critical thinking and judgment the key to effective leadership

The Crucial Role of Critical Thinking in Leadership

Leadership is more than just guiding a team; it's about making decisions that shape the future of an organization. Critical thinking plays a pivotal role in effective leadership. Here are five key reasons why it's essential for a leader to have critical thinking skills:

1. Informed Decision-Making

Leaders are constantly faced with complex challenges. Critical thinking empowers them to gather information, assess options, and make well-informed decisions. It ensures decisions are based on facts and analysis rather than assumptions.

2. Problem-Solving Abilities: 

Leaders encounter obstacles and problems regularly. Critical thinking enables them to identify root causes, analyze potential solutions, and implement effective problem-solving strategies. It encourages a proactive approach to challenges.

3. Adaptation to Change

In today's dynamic business environment, change is inevitable. Critical thinking allows leaders to adapt to new circumstances, evaluate the impact of change, and make adjustments swiftly. It fosters resilience and flexibility.

4. Effective Communication

 Leaders must convey their vision and ideas clearly. Critical thinking helps them structure their thoughts logically, present ideas persuasively, and engage in constructive dialogues with their team, fostering collaboration.

5. Innovation and Creativity

To stay competitive, leaders need to foster innovation. Critical thinking encourages creative problem-solving and the exploration of new ideas. It allows leaders to identify opportunities for growth and adapt to evolving trends.

In conclusion, critical thinking is the cornerstone of effective leadership. It equips leaders to make informed decisions, navigate challenges, adapt to change, communicate effectively, and drive innovation. Leaders with strong critical thinking skills not only steer their organizations to success but also inspire their teams to reach new heights.

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February 2011

Critical thinking and judgment the key to effective leadership by colonel (retired) stephen gerras, ph.d..

Organizational Behaviorists cite several key attributes and competencies typically associated with effective leadership. High energy, conscientiousness, and cognitive ability make most lists. Unfortunately, these attributes are not very malleable, especially for adults. Fortunately, there are also several competencies—related to effective leadership but distinct from traits-- that can be developed through education, self-development, and most often, experience. Experts most often cite judgment as a key leadership competency. Leaders make dozens of judgments every day. From deciding who will get promoted to refining a strategy for entrance into a new market, leaders sink or swim depending on their ability to exercise sound judgment. How do you develop judgment? A succession of stretch assignments, for instance, will only develop judgment if leaders learn the right lessons. More importantly, if otherwise promising leaders fail to recognize "what's different?" in a new situation, they may apply the wrong lessons learned to a new situation. Enter critical thinking. Many political, business, and public sector leaders emphasize the need for Americans to become better critical thinkers. These leaders know that complexities of business in the Information Age demand better judgment—and that better judgment requires critical thinking.

Although many leaders assert the need for more critical thinking, one of the main impediments to understanding and using critical thinking centers on a lack of a common definition. No one discipline owns the construct. Most of the material about critical thinking derives from philosophy, education, and psychology. 1 Some leaders mistakenly refer to the critical in critical thinking as mere fault-finding. Fault-finding is not what critical thinking entails. The word critical refers to the purposeful, reflective, and careful evaluation of information as a way to improve one's judgment. As senior leaders, whether we are evaluating the information from a PowerPoint presentation at a business meeting, reading a newspaper article, or participating in a discussion with the head of our India office, we constantly face demands requiring critical thinking. Consequently, one of the most important things that a leader must learn is not simply how to think critically, but how to do it well.

Critical thinking is purposeful, directed thought. It requires reflective skepticism mixed with an open mind—this is a difficult combination of tasks—almost requiring individuals to simultaneously use both their right and left sides of their brain to tackle an issue. Critical thinking development requires several things. First, because it is difficult, the individual has to recognize the need for critical thinking or he may not persevere in learning the skills. Second, the basic tenets, concepts, and relationships associated with critical thinking must be learned. Third, individuals must focus on self-awareness. 360 degree feedbacks are a great way to do this. Finally, and sometimes most importantly, individuals must work in an environment that values critical thinking—this is a climate and culture issue.

A Critical Thinking Model

Figure 3-1 presents a critical thinking model that will be explained throughout the rest of this paper. Two issues need to be highlighted. First, most of the time (almost all the time) the leader needs to move across the top of the model and not do critical thinking. The great majority of the decisions and issues we face throughout the day do not require critical thinking. The route we drive to work, what clothes we wear to a party, and what book we read on Saturday are examples of decisions or concerns that do not normally require critical thinking and can be made in an "automatic" mode of cognitive thought.

An example of an automatic mode of cognitive thought is the routine of driving down the Interstate at 70 miles per hour to a familiar destination. At some point the driver may recognize that he or she is not quite sure where he or she is or does not actually remember driving the last five miles; it is probably because the mind has switched to an automatic processing mode. This is a common experience. How does the brain permit this mode of thought while operating a 5,000-pound vehicle moving 70 miles per hour and within several feet of large tractor trailers moving equally fast? The explanation is that over time, driving even at a high rate of speed becomes an "automatic" routine. To conserve mental energy, the brain tends to reduce focus, especially with seemingly routine activities. Unfortunately, most decisionmakers make judgments on significant issues using an automatic mode as opposed to taking the time and investing the energy needed for a more controlled thought process. 2

Exercising controlled thought involves the deliberate use of elements of critical thinking. Knowing when to reign back on automatic processing in order to conduct a conscious assessment of the parameters of the situation is more an art than a science. A good rule of thumb is if you are in doubt as to whether to use critical thinking about an issue, you probably ought to apply critical thinking . The main point is that most routine decisions made on a day-to-day basis do not involve critical thinking; however, once familiar with the concepts and terminology of critical thinking, you are in the position to ask yourself whether the issue being considered warrants the application of critical thinking methodology.

Second, although the model appears to be generally linear, it is not. The clouds in the center of the model labeled point of view , assumptions , and inferences are meant to demonstrate that this is generally a nonlinear model. Assumptions , for instance, will affect whether you perceive an issue to be worthy of critical thinking, and your point of view will affect how you define the boundaries of the issues. Although there are arrows going from clarify concern to evaluation of information (implying linearity), there is also a reciprocal arrow going in the reverse direction to suggest that as you are evaluating information, you may end up redefining the concern. If, for example, you are seeking to clarify concern regarding some inappropriate behavior by your teenage son or daughter, the evaluation of information may indicate that the real issue has more to do with the nature of the relationship between you and your child than the actual behavior prompting the initial concern. The nonlinear nature of the model will be more evident as you next read about its main components: clarify concern, evaluate information, consider points of view, identify assumptions, make sound inferences, and consider implications.

Clarify Concern

A critical element, and often the first step, in critical thinking methodology is to clarify concern . This is not as straightforward as it seems. When faced with a decision, leaders often spend the bulk of their time reviewing possible choices. They fail to do the up-front work of problem identification and construction. The concern or issue needs to be identified and clarified initially, yet consistently revisited as other elements of the model are considered. The term concern is preferred over the term problem because a critical thinker should be proactive as well as reactive. In many cases, the critical thinker will encounter information that causes him or her to identify related or subsequent issues that should be addressed. A critical thinker ensures that he or she has considered the complexities of the problem at hand and focused his or her mental energy appropriately. An assessment needs to determine whether the concern has unidentified root causes or unaddressed subcomponents.

Consider Points of View

Another element of the critical thinking model is considering points of view . Within the context of this model, point of view is not your opinion. We all have points of view or frames of reference. The key is to be aware of them and recognize how they may bias our thinking. We want to develop a frame of reference that is evenhanded and open to other points of view. In fact, it may become absolutely essential that we examine a problem from a variety of points of view. Good critical thinkers, however, do their best to recognize their own point of view and to consider, understand, and even empathize with other views.

As we attempt to empathize with the viewpoint of others, our own self-awareness becomes increasingly important. Leaders need to be self-aware of egocentric tendencies , which are probably the most significant barrier to effective critical thinking 3 . Because of their typical track record of success and achievement, corporate leaders have exceptional confidence in who they are and the validity, accuracy, and correctness of their views.

Unfortunately, this constant positive reinforcement in the form of promotion and selection for key jobs sometimes encourages an absolutist frame of reference within a narrow point of view. Many college students, for example, think that they have figured out how the world works, and they are exceedingly confident that their view is correct. This type of egocentric leaning tends to also insulate leaders with regard to their actual thinking processes and often presents a significant obstacle to their empathizing with and considering the viewpoint of others.

A critical thinker must be aware of several egocentric tendencies. Egocentric memory is a natural tendency to forget information that does not support one's line of thinking. Egocentric myopia refers to thinking within an overly narrow point of view. Egocentric righteousness describes a tendency to feel superior based on the belief that one has actually figured out how the world works. Egocentric blindness is the natural tendency not to notice facts and evidence that contradict what one believes or values. 4 Fortunately, just as egocentrism can prevent us from appreciating the underlying thinking processes that guide our behavior, critical thinking, especially in the form of appreciating multiple points of view, can help us learn to explicitly recognize that our point of view is often incomplete and sometimes blatantly self-serving and wrong. 5

Identify Assumptions

A third component of the critical thinking model is to identify assumptions . An assumption is something that is taken for granted. As critical thinkers, we need to be aware of the beliefs we hold to be true, which have been formed from what we have previously learned and no longer question. We typically process information based on assumptions about the way the world works and operate below the level of consciousness. These are sometimes referred to as mental models or schemas.

The arrows in the critical thinking model show that various assumptions influence all aspects of the model. Indeed, our point of view, our inferences, and whether we decide a problem is worthy of critical thinking all affect how we pose questions, seek solutions, and select answers. Truly, the more in touch an individual is with his or her assumptions, the more effective a critical thinker he or she will be.

Peter Senge wrote in The Fifth Discipline about the importance of dialogue, as opposed to discussion, in a learning organization. He posits, "In dialogue, a group explores complex difficult issues from many points of view. Individuals suspend their assumptions but they communicate their assumptions freely." 6 To suspend assumptions, leaders must first be aware of them. This reflective self-inquiry, in relation to a specific concern, is extremely important in the critical thinking process, as is the creation of a climate in which individuals feel free to communicate their assumptions and to question others.

Make Sound Inferences

Another component of the critical thinking model that needs to be considered is to make sound inferences . Critical thinkers need to be skilled at making sound inferences and at identifying when they and others are making inferences. An inference is a step of the mind or an intellectual leap of faith by which one concludes that something is true because something else is true or seems to be true. Whereas an assumption is something we take for granted, an inference is an intellectual act in which we conclude something based on the facts and evidence of a situation.

Critical thinkers strive to become adept at making sound inferences. 8 Ask yourself, What are the key inferences made in this situation? Then ask yourself if the inferences are justified, logical, and follow from the evidence. Remembering the earlier components of the critical thinking model, obviously inferences are heavily influenced by the point of view and assumptions we bring to the issue. This explains why two leaders viewing the same PowerPoint slide may come to completely different conclusions in terms of what the data mean or represent.

Evaluate Information

The most detailed part of the critical thinking model focuses on the evaluation of information and stems from the disciplines of behavioral economics, psychology, and philosophy. First, this paper will address some of the shortcuts humans habitually take that often lead to decision making biases. Finally, it will provide an overview of many of the logical fallacies that undermine information evaluation.

Decisionmakers often rely on simplifying strategies or "general rules of thumb" called heuristics , which are a mechanism for coping with decision-making in volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. Critical thinkers need to appreciate not only the framework for assessing their own thinking, but also the heuristics that they and others rely upon when making decisions. The concept of heuristics relates strongly to the automatic mode of cognitive thought described earlier.

Heuristics as an aid to decision-making are not bad; in fact, if we did not use heuristics, we would probably be paralyzed with inaction. As an example, you might have a heuristic for which coat to wear to work each day. Your heuristic might be, "If there's frost on the car, I wear the parka." Without this heuristic shortcut, you would have to check the thermometer and compare it to a chart that prescribed the correct coat to wear under certain temperature conditions.

Heuristics help leaders to make good decisions rapidly a significant proportion of the time. Unfortunately, however, heuristics also can lead decisionmakers into making systematically biased mistakes. Cognitive bias occurs when an individual inappropriately applies a heuristic when making a decision. 9 As critical thinkers, we need to be aware of cognitive biases to more effectively evaluate information.

There are three general heuristics: (1) the availability heuristic, (2) the representativeness heuristic, and (3) the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. The availability heuristic acknowledges that people typically assess the likelihood of an event by the ease with which examples of that event can be brought to mind. Typically, people recall events that are recent, vivid, or recurrent. This heuristic works well in most instances; however, a critical thinker needs to be aware of the biases that result from an expeditious process. For example, a senior leader doing performance appraisals on two equally capable subordinates might be inclined to give the subordinate who challenged him at the last team meeting a lower rating. The recentness and vividness of the challenge might cause the senior leader to overlook the impressive accomplishments of this particular subordinate and accord a rating that is actually inconsistent with the individual's performance. This would be, in effect, a poor decision.

The representativeness heuristic focuses on the tendency for people to make judgments regarding an individual, object, or event by assessing how much the item of interest is representative. Several biases emanate from this heuristic; two of the most prevalent are problems with sample size and regression to the mean. Sample size bias occurs when decisionmakers improperly generalize the reliability of sample information. Leaders often draw important conclusions based on information they receive from one or two individuals; this is often problematic. Skilled critical thinkers routinely ask themselves, "Am I drawing a conclusion based on data from a fair and representative sample?" Regression to the mean bias is based on research that extreme high or low scores tend to be followed by more average scores. Therefore, when predicting future performance, decisionmakers often assume poor performers will stay poor (i.e., they are representative of poor performers) and strong performers will stay strong. Unfortunately (or fortunately), extremely low or high performance is typically followed by a performance level closer to average. This is why the sports teams that make the cover of Sports Illustrated tend to lose and the mutual fund that was the strongest performer last year is probably not the one to buy this year.

Finally, insufficient anchor adjustment is a powerful bias. Research has shown that decisionmakers develop estimates by starting from an initial anchor, based on whatever information is provided, and adjust from there to yield a final answer. 10 Effective leaders are aware of this bias and consciously ensure they do not get locked into a course of action because they failed to shift from the first option provided. A practical application of ways to use this bias to one's advantage can be seen in negotiations. It is usually good to initiate the first offer in a negotiation if you have reasonable belief that you understand the bargaining zone. The opening offer will serve as the anchor and will most likely create a range for possible negotiation that will be more advantageous to you.

In addition to developing an understanding of biases and heuristics as a means to improve his or her ability to evaluate information critically, a strong critical thinker also assesses the soundness of the arguments presented. When we make an argument, we offer reasons as to why others should accept our view(s) or judgment. These reasons are called premises (or evidence), and the assertion that they allegedly support is called the conclusion. 11 A sound argument meets the following conditions:

• Are premises are acceptable and consistent.
• The premises are relevant to the conclusion and provide sufficient support for the conclusion.
• Missing components have been considered and are judged to be consistent with the conclusion. 12

If the premises are dubious or do not warrant the conclusion, our argument is fallacious. In accord with the critical thinking model, as we evaluate the information presented, we need to keep in mind our tendency to let biases influence our decision-making. We also need to be aware of the traditional types of fallacious reasoning that are often used, sometimes intentionally and sometimes out of ignorance, to try to convince us to support an argument. Fallacious reasoning can take several forms, including arguments against a person, false dichotomies, appeals to unqualified authority, false causes, appeals to fear, appeals to the masses, slippery slopes, weak analogies, and red herring.

Fallacies are very common, and they are typically convincing. Recently, for example, in a TV documentary about alternative medicine, a U.S. Senator defended his congressional bill to exclude vitamins and herbal medicines from USDA review by saying, "At least 100 million Americans use vitamins and other supplements every day and they can't all be wrong [appeal to the masses]; I know many Senators who also use these products [appeal to unqualified authority]; this is just another case of the liberal left trying to intrude on the daily life of the average American [arguments against the person]."

The average viewer probably thought these arguments made sense, but as critical thinkers, we need to assess arguments, especially important and relevant arguments, to identify fallacious reasoning. Bad judgments prompted by fallacious reasoning that draws upon invalid and questionable evidence are the enemy of critical thinkers.

Unfortunately, logically fallacious arguments can be psychologically compelling. Many leaders, because they have never really learned the difference between a good argument and a fallacious one, are often persuaded to accept and believe things that are not logically supported. As a critical thinker evaluates information, he or she needs to ask: Are the premises acceptable? Are they relevant? Are they sufficient? If the answer to any of these questions is no, the argument is not logically compelling.

Consider Implications

The last component of the critical thinking model is to consider implications . Critical thinkers need to understand the short-term consequences of accepting initial inferences or resisting opposing perspectives. They obviously also have to appreciate the long-term consequences of the information they accept and the decisions they make, including the second- and third-order effects. Critical thinkers ask themselves, "What if my assumptions are incorrect? What if the variables I think are defined are actually uncertain or quite different from what I think? What things haven't I considered that I need to consider?" Many of these questions will be ignored or minimized if the egocentric tendencies discussed earlier override sound judgment.

As part of considering implications, the critical thinker needs to analyze the impact of a decision on all relevant stakeholders. A stakeholder is a person, group, or unit that has a share or an interest in a particular activity or possible decision. 14

The bottom line is that a critical thinker considers all these things in a deliberate and conscious manner. All leaders, but especially senior leaders, must continuously ask themselves, "Is this something I need to think about critically? How are my egocentric tendencies and point of view affecting the way I look at this? What is the point of view of the person presenting the information? What are my assumptions? Are we making the correct inferences based on the data provided? Are there other data we need to consider and can access? Is the information true, or at least plausible? Are the conclusions warranted by the evidence? Are biases and traps affecting our judgment? Have I considered all the implications?" The more we can introduce these terms and concepts into our thought processes, the more we will exercise sound judgment and make better decisions, become more skilled negotiators, and improve our leadership skills.

