is important to study]
• Step 2 -- Making topic generalizations, and/or  [writing action = providing statements about the current state of knowledge, consensus, practice or description of phenomena]
• Step 3 -- Reviewing items of previous research  [writing action = synthesize prior research that further supports the need to study the research problem; this is not a literature review but more a reflection of key studies that have touched upon but perhaps not fully addressed the topic]

Move 2: Establishing a Niche [the problem] This action refers to making a clear and cogent argument that your particular piece of research is important and possesses value. This can be done by indicating a specific gap in previous research, by challenging a broadly accepted assumption, by raising a question, a hypothesis, or need, or by extending previous knowledge in some way. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1a -- Counter-claiming, or  [writing action = introduce an opposing viewpoint or perspective or identify a gap in prior research that you believe has weakened or undermined the prevailing argument]
• Step 1b -- Indicating a gap, or  [writing action = develop the research problem around a gap or understudied area of the literature]
• Step 1c -- Question-raising, or  [writing action = similar to gap identification, this involves presenting key questions about the consequences of gaps in prior research that will be addressed by your study. For example, one could state, “Despite prior observations of voter behavior in local elections in urban Detroit, it remains unclear why do some single mothers choose to avoid....”]
• Step 1d -- Continuing a tradition  [writing action = extend prior research to expand upon or clarify a research problem. This is often signaled with logical connecting terminology, such as, “hence,” “therefore,” “consequently,” “thus” or language that indicates a need. For example, one could state, “Consequently, these factors need to examined in more detail....” or “Evidence suggests an interesting correlation, therefore, it is desirable to survey different respondents....”]

Move 3: Occupying the Niche [the solution] The final "move" is to announce the means by which your study will contribute new knowledge or new understanding in contrast to prior research on the topic. This is also where you describe the remaining organizational structure of the paper. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1a -- Outlining purposes, or  [writing action = answering the “So What?” question. Explain in clear language the objectives of your study]
• Step 1b -- Announcing present research [writing action = describe the purpose of your study in terms of what the research is going to do or accomplish. In the social sciences, the “So What?” question still needs to addressed]
• Step 2 -- Announcing principle findings  [writing action = present a brief, general summary of key findings written, such as, “The findings indicate a need for...,” or “The research suggests four approaches to....”]
• Step 3 -- Indicating article structure  [writing action = state how the remainder of your paper is organized]

"Introductions." The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Atai, Mahmood Reza. “Exploring Subdisciplinary Variations and Generic Structure of Applied Linguistics Research Article Introductions Using CARS Model.” The Journal of Applied Linguistics 2 (Fall 2009): 26-51; Chanel, Dana. "Research Article Introductions in Cultural Studies: A Genre Analysis Explorationn of Rhetorical Structure." The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes 2 (2014): 1-20; Coffin, Caroline and Rupert Wegerif. “How to Write a Standard Research Article.” Inspiring Academic Practice at the University of Exeter; Kayfetz, Janet. "Academic Writing Workshop." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. "The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004; Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990; Chapter 5: Beginning Work. In Writing for Peer Reviewed Journals: Strategies for Getting Published . Pat Thomson and Barbara Kamler. (New York: Routledge, 2013), pp. 93-96.

Writing Tip

Swales showed that establishing a research niche [move 2] is often signaled by specific terminology that expresses a contrasting viewpoint, a critical evaluation of gaps in the literature, or a perceived weakness in prior research. The purpose of using these words is to draw a clear distinction between perceived deficiencies in previous studies and the research you are presenting that is intended to help resolve these deficiencies. Below is a table of common words used by authors.

NOTE: You may prefer not to adopt a negative stance in your writing when placing it within the context of prior research. In such cases, an alternative approach is to utilize a neutral, contrastive statement that expresses a new perspective without giving the appearance of trying to diminish the validity of other people's research. Examples of how to take a more neutral contrasting stance can be achieved in the following ways, with A representing the findings of prior research, B representing your research problem, and X representing one or more variables that have been investigated.

• Prior research has focused primarily on A , rather than on B ...
• Prior research into A can be beneficial but to rectify X , it is important to examine B ...
• These studies have placed an emphasis in the areas of A as opposed to describing B ...
• While prior studies have examined A , it may be preferable to contemplate the impact of B ...
• After consideration of A , it is important to also distinguish B ...
• The study of A has been thorough, but changing circumstances related to X support a need for examining [or revisiting] B ...
• Although research has been devoted to A , less attention has been paid to B ...
• Earlier research offers insights into the need for A , though consideration of B would be particularly helpful to...

In each of these example statements, what follows the ellipsis is the justification for designing a study that approaches the problem in the way that contrasts with prior research but which does not devalue its ongoing contributions to current knowledge and understanding.

Dretske, Fred I. “Contrastive Statements.” The Philosophical Review 81 (October 1972): 411-437; Kayfetz, Janet. "Academic Writing Workshop." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. "The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990

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FAQ: What is a research gap and how do I find one?

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Last Updated: Jun 27, 2023 Views: 478241

What is a research gap.

A research gap is a question or a problem that has not been answered by any of the existing studies or research within your field. Sometimes, a research gap exists when there is a concept or new idea that hasn't been studied at all. Sometimes you'll find a research gap if all the existing research is outdated and in need of new/updated research (studies on Internet use in 2001, for example). Or, perhaps a specific population has not been well studied (perhaps there are plenty of studies on teenagers and video games, but not enough studies on toddlers and video games, for example). These are just a few examples, but any research gap you find is an area where more studies and more research need to be conducted. Please view this video clip from our Sage Research Methods database for more helpful information: How Do You Identify Gaps in Literature?

How do I find one?

It will take a lot of research and reading.  You'll need to be very familiar with all the studies that have already been done, and what those studies contributed to the overall body of knowledge about that topic. Make a list of any questions you have about your topic and then do some research to see if those questions have already been answered satisfactorily. If they haven't, perhaps you've discovered a gap!  Here are some strategies you can use to make the most of your time:

• One useful trick is to look at the “suggestions for future research” or conclusion section of existing studies on your topic. Many times, the authors will identify areas where they think a research gap exists, and what studies they think need to be done in the future.
• As you are researching, you will most likely come across citations for seminal works in your research field. These are the research studies that you see mentioned again and again in the literature.  In addition to finding those and reading them, you can use a database like Web of Science to follow the research trail and discover all the other articles that have cited these. See the FAQ: I found the perfect article for my paper. How do I find other articles and books that have cited it? on how to do this. One way to quickly track down these seminal works is to use a database like SAGE Navigator, a social sciences literature review tool. It is one of the products available via our SAGE Knowledge database.
• In the PsycINFO and PsycARTICLES databases, you can select literature review, systematic review, and meta analysis under the Methodology section in the advanced search to quickly locate these. See the FAQ: Where can I find a qualitative or quantitative study? for more information on how to find the Methodology section in these two databases.
• In CINAHL , you can select Systematic review under the Publication Type field in the advanced search. 
• In Web of Science , check the box beside Review under the Document Type heading in the “Refine Results” sidebar to the right of the list of search hits.
• If the database you are searching does not offer a way to filter your results by document type, publication type, or methodology in the advanced search, you can include these phrases (“literature reviews,” meta-analyses, or “systematic reviews”) in your search string.  For example, “video games” AND “literature reviews” could be a possible search that you could try.