• Susan C. Fischer and V. Alan Spiker, Critical Thinking Training for Army Officers , Vol. 1: A Model of Critical Thinking (Alexandria, Virginia: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, May 2004), 3.
• For a good discussion on automatic versus controlled processing, see Robert G. Lord and Karen J. Maher, "Cognitive Theory in Industrial and Organizational Psychology," in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology , ed. Marvin D. Dunnette and Leaetta M. Hough (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1991).
• Richard Paul and Linda Elder, Critical Thinking, Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), 214.
• Ibid., 234.
• Ibid., 233.
• Peter M. Senge, The Fifth Discipline (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 241.
• Paul and Elder, 70.
• Ibid., 102.
• Max H. Bazerman, Judgment in Managerial Decision Making (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2002), 6–7.
• Theodore Schick, Jr., and Lewis Vaughn, How to Think About Weird Things––Critical Thinking for a New Age , 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 2002), 298.
• Diane F. Halpern, Thought & Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking, 4th ed. (Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003), 203.
• Schick and Vaughn, 298.
• Thomas L. Wheelen and J. David Hunger, Strategic Management and Business Policy , 3rd ed. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1989), 89–90.

Dr. Stephen Gerras presents a workshop on critical thinking. For more details, please email Dennis Haley or call 610.783.0630.

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• Jul 12, 2023

Balancing Critical And Creative Thinking For Effective Leadership

Written by: konstantina karatza , executive contributor, executive contributors at brainz magazine are handpicked and invited to contribute because of their knowledge and valuable insight within their area of expertise..

In the dynamic and ever-evolving world of leadership, two modes of thinking play a crucial role in driving success and innovation: critical thinking and creative thinking. These two cognitive processes, though distinct, are equally valuable for effective decision-making and problem-solving. While critical thinking enables leaders to analyze and evaluate information objectively, creative thinking empowers them to generate novel ideas and explore alternative possibilities. Striking a balance between these two thinking styles is essential for leaders to navigate complex challenges and inspire their teams toward meaningful achievements.

Critical thinking, characterized by logical reasoning and evidence-based analysis, is a systematic approach to problem-solving. Leaders who engage in critical thinking meticulously examine information, question assumptions, and evaluate the validity of arguments. They rely on data-driven insights, explore cause-and-effect relationships, and seek objective evidence before making informed decisions. By analyzing risks, identifying potential pitfalls, and weighing pros and cons, leaders employing critical thinking minimize errors and make sound judgments.

Furthermore, critical thinking helps leaders uncover biases and challenge the status quo. By adopting a skeptical mindset, they can identify flaws in existing processes and propose improvements. This kind of thinking ensures that leaders are not swayed by popular opinions or conventional wisdom but instead base their decisions on logical analysis and objective facts.

On the other hand, creative thinking is a cognitive process that allows leaders to transcend conventional boundaries and envision innovative solutions. It involves the generation of fresh ideas, combining unrelated concepts, and thinking beyond traditional approaches. Creative leaders encourage divergent thinking, embracing ambiguity and uncertainty as catalysts for breakthroughs. By encouraging their teams to explore different perspectives and experiment with new approaches, leaders foster an environment that nurtures creativity.

Creative leadership thinking also involves connecting seemingly unrelated dots and identifying patterns or opportunities that others might miss. It allows leaders to approach problems from different angles, considering multiple possibilities and brainstorming creative solutions. Leaders can inspire their teams to take risks, embrace change, and think outside the box by cultivating an environment that values and encourages creative thinking.

While critical thinking and creative thinking offer unique advantages, the most effective leaders recognize the importance of balancing these two approaches. A leader who solely relies on critical thinking may find themselves confined by traditional norms, missing out on innovative solutions and growth opportunities. Conversely, leaders who overly prioritize creative thinking without critical evaluation risk making impulsive decisions that may not be based on a solid foundation of evidence.

Achieving the ideal balance between critical thinking and creative thinking is a challenging task. Leaders must be adept at leveraging critical thinking to evaluate and validate creative ideas while embracing the potential of creative thinking to explore new possibilities. By effectively combining these thinking styles, leaders can make informed, well-rounded decisions that embrace both logic and innovation.

Organizations can implement strategies such as cross-functional collaboration, diverse teams, and encouraging open dialogue to foster critical and creative thinking in leadership. By creating an environment that values diverse perspectives and challenges conventional thinking, leaders can harness the power of both critical and creative thinking to drive growth and success.

Let's explore strategies to balance critical and creative thinking in leadership

Embrace an Open Mindset: To achieve a balance between critical thinking and creative thinking, leaders must adopt an open mindset that welcomes diverse perspectives and ideas. Encourage your team members to challenge assumptions, question existing processes, and explore alternative solutions. Create a safe space where innovative thinking is encouraged and dissenting opinions are valued. By fostering an environment that embraces both critical and creative thinking, leaders can set the stage for productive collaboration and breakthrough ideas.

Define Clear Objectives: When tackling complex problems or making important decisions, it's essential to define clear objectives. Critical thinking comes into play when evaluating options and assessing potential risks and outcomes. Ensure that you have a solid understanding of the problem at hand, gather relevant data, and objectively analyze the available information. Critical thinking helps you assess the viability and feasibility of different solutions, ensuring that your decisions are based on sound reasoning.

Encourage Divergent Thinking: Creative thinking flourishes when leaders encourage divergent thinking. Create brainstorming sessions or ideation workshops where team members can freely share their ideas, regardless of how unconventional they may seem. Foster an atmosphere that promotes curiosity, experimentation, and exploration of different possibilities. By allowing your team members to think creatively, you open the door to innovative solutions that can drive your organization forward.

Seek Input from Various Sources: To balance critical and creative thinking, it's crucial to seek input from diverse sources. Engage with people from different backgrounds, disciplines, and perspectives. This diversity of thought can help challenge your assumptions, broaden your understanding of the problem, and expose you to fresh ideas. By incorporating a wide range of inputs, you can enrich your critical thinking process and inspire creative insights that you may not have considered otherwise.

Foster Collaboration: Collaboration is a powerful tool for combining critical and creative thinking. Encourage interdisciplinary teamwork, where individuals with different expertise and thinking styles can collaborate on projects and initiatives. When team members with diverse perspectives come together, they can leverage critical thinking to evaluate ideas and creative thinking to generate innovative solutions. Foster a culture of collaboration that values both rigorous analysis and imaginative thinking.

Iterate and Refine: Balancing critical and creative thinking is an iterative process. As a leader, be open to revisiting and refining your ideas and decisions. Recognize that initial solutions may require adjustment or modification based on feedback and new insights. Critical thinking enables you to evaluate the effectiveness of your chosen course of action, while creative thinking allows you to explore new possibilities for improvement. Embrace a growth mindset that values continuous learning, adaptation, and refinement.

Develop a Balanced Skill Set: Leaders must strive to develop a balanced skill set that encompasses both critical and creative thinking. Sharpen your critical thinking skills by honing your analytical abilities, understanding logical reasoning, and staying informed about relevant industry trends. Simultaneously, nurture your creative thinking by engaging in activities that stimulate your imagination, such as reading, art, or brainstorming exercises. By continuously developing both sets of skills, you'll be better equipped to strike the right balance in your leadership approach.

In conclusion, balancing critical thinking and creative thinking is vital for effective leadership. Embracing this balance enables leaders to make informed decisions while also driving innovation and fostering a culture of creativity within their organizations. By leveraging the power of critical and creative thinking in tandem, leaders can navigate complex challenges, inspire their teams, and lead their organizations to long-term success in today's rapidly changing business landscape.

For more info, follow Konstantina on Linkedin or visit the Sisu Communication site .

Read more from Konstantina!

Konstantina Karatza, Executive Contributor Brainz Magazine

Konstantina Karatza, a seasoned professional with nearly 20 years of experience in the advertising industry, made a career transition five years ago to pursue her passion for Leadership Coaching. As the founder of Sisu Communication, she is dedicated to empowering individuals and organizations to reach their full potential by embodying values such as creativity, communication, and trust. Konstantina's deep passion for traveling and exploring diverse cultures has enhanced her understanding of human dynamics and enriched her ability to connect with individuals from all walks of life, enabling her to foster inclusive environments and promote cultural awareness within organizations.

Photo credits:

Image by fszalai from Pixabay

Photo by Pavel Danilyuk: from Pexels

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Critical thinking enables leaders at every level to understand the impact of their decisions on the business as a whole and ensures both alignment with organisational goals and accountability for results.  

The "new normal" is a different kind of competitive landscape, buffeted by geopolitics and global instability, rapid technological change, unique financial pressures, a rising tide of data and information to filter through, and the proliferation of new corporate business models.

The mind-set that made leaders successful in the past probably won't ensure success in the future. In fact, several recent studies and surveys have identified critical thinking as the number one requirement for successful leadership in the 21st century. Yet there is mounting evidence that many current and emerging leaders lack this quality. And it is this competency gap that is shaking up and reshaping leadership as we have come to know it.

Leadership in the "new normal"

In the wake of the economic crisis, we all know what a failure of leadership looks like. The companies that folded in the GFC serve as stark examples of what happens when decisions are based upon erroneous, partially false or incomplete information and when management fails to think clearly and strategically about the full implications of its actions. The resulting fall-out put an end to business as usual and created a "new normal" that looks markedly different from anything anyone has seen before.

Business organisations must be prepared to do things differently if they expect different results. In this demanding, dynamic landscape, it is only natural that they also require a different mind-set from those in charge.

The equation works like this: Thinking drives behaviour; behaviour drives results. So enterprises that want to change the results - and, indeed, change the organisation itself - can achieve the highest leverage by changing the thinking of leaders and managers throughout the organisation.

But what kind of thinking - or rather rethinking - will be required of leaders if they want to succeed in the "new normal"?

Why critical thinking is critical

Critical thinking appears to be exactly what is needed from leaders who are navigating the volatility of the "new normal". Diane Halpern, an award-winning professor of psychology at Claremont McKenna College and a widely read author on the subject, offers this definition in her seminal book, Thought and Knowledge :

"Critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed - the kind of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions ... it's the kind of thinking that makes desirable outcomes more likely."

If ever there was a time for clear, discerning, solution-centric thinking, this is it.

Every two years since 1983, Executive Development Associates (EDA) has conducted an extensive survey on trends, growth and the evolution of executive development. The 2009/2010 EDA Trends in Executive Development: A Benchmark Report revealed trouble on the horizon for corporations seeking future business leaders.

To gauge the readiness of the next generation of leadership talent, EDA asked senior executive development professionals to share their views on the strengths and weaknesses of the incoming leadership group - the people who are most likely to fill executive-level positions in the next three to five years - and the subsequent impact on executive development.

The survey identified "hot topics" in executive development for the next two to three years. At the top of the list was leadership, followed by "business acumen, honing skills in strategy execution, leading / managing change, and talent management."

But when asked "What competencies are your leaders lacking?" their responses indicated little confidence that leaders had what it takes to execute in these critical areas successfully. Here's what they said was missing:

• Strategic thinking
• Leading change
• Ability to create a vision and engage others around it
• Ability to inspire
• Understanding the total enterprise and how the parts work together

What critical thinking looks like

Having established the need for a mind-set shift to more critical thinking, we need to be clear on what that means in the workplace.

In general, critical thinking is the ability to deal with the contradictions and problems of a tumultuous environment in a reasoned, purposeful, productive way. Decisions are made using an approach that is fair, objective, accurate and based on information that is relevant to the situation.

Critical thinking is also reflective and focused, constantly evaluating the thinking process itself. It is thinking with a purpose. Critical thinking requires a healthy dose of skepticism and an equal measure of good judgement.

For decades, companies have relied on the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal , a widely used assessment tool for evaluating the cognitive ability of current and future leaders. Developed in 1925, the model identifies factors that are key to critical thinking and decision making and predicts judgment, problem solving, creativity, openness to experience and other leadership behaviours.

Five sub-tests measure critical thinking as a composite of attitudes, knowledge and skills:

• Recognition of assumptions
• Interpretation
• Evaluation of arguments

Professionals with high scores in these sub-tests are able to identify and examine the assumptions, influences and biases that might sway them. They stand back from the fray and strategically assess the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems. They make business decisions that answer the right questions, solve the right problems, mitigate risk and improve productivity. They also lead from a position of strength, being able to motivate and move people both inspirationally and intellectually by providing solid reasons for actions.

Whether they lead teams, departments or entire enterprises, leaders who apply the skills of critical thinking to their roles perform at a higher level and offer their organisations a distinct competitive advantage.

Critical thinkers think differently about their impact on the organisation - understanding how their decisions and actions influence business both inside and outside their narrow functional silos. These leaders are able to balance department or team issues with broader company issues and embrace a larger responsibility for the success of the organisation. This keen sense of accountability is what enables them to execute for results now while fulfilling their obligations to positively impact the future.

Leaders who engage in critical thinking also understand the total organisation and how the individual parts work together. Context is key. Now more than ever, business acumen is foundational to effective leadership. It is impossible to apply critical thinking skills to the business of making money without an understanding of the business drivers that connect day-to-day decisions and actions to key financial and strategic performance goals of the organisation. It is one thing to understand one's role as a leader. It is altogether another thing to understand how to set direction and directly affect the outcomes.

Critical thinking is big-picture thinking too. As Hagemann describes it, "Leaders need to be able to comfortably climb to the 30,000-foot view and analyse a dynamic system, while simultaneously and adeptly analysing information to quickly make decisions across levels." Critical thinkers operate from a broad perspective in order to make sure the correct problems are addressed and they are taking acceptable risk. They recognise the difference between short-term gains and sustainable, long-term results and lead accordingly.

The advantages of this kind of leadership behavior are readily apparent. Critical thinking enables leaders at every level to understand the impact of their decisions on the business as a whole and ensures both alignment with organisational goals and accountability for results. It's exactly the type of leadership behaviour demanded by the "new normal" - and exactly what's missing. And this disconnect is likely to intensify over time.

Given the critical-thinking competency gap exposed by the EDA survey and other research, the obvious assumption is that the traditional development process that businesses have relied upon in the past to prepare leaders simply hasn't kept up. So, what's the solution? To accelerate development and raise leadership accountability to a whole new level of awareness and action, there needs to be a new emphasis on critical thinking in leadership development.

Learning to think like a leader

The good news is critical thinking is a skill that can be taught. According to Halpern, "There is a large body of evidence showing that people can learn to think better. Of course, education makes us all more intelligent, but critical thinking is more focused. Everyone can learn to recognise and use the skills of critical thinking, and we can always get better."

New competencies, however, may require a deeper, more analytical approach. The challenge today is not to discard what has been learned in the past, but to build upon traditional competencies with a whole new and more complex set of skills, tools and sensitivities.

Leaders in the new normal need to learn how to be discerning, how to think clearly and wisely, and how to be accountable for their impact on the business.

Discovery learning in leadership courses

Critical thinking can be impacted by the right leadership courses. However, the process can be more challenging than improving a behavioural skill, because you can't easily measure it. Success is demonstrated in results.

As with any skill, intellectual or otherwise, the key to building critical thinking - and achieving successful results - is practice. Research has demonstrated that people learn best when they are actively involved in the learning process and engaging in the behaviours they want to learn. But what's vital in developing critical thinking skills is framing the concept of practice within a relevant, job-related context.

Acquiring critical thinking skills requires participating in learning experiences that force you to consider new ways of thinking about and acting within complex situations that are directly related to the work you do. You need the opportunity to respond to issues, reflect on and reframe your experiences, develop new thinking, and, in turn, engage in new behaviours and actions that are relevant to your position and objectives.

Developing your critical thinking skills

In addition to participating in these types of leadership courses, leaders can take charge of their own critical thinking development by taking these actions:

• Get some feedback about your critical thinking skills from a trusted boss, colleague or coach Are you jumping to conclusions or using a reasoned, analytic process as you work toward a goal? Are you able to put aside biases and assumptions during analysis and decision-making? What kind of "thinker" are you perceived to be and why?
• Challenge yourself to develop a deeper understanding of your company's business, especially its financial and strategic drivers of success Are you clear about what drives the organisation's decisions, how financial success is achieved and how you impact both strategy and the bottom line? Are you making decisions that are aligned with this understanding?Is your knowledge of the business strong enough to drive behaviour and to engage teams and employees?
• Use multiple sources of data to form an "information web" before making a decision or forming a conclusion Are you asking a lot of questions? Identifying stakeholders and their issues and opinions? Separating facts from assumptions?Are you using the Internet as "one" source of information rather than "the" source? Can you analyse information from different perspectives and viewpoints?
• Take time to think Are you rising above the fray when it's important to make a decision, take action or form an opinion? Are you aware of the distractions getting in the way of your thinking time and taking action to minimize these distractions? Are you finding time and space to let your mind focus and reflect on important issues?
• Ask for input, critique and opinions from others as you analyse alternatives Are you checking tentative conclusions with others? Using peers, coaches or mentors to critique your thinking process? Are you willing to open your mind to other ideas or alternatives?

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The Elements of Good Judgment in Leadership

Leadership requires good judgment in order to lead an organization effectively and is a complex and multifaceted domain that requires individuals to make critical decisions on a regular basis. At the core of effective leadership lies the ability to exercise good judgment—a skill that separates exceptional leaders from the rest. Good judgment is not a mere intuition or a stroke of luck; it is a carefully cultivated art that combines experience, knowledge, emotional intelligence, and a keen understanding of the context in which decisions are made.

Today we will explore four key elements of good judgment that effective leaders demonstrate: emotional intelligence, perspective taking, consideration of alternatives, and decision making under conditions of uncertainty.

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize and manage one's own emotions and the emotions of others. According to research by Goleman (1995), emotional intelligence plays a key role in effective leadership and is often a better predictor of success than IQ or technical skills alone. Leaders with high emotional intelligence are better able to:

Understand how their behaviors impact others and motivate them in a positive direction.

Build trust and buy-in through self-awareness of their strengths and weaknesses.

Resolve conflicts constructively by understanding different perspectives.

To develop emotional intelligence in a leadership role, some steps managers can take include:

Regular self-reflection on emotions triggered in difficult conversations and why certain situations may elicit strong reactions. This increases self-awareness.

Actively listening to understand how team members feel about decisions, goals, and day-to-day interactions. Reading body language and asking thoughtful questions provides insights.

Tailoring communication and management styles to individual preferences and work modes. Not everyone responds best to the same approach.

For example, the CEO of Starbucks, Howard Schultz, is known for his high emotional intelligence. He prioritizes understanding employee perspectives to make them feel valued. This people-first approach has been key to Starbucks' success in establishing a positive company culture.