Please give these suggestions a try and contact a librarian for additional assistance.

Content authored by: GS

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From research discovery to gap finding

ResGap is an application that helps you identify research gaps quickly and easily, specifically it:

• Provides a quick and comprehensive overview of your research topic.
• Finds the most cited publications, authors, journals and refereed outlets in your research area.
• Visualises how topics in your area have evolved over time, showing topics that have increased or decreased in appearance.
• Identifies research gaps by comparing different sets of literature (i.e. academic vs practitioner publications).

ResGap showcases research where the application was used:

ResGap showcases research conducted in a variety of research areas with diverse collaborators across the globe. This research applies the ResGap tool and associated methodologies, e.g. entity-linking, machine learning, text mining, natural language processing, etc.

Browse examples below:

• environmental accounting
• interdisciplinary research maps
• digital disruption and digital transformation
• trending topics in the top Information System journals from 1996 to 2017

Follow the ResGap blog for current updates.

Researchers

Whether you are a senior researcher or are just embarking on an academic career, ResGap can speed up your data analysis for literature reviews.

ResGap can help you to identify, for example:

• which are the most important topics within an area of study
• how research trends evolve over time
• which topics are being explored extensively, and which are possibly being overlooked
• which are the “hot” topics for top journals

Institutions

ResGap helps organisations determine where new research should be focused. The tool helps identify gaps and helps build a case for the development or expansion of research centres or departments.

Curricula are continuously evolving and must reflect the most up to date research. ResGap can highlight trends in the relevant literature, helping to identify learning objectives which may be overlooked or inadequately covered in course materials. As a ResGap user, you will have access to a bank of data covering 6,000+ published articles (from 1999 to 2017), enabling you to track the progression & popularity of published topics, which should inform curriculum development.

Empower your academic work and research with an automated, intelligent and efficient assistant which can help you identify relevant research gaps.

With ResGap you can simply, efficiently and reliably identify research trends, finding which topics in your area of interest are salient, emergent or waning. Efficiently comparing literature at scale while drawing reliable conclusions which assist you in your academic research, ResGap can help you uncover unmet research needs and more.

Our portal shows research trends of topics appearing in Information Systems journals (basket of 8). ResGap consolidates and groups data on over 6,000 actual publications (from 1996 until 2017). This data is then be used to generate a range of accessible graphics and models, allowing you to track the most important topics within your area of study over time.

Once signed into ResGap, you will also have access to a literature-comparison tool which was developed to identify gaps in different sets of literature and offers a wide variety of applications and features.

Dr. Mauricio Marrone – Founder

An Associate Professor at Macquarie University (Sydney, Australia) with interests in Information Systems, Research Methods, Innovation Diffusion and Text Analytics, Mauricio originally developed ResGap as a means to identify gaps in the research in his field. It soon became apparent that the portal had broader applications.

Tim Chard – Developer

Assoc. prof. mark dras – advisor, yvonne black – outreach manager.

Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

How to Write the First Draft of a Research Paper with Paperpal? 

Do you encounter writer’s block during the first draft of a research paper? Crafting a clear outline from your initial ideas and notes can feel like a daunting first hurdle. Many researchers and students struggle with the initial stages of research paper writing. Uncertainties about content structure, information selection, and weaving complex findings into a cohesive narrative can lead to staring at a blank page. 

Table of Contents

• AI-generated outlines with a personalized approach 
• Identify gaps to strengthen your research paper 
• Step 1: Creating a research paper outline  
• Step 2: Breaking down the outline into sections  
• Step 3: Drafting the research paper  

A glimpse into academic forums and social media gives a clear picture that many researchers across the world go through similar problems while writing the first draft of a research paper. Where to begin? What should I write? How to begin? How to compile 2-3+ years of research into a 2500 or 5000-word research paper? If you’re grappling with these concerns, do not worry. You’re not alone.   

Researchers face a mountain of work when it comes to writing papers. Paperpal decided to tackle this challenge and, in the process, discovered some fascinating writing habits: 

• Start verbally: Some researchers find their flow by talking through their ideas first. They record themselves or brainstorm with a friend, then use these spoken notes as a springboard for their draft. 
• Write on the go: Others prioritize keeping their thoughts flowing freely. They write in bursts, leaving the structuring and editing for later. 
• Divide and Conquer: For some, especially new researchers, a structured approach works best. They break the paper into sections, focusing on building each one in detail before assembling the final draft. 
• Outlines: Many researchers swear by outlines. Outlines provide a roadmap, complete with headings, subheadings, and key points. This saves time in the long run by eliminating the need for major restructuring later. You can focus on polishing the language and adding academic vocabulary during the final edit . 

Inspired by the outline method, Paperpal set out to create a tool that would give researchers a head start. This led to the development of Paperpal’s AI-generated outlines, which build a rough skeleton for your draft, allowing you to flesh out each section with confidence. 

How do Paperpal’s AI-generated outlines help you write the first draft 2x faster?   

Unlike traditional outlining methods, Paperpal doesn’t just provide a generic structure. Paperpal’s AI-generated outlines identify the key topics that form the backbone of your draft, providing a clear structure without sacrificing crucial elements. 

AI-generated outlines with a personalized approach

Paperpal goes beyond just suggesting topics. It seamlessly integrates your input, including notes, ideas, and research findings. This ensures the generated outline reflects your unique perspective and aligns perfectly with your project goals. This personalized approach not only streamlines the drafting process but also fosters a sense of ownership, keeping you engaged and motivated. 

Identify gaps to strengthen your research paper

After creating an outline based on your notes, Paperpal takes things a step further by helping you flesh out each section with content suggestions. Let’s say you’re working on the introduction of your research paper . Paperpal not only analyzes your notes to generate an outline, but it also identifies potential gaps in your research. It can then suggest content additions like knowledge gaps, research questions, and rationale statements to address those weaknesses. This comprehensive support streamlines the writing process for your first draft, making it smoother and more effortless. 

Researchers who have incorporated Paperpal into their workflow, have achieved higher levels of academic writing productivity . The result? Producing the first draft of a research paper in a shorter time frame, without making it completely AI-driven. 

How to write the first draft of a research paper with Paperpal?  

Paperpal redefines the way researchers approach academic writing, transforming the once-daunting task of drafting into a breeze. Here’s a walkthrough of writing the first draft of a research paper with Paperpal.  

Step 1: Creating a research paper outline

• Sign- up to Paperpal and open a new or existing document.  
• Navigate to Templates , select Outlines and choose Research Article to begin.  
• Fill out the necessary details in the required fields according to your needs. Add your research notes to the Brief Description section and click on Generate .  

Paperpal gets you started on the right foot by analyzing your information and generating a comprehensive outline. This roadmap for your draft breaks down the content into clear, logical sections: 

• Background: Sets the context for your research. 
• Topic Importance: Highlights the significance of your research area. 
• Existing Knowledge: Summarizes what’s already known about the topic. 
• Knowledge Gap: Identifies areas where further research is needed. 
• Rationale: Explains why your research is important to address the gap. 
• Research Question: Formulates the specific question your research aims to answer. 
• Aim/Objective: Defines the overall goals and desired outcomes of your research. 
• Hypothesis: Makes a prediction about the expected results of your study (optional, not all research papers require a hypothesis). 