Perspective Taking

Perspective taking refers to the cognitive capacity to understand a situation from others' point of view. The ability to see issues from different angles is an essential leadership skill according to research (Doris, 2002). Perspective taking allows leaders to:

Anticipate how decisions may affect various stakeholders to avoid negative reactions or resistance.

Break out of cognitive biases like blind spots, overconfidence, and fundamental attribution error which limit objectivity.

Mediate conflicts and disagreements by acknowledging the valid viewpoints on all sides.

To strengthen perspective taking abilities, leaders can:

Intentionally assign responsibility for devil's advocate roles to certain direct reports. This provides checks on one's own assumptions.

Schedule informal meetings with frontline employees to hear candid feedback firsthand. Shadowing others' day-to-day tasks also helps "walk a mile in their shoes."

Reframe disagreements as opportunities to learn rather than be "right." Admitting other viewpoints have merit models open-mindedness.

Netflix exemplifies this. The company encourages dissenting opinions to challenge status quo thinking and avoid "groupthink." Executive meetings follow a "no bullsh*t" policy to surface multiple angles on issues. This open culture fosters innovative solutions.

Consideration of Alternatives

Weighing various options before deciding a course of action is vital for good judgment. Ignoring alternatives risks overlooking better solutions or unintended consequences. Research finds considering the broadest possible range of choices reduces cognitive biases and faulty decision making (Baron, 2000). For leaders, this means:

Brainstorming with diverse groups to surface options beyond initial ideas. Involve outsiders to spark novel thinking.

Evaluating ideas based on multiple factors such as feasibility, risks, ethics rather than one dimension. A holistic view aids balance.

Modeling an experimental mindset willing to pilot different approaches. Failing fast from low-risk tests is preferable to costly mistakes.

Amazon exemplifies exploring alternatives. Before major product launches, leadership considers unconventional ideas from any level. Experiments include pop-up stores to assess customer reactions in real-world settings. This iterative process spawns hit devices like the Echo while avoiding wasted investment.

For managers, carving time for alternatives generation, maintaining an ideas repository, and circulating discussion papers encourages new perspectives.

Decision Making

Under Conditions of Uncertainty There will always be unknown factors when making important strategic calls. Yet research shows deliberate processes can help navigate uncertainty more effectively (Milliken, 1987). For leaders, this involves:

Defining intolerable levels of risk upfront to guide decisions within acceptable boundaries. Clear guardrails avoid drift.

Establishing triggers for shifting or reversing course as new information emerges. Flexible frameworks adjust nimbly.

Openly acknowledging uncertainty and fallibility to build buy-in for experimentation. Humility engenders support.

Netflix takes this approach. When expanding abroad, the company treated each market as a "learn-as-you-go" experiment. Specific targets guided progress while allowing room to learn from failures. Transparency around unknowns forged understanding as approaches inevitably shifted based on data. This iterative model enabled Netflix to successfully globalize.

Developing strong elements of judgment like emotional intelligence, perspective taking, consideration of alternatives, and decision making under uncertainty is crucial for leadership excellence. Regardless of industry or organization type, leaders who exercise good judgment through intentional reflection and processes to mitigate biases will make wiser calls and navigate complex challenges more effectively. While judgment skills require lifelong refinement, the frameworks discussed provide actionable steps current and aspiring leaders can implement today to advance to the next level. With continued focus on strengthening these foundational abilities, leaders are better equipped to lead their organizations into the future with confidence and impact.

Baron, J. (2000). Thinking and deciding (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Doris, J. M. (2002). Lack of character: Personality and moral behavior. Cambridge University Press.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. Bantam Books.

Milliken, F. J. (1987). Three types of perceived uncertainty about the environment: State, effect, and response uncertainty. Academy of management review, 12(1), 133-143.

Jonathan H. Westover, PhD is Chief Academic & Learning Officer ( HCI Academy ); Chair/Professor, Organizational Leadership ( UVU ); OD Consultant ( Human Capital Innovations ). Read Jonathan Westover's executive profile here .

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Critical Thinking in leadership: Is it necessary?

October 23, 2020 by Lauren Dunleavy

Critical thinking in leadership;Is it Necessary?

Is critical thinking an important component of leadership? One would think it is a useful tool to have in your thinking toolbox. So, what exactly is critical thinking? It was easy to find many similar definitions but; Critical thinking is defined as “ the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement” (Merriam-Webster, 2020). Critical thinking has been around for at least 2500 years. Mr. Socrates himself supposedly established a method of questioning that was able to shut down claims of knowledge back in the BC era that was very similar to critical thinking as we know it today(Paul et al., 1997). So what is critical thinking used for? It should be used for many things, but mainly we use critical thinking when we want to analyze options in making decisions(Paul et al., 1997). 

How and why is critical thinking applied in the workplace? Critical thinking in the workplace comes in many forms. We see critical thinking being used in teams to help effectively resolve problems. We even see critical thinking being used in the workplace to help teams figure out what issues exist, and then we see teams come up with possible answers for those issues. Why is critical thinking applied to research theories? Lets evaluate this question! 

One place where critical thinking has become a necessity is in leadership. Leadership is defined as a process where a person influences a group of people to achieve a set of common goals (Northouse, 2016). Leadership in theory has dated back to over 5000 years ago, where it was found to have been written in ancient Hieroglyphics (Paul et al. 1997). In ancient times, leadership was suggested that those who appeared powerful were to be followed. The need for critical thinking in leadership has always been around. A model was developed in 1925, called the watson-glaser critical thinking model which helps organizations identify factors in people that are important for critical thinking and judgement making, which explains why critical thinking needs to be a part of leadership approaches (Cox, 2011). 

Critical thinking is applied to leadership approaches because it’s important for leaders to have critical thinking skills, be able to understand logical relationships between ideas, recognize the importance and the relationship of an argument, as well as recognize mistakes in reasoning and then be able to make the right decisions (Sanscartier, 2013). 

There are many different leadership approaches to look at in applying critical thinking. Let’s evaluate critical thinking within the transformational approach of leadership. Transformational leadership theory suggests that it is a process that changes people(PSU WC L10 P2).  It is a leadership approach that is able to get leaders to motivate followers to do more than what is expected (PSU WC L10 P2). A leadership approach that enables a leader to generate and build an empire. It is part of the “new leadership paradigm” which focuses more attention on charisma and affect in leadership (Northouse, 2016). There is a lot of evidence that Transformational leadership focus is highly successful (Northouse, 2016). One factor affects another, in that a leader must appeal to the followers by appealing to their principals and higher cause (PSU WC L10 P4). Critical thinking is a larger component of the transformational theory because, in order to go through a process and be able to transform a person would need to make real, sometimes hard decisions. 

What if a person is not a good critical thinker? Can they still be a good leader? Having poor critical thinking skills can lead a person to make bad decisions, errors, repeated mistakes and even make bad assumptions. Weak critical thinking skills can cause a person to be unable to evaluate and prepare for situations (Sanscartier, 2013). So it looks like being a leader may require some critical thinking skills. So, are leaders that lack critical thinking skills doomed forever? WIll they be able to lead in a productive way? Apparently, there are still ways to develop and master critical thinking skills. 

So what does this all mean? Catherine Rezak from the International Institute of Directors and Managers suggests that leaders should take control of their critical thinking processes, evaluate them and then take action on them (Rezak,2020). So critical thinking skills could be learned, it just depends on a person’s discipline and drive to follow through with the learning process as well as adaptations to understanding it. Whether or not a person has critical thinking skills, the implications of the research suggest that critical thinking skills can be learned, or they can be innate and either way, they are useful in leadership. This is significant because although not everyone may have these skills, they still have an opportunity to learn them. 

       So what’s next? Being able to attain critical thinking skills means that possibly anyone could be a leader because the skills are transferable as long as the person is able to take control and use discipline to learn.  All of this information suggests that a less than good leader, who lacks critical thinking skills may make bad decisions, misjudge an issue, and ultimately fail the leader systems in place. One example of this is when I first started working in wraparound as a family support worker. WHen i first started I had no idea what I was doing. The job was really a fly by the seat of your pants kind of job, until you can learn the skill sets. There was a lot of critical thinking involved, when I was untrained. I had to be able to understand a full situation that I had never experienced before and know when and what skillset to use with the family member. When I used the wrong skill set, the team was unable to plan with a family, in turn creating turmoil. Being able to understand, evaluate and come to the correct decision is such an important part of leading a team. The good thing is that if we don’t know what we are doing, there is always an opportunity to learn! 

In conclusion, the evidence presented today suggests that leaders who have, or attain good critical thinking skills will be able to evaluate, judge, better understand and resolve issues more efficiently. We need more critical thinkers in this world! Using critical thinking within leadership approaches is an important component and probably should not be overlooked. A leader should have good critical thinking skills. 

Paul, R., Elder,L., Bartell, T. (March 1997). Critical Thinking: Research, findings and policy recommendations. Retrieved from: https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/a-brief-history-of-the-idea-of-critical-thinking/408 

Cox, K. (November 25, 2011). The evolution of leadership. A look at where leadership is heading. Retrieved from: https://cvdl.ben.edu/blog/the-evolution-of-leadership-a-look-at-where-leadership-is-heading/

Rezak, C. (April, 2020). Developing your Critical thinking skills. Retrieved from: https://www.marchfifteen.ca/leadership-the-importance-of-critical-thinking/#:~:text=A%20leader%20with%20critical%20thinking,reasoning%2C%20and%20make%20proper%20decisions .

https://www.iidmglobal.com/expert_talk/expert-talk-categories/leadership/leadership_skill/id45293.html#:~:text=Developed%20in%201925%2C%20the%20model,Inference

Northouse, P.G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and Practice. 7th Edition. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

Pennsylvania State University (2020). Leadership in work. Module 7: Power and influence Retrieved from https://psu.instructure.com/courses/2075467/modules/items/30110461

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Critical Thinking

Developing the right mindset and skills.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

We make hundreds of decisions every day and, whether we realize it or not, we're all critical thinkers.

We use critical thinking each time we weigh up our options, prioritize our responsibilities, or think about the likely effects of our actions. It's a crucial skill that helps us to cut out misinformation and make wise decisions. The trouble is, we're not always very good at it!

In this article, we'll explore the key skills that you need to develop your critical thinking skills, and how to adopt a critical thinking mindset, so that you can make well-informed decisions.

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the discipline of rigorously and skillfully using information, experience, observation, and reasoning to guide your decisions, actions, and beliefs. You'll need to actively question every step of your thinking process to do it well.

Collecting, analyzing and evaluating information is an important skill in life, and a highly valued asset in the workplace. People who score highly in critical thinking assessments are also rated by their managers as having good problem-solving skills, creativity, strong decision-making skills, and good overall performance. [1]

Key Critical Thinking Skills

Critical thinkers possess a set of key characteristics which help them to question information and their own thinking. Focus on the following areas to develop your critical thinking skills:

Being willing and able to explore alternative approaches and experimental ideas is crucial. Can you think through "what if" scenarios, create plausible options, and test out your theories? If not, you'll tend to write off ideas and options too soon, so you may miss the best answer to your situation.

To nurture your curiosity, stay up to date with facts and trends. You'll overlook important information if you allow yourself to become "blinkered," so always be open to new information.

But don't stop there! Look for opposing views or evidence to challenge your information, and seek clarification when things are unclear. This will help you to reassess your beliefs and make a well-informed decision later. Read our article, Opening Closed Minds , for more ways to stay receptive.

Logical Thinking

You must be skilled at reasoning and extending logic to come up with plausible options or outcomes.

It's also important to emphasize logic over emotion. Emotion can be motivating but it can also lead you to take hasty and unwise action, so control your emotions and be cautious in your judgments. Know when a conclusion is "fact" and when it is not. "Could-be-true" conclusions are based on assumptions and must be tested further. Read our article, Logical Fallacies , for help with this.

Use creative problem solving to balance cold logic. By thinking outside of the box you can identify new possible outcomes by using pieces of information that you already have.

Self-Awareness

Many of the decisions we make in life are subtly informed by our values and beliefs. These influences are called cognitive biases and it can be difficult to identify them in ourselves because they're often subconscious.

Practicing self-awareness will allow you to reflect on the beliefs you have and the choices you make. You'll then be better equipped to challenge your own thinking and make improved, unbiased decisions.

One particularly useful tool for critical thinking is the Ladder of Inference . It allows you to test and validate your thinking process, rather than jumping to poorly supported conclusions.

Developing a Critical Thinking Mindset

Combine the above skills with the right mindset so that you can make better decisions and adopt more effective courses of action. You can develop your critical thinking mindset by following this process:

Gather Information

First, collect data, opinions and facts on the issue that you need to solve. Draw on what you already know, and turn to new sources of information to help inform your understanding. Consider what gaps there are in your knowledge and seek to fill them. And look for information that challenges your assumptions and beliefs.

Be sure to verify the authority and authenticity of your sources. Not everything you read is true! Use this checklist to ensure that your information is valid:

• Are your information sources trustworthy ? (For example, well-respected authors, trusted colleagues or peers, recognized industry publications, websites, blogs, etc.)
• Is the information you have gathered up to date ?
• Has the information received any direct criticism ?
• Does the information have any errors or inaccuracies ?
• Is there any evidence to support or corroborate the information you have gathered?
• Is the information you have gathered subjective or biased in any way? (For example, is it based on opinion, rather than fact? Is any of the information you have gathered designed to promote a particular service or organization?)

If any information appears to be irrelevant or invalid, don't include it in your decision making. But don't omit information just because you disagree with it, or your final decision will be flawed and bias.

Now observe the information you have gathered, and interpret it. What are the key findings and main takeaways? What does the evidence point to? Start to build one or two possible arguments based on what you have found.

You'll need to look for the details within the mass of information, so use your powers of observation to identify any patterns or similarities. You can then analyze and extend these trends to make sensible predictions about the future.

To help you to sift through the multiple ideas and theories, it can be useful to group and order items according to their characteristics. From here, you can compare and contrast the different items. And once you've determined how similar or different things are from one another, Paired Comparison Analysis can help you to analyze them.

The final step involves challenging the information and rationalizing its arguments.

Apply the laws of reason (induction, deduction, analogy) to judge an argument and determine its merits. To do this, it's essential that you can determine the significance and validity of an argument to put it in the correct perspective. Take a look at our article, Rational Thinking , for more information about how to do this.

Once you have considered all of the arguments and options rationally, you can finally make an informed decision.

Afterward, take time to reflect on what you have learned and what you found challenging. Step back from the detail of your decision or problem, and look at the bigger picture. Record what you've learned from your observations and experience.

Critical thinking involves rigorously and skilfully using information, experience, observation, and reasoning to guide your decisions, actions and beliefs. It's a useful skill in the workplace and in life.

You'll need to be curious and creative to explore alternative possibilities, but rational to apply logic, and self-aware to identify when your beliefs could affect your decisions or actions.

You can demonstrate a high level of critical thinking by validating your information, analyzing its meaning, and finally evaluating the argument.

Critical Thinking Infographic

See Critical Thinking represented in our infographic: An Elementary Guide to Critical Thinking .

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How to Build Your Judgment and Critical Thinking

Blessed are the critical thinkers: for they help us understand and find truth..

Posted April 28, 2022 | Reviewed by Lybi Ma

• Each person has the strength of judgment they can tap into.
• A critical thinking blessing is one practical strategy you can use for building this strength.
• Observing the processes of good critical thinkers can help you enhance this strength.

Us vs. them. In-group vs. out-group. Good guys vs. bad guys. Polarization is at an all-time high. What might be an antidote?

One step in the right direction is to increase our character strength of judgment , also called critical thinking . This strength is about the pursuit of truth. It reminds us that truth is not found in impressions, stereotypes, quick glances, and preconceived notions. It is found with a persevering and always-evolving process of reflection, introspection, analysis, and open-mindedness to other views. It is found not by flipping on a political news program but by flipping on your thinking in new ways. It is found not by surfing through social media headlines but by looking for exceptions to your existing views.

How can we build this character strength? One strategy is to observe, study, and learn from those who express the strength well. What does an exemplar of critical thinking say about this strength? How do they act? Let’s find out.

Davis, an accomplished musician and decorated police chief, was a master critical thinker. He has been known throughout his community for his logic and good judgment. He has loved looking at every detail of a situation, especially his beliefs about things. He has been analytical about anything potentially controversial such as spirituality , politics , family life, and personal problems. He doesn't take his beliefs about things for granted. Rather, he goes deeper. He has sought out universal truths (and never took those for granted either).

When interviewed about his critical thinking, Davis offered several insights and practical strategies for appreciating and building this strength.

You are known as a great critical thinker. How do you use this strength of character?

When I am faced with a dilemma or controversy, I ask myself several questions:

• How is my belief or what I’m thinking about now not true ?
• What are the exceptions to my belief?
• What would someone from a different culture or lived experience say about my ideas?
• What am I missing, forgetting, or not including?
• If I wouldn’t stake my life on my conclusion or my belief, what part of it makes me most hesitant?
• If I was to become just a little bit more accurate or get a bit more detail on the situation, what would it be?

Wow, you really have a solid approach of “drilling down” to get to the core of that which is most essential.

I think of it like I am peeling layers of veneer in my mind. I try to peel away my first impression and I peel away my biases such as the automatic tendency to look for support for my beliefs. I peel away the layer of expectations I have of society. I peel away my automatic reactions to please or to impress others. I just keep going in the pursuit of a greater truth. Then, I remind myself that that greater truth I find is not perfect and absolute and finished, but it is better than what I started with.

Judgment or critical thinking is the ultimate “mind strength.” Doesn’t that mean you get lost in your head and miss the heart?

I see the mind and heart as one. They are completely interconnected. Each offers a different lens or starting point. A good critical thinker sees and experiences both of these lenses and others. My typical approach is to start with the analyses I mentioned to get past the multitude of biases I am subject to. I know that when I get closer to a truth I am touching my heart. I can feel it in my chest. Some people do this process in reverse and start with the heart. Each person makes their own decision on what’s best for them.

Spoken like a true critical thinker. Who takes the reverse process? Can you offer an example?

Actually, I do. As a critical thinker, I don’t want to get locked into one approach. It behooves me to be open to different analyses and ways of interacting. For example, when a person is very locked into a particular way of thinking that I perceive to be unhealthy or have negative consequences, my first step is to “appeal to their heart.” I empathize with them; I show them understanding, even though I may not agree with them. I can always offer that gift of understanding. I might also share with them how their views do not seem to align with their values. From there, my critical thinking helps me provide details and logical reasons for the misalignment I perceive. Still, I maintain an open-mindedness to be wrong, to be challenged, to be corrected.

What you are describing seems to have implications that go far beyond you and the people you interact with. How would you describe the potential of your approach?

I think of the pursuit of truth as very spiritual. A universal truth provides connection and sustenance between people. It reaches and expresses our common humanity. This is of great importance to philosophers, proponents of religion, and people across nations. When a truth is identified, there is greater acceptance within a divided group and across groups. This reminds us of some of the spiritual truths of the human condition that we are more alike than different, genetically speaking 99.9 percent the same, and also that all of us on the planet are all in this together.

Getting Practical: Use the Critical Thinking Blessing

You can use the critical thinking-judgment beatitude, "Blessed are the critical thinkers: for they help us understand and find truth" (Niemiec, 2021), to appreciate the depth of this strength of critical thinking-judgment in yourself and in others.

• In yourself : In what situations has this beatitude been a reality for you?
• In others : Identify someone in your life who is high in critical thinking-judgment. Explain to them how you have benefitted from observing and experiencing this strength from them.

This article is part of an exclusive blog series on the 24 character strengths blessings/beatitudes. See the new, scientific article, called Character Strengths Beatitudes: A Secular Application of Ancient Wisdom to Appreciate Strengths for Spiritual Happiness and Spiritual Growth (Niemiec, 2021), published in the journal Religions .

Judgment/critical thinking is one of 24 universal character strengths found across countries, cultures, and beliefs, as uncovered by modern-day scientists.

Ryan M. Niemiec, Psy.D. , is the education director at the VIA Institute on Character.

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Effective leadership is a cornerstone of success in any organization, driving growth, innovation, and employee engagement. Developing leadership skills implies more than acquiring knowledge; it requires nurturing qualities that inspire and motivate others. Whether you're a seasoned leader or aspiring to become one, comprehending the key attributes of effective leadership is essential. We will delve into the critical qualities of effective leaders, explore strategies for nurturing these attributes, and offer practical insights for personal and professional development. Additionally, leaders in digital marketing can significantly benefit from leveraging white label SEO services to enhance their team's capabilities and deliver comprehensive solutions to clients.

Understanding Leadership

Leadership involves guiding, influencing, and inspiring others to achieve common goals. It involves setting a vision, motivating team members, and fostering collaboration and trust. Effective leaders possess a blend of personal qualities and professional skills that enable them to navigate challenges, make knowledgeable decisions, and drive organizational success. Comprehending the multifaceted nature of leadership is the first step toward developing the skills paramount to lead effectively.

Cultivating Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) is a foundational quality of effective leadership. It involves the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. Leaders with high emotional intelligence can build strong relationships, manage stress, and resolve conflicts effectively. Cultivating EI implicates self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills. By developing emotional intelligence, leaders can create a positive work environment, foster collaboration, and enhance team performance.

Building Communication Skills

Clear and effective communication is paramount for successful leadership. Leaders must convey their vision, expectations, and feedback in a manner that is comprehended and accepted by their team. Building communication skills implicates active listening, clarity in messaging, and adapting communication styles to different audiences. Effective leaders use communication to build trust, align team members with organizational goals, and foster an open and inclusive culture.

Developing Decision-Making Abilities

Decision-making is a critical aspect of leadership. Leaders must often make tough choices under pressure, balancing short-term needs with long-term goals. Developing decision-making abilities involves gathering and analyzing information, considering various perspectives, and assessing potential outcomes. Effective leaders are decisive yet flexible, willing to adjust their approach based on new information or changing circumstances. Leaders can navigate complexities and guide their teams toward success by honing their decision-making skills.

Fostering a Growth Mindset

A growth mindset is the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and hard work. Leaders with a growth mindset embrace challenges, comprehend failures, and persist in facing setbacks. Fostering a growth mindset implicates encouraging continuous learning, seeking feedback, and viewing obstacles as opportunities for growth. By cultivating this mindset, leaders can inspire their teams to strive for excellence, innovate, and achieve their full potential.

Encouraging Collaboration and Teamwork

Effective leaders understand the power of collaboration and teamwork. They create an environment where team members feel valued, respected, and empowered to contribute their ideas and skills. Encouraging collaboration implicates building a culture of trust, facilitating open communication, and recognizing the strengths of each team member. Leaders who foster teamwork can harness their team's collective intelligence, drive creativity, and achieve better results.

Enhancing Problem-Solving Skills

Problem-solving is essential for leaders, enabling them to address challenges and find effective solutions. Enhancing problem-solving skills implicates critical thinking, creativity, and analyzing situations from multiple perspectives. Leaders must be able to identify root causes, develop actionable plans, and implement solutions efficiently. By improving their problem-solving abilities, leaders can navigate obstacles, drive progress, and support their team's success.

Nurturing Creativity and Innovation

Creativity and innovation are vital for organizational growth and competitiveness. Leaders play a key role in nurturing a culture that encourages creative thinking and innovation. This implies providing experimentation opportunities, supporting risk-taking, and recognizing and rewarding innovative ideas. By fostering an environment where creativity thrives, leaders can drive continuous improvement, inspire their teams, and usher their organizations toward new opportunities and successes.

Developing Conflict Resolution Skills

Conflict is a natural part of any team dynamic, and effective leaders must be adept at resolving conflicts constructively. Developing conflict resolution skills involves comprehending the underlying issues, facilitating open communication, and finding mutually beneficial solutions. Leaders who handle conflicts with empathy and fairness can maintain a positive team atmosphere, stem disruptions, and strengthen relationships. Leaders can ensure a harmonious and productive work environment by mastering conflict resolution.

Encouraging Accountability

Accountability is a key component of effective leadership. Leaders must hold themselves and their team members accountable for their actions and performance. Encouraging accountability implicates setting clear expectations, providing regular feedback, and fostering a culture of responsibility. Leaders who emphasize accountability can drive high performance, ensure alignment with organizational goals, and build a sense of ownership and commitment within their team.

Inspiring Vision and Purpose

A compelling vision and a sense of purpose are paramount for motivating and guiding a team. Effective leaders articulate a clear, inspiring vision aligning with the organization's values and goals. They communicate this vision with passion and conviction, helping team members comprehend their role in achieving it. By inspiring vision and purpose, leaders can unite their team around common goals, foster a sense of meaning, and drive collective effort toward success.

Fostering Adaptability and Flexibility

In a rapidly changing world, adaptability and flexibility are paramount leadership qualities. Leaders must respond to new challenges, opportunities, and environmental shifts. Fostering adaptability implies being open to change, embracing new ideas, and continuously learning. Flexible leaders can effectively adjust their strategies, innovate, and usher their teams through transitions. By cultivating adaptability, leaders can ensure their organization remains resilient and competitive in the face of change.

Building Trust and Credibility

Trust and credibility are fundamental to effective leadership. Leaders must earn the trust of their team through consistent actions, honesty, and integrity. Building trust implicates being transparent, keeping commitments, and demonstrating genuine concern for the well-being of team members. Credible leaders are respected and followed willingly, making motivating and guiding their team easier. Leaders can build strong, cohesive teams and drive organizational success by fostering trust and credibility.

Leveraging Technology and Innovation

In today's digital age, leveraging technology and innovation is paramount for effective leadership. Leaders must stay informed about technological advancements and comprehend how to integrate them into their organization's operations. Leveraging technology involves using tools and systems to enhance productivity, communication, and decision-making. Innovative leaders seek out new technologies that can drive efficiency and competitiveness. By embracing technology, leaders can usher their organization into the future and maintain a competitive edge.

Encouraging Diversity and Inclusion

Diversity and inclusion are paramount for fostering innovation, creativity, and a positive work environment. Effective leaders recognize the value of diverse perspectives and create an inclusive culture where everyone feels valued and respected. Encouraging diversity implicates actively seeking out diverse talent, promoting inclusive practices, and addressing biases. Leaders championing diversity and inclusion can build stronger teams, enhance problem-solving, and drive better decision-making. By fostering an inclusive environment, leaders can ensure that their organization thrives and benefits from various ideas and experiences.

Leading Through Change

Change is inevitable in any organization, and effective leaders must be able to usher their teams through transitions successfully. Leading through change involves clear communication, empathy, and a strategic approach. Leaders must help their team understand the reasons for change, address concerns, and provide support throughout the process. By fostering a positive attitude toward change and demonstrating resilience, leaders can smoothly guide their teams through transitions and maintain morale. Effective change leadership ensures the organization remains agile and ready to adapt to new challenges and opportunities.

Building a Positive Organizational Culture

A positive organizational culture is paramount for employee satisfaction, engagement, and productivity. Leaders play a paramount role in shaping and maintaining this culture. Building a positive culture involves promoting core values, recognizing achievements, and fostering a sense of community. Leaders must direct by example, demonstrating the behaviors and attitudes they wish to see in their team. By creating a supportive and positive work environment, leaders can enhance employee well-being, drive high performance, and ensure long-term success.

Developing leadership skills is a continuous journey that involves nurturing key qualities such as emotional intelligence, communication, decision-making, and resilience. Effective leaders inspire and motivate their teams, foster collaboration, and drive organizational success. By understanding and cultivating these paramount attributes, leaders can enhance their personal and professional growth and lead their organizations toward triumph. Whether you're an aspiring leader or looking to improve your leadership abilities, focusing on these qualities will help you build a strong foundation for effective leadership.

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Funded, in part, through a Cooperative Agreement with the U.S. Small Business Administration. All opinions, and/or recommendations expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the SBA.

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Understanding the Roots of Leadership

“A sense of perspective may be among the most critical leadership qualities.” —Joshua Rothman

Which leadership values are important? To answer this question, we need greater insight into the history and context of leadership in Western society. Josh Rotherman’s leadership article in The New Yorker describes the leading trends in American culture and what we can learn from those trends. Understanding those trends is essential to consider how to assess our leadership development.

Rothman concludes his study of leadership analysis with the thought “a sense of perspective may be among the most critical leadership qualities.” Perhaps the best place to start thinking about today’s leadership trends is how to relate these trends to our work by understanding the context of others’ impressions and conceptions. At the heart of Rothman’s assessment is the belief that leaders need to carefully consider the impact of their leadership in a long-term sense. In this 16-minute video, listen to Conley’s thoughts on how one can best determine what makes life worthwhile and how that relates to our leadership practices. While listening, notice how his thoughts refer to the importance of ethical value determination as a critical influence in conceptualizing aligning one’s life with one’s passion and work.

Legacy Connects to Influence

According to John Maxwell and Jim Dornan, there is inherent value in considering the perspective and legacy to become a person of influence and to develop the core of ethical, visionary thinking to make a difference. In their work Becoming a Person of Influence , they argue that one must develop essential leadership competencies toward better ethical decision-making. Maxwell and Dornan contend that leadership success is directly comparable to the principles of good thinking and strong convictions. They argue that the key to success is the everyday strategies leaders can use, which are based on the ten characteristics listed above. A person becomes influential when they possess integrity, nurture relationships with others, have faith in other people, demonstrate absolute conviction in their words and actions daily, listen to others, understand where others are coming from, mentors others through exceptional care, navigate individuals by centering themselves on those individuals, connect with others by becoming authentic in their approach, empowers others by going out of the way to help and advocate for them and produces/fosters others who follow and make an ethical difference.

The Importance of Credibility

“The center of gravity for business loyalty–whether it be the loyalty of the customers, employees, investors, suppliers, or dealers–is the personal integrity of the senior leadership team and its ability to put its principles into practice.” 

Moral leadership leaves a legacy focusing on ten items (see box above) (Maxwell and Dornan, 2006). They write we don’t know exactly what your life dream is or the legacy you want to leave. But to make an impact, you must be capable of influencing others. There is no other way of effectively touching people’s lives. And if you become a person of influence, then maybe someday, when other people write down the names of those who made a difference in their lives, your name might be on it (Maxwell and Dornan, 2006). At their root, moral principles and ethical decision-making must incorporate the element of humbleness, authenticity, compromise, and legacy; all essential characteristics or factors to consider in assessing the place of leaders in society. Reichheld, in his article “Loyalty Rules: How Today’s Leaders Build Lasting Relationships,” makes this clear by writing it “is the personal integrity of the senior leadership team and its ability to put its principles into practice” (Reichheld, 2008) that determines how these values contribute to the result of credibility.

In watching Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream Speech ,” where do you see Maxwell and Dornan’s characteristics at work? Which component seems paramount as King iterates his vision for a more just society? What values does King refer to that we could safely say we are essential in determining effective, ethical leadership as we think about the importance of perspective, legacy, and credibility?

The critical value of credibility can also be seen in the famous text The Leadership Challenge by Kouzes and Posner.   This belief is reinforced in the chapter “Credibility is the foundation of leadership.”  Without credibility, they believe, one can not adequately lead any organization. People look for consistency between word and deed. In addition, confusion over what values are most important or character of word and deed can cause stress, leading to several adverse outcomes that influence the ethical climate. Credibility can be most accurately divided into two core moral values central to moral outcomes: honesty and visionary thinking.

Research by Kouzes and Posner confirms that credibility is based on the forward-thinking attitude or visionary projection that a leader reveals and oversees. To accomplish this, leaders must be competent. Fundamentally this is based on one’s honesty which mirrors their credibility. In determining effective leadership, there is no way to escape the connection between results, one’s track record, and the moral value of honesty. Without all of these elements, one’s leadership will suffer.

The Leadership Challenge

Creditability is the root of the five leadership practices central to ethical leadership in the Leadership Challenge.

• Modeling the way,
• Inspiring a shared vision,
• Challenging the process,
• Enabling others to act,
• and Engaging the heart

These competencies require careful ethical thinking, with credibility at the core. They also need perspective and legacy to evolve. The success of this model was determined by indicators which Kouzes, and Posner studied and analyzed. Kouzes and Posner’s findings are revealing. In institutions with robust and credible leadership, they observed:

• employee organizational pride,
• an increasingly poignant sense of team spirit,
• identification with consistent personal values,
• an attachment and loyalty to the organization,
• the widened understanding and identification with the overall structure,
• and process of the collective entity, regardless of the member’s status.

All of these characteristics lead to more ethical and also productive organizations.

While effective leadership built upon credibility has concrete and productive outcomes, some indicators speak to the leadership struggles that might result from honesty and practical visionary thinking. Kouzes and Posner identified five categories in their research and studies.

• Low credibility usually produces situations where people can not be trusted to do their job.
• When credibility is missing, people become increasingly motivated by the most tangible of outcomes–money or the desire to vacate the situation as fast as possible.
• A lack of credibility can also lead to increased severe thinking about “moving on,” usually coupled with conversations that are artificially good but are merely covering an adverse current of private discussion that is not productive or good.
• Kouzes and Posner argue that institutions with low leadership credibility convey diminished levels of support and appreciation for those who are part of the organization, thus causing greater mistrust and indifference on the part of those being led.
• If credibility is not addressed through the lens of perspective and legacy, problems will emerge and destroy the leader’s ability in any other categories or areas. Credibility is significant.

May’s Suggestions for Organizations

Participation

Transparency

Accountability

How do we create an organization that is ethically based on the essential values discussed so far? Steve May (2006) writes in Case Studies in Organizational Communication that leaders and organizations should base their moral evaluations on a six-part strategy to set expectations for better ethical evaluation.

• May argues that people must work to align their personal and professional aspirations and behaviors to reach clarity of values for the individual and organization.
• Organizations should be encouraged to create honest, open, transparent dialogue or communication.
• Ethical values in an institution should work towards a system-wide decision-making model that encourages the participation of as many individuals as possible.
• All policies, regulations, and guidelines should be straightforward and transparent; particular emphasis should be given to fostering clear understanding for all without hidden loopholes or discrepancies.
• Rules, regulations, and guidelines should create and institute a form of accountability for those who are involved.
• People must be courageous in seeking true wisdom and trained to think critically and carefully to identify and resolve ethical problems that will emerge.

Success found in these critical components will move an organization towards proper ethics and tremendous overall success in the long term. All of this works when an atmosphere of trust and thoughtfulness is encouraged by those in charge.

Shaping a Proper Attitude

What if these strategies fail? One of the widely discussed ethical obstacles is the problem of poor attitude which can quickly permeate an institution. John Maxwell (2007) writes in Ultimate Leadership that we need to be willing to evaluate our self-perceptions and the situations in which we might be confronted by being honest about our and others’ attitudes. The importance of being self-aware of our attitude and the situations that foster others’ positive attitudes is essential to determining effective, ethical leadership.

Maxwell analyzed why employers dismissed their employees. Looking at the data, Maxwell hypothesizes that the underlying reason for these problems stemmed from a poor attitudinal, institutional environment. Poor attitudes are often associated with the employee but may be resolved with a greater awareness of what causes such outcomes by leaders. Maxwell asserts that helping others create a more positive or productive attitude represents a leader’s understanding of the perspective, legacy, and credibility factors. Maxwell’s research is close to accurate; 85% of institutional problems, which leads to ineffective workplace outcomes or, in more severe cases, eventual “firings,” can be tied to a lack of productive attitude that more insightful ethical leadership practices could have offset.

Why employees are dismissed:

• Incompetence 30%,
• Inability to get along with others 17%,
• Negative attitude 10%,
• Lack of motivation 7%,
• Refusal to follow instructions 7%

(Maxwell, 1998, p. 347)

The percentages above may not reveal a complete picture of institutional characteristics ultimately at play; the importance of keeping a positive attitude and creating an atmosphere where this approach is contagious can not be ignored. This assessment can be seen in the quotation listed above. Leadership requires that the leader see reality and be capable and willing to “adjust the sails” of the group or institution.

This “adjustment” often comes from the leader’s attitude. Maxwell argues that leaders must carefully gauge their predisposition and, be honest about where they are and what they are ultimately about. This might require an adjustment of perception or feelings. If an “adjustment” is needed, the leader should focus on change through the following four steps.