Paperpal’s outline provides a head-start to structure and write your research paper. This process helps in laying a strong foundation for your writing and refining it effortlessly.  

Step 2: Breaking down the outline into sections

Once you have the initial outline, you can further refine it by dividing it into subsections. This helps you explore each aspect of your research in detail, ensuring thorough coverage of your topic. You can choose from pre-built sections like Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion and start developing one by one.  

Step 3: Drafting the research paper

Start your research paper’s draft based on the outline and custom section enhancements. During the writing phase, Paperpal also offers insights into using its features:   

• Incorporating references and additional content as required  
• Rephrasing, shortening sentences, and refining language and structure using Paperpal’s Edit and Rewrite options  
• Refining your draft by adding citations and specific information relevant to the topic via Paperpal Research. This ensures originality, and clarity, and adds value to your writing.  

By streamlining the journey from raw research to a polished draft, Paperpal helps students, researchers, and academics overcome common writing hurdles and achieve greater productivity. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or a student, Paperpal serves as a trusted companion, guiding you through each stage of the drafting process. Unlock academic writing potential with Paperpal. Get your free Paperpal account today!  

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• 7 Ways to Improve Your Academic Writing Process
• How to Paraphrase Research Papers Effectively
• How Long Should a Chapter Be?
• How to Use Paperpal to Generate Emails & Cover Letters?

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Jessica Grose

The gender pay gap is a culture problem.

By Jessica Grose

Opinion Writer

American women made significant progress toward closing the gender pay gap in the second half of the 20th century, but that gap has barely budged over the past two decades. In 2022, according to Pew Research , “American women typically earned 82 cents for every dollar earned by men. That was about the same as in 2002, when they earned 80 cents to the dollar.”

In a country where women are now a (slight) majority of the college-educated labor force and the annual earnings median for college degree holders is 55 percent more than that of those with high school diplomas, the stickiness of this gap is frustrating. While there are several factors at play, one of the key contributors to the gap is what’s known as the motherhood penalty and the corresponding fatherhood premium: Women’s pay decreases when they have children, while men’s pay increases.

This dynamic isn’t just an American phenomenon. “In general, women don’t recover. They don’t catch back up to men, even many years after first childbirth,” said Henrik Kleven, the lead author of a 2023 National Bureau of Economic Research working paper, “ The Child Penalty Atlas ,” in which he and his co-authors, Camille Landais and Gabriel Leite-Mariante, reviewed wage gap data from 134 countries. “Now, that basic pattern is true essentially everywhere, but the quantitative magnitudes of the effects vary greatly across countries,” he told me recently.

Somewhat surprisingly to me, his research, which builds on years of earlier scholarship, suggests that a country’s family policy has relatively little to do with how big the parenthood pay gap is. A society’s culture and norms seem to be much bigger factors in how big the motherhood penalty is: The more egalitarian the culture, the lower the gap.

Kleven told me that sometimes countries that seem superficially similar in terms of income levels, development, family policy and geography have very different pay gaps. (We see the same interplay in American states , with the child penalty 21 percent in Vermont and 61 percent in Utah.) Even countries right next to each other can have wildly different gaps. Spain’s child pay gap is much bigger than Portugal’s, and Germany’s is bigger than Denmark’s. Central European countries have “some of the highest child penalties we see anywhere in the world,” Kleven said. Scandinavian countries have some of the lowest.

Let’s look at Austria. It has generous family leave policies and child care subsidies , especially by American standards. But in a 2022 working paper, “Do Family Policies Reduce Gender Inequality? Evidence From 60 Years of Policy Experimentation,” Kleven and his co-authors’ analysis showed “that the enormous expansions of parental leave and child care subsidies have had virtually no impact on gender convergence.” Despite an influx of Austrian women into the work force in the past 50 or so years, the relatively large child penalty can be at least partly explained by gender attitudes and norms.

According to data from the 2012 wave of the International Social Survey Program that was analyzed in the paper, more than 60 percent of Austrians agreed that when a mother works for pay, her young children probably suffer. By comparison, those in the more egalitarian Scandinavian countries felt differently. Fewer than 20 percent of Danes agreed that children suffer when their mothers work outside the home. Though that data is more than a decade old, those kinds of attitudes die hard and are backed up by newer research .

Speaking of Danes: A new paper from economists at Lund University, the University of Amsterdam and Aarhus University found that for a subset of Danish women, the motherhood penalty disappeared in the long run and, in limited circumstances, turned into a premium. The paper followed the earnings trajectory of more than 18,000 child-free women who received in vitro fertilization treatment in Denmark, where, Time magazine reported in 2019, “the cost of three cycles of I.V.F. for a first child is covered by the tax-financed public health service” for women up to the age of 40. The study’s authors then compared the women who had successful first-round I.V.F. treatments and ended up with children and the women who didn’t.

The women who had successful I.V.F. treatments had a near-term child penalty, and their earnings dropped below those of the women with unsuccessful treatments. “By Year 10,” though, according to the study, “successfully treated women earn as much as unsuccessfully treated women. And by Year 15, successfully treated women earn slightly more. This earnings advantage persists throughout the remainder of the study period.” Men’s earnings weren’t affected, regardless of whether they became parents.

In my mind, one limitation in interpreting these findings is that I.V.F. pregnancies are planned, while over 40 percent of pregnancies in the United States, for example, are unplanned . One could imagine that the women pursuing I.V.F. at various income levels might be better set up to weather a career interruption than women who have surprise pregnancies. But it is still a thought-provoking finding that complicates previous child gap research.

In the United States, where gender norms are less progressive than in Scandinavia and the “costs for a single cycle of I.V.F. have recently been estimated to range from $15,000 to $20,000 and can exceed $30,000,” according to the Department of Health and Human Services, we find a very different experience with the motherhood pay gap than in Denmark. And it’s a much less happy picture.

A paper published last year in the scientific journal PNAS looked at 22 years of administrative data from the United States and found “surprisingly robust” motherhood penalties, even, unfortunately, in circumstances in which you might expect that the penalty would be slim, like in female-breadwinner families:

On average, women earn 57 percent more than men in these female-breadwinner families. Were couples simply seeking to maximize household income conditional on a certain amount of time investment in children, we would expect to see fatherhood penalties. Instead, we see one of the largest motherhood penalties in female-breadwinner families. Indeed, higher-earning women experience a 60 percent drop from prechildbirth earnings relative to their lower-earning male partner and the highest of our various sample stratifications. The pattern we find for the United States is the polar opposite of that for Sweden.

There was also no difference for mothers in companies that were female led or had a majority of female employees. “If anything,” according to the authors, “this motherhood penalty grows faster over time at firms headed by women. On the whole, our findings are discouraging even relative to the existing work on motherhood penalties.”

I asked one of the paper’s co-authors, Cecilia Machado , an economist at the Getulio Vargas Foundation, to summarize the state of the motherhood penalty in the United States. If we wanted to take steps to improve the pay gap as a society, what would we do? Via email, she said that there might be a limited scope of what public policy and workplace policy can do. But she added that federal and workplace policy that encouraged both men and women to take paid parental leave could help; creating the political conditions for involved fatherhood in a child’s first year can set egalitarian patterns that last a lifetime. Still, Machado said, “Both of these combined are important policies, but maybe them alone, by themselves, will not work if we don’t see culture and gender norms changing.”