• The leader must identify the problem feelings or perceptions that are apparent within one’s self and/or the institution.
• The leader must consciously identify the behaviors that create the poor attitude.
• It is the leader’s responsibility to identify the thinking or contextual circumstances that have produced such behaviors.
• The leader is required to identify “better” thinking and then confirm this new path in a public commitment.

A leader’s commitment to “adjusting the sails” is not always easy. It requires self-reflection and self-responsible to move forward with change despite potential obstacles.

Rachels’ Theory of “Morality Without Hubris”

The fact is that ethical leadership is complex and requires a great deal from the leader. What is most frustrating is not having a vision for the required improvement. The organization or the leader does not simply determine the complexity behind this. The factors of leadership strain are increasing worldwide due to external moral issues or issues that do not simply focus on one organization and its internal workings. Such questions abound:

• How will we adequately address the potentially harmful outcomes of global issues that impact all work in any industry?
• How will we address the increasing strain of societal issues that create more difficult pressure on both individuals and institutions that complicate value determined necessary?

Rachels’ theory of Morality without Hubris (MWH) and the following theories can address this issue more precisely and help us realign our thoughts and strategies amid this potential strain. Dr. James Rachels (2019), The Element of Moral Philosophy, wrote a series of articles and texts on thinking critically while weighing the factors at the heart of critical moral philosophical viewpoints.

What I like about his work is that it applies directly to “real-life” scenarios. His work has a sense of sincerity in the belief that employing wisdom and making the right decision is much more complicated than it might initially seem but incredibly worthwhile if we focus on essential components. He highlights many key ethical components and ends his work with a theoretical proposal for good thinkers named the MWH strategy. Rachels suggests that one way to begin to further this conversation can be found in his practical approach. His theory of morality without hubris offers a good starting point.

In any leadership position, effective decision-making must include what Rachels believes to be the crucial element of success; the ability to look beyond oneself. Many years ago, I gave a graduation speech that echoed this viewpoint. I titled it “Getting Out of Our Way.” In it, I argued that our society can do amazing things, but often what keeps us from making better decisions is our inability to put aside aggrandizement, arrogance, and greed. We often cultivate these attributes when we focus on our needs and perspective without adequately giving severe consideration to others or our greater society. Rachels addresses this problem by arguing that the place to start with good, ethical thinking lies in the ability to “put ourselves more aside” and concentrate on five factors to institute the concept of “morality without hubris”.

• We must be willing to cultivate and follow through on a viewpoint more sensitive to human nature. We must find a way to define and connect with those essential elements or ingredients that hold us together as people.
• To be better thinkers, we must be willing to see ourselves in the context of greater values or concepts that transcend our perceptions or existence. To be truly humble, in the sense that Rachel argues, demands that we see ourselves as equals with others and to be motivated by this belief so that it dictates our daily decision-making. This requires respect for others, motivated by understanding the needs of others, and the conviction that our decisions will produce results that are in the best interest of all.
• We must focus on impartiality. This is best defined in terms of justice. A better thinker understands that true justice is upheld by the decisions and actions of those committed to leading through humility. Using better critical thinking skills by balancing reason and emotion, one can move towards a more effective model of good decision-making by becoming more aware of what motivates people.
• Careful thinkers must consider essential social elements of living as the most important. Issues of life and death, severe consequences of physical and emotional violence, and injustice must be addressed. All policies and/or decisions must not violate moral principles, have detrimental effects, or force individuals into compromising situations.
• Rachels incorporates into his theory “morality with hubris,” an element of Nel Noddings’ care philosophy (Stanford University), which leaders must ponder. He argues that good leaders who make solid decisions develop and enhance the natural inclination of all to care on a local, societal, and global level and act per proper moral principles.

Find freedom Gain the awareness of how to be a “responsible moral agent” through the virtues of fair treatment and respect for all promote the interest of all Treat people as they deserve to be treated

John Rawls’ Theory of Justice as Fairness

These factors produce productive results that can help us move along in solving problems. According to Rachels, when we consider these factors, we will find the freedom that overcomes obvious determined factors, regardless of our industry, position, or personal issues.

By consciously weighing essential elements, we become empowered in knowing that we are moving forward with decisions that far outweigh our inclinations or perceptions.

We gain greater awareness of how to become a “responsible moral agent” found in the values of fair treatment and respect for ourselves and others.

Creating greater awareness is the first step to changing ourselves and others. This is a never-ending process and therefore is not based on a result in and of itself. Instead, we must see the gained awareness as correlated with the enhancement of proper thinking skills in cultivating true wisdom.

In the process of greater awareness, experience, and the willingness to learn and be open with others, we also become more in tune with the promotion of the interest of all, whether that is focused on our families, our communities, our company, our industry, our society or our world.

This concept leads us to the underlying equation that is not tied to the “golden rule” but more geared towards true justice or the type of justice discussed by John Rawls of Harvard University. This approach to justice and good leadership dictates that individuals treat others as they deserve to be treated, according to their unique needs, and not merely from the standpoint of reciprocity or as we would like to be treated.

Fairness is not just about equality but the ability to tailor needs with an understanding and expectation of what people deserve. This complexity is a much more complex concept to incorporate into effective leadership as it requires authentic knowledge of those around you and the willingness, at times, to move beyond the simple “fairness as equal” interpretation that many supervisors or leaders employ. Often, in all reality, such an approach is the easiest way to avoid conflict as individuals can be interpreted to have been treated fairly by the equal process.

The Importance of Diminishing Your Ego

Rachels’ assessments have significantly impacted how morality, decision-making, and fairness have been studied and interpreted. Listen to Bob Davids discuss decreasing one’s ego to meet daunting ethical goals. Notice what Davids describes as the essential characteristics or behaviors we need to exhibit to avoid falling into the trap of becoming more and more self-centered.

The Theory of “Moral Sainthood”

A commitment to attitude change is directly connected to reducing arrogance or hubris, as we discussed before, and our ability to be honest with ourselves—failures and successes. Often in discussing morality, leadership, and the process of sound decision-making, we can be galvanized by our values and our plan we know is essential to a more ethical outcome. We can also be “defeated” in our inability to adequately use our plans or live up to “high expectations.” Though we must take the suggestions offered to heart, we must remember that we will not always effectively carry them out. As a result, we might interpret our inability as a failure and decide that moral decision-making theories, like Rachels’ theory, might be impractical or ineffective. Nothing could be more untrue.

Susan Wolf, a professor of philosophy at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, argues that the perspective of failure should not determine our assessment of a dilemma’s moral success. Instead, Wolf writes that society often misinterprets or misjudges the success of such theories as unrealistic because leaders don’t understand the outcomes, judge their successes and failures on intangible indicators, or don’t return immediate results. Instead, imperfection, or the failure to see tangible outcomes or gain instant results, should not determine the assessment of a decision. Wolf argues that we can not judge the morality of decisions based on the perceived result alone because we live in an imperfect world of imperfect people. We are imperfect. Wolf says that we must be willing to fully understand this societal thinking pattern she labels “moral sainthood” or the concept that people who are moral or good decision-makers never make mistakes. The result of all “good” moral decisions does not always result in a productive, transparent, and profitable outcome.

The “moral sainthood” theory states that we must accept and understand that “good” decision-making and leadership require the acceptance of imperfection. In that imperfection, we find the genuine concept of “moral sainthood”; namely, understanding of moral sainthood can be found in the essence of imperfection. Wolf believes that our effectiveness is in adhering to the beliefs of moral ideals and in our failure to attain these moral ideals. Knowing this, we are forced to focus on others and see circumstances and situations for what they are. In short, the concept of the leadership ideal as a “Mother Theresa” figure or perfect “moral saint” is not healthy nor helpful.

Though Mother Theresa was an amazing individual, the untrue concept of success yields disturbing comparative disappointment in many people’s views of their own lives and situation; in this case, Wolf writes, the extraordinary feats of superb individuals and their legacy limits the drive for success of individuals, community, and society. This thinking can leave people feeling powerless and encourage an atmosphere of apathy or indifference; in some cases, this haplessness leads to a lack of responsibility in a world (or apathy). Wolf advocates for a more evident ideal of “moral sainthood.” She writes in her Freedom within Reason that we must find a way to be more realistic about our expectations and use these failures to prompt more significant ethical change.

To do this effectively, honestly, and with the genuineness demanded by proper leadership, we must be seen in the light of our failures and successes as authentic leaders. In those successes and failures, we become devoted to the welfare of others, as they can relate to us. Leaders must reevaluate the definition of proper leadership and decision-making to reflect greater interest than one person or a collective group. In imperfection, we make ourselves vulnerable, and it is through vulnerability that we gain trust and a proper understanding of authentic leadership and sound decision-making. Thus, Wolf’s “moral sainthood” concept incorporates the leader’s commitment to genuine and full-time devotion to this renewed definition. She writes, the moral point of view, we might say, is the point of view one takes up insofar as one takes the recognition of that fact that one is just one person among others–equally honest and deserving of the good things in life as a fact with practical consequences—seen in actions and deliberations (Wolfe, 1982).   Perhaps, as Wolf suggests, it is in genuine awareness of our daily struggle with our imperfections and the development of authentic connections with others that we become most effective in helping ourselves and others to move forward.

In considering the value of Wolf’s theory, we must address the fact that ethical progress and change require us to overcome significant obstacles. To face these obstacles, it is essential to consider the mindset that a strong thinker must have to move on. Aimee Mullins discusses in her powerful story how we can turn obstacles into opportunities for success. She reminds us that adversity prompts us to accomplish incredible things—even when that success is not easily attained.

Creating an Ethical Atmosphere in Any Situation

In thinking through the value of overcoming obstacles and acknowledging that instituting true beneficial, ethical change may be slow, it is also imperative to understand how to compromise when called upon. Combining Rachels’ concept of “morality without hubris,” Maxwell’s conception of “attitude adjustment,” and Wolf’s “authentic conception of moral sainthood,” we can then turn our attention to Derek Parfit’s suggestion of how to best focus on moving the progressive movement forward when the goal has not been grasped.

One essential element of good critical thinking must include finding a “middle ground” between factions or interests. Though it is clear that no decision will be equal in its result or outcome, Parfit’s statements on practical compromise help us understand how to weigh realistic outcomes with theoretical guiding moral principles or ideals. Parfit (1986) argues Reasons and Persons that the ultimate compromise is when thinkers must consider the compromise between desires and interests and those of others or higher ideals. Contrary to other theories that advocate that one must adopt the concept of higher ideals and adhere to them no matter what, Parfit writes that such models are too simplistic and self-defeating. He believes that our very nature, both biologically and psychologically, embeds us with the desire to advocate in some form or fashion for ourselves. This, he argues, is both good and bad.

A skillful thinker must learn to weigh the good elements of what he calls “self-interest” rather than “selfishness” against the concept of higher ideals, values, or virtues. What is most effective is the ability of everyone, including leaders, to weigh the inclination of self-interest against the conceptualization of others’ needs while balancing an element of objective Truth or principle. It is in the compromise of the subjective and objective that Truth can be found, and in that Truth, we can continue to uphold the values required over a long period. What should be most important to any moral leader is the understanding that the pursuit of Truth links itself with wisdom. Wisdom, for Parfit, incorporates the diligent and continual evaluation of compromise found in subjective and objective thinking and the willingness to adjust the process to attain the desired result. Thus, leaders must be able to take a situation and weigh its moral consequences for many different interests, including the interests of themselves.

This leads us to practical suggestions to create the proper atmosphere of expectation and progress with the people we contact.

• First, thinkers must be conscious of others’ feelings and consider their motivations and benefits. This is easier said than done. With limited knowledge, we must continually evaluate people and their interests while determining what is central to who they are and what they believe to be true.
• Second, we must be able to compare and contrast viewpoints clearly and rank various arguments and perspectives in relative terms. True critical thinkers must be able to think comprehensively and weigh the arguments being made carefully.
• Third, one must be “real” with those who are involved. This is not a factor that is focused on practice so that one can “pretend” to be concerned or “pretend” to listen; instead, it requires a leader to be devoted to actually spending the time to cultivate relationships so that trust can be reinforced and lines of communication can be opened for constructive feedback and even criticism.
• Last, to create greater moral awareness and, therefore, more constructive and good outcomes from solid decision-making, a thinker must create an ideal or vision of leadership. Progress is linked directly with “betterment” or moral improvement. Each one of these factors discussed above is critical to creating greater moral awareness, representing the beginning of a conversation that improves the personal, institutional, and societal situations that are so troubling.

Taking the awareness factors to heart, a good thinker can then evaluate how to accomplish the goal best to improve the ethical climate of their organization or circumstances. At the root of this is sound judgment. Sound judgment culminates in the following characteristics listed above:

• the acknowledgment of assumptions,
• the dissection of all moral points,
• balancing of emotion and reason,
• the weighing constructively of others’ interests and
• the willingness on the part of the leader to act on his or her decisions.

All five are the basis of sound ethical judgments.

A couple of deductions can be made about these five suggestions that I think make a difference. They all demand that the leader scrutinizes as many options as possible and balance logic with emotion. There are times to consider emotion’s vital contribution to a particular decision-making process, but allowing emotion, like anger, to dominate or control a decision-making situation is dangerous. Emotion can blind one from essential factual knowledge and detract from the task. Second, there is also the issue of prejudice or bias. Thinkers need to be conscious of the individuals involved in the process. Leaders must attempt to decrease their biases and prejudices and focus on the well-being of all involved. Though it is impossible to do this with complete assuredness, it is a goal that is essential to work towards as it guides leaders to avoid arbitrary and stereotypical assessments.

The last suggestion focuses on sound decision-making and the concept of action. Too often, leaders come up with grand plans or ideas but fail in their ability to carry out the plans they have envisioned. Vision must produce action. This can be self-defeating and demonstrate poor judgment or an inability to accomplish goals. This is particularly true of moral situations. Too many people take the easy way out; they make decisions that they know may not be moral or constructive, as they are swayed by decisions that they think will require less action and/or effort. They opt for the decision of less resistance.

As a leader, one must realize that every decision has moral implications. Actions taken and actions not taken demonstrate what values or virtues one believes are essential. It is an often overlooked important aspect of building solid ethical thinking skills.

In conclusion, as we assess our leadership strengths and weaknesses, it is crucial to tailor leadership theories to “real life” learning and the leadership scenarios one is confronted with in everyday situations. When considering these theories and perspectives, we evaluate the importance of humbleness, authenticity, compromise, and legacy or influence in the context of the essential element that holds all of this together—namely, the character trait of wisdom. Wisdom is not the accumulation of information, as information alone does not equal good decision-making or minimize all tendencies to make a mistake. All of these suggestions have the underlying theme that true wisdom is the core when determining how to uphold best these values, which are important to successful thinking. As a leader in a democratic society where we all shoulder this responsibility, we must acknowledge and refine good critical thinking skills while recommitting ourselves to taking more time to think about important decisions. This will allow us to weigh the possible outcomes of such decisions adequately. We can do this by being more aware of how we learn, evaluating the importance of objective and subjective thinking, and more effectively employing reason and emotion in a balanced framework to further our genuine understanding of ourselves and the world around us. Taking all of these suggestions, whether from the more theoretical or practical realm, a thinker can construct a better ethical viewpoint that incorporates consideration for community and family and the various institutions or workplaces in which they live.

Conley, C. (2010, February). Measuring what makes life worthwhile. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/chip_conley_measuring_what_makes_life_worthwhile?language=en

Gokadze, I. (2013, August 28). Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have A Dream Speech. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3vDWWy4CMhE

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1987).  The Leadership Challenge . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Maxwell, J. C. (1998). Ultimate Leadership.

Maxwell, J. C. (2001). The winning attitude, Developing the leaders around you; Becoming a person of influence. Nashville, TN: T. Nelson.

Maxwell, J. Dornan, J. (2006) Becoming a person of influence. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

May, S. (2006). Case studies in organizational communication. California: Sage.

Mullins, A. (2009, October). The opportunity of adversity. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/aimee_mullins_the_opportunity_of_adversity?language=en

Parfit, D. (1986). Reasons and Persons. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press

Rachels, S., & Rachels, J. (2019).  The elements of moral philosophy . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Rawls, J. (2005). A theory of justice . Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

Reichheld, F. F. (2008).  Loyalty rules!: How today’s leaders build lasting relationships . Boston: Harvard Business School.

Rothman, J. (2017, June 19). What Is Leadership, Anyway? Retrieved from https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/02/29/our-dangerous-leadership-obsession

Talks, T. (2012, April 10). The rarest commodity is leadership without ego: Bob Davids at TEDxESCP. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UQrPVmcgJJk

Wolf, S. (1982, August). Moral Saints. The Journal of Philosophy . 79(8). 419-439

Chapter 6--Determining Effective Leadership Copyright © 2018 by Christopher Brooks is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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6 Common Leadership Styles — and How to Decide Which to Use When

• Rebecca Knight

Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances call for different approaches.

Research suggests that the most effective leaders adapt their style to different circumstances — be it a change in setting, a shift in organizational dynamics, or a turn in the business cycle. But what if you feel like you’re not equipped to take on a new and different leadership style — let alone more than one? In this article, the author outlines the six leadership styles Daniel Goleman first introduced in his 2000 HBR article, “Leadership That Gets Results,” and explains when to use each one. The good news is that personality is not destiny. Even if you’re naturally introverted or you tend to be driven by data and analysis rather than emotion, you can still learn how to adapt different leadership styles to organize, motivate, and direct your team.

Much has been written about common leadership styles and how to identify the right style for you, whether it’s transactional or transformational, bureaucratic or laissez-faire. But according to Daniel Goleman, a psychologist best known for his work on emotional intelligence, “Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances may call for different approaches.”

• RK Rebecca Knight is a journalist who writes about all things related to the changing nature of careers and the workplace. Her essays and reported stories have been featured in The Boston Globe, Business Insider, The New York Times, BBC, and The Christian Science Monitor. She was shortlisted as a Reuters Institute Fellow at Oxford University in 2023. Earlier in her career, she spent a decade as an editor and reporter at the Financial Times in New York, London, and Boston.