My take is that we’re in a time when cultural norms around motherhood in the United States seem particularly contradictory and in flux. While a record high percentage of women with children under 5 work, a large subset of Americans still thinks society would be better off if they didn’t.

In an email, Jessica Calarco, a sociologist at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and the author of “ Holding It Together: How Women Became America’s Safety Net, ” said:

I asked 2,000 parents from across the U.S., “Do you think children are better off if their mother is home and doesn’t hold a job, or are children just as well off if their mother works for pay?” Fifty-two percent of dads and 42 percent of moms said it’s better for kids if their moms aren’t working for pay. Those attitudes are somewhat more common among Republicans (60 percent of dads and 48 percent of moms), but they’re pretty common among Democrats, too (53 percent of dads and 41 percent of moms).

Until we reconcile our cultural ambivalence toward working mothers, I don’t think the gap is going to get any better. Maybe in another 20 years, we’ll get another two cents.

An earlier version of this article included a quotation from Jessica Calarco that misstated a finding from her work. The percentage of mothers surveyed who said it’s better for children if their mothers don’t work for pay is 42 percent, not 47 percent.

How we handle corrections

Jessica Grose is an Opinion writer for The Times, covering family, religion, education, culture and the way we live now.

• Open access
• Published: 03 June 2024

Continue nursing education: an action research study on the implementation of a nursing training program using the Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory

• MingYan Shen 1 , 2 &
• ZhiXian Feng 1 , 2  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  610 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

To address the gap in effective nursing training for quality management, this study aims to implement and assess a nursing training program based on the Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory, utilizing action research to enhance the practicality and effectiveness of training outcomes.

The study involved the formation of a dedicated training team, with program development informed by an extensive situation analysis and literature review. Key focus areas included motivation to transfer, learning environment, and transfer design. The program was implemented in a structured four-step process: plan, action, observation, reflection.

Over a 11-month period, 22 nurses completed 14 h of theoretical training and 18 h of practical training with a 100% attendance rate and 97.75% satisfaction rate. The nursing team successfully led and completed 22 quality improvement projects, attaining a practical level of application. Quality management implementation difficulties, literature review, current situation analysis, cause analysis, formulation of plans, implementation plans, and report writing showed significant improvement and statistical significance after training.

The study confirms the efficacy of action research guided by Holton’s model in significantly enhancing the capabilities of nursing staff in executing quality improvement projects, thereby improving the overall quality of nursing training. Future research should focus on refining the training program through long-term observation, developing a multidimensional evaluation index system, exploring training experiences qualitatively, and investigating the personality characteristics of nurses to enhance training transfer effects.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The “Medical Quality Management Measures“ [ 1 ] and “Accreditation Standards for Tertiary Hospitals (2020 Edition)” [ 2 ] both emphasize the importance of using quality management tools in medical institutions to carry out effective quality management [ 3 ]. However, there is a notable gap in translating theoretical training into effective, practical application in clinical settings [ 4 ]. This gap is further highlighted in the context of healthcare quality management, as evidenced in studies [ 5 ] which demonstrate the universality of these challenges across healthcare systems worldwide.

Addressing this issue, contemporary literature calls for innovative and effective training methods that transition from passive knowledge acquisition to active skill application [ 6 ]. The Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory [ 7 ] provides a framework focusing on key factors such as motivation, learning environment, and transfer design [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. This study aims to implement a nursing training program based on the Holton model, using an action research methodology to bridge the theoretical-practical gap in nursing education.

Quality management training for clinical nurses has predominantly been characterized by short-term theoretical lectures, a format that often fails to foster deep engagement and lasting awareness among nursing personnel [ 10 ]. The Quality Indicator Project in Taiwan’s nursing sector, operational for over a decade, demonstrates the effective use of collective intelligence and scientific methodologies to address these challenges [ 11 ]. The proposed study responds to the need for training programs that not only impart knowledge but also ensure the practical application of skills in real-world nursing settings, thereby contributing to transformative changes within the healthcare system [ 12 ].

In April 2021, the Nursing Education Department of our hospital launched a quality improvement project training program for nurses. The initiation of this study is underpinned by the evident disconnect between theoretical training and the practical challenges nurses face in implementing quality management initiatives, a gap also identified in the work [ 13 ]. By exploring the efficacy of the Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory, this study seeks to enhance the practical application of training and significantly contribute to the field of nursing education and quality management in healthcare.

Developing a nursing training program with the Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory

Establishing a research team and assigning roles.

There are 10 members in the group who serve as both researchers and participants, aiming to investigate training process issues and solutions. The roles within the group are as follows: the deputy dean in charge of nursing is responsible for program review and organizational support, integrating learning transfer principles in different settings [ 14 ]; the deputy director of the Nursing Education Department handles the design and implementation of the training program, utilizing double-loop learning for training transfer [ 15 ]; the deputy director of the Nursing Department oversees quality control and project evaluation, ensuring integration of evidence-based practices and technology [ 16 ] and the deputy director of the Quality Management Office provides methodological guidance. The remaining members consist of 4 faculty members possessing significant university teaching experience and practical expertise in quality control projects, and 2 additional members who are jointly responsible for educational affairs, data collection, and analysis. Additionally, to ensure comprehensive pedagogical guidance in this training, professors specializing in nursing pedagogy have been specifically invited to provide expertise on educational methodology.

Current situation survey

Based on the Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory (refer to Fig.  1 ), the appropriate levels of Motivation to Improve Work Through Learning (MTIWL), learning environment, and transfer design are crucial in facilitating changes in individual performance, thereby influencing organizational outcomes [ 17 , 18 ]. Motivation to Improve Work Through Learning (MTIWL) is closely linked to expectation theory, fairness theory, and goal-setting theory, significantly impacting the positive transfer of training [ 19 ]. Learning environment encompasses environmental factors that either hinder or promote the application of learned knowledge in actual work settings [ 20 ]. Transfer design, as a pivotal component, includes training program design and organizational planning.

To conduct the survey, the research team retrieved 26 quality improvement reports from the nursing quality information management system, which were generated by nursing units in 2020. A checklist was formulated, and a retrospective evaluation was conducted across eight aspects, namely, team participation, topic selection feasibility, method accuracy, indicator scientificity, program implementation rate, effect maintenance, and promotion and application. Methods employed in the evaluation process included report analysis, on-site tracking, personnel interviews, and data review within the quality information management system [ 21 ]. From the perspective of motivation [ 22 ], learning environment [ 23 ], and transfer design, a total of 14 influencing factors were identified. These factors serve as a reference for designing the training plan and encompass the following aspects: lack of awareness regarding importance, low willingness to participate in training, unclear understanding of individual career development, absence of incentive mechanisms, absence of a scientific training organization model, lack of a training quality management model, inadequate literature retrieval skills and support, insufficient availability of practical training materials and resources, incomplete mastery of post-training methods, lack of cultural construction plans, suboptimal communication methods and venues, weak internal organizational atmosphere, inadequate leadership support, and absence of platforms and mechanisms for promoting and applying learned knowledge.