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Hughes RG, editor. Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2008 Apr.

Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses.

Chapter 6 clinical reasoning, decisionmaking, and action: thinking critically and clinically.

Patricia Benner ; Ronda G. Hughes ; Molly Sutphen .

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This chapter examines multiple thinking strategies that are needed for high-quality clinical practice. Clinical reasoning and judgment are examined in relation to other modes of thinking used by clinical nurses in providing quality health care to patients that avoids adverse events and patient harm. The clinician’s ability to provide safe, high-quality care can be dependent upon their ability to reason, think, and judge, which can be limited by lack of experience. The expert performance of nurses is dependent upon continual learning and evaluation of performance.

• Critical Thinking

Nursing education has emphasized critical thinking as an essential nursing skill for more than 50 years. 1 The definitions of critical thinking have evolved over the years. There are several key definitions for critical thinking to consider. The American Philosophical Association (APA) defined critical thinking as purposeful, self-regulatory judgment that uses cognitive tools such as interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations on which judgment is based. 2 A more expansive general definition of critical thinking is

. . . in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. Every clinician must develop rigorous habits of critical thinking, but they cannot escape completely the situatedness and structures of the clinical traditions and practices in which they must make decisions and act quickly in specific clinical situations. 3

There are three key definitions for nursing, which differ slightly. Bittner and Tobin defined critical thinking as being “influenced by knowledge and experience, using strategies such as reflective thinking as a part of learning to identify the issues and opportunities, and holistically synthesize the information in nursing practice” 4 (p. 268). Scheffer and Rubenfeld 5 expanded on the APA definition for nurses through a consensus process, resulting in the following definition:

Critical thinking in nursing is an essential component of professional accountability and quality nursing care. Critical thinkers in nursing exhibit these habits of the mind: confidence, contextual perspective, creativity, flexibility, inquisitiveness, intellectual integrity, intuition, openmindedness, perseverance, and reflection. Critical thinkers in nursing practice the cognitive skills of analyzing, applying standards, discriminating, information seeking, logical reasoning, predicting, and transforming knowledge 6 (Scheffer & Rubenfeld, p. 357).

The National League for Nursing Accreditation Commission (NLNAC) defined critical thinking as:

the deliberate nonlinear process of collecting, interpreting, analyzing, drawing conclusions about, presenting, and evaluating information that is both factually and belief based. This is demonstrated in nursing by clinical judgment, which includes ethical, diagnostic, and therapeutic dimensions and research 7 (p. 8).

These concepts are furthered by the American Association of Colleges of Nurses’ definition of critical thinking in their Essentials of Baccalaureate Nursing :

Critical thinking underlies independent and interdependent decision making. Critical thinking includes questioning, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, inference, inductive and deductive reasoning, intuition, application, and creativity 8 (p. 9).

Course work or ethical experiences should provide the graduate with the knowledge and skills to:

• Use nursing and other appropriate theories and models, and an appropriate ethical framework;
• Apply research-based knowledge from nursing and the sciences as the basis for practice;
• Use clinical judgment and decision-making skills;
• Engage in self-reflective and collegial dialogue about professional practice;
• Evaluate nursing care outcomes through the acquisition of data and the questioning of inconsistencies, allowing for the revision of actions and goals;
• Engage in creative problem solving 8 (p. 10).

Taken together, these definitions of critical thinking set forth the scope and key elements of thought processes involved in providing clinical care. Exactly how critical thinking is defined will influence how it is taught and to what standard of care nurses will be held accountable.

Professional and regulatory bodies in nursing education have required that critical thinking be central to all nursing curricula, but they have not adequately distinguished critical reflection from ethical, clinical, or even creative thinking for decisionmaking or actions required by the clinician. Other essential modes of thought such as clinical reasoning, evaluation of evidence, creative thinking, or the application of well-established standards of practice—all distinct from critical reflection—have been subsumed under the rubric of critical thinking. In the nursing education literature, clinical reasoning and judgment are often conflated with critical thinking. The accrediting bodies and nursing scholars have included decisionmaking and action-oriented, practical, ethical, and clinical reasoning in the rubric of critical reflection and thinking. One might say that this harmless semantic confusion is corrected by actual practices, except that students need to understand the distinctions between critical reflection and clinical reasoning, and they need to learn to discern when each is better suited, just as students need to also engage in applying standards, evidence-based practices, and creative thinking.

The growing body of research, patient acuity, and complexity of care demand higher-order thinking skills. Critical thinking involves the application of knowledge and experience to identify patient problems and to direct clinical judgments and actions that result in positive patient outcomes. These skills can be cultivated by educators who display the virtues of critical thinking, including independence of thought, intellectual curiosity, courage, humility, empathy, integrity, perseverance, and fair-mindedness. 9

The process of critical thinking is stimulated by integrating the essential knowledge, experiences, and clinical reasoning that support professional practice. The emerging paradigm for clinical thinking and cognition is that it is social and dialogical rather than monological and individual. 10–12 Clinicians pool their wisdom and multiple perspectives, yet some clinical knowledge can be demonstrated only in the situation (e.g., how to suction an extremely fragile patient whose oxygen saturations sink too low). Early warnings of problematic situations are made possible by clinicians comparing their observations to that of other providers. Clinicians form practice communities that create styles of practice, including ways of doing things, communication styles and mechanisms, and shared expectations about performance and expertise of team members.

By holding up critical thinking as a large umbrella for different modes of thinking, students can easily misconstrue the logic and purposes of different modes of thinking. Clinicians and scientists alike need multiple thinking strategies, such as critical thinking, clinical judgment, diagnostic reasoning, deliberative rationality, scientific reasoning, dialogue, argument, creative thinking, and so on. In particular, clinicians need forethought and an ongoing grasp of a patient’s health status and care needs trajectory, which requires an assessment of their own clarity and understanding of the situation at hand, critical reflection, critical reasoning, and clinical judgment.

Critical Reflection, Critical Reasoning, and Judgment

Critical reflection requires that the thinker examine the underlying assumptions and radically question or doubt the validity of arguments, assertions, and even facts of the case. Critical reflective skills are essential for clinicians; however, these skills are not sufficient for the clinician who must decide how to act in particular situations and avoid patient injury. For example, in everyday practice, clinicians cannot afford to critically reflect on the well-established tenets of “normal” or “typical” human circulatory systems when trying to figure out a particular patient’s alterations from that typical, well-grounded understanding that has existed since Harvey’s work in 1628. 13 Yet critical reflection can generate new scientifically based ideas. For example, there is a lack of adequate research on the differences between women’s and men’s circulatory systems and the typical pathophysiology related to heart attacks. Available research is based upon multiple, taken-for-granted starting points about the general nature of the circulatory system. As such, critical reflection may not provide what is needed for a clinician to act in a situation. This idea can be considered reasonable since critical reflective thinking is not sufficient for good clinical reasoning and judgment. The clinician’s development of skillful critical reflection depends upon being taught what to pay attention to, and thus gaining a sense of salience that informs the powers of perceptual grasp. The powers of noticing or perceptual grasp depend upon noticing what is salient and the capacity to respond to the situation.

Critical reflection is a crucial professional skill, but it is not the only reasoning skill or logic clinicians require. The ability to think critically uses reflection, induction, deduction, analysis, challenging assumptions, and evaluation of data and information to guide decisionmaking. 9 , 14 , 15 Critical reasoning is a process whereby knowledge and experience are applied in considering multiple possibilities to achieve the desired goals, 16 while considering the patient’s situation. 14 It is a process where both inductive and deductive cognitive skills are used. 17 Sometimes clinical reasoning is presented as a form of evaluating scientific knowledge, sometimes even as a form of scientific reasoning. Critical thinking is inherent in making sound clinical reasoning. 18

An essential point of tension and confusion exists in practice traditions such as nursing and medicine when clinical reasoning and critical reflection become entangled, because the clinician must have some established bases that are not questioned when engaging in clinical decisions and actions, such as standing orders. The clinician must act in the particular situation and time with the best clinical and scientific knowledge available. The clinician cannot afford to indulge in either ritualistic unexamined knowledge or diagnostic or therapeutic nihilism caused by radical doubt, as in critical reflection, because they must find an intelligent and effective way to think and act in particular clinical situations. Critical reflection skills are essential to assist practitioners to rethink outmoded or even wrong-headed approaches to health care, health promotion, and prevention of illness and complications, especially when new evidence is available. Breakdowns in practice, high failure rates in particular therapies, new diseases, new scientific discoveries, and societal changes call for critical reflection about past assumptions and no-longer-tenable beliefs.

Clinical reasoning stands out as a situated, practice-based form of reasoning that requires a background of scientific and technological research-based knowledge about general cases, more so than any particular instance. It also requires practical ability to discern the relevance of the evidence behind general scientific and technical knowledge and how it applies to a particular patient. In dong so, the clinician considers the patient’s particular clinical trajectory, their concerns and preferences, and their particular vulnerabilities (e.g., having multiple comorbidities) and sensitivities to care interventions (e.g., known drug allergies, other conflicting comorbid conditions, incompatible therapies, and past responses to therapies) when forming clinical decisions or conclusions.

Situated in a practice setting, clinical reasoning occurs within social relationships or situations involving patient, family, community, and a team of health care providers. The expert clinician situates themselves within a nexus of relationships, with concerns that are bounded by the situation. Expert clinical reasoning is socially engaged with the relationships and concerns of those who are affected by the caregiving situation, and when certain circumstances are present, the adverse event. Halpern 19 has called excellent clinical ethical reasoning “emotional reasoning” in that the clinicians have emotional access to the patient/family concerns and their understanding of the particular care needs. Expert clinicians also seek an optimal perceptual grasp, one based on understanding and as undistorted as possible, based on an attuned emotional engagement and expert clinical knowledge. 19 , 20

Clergy educators 21 and nursing and medical educators have begun to recognize the wisdom of broadening their narrow vision of rationality beyond simple rational calculation (exemplified by cost-benefit analysis) to reconsider the need for character development—including emotional engagement, perception, habits of thought, and skill acquisition—as essential to the development of expert clinical reasoning, judgment, and action. 10 , 22–24 Practitioners of engineering, law, medicine, and nursing, like the clergy, have to develop a place to stand in their discipline’s tradition of knowledge and science in order to recognize and evaluate salient evidence in the moment. Diagnostic confusion and disciplinary nihilism are both threats to the clinician’s ability to act in particular situations. However, the practice and practitioners will not be self-improving and vital if they cannot engage in critical reflection on what is not of value, what is outmoded, and what does not work. As evidence evolves and expands, so too must clinical thought.

Clinical judgment requires clinical reasoning across time about the particular, and because of the relevance of this immediate historical unfolding, clinical reasoning can be very different from the scientific reasoning used to formulate, conduct, and assess clinical experiments. While scientific reasoning is also socially embedded in a nexus of social relationships and concerns, the goal of detached, critical objectivity used to conduct scientific experiments minimizes the interactive influence of the research on the experiment once it has begun. Scientific research in the natural and clinical sciences typically uses formal criteria to develop “yes” and “no” judgments at prespecified times. The scientist is always situated in past and immediate scientific history, preferring to evaluate static and predetermined points in time (e.g., snapshot reasoning), in contrast to a clinician who must always reason about transitions over time. 25 , 26

Techne and Phronesis

Distinctions between the mere scientific making of things and practice was first explored by Aristotle as distinctions between techne and phronesis. 27 Learning to be a good practitioner requires developing the requisite moral imagination for good practice. If, for example, patients exercise their rights and refuse treatments, practitioners are required to have the moral imagination to understand the probable basis for the patient’s refusal. For example, was the refusal based upon catastrophic thinking, unrealistic fears, misunderstanding, or even clinical depression?

Techne, as defined by Aristotle, encompasses the notion of formation of character and habitus 28 as embodied beings. In Aristotle’s terms, techne refers to the making of things or producing outcomes. 11 Joseph Dunne defines techne as “the activity of producing outcomes,” and it “is governed by a means-ends rationality where the maker or producer governs the thing or outcomes produced or made through gaining mastery over the means of producing the outcomes, to the point of being able to separate means and ends” 11 (p. 54). While some aspects of medical and nursing practice fall into the category of techne, much of nursing and medical practice falls outside means-ends rationality and must be governed by concern for doing good or what is best for the patient in particular circumstances, where being in a relationship and discerning particular human concerns at stake guide action.

Phronesis, in contrast to techne, includes reasoning about the particular, across time, through changes or transitions in the patient’s and/or the clinician’s understanding. As noted by Dunne, phronesis is “characterized at least as much by a perceptiveness with regard to concrete particulars as by a knowledge of universal principles” 11 (p. 273). This type of practical reasoning often takes the form of puzzle solving or the evaluation of immediate past “hot” history of the patient’s situation. Such a particular clinical situation is necessarily particular, even though many commonalities and similarities with other disease syndromes can be recognized through signs and symptoms and laboratory tests. 11 , 29 , 30 Pointing to knowledge embedded in a practice makes no claim for infallibility or “correctness.” Individual practitioners can be mistaken in their judgments because practices such as medicine and nursing are inherently underdetermined. 31

While phronetic knowledge must remain open to correction and improvement, real events, and consequences, it cannot consistently transcend the institutional setting’s capacities and supports for good practice. Phronesis is also dependent on ongoing experiential learning of the practitioner, where knowledge is refined, corrected, or refuted. The Western tradition, with the notable exception of Aristotle, valued knowledge that could be made universal and devalued practical know-how and experiential learning. Descartes codified this preference for formal logic and rational calculation.

Aristotle recognized that when knowledge is underdetermined, changeable, and particular, it cannot be turned into the universal or standardized. It must be perceived, discerned, and judged, all of which require experiential learning. In nursing and medicine, perceptual acuity in physical assessment and clinical judgment (i.e., reasoning across time about changes in the particular patient or the clinician’s understanding of the patient’s condition) fall into the Greek Aristotelian category of phronesis. Dewey 32 sought to rescue knowledge gained by practical activity in the world. He identified three flaws in the understanding of experience in Greek philosophy: (1) empirical knowing is the opposite of experience with science; (2) practice is reduced to techne or the application of rational thought or technique; and (3) action and skilled know-how are considered temporary and capricious as compared to reason, which the Greeks considered as ultimate reality.

In practice, nursing and medicine require both techne and phronesis. The clinician standardizes and routinizes what can be standardized and routinized, as exemplified by standardized blood pressure measurements, diagnoses, and even charting about the patient’s condition and treatment. 27 Procedural and scientific knowledge can often be formalized and standardized (e.g., practice guidelines), or at least made explicit and certain in practice, except for the necessary timing and adjustments made for particular patients. 11 , 22

Rational calculations available to techne—population trends and statistics, algorithms—are created as decision support structures and can improve accuracy when used as a stance of inquiry in making clinical judgments about particular patients. Aggregated evidence from clinical trials and ongoing working knowledge of pathophysiology, biochemistry, and genomics are essential. In addition, the skills of phronesis (clinical judgment that reasons across time, taking into account the transitions of the particular patient/family/community and transitions in the clinician’s understanding of the clinical situation) will be required for nursing, medicine, or any helping profession.

Thinking Critically

Being able to think critically enables nurses to meet the needs of patients within their context and considering their preferences; meet the needs of patients within the context of uncertainty; consider alternatives, resulting in higher-quality care; 33 and think reflectively, rather than simply accepting statements and performing tasks without significant understanding and evaluation. 34 Skillful practitioners can think critically because they have the following cognitive skills: information seeking, discriminating, analyzing, transforming knowledge, predicating, applying standards, and logical reasoning. 5 One’s ability to think critically can be affected by age, length of education (e.g., an associate vs. a baccalaureate decree in nursing), and completion of philosophy or logic subjects. 35–37 The skillful practitioner can think critically because of having the following characteristics: motivation, perseverance, fair-mindedness, and deliberate and careful attention to thinking. 5 , 9

Thinking critically implies that one has a knowledge base from which to reason and the ability to analyze and evaluate evidence. 38 Knowledge can be manifest by the logic and rational implications of decisionmaking. Clinical decisionmaking is particularly influenced by interpersonal relationships with colleagues, 39 patient conditions, availability of resources, 40 knowledge, and experience. 41 Of these, experience has been shown to enhance nurses’ abilities to make quick decisions 42 and fewer decision errors, 43 support the identification of salient cues, and foster the recognition and action on patterns of information. 44 , 45

Clinicians must develop the character and relational skills that enable them to perceive and understand their patient’s needs and concerns. This requires accurate interpretation of patient data that is relevant to the specific patient and situation. In nursing, this formation of moral agency focuses on learning to be responsible in particular ways demanded by the practice, and to pay attention and intelligently discern changes in patients’ concerns and/or clinical condition that require action on the part of the nurse or other health care workers to avert potential compromises to quality care.

Formation of the clinician’s character, skills, and habits are developed in schools and particular practice communities within a larger practice tradition. As Dunne notes,

A practice is not just a surface on which one can display instant virtuosity. It grounds one in a tradition that has been formed through an elaborate development and that exists at any juncture only in the dispositions (slowly and perhaps painfully acquired) of its recognized practitioners. The question may of course be asked whether there are any such practices in the contemporary world, whether the wholesale encroachment of Technique has not obliterated them—and whether this is not the whole point of MacIntyre’s recipe of withdrawal, as well as of the post-modern story of dispossession 11 (p. 378).

Clearly Dunne is engaging in critical reflection about the conditions for developing character, skills, and habits for skillful and ethical comportment of practitioners, as well as to act as moral agents for patients so that they and their families receive safe, effective, and compassionate care.