Learning Transfer System Inventory

Development of the training program using the 4W1H approach

Drawing upon Holton’s Learning Transfer System Inventory and the hospital training transfer model diagram, a comprehensive training outline was formulated for the training program [ 24 , 25 ]. The following components were considered:

(1) Training Participants (Who): The training is open for voluntary registration to individuals with an undergraduate degree or above, specifically targeting head nurses, responsible team leaders, and core members of the hospital-level nursing quality control team. Former members who have participated in quality improvement projects such as Plan-Do-Check-Act Circle (PDCA) or Quality control circle (QCC) are also eligible.

(2) Training Objectives (Why): At the individual level, the objectives include enhancing the understanding of quality management concepts, improving the cognitive level and application abilities of project improvement methods, and acquiring the necessary skills for nursing quality improvement project. At the team level, the aim is to enhance effective communication among team members and elevate the overall quality of communication. Moreover, the training seeks to facilitate collaborative efforts in improving the existing nursing quality management system and processes. At the operational level, participants are expected to gain the competence to design, implement, and manage nursing quality improvement project initiatives. Following the training, participants will lead and successfully complete a nursing quality improvement project, which will undergo a rigorous audit.

(3) Training Duration (When): The training program spans a duration of 11 months.

(4) Training Content (What): The program consists of 14 h of theoretical courses and 18 h of practical training sessions, as detailed in Table  1 .

(5) Quality Management Approach (How): To ensure quality throughout the training process, two team members are assigned to monitor the entire training journey. This encompasses evaluating whether quality awareness education, quality management knowledge, and professional skills training are adequately covered. Additionally, attention is given to participants’ learning motivation, the emphasis placed on active participation in training methods, support from hospital management and relevant departments, as well as participants’ satisfaction and assessment results. Please refer to Fig.  2 for a visual representation.

In-house training model from Holton Learning Transfer

Implementation of the nursing project training program using the action research method

The first cycle (april 2021).

In the initial cycle, a total of 22 nurses were included as training participants after a self-registration process and qualification review. The criteria used to select these participants, elaborated in Section Development of the training program using the 4W1H approach, ‘Development of the Training Program,’ were meticulously crafted to capture a broad spectrum of experience, expertise, and functional roles within our hospital’s nursing staff. The primary focus was to investigate their learning motivation. The cycle comprised the following key activities:

(1) Training Objectives: The focus was on understanding the learning motivation of the participating nurses.

(2) Theoretical Training Sessions: A total of 7 theoretical training sessions, spanning 14 class hours, were completed. The contents covered various aspects, including an overview of nursing quality improvement projects, methods for selecting project topics, common tools used in nursing quality improvement projects, effective leadership strategies to promote project practices, literature retrieval and evaluation methods, formulation and promotion of project plans, and writing project reports. Detailed course information, including the title, content, and class hours, is listed in Table  1 . At the end of each training session, a course satisfaction survey was conducted.

(3) Assessment and Reporting: Following the completion of the 7 training sessions, a theoretical assessment on quality management knowledge was conducted. Additionally, nurses were organized to present their plans for special projects to be carried out during the training. Several issues were identified during this cycle:

Incomplete Literature Review Skills: Compared to other quality control tools, nursing quality improvement project places more emphasis on the scientific construction of project plans. The theoretical evaluation and interviews with nurses highlighted the incomplete and challenging nature of their literature review skills.

Insufficient Leadership: Among the participants, 6 individuals were not head nurses, which resulted in a lack of adequate leadership for their respective projects.

Learning environment and Support: The learning environment, as well as the support from hospital management and relevant departments, needed to be strengthened.

Second cycle (may-october 2021)

In response to the issues identified during the first cycle, our approach in the second cycle was both corrective and adaptive, focusing on immediate issues while also setting the stage for addressing any emerging challenges. The team members actively implemented improvements during the second cycle. The key actions taken were as follows:

(1) Establishing an Enabling Organizational Environment: The quality management department took the lead, and multiple departments collaborated in conducting the “Hospital Safety and Quality Red May” activity. This initiative aimed to enhance the overall quality improvement atmosphere within the hospital. Themed articles were also shared through the hospital’s WeChat public account.

(2) Salon-style Training Format: The training sessions were conducted in the form of salons, held in a meeting room specifically prepared for this purpose. The room was arranged with a round table, warm yellow lighting, green plants, and a coffee bar, creating a conducive environment for free, democratic, and equal communication among the participants. The salon topics included revising project topic selection, conducting current situation investigations, facilitating communication and guidance for literature reviews, formulating improvement plans, implementing those plans, and writing project reports. After the projects were presented, quality management experts provided comments and analysis, promoting the transformation of training outcomes from mere memory and understanding to higher-level abilities such as application, analysis, and creativity.

(3) Continuous Support Services: Various support services were provided to ensure ongoing assistance. This included assigning nursing postgraduates to aid in literature retrieval and evaluation. Project team members also provided on-site guidance and support, actively engaging in the project improvement process to facilitate training transfer.

(4) Emphasis on Spiritual Encouragement: The Vice President of Nursing Department actively participated in the salons and provided feedback on each occasion. Moreover, the President of the hospital consistently commended the training efforts during the weekly hospital meetings.

Issues identified in this cycle

(1) Inconsistent Ability to Write Project Documents: The proficiency in writing project documents for project improvement varied among participants, and there was a lack of standardized evaluation criteria. This issue had the potential to impact the quality of project dissemination.

(2) Lack of Clarity Regarding the Platform and Mechanism for Training Result Transfer: The platform and mechanisms for transferring training results were not clearly defined, posing a challenge in effectively sharing and disseminating the outcomes of the training.

The third cycle (November 2021-march 2022)

During the third cycle, the following initiatives were undertaken.

(1) Utilizing the “Reporting Standards for Quality Improvement Research (SQUIRE)”, as issued by the US Health Care Promotion Research, to provide guidance for students in writing nursing project improvement reports.

(2) Organizing a hospital-level nursing quality improvement project report meeting to acknowledge and commend outstanding projects.

(3) Compiling the “Compilation of Nursing Quality Improvement Projects” for dissemination and exchange among nurses both within and outside the hospital.

(4) Addressing the issue of inadequate management of indicator monitoring data, a hospital-level quality index management platform was developed. The main evaluation data from the 22 projects were entered into this platform, allowing for continuous monitoring and timely intervention.

Effect evaluation

To assess the efficacy of the training, a diverse set of evaluation metrics, encompassing both outcome and process measures [ 26 ]. These measures can be structured around the four-level training evaluation framework proposed by Donald Kirkpatrick [ 27 ].

Process evaluation

Evaluation method.

To assess the commitment and support within the organization, the process evaluation involved recording the proportion of nurses’ classroom participation time and the presence of leaders during each training session. Additionally, a satisfaction survey was conducted after the training to assess various aspects such as venue layout, time arrangement, training methods, lecturer professionalism, content practicality, and interaction. On-site recycling statistics were also collected for project evaluation purposes.

Evaluation results the results of the process evaluation are as follows

Nurse training participation rate: 100%.

Training satisfaction rate (average): 97.75%.

Proportion of nurses’ participation time in theoretical training sessions (average): 36.88%.

Proportion of nurses’ participation time in salon training sessions (average): 74.23%.

Attendance rate of school-level leaders: 100%.

Results evaluation

Assessment of theoretical knowledge of quality management.

To evaluate the effectiveness in enhancing the trainees’ theoretical knowledge of quality management, the research team conducted assessments before the training, after the first round of implementation, and after the third round of implementation. Assessments to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program were conducted immediately following the first round of implementation, and after the third round of implementation. This dual-timing approach was designed to evaluate both the immediate impact of the training and its sustained effects over time, addressing potential influences of memory decay on the study results. The assessment consisted of a 60-minute examination with different question types, including 30 multiple-choice questions (2 points each), 2 short-answer questions (10 points each), and 1 comprehensive analysis question (20 points). The maximum score achievable was 100 points.

The assessment results are as follows:

Before training (average): 75.05 points.

After the first round of implementation (average): 82.18 points.

After the third round of implementation (average): 90.82 points.

Assessment of difficulty in quality management project implementation

To assess the difficulty of implementing quality management projects, the trainees completed the “Quality Management Project Implementation Difficulty Assessment Form” before and after the training. They self-evaluated 10 aspects using a 5-point scale, with 5 indicating the most difficult and 1 indicating no difficulty. The evaluation results before and after implementation are presented in Table  2 .

Statistically significant differences were found in the following items: literature review, current situation analysis, cause analysis, plan formulation, implementation plan, and report writing. This indicates that the training significantly enhanced the nurses’ confidence and ability to tackle practical challenges.

Evaluation of transfer effect

To assess how effectively the training translated into practical applications. The implementation of the 22 quality improvement projects was evaluated using the application hierarchy analysis table. The specific results are presented in Table  3 .

In addition, the “Nursing Project Guidance Manual” and “Compilation of Nursing Project Improvement Projects” were compiled and distributed to the hospital’s management staff, nurses, and four collaborating hospitals, receiving positive feedback. The lecture titled “Improving Nurses’ Project Improvement Ability Based on the Training Transfer Theory Model” shared experiences with colleagues both within and outside the province in national and provincial teaching sessions in 2022. Furthermore, four papers were published on the subject.

The effectiveness of the training program based on the Holton Learning transfer System Inventory

The level of refined management in hospitals is closely tied to the quality management awareness and skills of frontline medical staff. Quality management training plays a crucial role in improving patient safety management and fostering a culture of quality and safety. Continuous quality improvement is an integral part of nursing management, ensuring that patients receive high-quality and safe nursing care. Compared to the focus of existing literature on the individual performance improvements following nursing training programs [ 28 , 29 , 30 ], our study expands the evaluation framework to include organizational performance metrics. Our research underscores a significantly higher level of organizational engagement as evidenced by the 100% attendance rate of school-level leaders. The publication of four papers related to this study highlights not only individual performance achievements but also significantly broadens the hospital organization’s impact on quality management, leading to meaningful organizational outcomes.

Moreover, our initiative to incorporate indicators of quality projects into a hospital-level evaluation index system post-training signifies a pivotal move towards integrating quality improvement practices into the very fabric of organizational operations. In training programs, it is essential not only to achieve near-transfer, but also to ensure that nurses continuously apply the acquired management skills to their clinical work, thereby enhancing quality, developing their professional value, and improving organizational performance. The Holton learning Transfer System Inventory provides valuable guidance on how to implement training programs and evaluate their training effect.

This study adopts the training transfer model as a framework to explore the mechanisms of “how training works” rather than simply assessing “whether training works [ 31 ].” By examining factors such as Motivation to Improve Work Through Learning (MTIWL), learning environment, and transfer design, the current situation is analyzed, underlying reasons are identified, and relevant literature is reviewed to develop and implement training programs based on the results of a needs survey. While individual transfer motivation originates from within the individual, it is influenced by the transfer atmosphere and design. By revising the nurse promotion system and performance management system and aligning them with career development, nurses’ motivation to participate and engage in active learning has significantly increased [ 32 ]. At the learning environment level, enhancing the training effect involves improving factors such as stimulation and response that correspond to the actual work environment [ 33 ]. This project has garnered attention and support from hospital-level leaders, particularly the nursing dean who regularly visits the training site to provide guidance, which serves as invaluable recognition. Timely publicity and recognition of exemplary project improvement initiatives have also increased awareness and understanding of project knowledge among doctors and nurses, fostering a stronger quality improvement atmosphere within the team.

Transfer design, the most critical component for systematic learning and mastery of quality management tools, is achieved through theoretical lectures, salon exchanges, and project-based training. These approaches allow nurses to gain hands-on experience in project improvement under the guidance of instructors. Throughout the project, nurses connect project management knowledge and skills with practical application, enabling personal growth and organizational development through problem-solving in real work scenarios. Finally, a comprehensive evaluation of the training program was conducted, including assessments of theoretical knowledge, perception of management challenges, and project quality. The results showed high satisfaction among nurses, with a satisfaction rate of 97.75%. The proportion of nurses’ participation time in theoretical and practical training classes was 36.88% and 74.23%, respectively. The average score for theoretical knowledge of quality management increased from 75.05 to 90.82. There was also a significant improvement in the evaluation of the implementation difficulties of quality management projects. Moreover, 22 nurses successfully led the completion of one project improvement project, with six projects focusing on preventing the COVID-19 pandemic, demonstrating valuable crisis response practices.

Action research helps to ensure the quality of organizational management of training

Well-organized training is the basis for ensuring the scientific and standardized development of nursing project improvement activities. According to the survey results of the current situation, there is a lot of room for improvement in the training quality; since it is the first time to apply the Holton training transfer model to the improvement training process of nurses in the hospital, in order to allow the nurses to have sufficient time to implement and evaluate the improvement project, the total training time Set at 11 months, a strong methodology is required to ensure training management during this period. Action research is a research method that closely combines research with solving practical problems in work. It is a research method aimed at solving practical problems through self-reflective exploration in realistic situations, emphasizing the participation of researchers and researchees. Practice, find problems in practice, and adjust the plan in a timely manner. According to the implementation of the first round, it was found that nurses had insufficient literature review skills, insufficient leadership, and lack of support from hospital management and related departments [ 32 ]. In the second round, the training courses were carried out in the form of salons. The project team members went deep into the project to improve on-site guidance, arranged graduate students to assist in document retrieval and evaluation, and promoted the transfer of training; the “Hospital Safety and Quality Red May” activity was carried out, and the vice president of nursing Regularly participate in the salon and make comments. The problems exposed after this round of implementation are the low quality of the project improvement project document, and the unclear platform and mechanism for the transfer of training results. In the third round, the “Reporting Standards for Quality Improvement Research (SQUIRE)” was used to standardize the writing of the report [ 33 ], and the “Compilation of Nursing Project Improvement Projects” was completed, and the main evaluation data of 22 projects were entered into the hospital-level quality index management platform for continuous monitoring and intervention. As of May 2022, the effect maintenance data of each project has reached the target value. It can not only produce useful improvement projects, but also help to promote the dissemination and penetration of quality awareness.

Future research directions

Drawing on the Holton training evaluation model, this study implemented nurse quality improvement project training using action research methodology, resulting in a successful exploration practice, and achieving positive transfer effects. To further advance this research area, the following future research directions are recommended:

Summarize the experiences gained from this action research training and continue to refine and enhance the training program. Through ongoing practice, reflection, and refinement in subsequent training sessions, long-term observation of the transfer effects can be conducted to establish an effective experiential model that can serve as a reference for future initiatives.