Professional socialization or professional values, while necessary, do not adequately address character and skill formation that transform the way the practitioner exists in his or her world, what the practitioner is capable of noticing and responding to, based upon well-established patterns of emotional responses, skills, dispositions to act, and the skills to respond, decide, and act. 46 The need for character and skill formation of the clinician is what makes a practice stand out from a mere technical, repetitious manufacturing process. 11 , 30 , 47

In nursing and medicine, many have questioned whether current health care institutions are designed to promote or hinder enlightened, compassionate practice, or whether they have deteriorated into commercial institutional models that focus primarily on efficiency and profit. MacIntyre points out the links between the ongoing development and improvement of practice traditions and the institutions that house them:

Lack of justice, lack of truthfulness, lack of courage, lack of the relevant intellectual virtues—these corrupt traditions, just as they do those institutions and practices which derive their life from the traditions of which they are the contemporary embodiments. To recognize this is of course also to recognize the existence of an additional virtue, one whose importance is perhaps most obvious when it is least present, the virtue of having an adequate sense of the traditions to which one belongs or which confront one. This virtue is not to be confused with any form of conservative antiquarianism; I am not praising those who choose the conventional conservative role of laudator temporis acti. It is rather the case that an adequate sense of tradition manifests itself in a grasp of those future possibilities which the past has made available to the present. Living traditions, just because they continue a not-yet-completed narrative, confront a future whose determinate and determinable character, so far as it possesses any, derives from the past 30 (p. 207).

It would be impossible to capture all the situated and distributed knowledge outside of actual practice situations and particular patients. Simulations are powerful as teaching tools to enable nurses’ ability to think critically because they give students the opportunity to practice in a simplified environment. However, students can be limited in their inability to convey underdetermined situations where much of the information is based on perceptions of many aspects of the patient and changes that have occurred over time. Simulations cannot have the sub-cultures formed in practice settings that set the social mood of trust, distrust, competency, limited resources, or other forms of situated possibilities.

One of the hallmark studies in nursing providing keen insight into understanding the influence of experience was a qualitative study of adult, pediatric, and neonatal intensive care unit (ICU) nurses, where the nurses were clustered into advanced beginner, intermediate, and expert level of practice categories. The advanced beginner (having up to 6 months of work experience) used procedures and protocols to determine which clinical actions were needed. When confronted with a complex patient situation, the advanced beginner felt their practice was unsafe because of a knowledge deficit or because of a knowledge application confusion. The transition from advanced beginners to competent practitioners began when they first had experience with actual clinical situations and could benefit from the knowledge gained from the mistakes of their colleagues. Competent nurses continuously questioned what they saw and heard, feeling an obligation to know more about clinical situations. In doing do, they moved from only using care plans and following the physicians’ orders to analyzing and interpreting patient situations. Beyond that, the proficient nurse acknowledged the changing relevance of clinical situations requiring action beyond what was planned or anticipated. The proficient nurse learned to acknowledge the changing needs of patient care and situation, and could organize interventions “by the situation as it unfolds rather than by preset goals 48 (p. 24). Both competent and proficient nurses (that is, intermediate level of practice) had at least two years of ICU experience. 48 Finally, the expert nurse had a more fully developed grasp of a clinical situation, a sense of confidence in what is known about the situation, and could differentiate the precise clinical problem in little time. 48

Expertise is acquired through professional experience and is indicative of a nurse who has moved beyond mere proficiency. As Gadamer 29 points out, experience involves a turning around of preconceived notions, preunderstandings, and extends or adds nuances to understanding. Dewey 49 notes that experience requires a prepared “creature” and an enriched environment. The opportunity to reflect and narrate one’s experiential learning can clarify, extend, or even refute experiential learning.

Experiential learning requires time and nurturing, but time alone does not ensure experiential learning. Aristotle linked experiential learning to the development of character and moral sensitivities of a person learning a practice. 50 New nurses/new graduates have limited work experience and must experience continuing learning until they have reached an acceptable level of performance. 51 After that, further improvements are not predictable, and years of experience are an inadequate predictor of expertise. 52

The most effective knower and developer of practical knowledge creates an ongoing dialogue and connection between lessons of the day and experiential learning over time. Gadamer, in a late life interview, highlighted the open-endedness and ongoing nature of experiential learning in the following interview response:

Being experienced does not mean that one now knows something once and for all and becomes rigid in this knowledge; rather, one becomes more open to new experiences. A person who is experienced is undogmatic. Experience has the effect of freeing one to be open to new experience … In our experience we bring nothing to a close; we are constantly learning new things from our experience … this I call the interminability of all experience 32 (p. 403).

Practical endeavor, supported by scientific knowledge, requires experiential learning, the development of skilled know-how, and perceptual acuity in order to make the scientific knowledge relevant to the situation. Clinical perceptual and skilled know-how helps the practitioner discern when particular scientific findings might be relevant. 53

Often experience and knowledge, confirmed by experimentation, are treated as oppositions, an either-or choice. However, in practice it is readily acknowledged that experiential knowledge fuels scientific investigation, and scientific investigation fuels further experiential learning. Experiential learning from particular clinical cases can help the clinician recognize future similar cases and fuel new scientific questions and study. For example, less experienced nurses—and it could be argued experienced as well—can use nursing diagnoses practice guidelines as part of their professional advancement. Guidelines are used to reflect their interpretation of patients’ needs, responses, and situation, 54 a process that requires critical thinking and decisionmaking. 55 , 56 Using guidelines also reflects one’s problem identification and problem-solving abilities. 56 Conversely, the ability to proficiently conduct a series of tasks without nursing diagnoses is the hallmark of expertise. 39 , 57

Experience precedes expertise. As expertise develops from experience and gaining knowledge and transitions to the proficiency stage, the nurses’ thinking moves from steps and procedures (i.e., task-oriented care) toward “chunks” or patterns 39 (i.e., patient-specific care). In doing so, the nurse thinks reflectively, rather than merely accepting statements and performing procedures without significant understanding and evaluation. 34 Expert nurses do not rely on rules and logical thought processes in problem-solving and decisionmaking. 39 Instead, they use abstract principles, can see the situation as a complex whole, perceive situations comprehensively, and can be fully involved in the situation. 48 Expert nurses can perform high-level care without conscious awareness of the knowledge they are using, 39 , 58 and they are able to provide that care with flexibility and speed. Through a combination of knowledge and skills gained from a range of theoretical and experiential sources, expert nurses also provide holistic care. 39 Thus, the best care comes from the combination of theoretical, tacit, and experiential knowledge. 59 , 60

Experts are thought to eventually develop the ability to intuitively know what to do and to quickly recognize critical aspects of the situation. 22 Some have proposed that expert nurses provide high-quality patient care, 61 , 62 but that is not consistently documented—particularly in consideration of patient outcomes—and a full understanding between the differential impact of care rendered by an “expert” nurse is not fully understood. In fact, several studies have found that length of professional experience is often unrelated and even negatively related to performance measures and outcomes. 63 , 64

In a review of the literature on expertise in nursing, Ericsson and colleagues 65 found that focusing on challenging, less-frequent situations would reveal individual performance differences on tasks that require speed and flexibility, such as that experienced during a code or an adverse event. Superior performance was associated with extensive training and immediate feedback about outcomes, which can be obtained through continual training, simulation, and processes such as root-cause analysis following an adverse event. Therefore, efforts to improve performance benefited from continual monitoring, planning, and retrospective evaluation. Even then, the nurse’s ability to perform as an expert is dependent upon their ability to use intuition or insights gained through interactions with patients. 39

Intuition and Perception

Intuition is the instant understanding of knowledge without evidence of sensible thought. 66 According to Young, 67 intuition in clinical practice is a process whereby the nurse recognizes something about a patient that is difficult to verbalize. Intuition is characterized by factual knowledge, “immediate possession of knowledge, and knowledge independent of the linear reasoning process” 68 (p. 23). When intuition is used, one filters information initially triggered by the imagination, leading to the integration of all knowledge and information to problem solve. 69 Clinicians use their interactions with patients and intuition, drawing on tacit or experiential knowledge, 70 , 71 to apply the correct knowledge to make the correct decisions to address patient needs. Yet there is a “conflated belief in the nurses’ ability to know what is best for the patient” 72 (p. 251) because the nurses’ and patients’ identification of the patients’ needs can vary. 73

A review of research and rhetoric involving intuition by King and Appleton 62 found that all nurses, including students, used intuition (i.e., gut feelings). They found evidence, predominately in critical care units, that intuition was triggered in response to knowledge and as a trigger for action and/or reflection with a direct bearing on the analytical process involved in patient care. The challenge for nurses was that rigid adherence to checklists, guidelines, and standardized documentation, 62 ignored the benefits of intuition. This view was furthered by Rew and Barrow 68 , 74 in their reviews of the literature, where they found that intuition was imperative to complex decisionmaking, 68 difficult to measure and assess in a quantitative manner, and was not linked to physiologic measures. 74

Intuition is a way of explaining professional expertise. 75 Expert nurses rely on their intuitive judgment that has been developed over time. 39 , 76 Intuition is an informal, nonanalytically based, unstructured, deliberate calculation that facilitates problem solving, 77 a process of arriving at salient conclusions based on relatively small amounts of knowledge and/or information. 78 Experts can have rapid insight into a situation by using intuition to recognize patterns and similarities, achieve commonsense understanding, and sense the salient information combined with deliberative rationality. 10 Intuitive recognition of similarities and commonalities between patients are often the first diagnostic clue or early warning, which must then be followed up with critical evaluation of evidence among the competing conditions. This situation calls for intuitive judgment that can distinguish “expert human judgment from the decisions” made by a novice 79 (p. 23).

Shaw 80 equates intuition with direct perception. Direct perception is dependent upon being able to detect complex patterns and relationships that one has learned through experience are important. Recognizing these patterns and relationships generally occurs rapidly and is complex, making it difficult to articulate or describe. Perceptual skills, like those of the expert nurse, are essential to recognizing current and changing clinical conditions. Perception requires attentiveness and the development of a sense of what is salient. Often in nursing and medicine, means and ends are fused, as is the case for a “good enough” birth experience and a peaceful death.

• Applying Practice Evidence

Research continues to find that using evidence-based guidelines in practice, informed through research evidence, improves patients’ outcomes. 81–83 Research-based guidelines are intended to provide guidance for specific areas of health care delivery. 84 The clinician—both the novice and expert—is expected to use the best available evidence for the most efficacious therapies and interventions in particular instances, to ensure the highest-quality care, especially when deviations from the evidence-based norm may heighten risks to patient safety. Otherwise, if nursing and medicine were exact sciences, or consisted only of techne, then a 1:1 relationship could be established between results of aggregated evidence-based research and the best path for all patients.

Evaluating Evidence

Before research should be used in practice, it must be evaluated. There are many complexities and nuances in evaluating the research evidence for clinical practice. Evaluation of research behind evidence-based medicine requires critical thinking and good clinical judgment. Sometimes the research findings are mixed or even conflicting. As such, the validity, reliability, and generalizability of available research are fundamental to evaluating whether evidence can be applied in practice. To do so, clinicians must select the best scientific evidence relevant to particular patients—a complex process that involves intuition to apply the evidence. Critical thinking is required for evaluating the best available scientific evidence for the treatment and care of a particular patient.

Good clinical judgment is required to select the most relevant research evidence. The best clinical judgment, that is, reasoning across time about the particular patient through changes in the patient’s concerns and condition and/or the clinician’s understanding, are also required. This type of judgment requires clinicians to make careful observations and evaluations of the patient over time, as well as know the patient’s concerns and social circumstances. To evolve to this level of judgment, additional education beyond clinical preparation if often required.

Sources of Evidence

Evidence that can be used in clinical practice has different sources and can be derived from research, patient’s preferences, and work-related experience. 85 , 86 Nurses have been found to obtain evidence from experienced colleagues believed to have clinical expertise and research-based knowledge 87 as well as other sources.

For many years now, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have often been considered the best standard for evaluating clinical practice. Yet, unless the common threats to the validity (e.g., representativeness of the study population) and reliability (e.g., consistency in interventions and responses of study participants) of RCTs are addressed, the meaningfulness and generalizability of the study outcomes are very limited. Relevant patient populations may be excluded, such as women, children, minorities, the elderly, and patients with multiple chronic illnesses. The dropout rate of the trial may confound the results. And it is easier to get positive results published than it is to get negative results published. Thus, RCTs are generalizable (i.e., applicable) only to the population studied—which may not reflect the needs of the patient under the clinicians care. In instances such as these, clinicians need to also consider applied research using prospective or retrospective populations with case control to guide decisionmaking, yet this too requires critical thinking and good clinical judgment.

Another source of available evidence may come from the gold standard of aggregated systematic evaluation of clinical trial outcomes for the therapy and clinical condition in question, be generated by basic and clinical science relevant to the patient’s particular pathophysiology or care need situation, or stem from personal clinical experience. The clinician then takes all of the available evidence and considers the particular patient’s known clinical responses to past therapies, their clinical condition and history, the progression or stages of the patient’s illness and recovery, and available resources.

In clinical practice, the particular is examined in relation to the established generalizations of science. With readily available summaries of scientific evidence (e.g., systematic reviews and practice guidelines) available to nurses and physicians, one might wonder whether deep background understanding is still advantageous. Might it not be expendable, since it is likely to be out of date given the current scientific evidence? But this assumption is a false opposition and false choice because without a deep background understanding, the clinician does not know how to best find and evaluate scientific evidence for the particular case in hand. The clinician’s sense of salience in any given situation depends on past clinical experience and current scientific evidence.

Evidence-Based Practice

The concept of evidence-based practice is dependent upon synthesizing evidence from the variety of sources and applying it appropriately to the care needs of populations and individuals. This implies that evidence-based practice, indicative of expertise in practice, appropriately applies evidence to the specific situations and unique needs of patients. 88 , 89 Unfortunately, even though providing evidence-based care is an essential component of health care quality, it is well known that evidence-based practices are not used consistently.

Conceptually, evidence used in practice advances clinical knowledge, and that knowledge supports independent clinical decisions in the best interest of the patient. 90 , 91 Decisions must prudently consider the factors not necessarily addressed in the guideline, such as the patient’s lifestyle, drug sensitivities and allergies, and comorbidities. Nurses who want to improve the quality and safety of care can do so though improving the consistency of data and information interpretation inherent in evidence-based practice.

Initially, before evidence-based practice can begin, there needs to be an accurate clinical judgment of patient responses and needs. In the course of providing care, with careful consideration of patient safety and quality care, clinicians must give attention to the patient’s condition, their responses to health care interventions, and potential adverse reactions or events that could harm the patient. Nonetheless, there is wide variation in the ability of nurses to accurately interpret patient responses 92 and their risks. 93 Even though variance in interpretation is expected, nurses are obligated to continually improve their skills to ensure that patients receive quality care safely. 94 Patients are vulnerable to the actions and experience of their clinicians, which are inextricably linked to the quality of care patients have access to and subsequently receive.

The judgment of the patient’s condition determines subsequent interventions and patient outcomes. Attaining accurate and consistent interpretations of patient data and information is difficult because each piece can have different meanings, and interpretations are influenced by previous experiences. 95 Nurses use knowledge from clinical experience 96 , 97 and—although infrequently—research. 98–100

Once a problem has been identified, using a process that utilizes critical thinking to recognize the problem, the clinician then searches for and evaluates the research evidence 101 and evaluates potential discrepancies. The process of using evidence in practice involves “a problem-solving approach that incorporates the best available scientific evidence, clinicians’ expertise, and patient’s preferences and values” 102 (p. 28). Yet many nurses do not perceive that they have the education, tools, or resources to use evidence appropriately in practice. 103

Reported barriers to using research in practice have included difficulty in understanding the applicability and the complexity of research findings, failure of researchers to put findings into the clinical context, lack of skills in how to use research in practice, 104 , 105 amount of time required to access information and determine practice implications, 105–107 lack of organizational support to make changes and/or use in practice, 104 , 97 , 105 , 107 and lack of confidence in one’s ability to critically evaluate clinical evidence. 108

When Evidence Is Missing

In many clinical situations, there may be no clear guidelines and few or even no relevant clinical trials to guide decisionmaking. In these cases, the latest basic science about cellular and genomic functioning may be the most relevant science, or by default, guestimation. Consequently, good patient care requires more than a straightforward, unequivocal application of scientific evidence. The clinician must be able to draw on a good understanding of basic sciences, as well as guidelines derived from aggregated data and information from research investigations.

Practical knowledge is shaped by one’s practice discipline and the science and technology relevant to the situation at hand. But scientific, formal, discipline-specific knowledge are not sufficient for good clinical practice, whether the discipline be law, medicine, nursing, teaching, or social work. Practitioners still have to learn how to discern generalizable scientific knowledge, know how to use scientific knowledge in practical situations, discern what scientific evidence/knowledge is relevant, assess how the particular patient’s situation differs from the general scientific understanding, and recognize the complexity of care delivery—a process that is complex, ongoing, and changing, as new evidence can overturn old.

Practice communities like individual practitioners may also be mistaken, as is illustrated by variability in practice styles and practice outcomes across hospitals and regions in the United States. This variability in practice is why practitioners must learn to critically evaluate their practice and continually improve their practice over time. The goal is to create a living self-improving tradition.

Within health care, students, scientists, and practitioners are challenged to learn and use different modes of thinking when they are conflated under one term or rubric, using the best-suited thinking strategies for taking into consideration the purposes and the ends of the reasoning. Learning to be an effective, safe nurse or physician requires not only technical expertise, but also the ability to form helping relationships and engage in practical ethical and clinical reasoning. 50 Good ethical comportment requires that both the clinician and the scientist take into account the notions of good inherent in clinical and scientific practices. The notions of good clinical practice must include the relevant significance and the human concerns involved in decisionmaking in particular situations, centered on clinical grasp and clinical forethought.

The Three Apprenticeships of Professional Education

We have much to learn in comparing the pedagogies of formation across the professions, such as is being done currently by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The Carnegie Foundation’s broad research program on the educational preparation of the profession focuses on three essential apprenticeships:

To capture the full range of crucial dimensions in professional education, we developed the idea of a three-fold apprenticeship: (1) intellectual training to learn the academic knowledge base and the capacity to think in ways important to the profession; (2) a skill-based apprenticeship of practice; and (3) an apprenticeship to the ethical standards, social roles, and responsibilities of the profession, through which the novice is introduced to the meaning of an integrated practice of all dimensions of the profession, grounded in the profession’s fundamental purposes. 109

This framework has allowed the investigators to describe tensions and shortfalls as well as strengths of widespread teaching practices, especially at articulation points among these dimensions of professional training.