Develop a multidimensional evaluation index system for assessing transfer effects. A comprehensive framework that captures various dimensions of transfer, such as knowledge application, skill utilization, and behavior change, should be established. This will enable a more holistic and accurate assessment of the training program’s impact on the participants and the organization.

Conduct qualitative research to explore the training experiences of nurses. By gathering in-depth insights through interviews or focus group discussions, a deeper understanding of the nurses’ perceptions, challenges, and facilitators of training transfer can be obtained. This qualitative exploration will provide valuable information to further refine and tailor the training program to meet the specific needs and preferences of the nurses.

Investigate the personality characteristics of nurses who actively engage in training transfer and consider developing them as internal trainers. By identifying and cultivating nurses with a proactive attitude and a strong inclination towards knowledge application and skill development, the organization can enhance employee participation and initiative. These internal trainers can play a crucial role in motivating their colleagues and driving the transfer of training outcomes into daily practice.

By pursuing these future research directions, the field of healthcare and nursing care can continue to advance in optimizing training programs, enhancing transfer effects, and ultimately improving the quality of care and patient outcomes.

Limitations

The research was conducted with a cohort of 22 nurses and a 10-member research team from Grade 3, Class A hospitals in China Southeast. This specific composition and the relatively small sample size may affect the generalizability of our findings. The experiences and outcomes observed in this study might not fully encapsulate the diverse challenges and environments encountered by nursing professionals in varying healthcare settings. The significant improvements noted in the capabilities of the participating nursing staff underscore the potential impact of the training program. However, the study’s focus on a specific demographic—nurses from high-grade hospitals in a developed urban center—may limit the external validity of the findings.

Conclusions

This study affirms the efficacy of the Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory-based training program, coupled with action research, in significantly advancing nursing quality management practices. The strategic incorporation of motivation to improve work through learning, an enriched learning environment, and thoughtful transfer design significantly boosted the nurses’ engagement, knowledge acquisition, and practical application of quality management tools in their clinical work.

It highlights the importance of continuous learning, organizational support, and methodological flexibility in achieving sustainable improvements in healthcare quality and safety. Future endeavors should aim to expand the scope of this training model to diverse nursing contexts and evaluate its long-term impact on organizational performance and patient care outcomes.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to hospital policy but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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This study was funded by Department of Education of Zhejiang Province, Grant Number jg20220475.

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The following statements specify the individual contributions of each author to the manuscript titled “Continue Nursing Education: An Action Research Study on the Implementation of a Nursing Training Program Using the Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory”:ZhiXian Feng conceived and designed the analysis; led the research team and coordinated the project; critically reviewed and revised the manuscript for important intellectual content; oversaw the implementation of the training program; MingYan Shen conducted the research; collected and organized the data; analyzed and interpreted the data; contributed to the statistical analysis; wrote the initial draft of the manuscript; managed logistics and operational aspects of the study.

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Shen, M., Feng, Z. Continue nursing education: an action research study on the implementation of a nursing training program using the Holton Learning Transfer System Inventory. BMC Med Educ 24 , 610 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05552-6

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Aldi has come out on top again as the cheapest supermarket - by £3.32 for a shop.

The discount chain claimed first place in the latest Which? analysis, once again above rival Lidl, with a 69-item shop costing an average of £121.56. 

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The shopping list used by Which? is made up of the country's most popular and widely available products. It includes branded items like Dolmio sauce and Heinz baked beans, as well as own-brand products. 

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The fight against the cost of living crisis could have another familiar target - the cost of shipping.

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The issue has reappeared -  the average cost of a 20ft-long container being shipped from Shanghai to Europe was $3,740 (£2,927). The latest costings will come out on Friday. 

WH Smith posted positive results today. Strong performance across its UK and international travel business led to an overall sales rise of 4%.

New Toys "R" Us shops within stores have been opening and 25 more are in the works, the company said on Wednesday morning.

The London Stock Exchange index that it is a part of - the FTSE 250 of the valuable companies - is up 0.36%.

Oil prices are remaining at two-month lows with a barrel of benchmark Brent crude oil priced at $77.51. 

The pound buys $1.2666. Sterling is still doing well against the euro - good news for those going on holidays to eurozone countries - as £1 equals €1.1738.

Banknotes featuring the King's portrait are being issued from today.

The new banknotes will co-circulate alongside those featuring Queen Elizabeth II.

The portrait of  Charles  will appear on all four banknotes - the £5, £10, £20 and £50.

In line with guidance from the royal household, the new notes will only be printed to replace those that are worn, and to meet any overall increase in demand.

The approach aims to minimise the environmental and financial impact of the change.

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By  Emily Mee , news reporter

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Using credit cards, overdrafts, store cards and even a hardship grant from her university, she would spend her money on things she didn't need, such as clothes, shoes, CDs and books. 

Before long she was in £40,000 of debt - and in the third part of our Psychology of Shopping series, we hear her story.

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"I knew what I was doing was wrong but I felt really ashamed of the fact I was just spending money all the time," she says. 

Only her housemates knew she was struggling because she was unable to pay the bills, but even they didn't know the true extent of her debt and Maddy found herself "hiding" from them because she owed them money. 

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It was then that Maddy decided to finally sort things out. 

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Given it would still have taken her about 60 years to clear her debt this way, Maddy says instead she adopted her own 50-10-40 rule - which gave her just 10% of her incomings for food and socialising. 

She was living on just £15 a week for food so learned to pick up only yellow sticker deals from the supermarket, which would lead to some "random" meals. 

"I discovered I really love tinned tomatoes on toast with cheese so I lived on that solidly for about two years," Maddy says. 

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She says if she had been taught about money at a young age, she would've realised the "massive consequences" of her spending. 

"The whole reason I set up the app is to give people that education and a support community - if they don’t want to talk to their friends, they can come and talk to people who are in similar situations so everyone can cheer each other on," she says.

"If other people had said to me, we're in the same position, we're doing the same thing, I wouldn't have felt as ashamed about it."

Looking back on what happened to her, she says it's "part of my story so I don't regret it" and it has taught her a lot, though she does regret putting her parents under stress and not talking to them sooner. 

She now talks openly with her children about money so they can make more educated decisions. 

As for the urge to spend money so that people like her? 

"I've loads of friends now - I rock up in joggers half the time and they don't care," she laughs. 

Join us tomorrow as we conclude this series with a look at the tactics big brands use to get you to spend more

Every Wednesday we ask Michelin chefs to pick their favourite Cheap Eats where they live and when they cook at home. This week we speak to Richard Craven from one-starred  The Royal Oak in Warwickshire. 

Hi Richard , c an you tell us your favourite places in Warwickshire  where you can get a meal for two for less than £40?

I have two great local spots, one for brunch and one for dinner. They both support sustainable and regenerative farming and use the brilliant Tamworth pork from our neighbour Paddock Farm.

For brunch or lunch it has to be The Straw Kitchen at Whichford Pottery . The kitchen offers classic brunch dishes with homemade relishes and home-grown leaves and super interesting and healthy salads with a great range of meaty and vegetarian options. My go-to treat would be the bacon sandwich.

The second is The Copper Grill , which recently opened within our local, The Black Horse, Shipston-on-Stour. The burgers are incredible. 

The bacon double-cheese burger is my favourite, but there are a great range that pair well with the selection of beers that the landlord, Gabe, keeps. 

Living in the countryside with a sparse population means we don't have a lot of fast-food options, so to find something independently owned and a massive cut above the chains makes this a winner.

What's your go-to cheap meal at home?

I trained under Italian chefs at the start of my career, so pasta has always been a favourite fast food for me.

At this time of year, it would have to be wild garlic pesto, with either fresh or dried supermarket pasta. 

Throw a couple handfuls of wild garlic leaves into a food processor, with a handful of both walnuts and pine nuts that have been toasted, a handful of parmesan or an English alternative, such as Old Winchester, and blend with a glug of olive oil. Toss with the cooked pasta and it's done. 

I usually do a larger batch and keep it in an airtight jar in the fridge.

How did you get into cheffing? 

I went to school in Chipping Campden and started washing up in kitchens, simply because it was warmer and better paid than my paper round. 

I quickly realised if everything was clean and tidy, I would get something more interesting to do and that was the spark. 

I really loved the environment and ended up going full time at 18. 

We've spoken to lots of top chefs and bloggers - check out their Cheap Eats from around the country here...

If, as expected, the European Central Bank cuts its main policy rate tomorrow it will be a hugely significant moment.

At a very basic level, the cut - the ECB is expected to trim its deposit rate from 4% to 3.75% - should benefit millions of households and businesses across the eurozone, who have never known interest rates this high since the single currency was born 25 years ago.

British tourists venturing to the usual summer hotspots should also benefit as the pound could grow against the euro, though it is fair to say the foreign exchange markets have been pricing in a rate cut for a while. The pound has risen by 1.5% against the euro since mid-April.

But the move will be significant in terms of what it says about central banks around the world. It will be the first time in relatively normal circumstances since before the Ukraine war in which the ECB (or the Bundesbank, the most important central bank in Europe prior to European monetary union) has cut before the US Fed.

It is important to note at this point that the ECB is far from being the only central bank whose monetary policy is diverging away from that of the Fed - those in Sweden and Switzerland have done so, and Canada is expected to do so today. In the UK, the Bank of England is expected to begin cutting interest rates in August while the Fed, by contrast, is now not expected to begin cutting until the final three months of the year.

Divergence in monetary policy from the Federal Reserve does not come without risks.

In particular, there will be concerns about what an early ECB rate cut will mean for the exchange rate between the euro and the US dollar. All other things being equal, it should weaken the single currency, making the price of exports from the eurozone to the US more competitive.

However, that comes with risks, not least in terms of pushing up the cost of imports - particularly energy, which is priced in dollars, which could in turn push up inflation. A weaker euro would also carry risks in a US election year in which both Joe Biden and Donald Trump, his challenger, will be seeking to out-bid each other with protectionist policies.

As Mohamed El-Erian, adviser to Allianz and Gramercy and one of the world's most experienced investors, wrote in the Financial Times last week: "Too large and persistent a divergence in rates risks weakening European currencies beyond the point where possible competitive advantages compensate for the costs of higher imported inflation.

"In a US election year, this could also fan protectionist tendencies that, already, are on the cusp of intensifying. The two together would risk financial instability that would spill back to amplify economic concerns."

For that reason, most market-watchers do not expect this divergence in monetary policy to extend too far. Strategists at BlackRock, the world's biggest asset manager, told clients in a note this week: "Falling inflation and 18 months of weak economic activity make the case for the ECB to start cutting rates. But we don't think it will cut far and fast.

"Likewise in the US, we see just one or two Fed cuts this year. This is not your typical rate-cutting cycle.

"Investors may see opportunities in further policy divergence, but we think it will be temporary as both central banks ultimately keep rates high for longer."

So the message for households and businesses in the eurozone is this - while your borrowing costs are about to come down, they may not come down as much as you would like them to.

That also applies to Britons hitting the sun-loungers in Spain, Greece and elsewhere this summer. Enjoy the fillip to your holiday pound while you can.

Home buyers appear to be willing to pay significantly more for houses with a second bathroom, according to new research. 

Houses in London with two bathrooms cost almost a third (31%) more than those with one. 

Within flats, a second bathroom comes with even greater premiums. The average asking price for a typical one bed, one reception room, one bathroom flat in London is £427,000 (or £743 per square foot), research by Savills found.

Similar flats with two bathrooms had average asking prices of £978,000 (or £1,086 per square foot). 

This represents a 46% increase on a pound-per-square-foot basis and more than double in actual value terms.

Asking prices for one bedroom flats with an additional reception room reveal no premium on a pound-per-square-foot basis.

Outside of London, premiums tend to be lower but are still evident. 

Overall, there is a 20% uplift in asking prices on homes with two bathrooms compared with those with just one.

"The relationship between bathrooms and the home have evolved over the years - but have always been an indicator of luxury," said Frances McDonald, director of residential research at Savills.

"While once those most fortunate were able to have their own loo inside the home, today buyers are paying a premium to not even have to share a bathroom with their household at all."

Shares in some of the world's biggest companies plunged suddenly yesterday due to a technical issue at the New York Stock Exchange. 

Investment firm Berkshire Hathaway saw its shares plummet by 99.97%, while corporates including Chipotle were also affected. 

Trading in the affected companies was halted due to the volatility. 

The exchange said it was investigating the problem, which appeared to have come from a computer issue. 

Mobile banking app Monzo has posted its first profit in its nine years of business. 

Its annual results showed a profit of £15.4m in the 13 months to the end of March this year, up from last year's pre-tax loss of £116.3m. 

Gross revenues more than doubled to £880m from £355.6m, although it also reported a jump in credit losses. 

Monzo is one of a number of online-only lenders and fintechs that have been taking market share from the big high street banks. 

It has 9.7 million customers, including more than 400,000 business clients, and is now looking at expanding into Ireland.

The headquarters of Toyota Motor has been visited in Japan as part of an investigation into official safety certifications affecting models across five major carmakers in the country.

Hours after Toyota's embattled chairman issued an apology for cheating tests on seven models, officials from Japan's transport ministry descended on the offices in  Toyota  city to probe irregularities in applications for safety certificates.

Production of three Toyota models in Japan - the Corolla Fielder, Corolla Axio and Yaris Cross - has been suspended.

The high street chain is being sued by Harley-Davidson in the High Court for allegedly copying its logo on a "motorbike-inspired" T-shirt. 

Harley-Davidson claimed its trademark was infringed by the T-shirt's biker angel wings and flames motif, according to the Financial Times.

The top, which is available online in Next's children's section, has "Rise and Roar" written across the chest. 

It is priced at between £6 and £8.50. 

Harley-Davidson alleged the product "essentially replicates" the  outline of its logo.

"Black and flame and wing motifs are often used in combination with [Harley's] branding and the trade marks," it said. 

Sky News has contacted Next. Harley-Davidson declined to comment.

The supermarket has launched a platform allowing customers to shop thousands of third-party products while ordering their groceries. 

Tesco said it would be a "one-stop shop for everything customers need", and would include 9,000 products across DIY, garden, homeware, pet care and toys. 

As first reported in The Grocer, the marketplace has launched with 17 sellers including Silentnight, Tefal, Tommee Tippee, BHS and Petlife. 

Tesco's partners will fulfil the orders, but customers will still be able to collect Clubcard points on all the products. 

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