Research has demonstrated that these three apprenticeships are taught best when they are integrated so that the intellectual training includes skilled know-how, clinical judgment, and ethical comportment. In the study of nursing, exemplary classroom and clinical teachers were found who do integrate the three apprenticeships in all of their teaching, as exemplified by the following anonymous student’s comments:

With that as well, I enjoyed the class just because I do have clinical experience in my background and I enjoyed it because it took those practical applications and the knowledge from pathophysiology and pharmacology, and all the other classes, and it tied it into the actual aspects of like what is going to happen at work. For example, I work in the emergency room and question: Why am I doing this procedure for this particular patient? Beforehand, when I was just a tech and I wasn’t going to school, I’d be doing it because I was told to be doing it—or I’d be doing CPR because, you know, the doc said, start CPR. I really enjoy the Care and Illness because now I know the process, the pathophysiological process of why I’m doing it and the clinical reasons of why they’re making the decisions, and the prioritization that goes on behind it. I think that’s the biggest point. Clinical experience is good, but not everybody has it. Yet when these students transition from school and clinicals to their job as a nurse, they will understand what’s going on and why.

The three apprenticeships are equally relevant and intertwined. In the Carnegie National Study of Nursing Education and the companion study on medical education as well as in cross-professional comparisons, teaching that gives an integrated access to professional practice is being examined. Once the three apprenticeships are separated, it is difficult to reintegrate them. The investigators are encouraged by teaching strategies that integrate the latest scientific knowledge and relevant clinical evidence with clinical reasoning about particular patients in unfolding rather than static cases, while keeping the patient and family experience and concerns relevant to clinical concerns and reasoning.

Clinical judgment or phronesis is required to evaluate and integrate techne and scientific evidence.

Within nursing, professional practice is wise and effective usually to the extent that the professional creates relational and communication contexts where clients/patients can be open and trusting. Effectiveness depends upon mutual influence between patient and practitioner, student and learner. This is another way in which clinical knowledge is dialogical and socially distributed. The following articulation of practical reasoning in nursing illustrates the social, dialogical nature of clinical reasoning and addresses the centrality of perception and understanding to good clinical reasoning, judgment and intervention.

Clinical Grasp *

Clinical grasp describes clinical inquiry in action. Clinical grasp begins with perception and includes problem identification and clinical judgment across time about the particular transitions of particular patients. Garrett Chan 20 described the clinician’s attempt at finding an “optimal grasp” or vantage point of understanding. Four aspects of clinical grasp, which are described in the following paragraphs, include (1) making qualitative distinctions, (2) engaging in detective work, (3) recognizing changing relevance, and (4) developing clinical knowledge in specific patient populations.

Making Qualitative Distinctions

Qualitative distinctions refer to those distinctions that can be made only in a particular contextual or historical situation. The context and sequence of events are essential for making qualitative distinctions; therefore, the clinician must pay attention to transitions in the situation and judgment. Many qualitative distinctions can be made only by observing differences through touch, sound, or sight, such as the qualities of a wound, skin turgor, color, capillary refill, or the engagement and energy level of the patient. Another example is assessing whether the patient was more fatigued after ambulating to the bathroom or from lack of sleep. Likewise the quality of the clinician’s touch is distinct as in offering reassurance, putting pressure on a bleeding wound, and so on. 110

Engaging in Detective Work, Modus Operandi Thinking, and Clinical Puzzle Solving

Clinical situations are open ended and underdetermined. Modus operandi thinking keeps track of the particular patient, the way the illness unfolds, the meanings of the patient’s responses as they have occurred in the particular time sequence. Modus operandi thinking requires keeping track of what has been tried and what has or has not worked with the patient. In this kind of reasoning-in-transition, gains and losses of understanding are noticed and adjustments in the problem approach are made.

We found that teachers in a medical surgical unit at the University of Washington deliberately teach their students to engage in “detective work.” Students are given the daily clinical assignment of “sleuthing” for undetected drug incompatibilities, questionable drug dosages, and unnoticed signs and symptoms. For example, one student noted that an unusual dosage of a heart medication was being given to a patient who did not have heart disease. The student first asked her teacher about the unusually high dosage. The teacher, in turn, asked the student whether she had asked the nurse or the patient about the dosage. Upon the student’s questioning, the nurse did not know why the patient was receiving the high dosage and assumed the drug was for heart disease. The patient’s staff nurse had not questioned the order. When the student asked the patient, the student found that the medication was being given for tremors and that the patient and the doctor had titrated the dosage for control of the tremors. This deliberate approach to teaching detective work, or modus operandi thinking, has characteristics of “critical reflection,” but stays situated and engaged, ferreting out the immediate history and unfolding of events.

Recognizing Changing Clinical Relevance

The meanings of signs and symptoms are changed by sequencing and history. The patient’s mental status, color, or pain level may continue to deteriorate or get better. The direction, implication, and consequences for the changes alter the relevance of the particular facts in the situation. The changing relevance entailed in a patient transitioning from primarily curative care to primarily palliative care is a dramatic example, where symptoms literally take on new meanings and require new treatments.

Developing Clinical Knowledge in Specific Patient Populations

Extensive experience with a specific patient population or patients with particular injuries or diseases allows the clinician to develop comparisons, distinctions, and nuanced differences within the population. The comparisons between many specific patients create a matrix of comparisons for clinicians, as well as a tacit, background set of expectations that create population- and patient-specific detective work if a patient does not meet the usual, predictable transitions in recovery. What is in the background and foreground of the clinician’s attention shifts as predictable changes in the patient’s condition occurs, such as is seen in recovering from heart surgery or progressing through the predictable stages of labor and delivery. Over time, the clinician develops a deep background understanding that allows for expert diagnostic and interventions skills.

Clinical Forethought

Clinical forethought is intertwined with clinical grasp, but it is much more deliberate and even routinized than clinical grasp. Clinical forethought is a pervasive habit of thought and action in nursing practice, and also in medicine, as clinicians think about disease and recovery trajectories and the implications of these changes for treatment. Clinical forethought plays a role in clinical grasp because it structures the practical logic of clinicians. At least four habits of thought and action are evident in what we are calling clinical forethought: (1) future think, (2) clinical forethought about specific patient populations, (3) anticipation of risks for particular patients, and (4) seeing the unexpected.

Future think

Future think is the broadest category of this logic of practice. Anticipating likely immediate futures helps the clinician make good plans and decisions about preparing the environment so that responding rapidly to changes in the patient is possible. Without a sense of salience about anticipated signs and symptoms and preparing the environment, essential clinical judgments and timely interventions would be impossible in the typically fast pace of acute and intensive patient care. Future think governs the style and content of the nurse’s attentiveness to the patient. Whether in a fast-paced care environment or a slower-paced rehabilitation setting, thinking and acting with anticipated futures guide clinical thinking and judgment. Future think captures the way judgment is suspended in a predictive net of anticipation and preparing oneself and the environment for a range of potential events.

Clinical forethought about specific diagnoses and injuries

This habit of thought and action is so second nature to the experienced nurse that the new or inexperienced nurse may have difficulty finding out about what seems to other colleagues as “obvious” preparation for particular patients and situations. Clinical forethought involves much local specific knowledge about who is a good resource and how to marshal support services and equipment for particular patients.

Examples of preparing for specific patient populations are pervasive, such as anticipating the need for a pacemaker during surgery and having the equipment assembled ready for use to save essential time. Another example includes forecasting an accident victim’s potential injuries, and recognizing that intubation might be needed.

Anticipation of crises, risks, and vulnerabilities for particular patients

This aspect of clinical forethought is central to knowing the particular patient, family, or community. Nurses situate the patient’s problems almost like a topography of possibilities. This vital clinical knowledge needs to be communicated to other caregivers and across care borders. Clinical teaching could be improved by enriching curricula with narrative examples from actual practice, and by helping students recognize commonly occurring clinical situations in the simulation and clinical setting. For example, if a patient is hemodynamically unstable, then managing life-sustaining physiologic functions will be a main orienting goal. If the patient is agitated and uncomfortable, then attending to comfort needs in relation to hemodynamics will be a priority. Providing comfort measures turns out to be a central background practice for making clinical judgments and contains within it much judgment and experiential learning.

When clinical teaching is too removed from typical contingencies and strong clinical situations in practice, students will lack practice in active thinking-in-action in ambiguous clinical situations. In the following example, an anonymous student recounted her experiences of meeting a patient:

I was used to different equipment and didn’t know how things went, didn’t know their routine, really. You can explain all you want in class, this is how it’s going to be, but when you get there … . Kim was my first instructor and my patient that she assigned me to—I walked into the room and he had every tube imaginable. And so I was a little overwhelmed. It’s not necessarily even that he was that critical … . She asked what tubes here have you seen? Well, I know peripheral lines. You taught me PICC [peripherally inserted central catheter] lines, and we just had that, but I don’t really feel comfortable doing it by myself, without you watching to make sure that I’m flushing it right and how to assess it. He had a chest tube and I had seen chest tubes, but never really knew the depth of what you had to assess and how you make sure that it’s all kosher and whatever. So she went through the chest tube and explained, it’s just bubbling a little bit and that’s okay. The site, check the site. The site looked okay and that she’d say if it wasn’t okay, this is what it might look like … . He had a feeding tube. I had done feeding tubes but that was like a long time ago in my LPN experiences schooling. So I hadn’t really done too much with the feeding stuff either … . He had a [nasogastric] tube, and knew pretty much about that and I think at the time it was clamped. So there were no issues with the suction or whatever. He had a Foley catheter. He had a feeding tube, a chest tube. I can’t even remember but there were a lot.

As noted earlier, a central characteristic of a practice discipline is that a self-improving practice requires ongoing experiential learning. One way nurse educators can enhance clinical inquiry is by increasing pedagogies of experiential learning. Current pedagogies for experiential learning in nursing include extensive preclinical study, care planning, and shared postclinical debriefings where students share their experiential learning with their classmates. Experiential learning requires open learning climates where students can discuss and examine transitions in understanding, including their false starts, or their misconceptions in actual clinical situations. Nursing educators typically develop open and interactive clinical learning communities, so that students seem committed to helping their classmates learn from their experiences that may have been difficult or even unsafe. One anonymous nurse educator described how students extend their experiential learning to their classmates during a postclinical conference:

So for example, the patient had difficulty breathing and the student wanted to give the meds instead of addressing the difficulty of breathing. Well, while we were sharing information about their patients, what they did that day, I didn’t tell the student to say this, but she said, ‘I just want to tell you what I did today in clinical so you don’t do the same thing, and here’s what happened.’ Everybody’s listening very attentively and they were asking her some questions. But she shared that. She didn’t have to. I didn’t tell her, you must share that in postconference or anything like that, but she just went ahead and shared that, I guess, to reinforce what she had learned that day but also to benefit her fellow students in case that thing comes up with them.

The teacher’s response to this student’s honesty and generosity exemplifies her own approach to developing an open community of learning. Focusing only on performance and on “being correct” prevents learning from breakdown or error and can dampen students’ curiosity and courage to learn experientially.

Seeing the unexpected

One of the keys to becoming an expert practitioner lies in how the person holds past experiential learning and background habitual skills and practices. This is a skill of foregrounding attention accurately and effectively in response to the nature of situational demands. Bourdieu 29 calls the recognition of the situation central to practical reasoning. If nothing is routinized as a habitual response pattern, then practitioners will not function effectively in emergencies. Unexpected occurrences may be overlooked. However, if expectations are held rigidly, then subtle changes from the usual will be missed, and habitual, rote responses will inappropriately rule. The clinician must be flexible in shifting between what is in background and foreground. This is accomplished by staying curious and open. The clinical “certainty” associated with perceptual grasp is distinct from the kind of “certainty” achievable in scientific experiments and through measurements. Recognition of similar or paradigmatic clinical situations is similar to “face recognition” or recognition of “family resemblances.” This concept is subject to faulty memory, false associative memories, and mistaken identities; therefore, such perceptual grasp is the beginning of curiosity and inquiry and not the end. Assessment and validation are required. In rapidly moving clinical situations, perceptual grasp is the starting point for clarification, confirmation, and action. Having the clinician say out loud how he or she is understanding the situation gives an opportunity for confirmation and disconfirmation from other clinicians present. 111 The relationship between foreground and background of attention needs to be fluid, so that missed expectations allow the nurse to see the unexpected. For example, when the background rhythm of a cardiac monitor changes, the nurse notices, and what had been background tacit awareness becomes the foreground of attention. A hallmark of expertise is the ability to notice the unexpected. 20 Background expectations of usual patient trajectories form with experience. Tacit expectations for patient trajectories form that enable the nurse to notice subtle failed expectations and pay attention to early signs of unexpected changes in the patient's condition. Clinical expectations gained from caring for similar patient populations form a tacit clinical forethought that enable the experienced clinician to notice missed expectations. Alterations from implicit or explicit expectations set the stage for experiential learning, depending on the openness of the learner.

Learning to provide safe and quality health care requires technical expertise, the ability to think critically, experience, and clinical judgment. The high-performance expectation of nurses is dependent upon the nurses’ continual learning, professional accountability, independent and interdependent decisionmaking, and creative problem-solving abilities.

This section of the paper was condensed and paraphrased from Benner, Hooper-Kyriakidis, and Stannard. 23 Patricia Hooper-Kyriakidis wrote the section on clinical grasp, and Patricia Benner wrote the section on clinical forethought.

• Cite this Page Benner P, Hughes RG, Sutphen M. Clinical Reasoning, Decisionmaking, and Action: Thinking Critically and Clinically. In: Hughes RG, editor. Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2008 Apr. Chapter 6.
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• Nurses' reasoning process during care planning taking pressure ulcer prevention as an example. A think-aloud study. [Int J Nurs Stud. 2007] Nurses' reasoning process during care planning taking pressure ulcer prevention as an example. A think-aloud study. Funkesson KH, Anbäcken EM, Ek AC. Int J Nurs Stud. 2007 Sep; 44(7):1109-19. Epub 2006 Jun 27.
• Registered nurses' clinical reasoning skills and reasoning process: A think-aloud study. [Nurse Educ Today. 2016] Registered nurses' clinical reasoning skills and reasoning process: A think-aloud study. Lee J, Lee YJ, Bae J, Seo M. Nurse Educ Today. 2016 Nov; 46:75-80. Epub 2016 Aug 15.
• Combining the arts: an applied critical thinking approach in the skills laboratory. [Nursingconnections. 2000] Combining the arts: an applied critical thinking approach in the skills laboratory. Peterson MJ, Bechtel GA. Nursingconnections. 2000 Summer; 13(2):43-9.
• Review About critical thinking. [Dynamics. 2004] Review About critical thinking. Hynes P, Bennett J. Dynamics. 2004 Fall; 15(3):26-9.
• Review The 'five rights' of clinical reasoning: an educational model to enhance nursing students' ability to identify and manage clinically 'at risk' patients. [Nurse Educ Today. 2010] Review The 'five rights' of clinical reasoning: an educational model to enhance nursing students' ability to identify and manage clinically 'at risk' patients. Levett-Jones T, Hoffman K, Dempsey J, Jeong SY, Noble D, Norton CA, Roche J, Hickey N. Nurse Educ Today. 2010 Aug; 30(6):515-20. Epub 2009 Nov 30.

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Mind the CX perception gap: Business leaders, consumers and agents weigh in

In London, Beijing, and New Delhi, the subway cars greet passengers with the same cautionary message—mind the gap. Whether jarring or reassuring, the alert is meant to prevent stumbles and falls while entering and exiting the subway cars. By the same token, this warning can be applied to wide disparities between the perceptions of business leaders, agents, and customers. If these gaps are not heeded, customer experiences can deteriorate, leading not to physical injury but to customer dissatisfaction, brand reputational injury, or customer attrition.

Omdia surveyed over 300 businesses to identify and quantify perception gaps among contact center leaders, agents, and customers to help business leaders better understand what these populations are really thinking. With this knowledge, business leaders can set a course to make matters right for customer experiences.

#1 Gap—The impact of AI on jobs

A hot topic of today is the impact of AI on jobs—will AI replace human employees, or enhance them, making their jobs easier? Customers vs. agents are divided on the issue. According to Omdia’s survey, 38% of customers believe AI will put humans out of a job, while 23% of agents said AI-powered chatbots will put them out of a job.

What’s behind this perception gap? Customers don’t fully understand the intricacies and human judgment required to give excellent customer service, especially for complicated inquiries, nor do they always fully understand AI capabilities. The agents, performing their jobs with AI tools at hand, have first-hand knowledge. And in this case, they know something that many customers do not—while AI technologies can be very powerful, they can in no way replace human empathy and judgment essential in excellent customer experiences.

Omdia advocates for a thoughtful approach in balancing AI adaptation in contact centers: “Key approaches include reskilling agents, reimagining the scope of agent roles, and embracing a hybrid model that blends AI capabilities with human skills to allow for empathy.” For now, embracing a hybrid model of human agents and AI-fueled chatbots is key.

Far from replacing human agents, AI has the advantage to alleviate agent stress in dealing with increasingly complex customer interactions. With the right AI tools, agents can reduce the mundane parts of their jobs while keeping the more engaging aspects of it, all while increasing quality and productivity.

One solution that goes all-in in this hybrid approach is Enlighten AutoSummary . Rather than agents spending precious time writing manual notes after customer calls, Enlighten AutoSummary uses AI to write the summaries instead. This saves time for the agent to focus on the customers at hand, giving empathetic customer service, and the automated notes are more objective and consistent. Plus, the next agent who speaks with the same customer has the benefit of clear, accurate notes to help them better assist. It’s a win-win-win for cost reduction, manual work alleviation, and CX improvement.

#2 Gap—The damage of siloed data

Customers don’t want to wait a long time on an interaction, and it’s even more frustrating to them when it’s due to the agents searching for the right information to resolve the issue. Omdia reports that 52% of customers get frustrated when agents search for information. The reality is that an even larger percentage of agents are not positioned to remedy this situation—74% of agents must access three to eight applications to access customer information that they need. This means that far too many agents are set up to squander precious time searching for information, risking frustrating the customer at hand. And this is a real issue since a majority of customers will get irritated by waiting.

The upshot is that businesses must prioritize data integration to cut down on wasteful dead time on customer interactions. CX platforms can integrate data and analytics on a unified data layer, allowing the right data to get to the right agent at the right time. Cutting back on your tech stack by investing in a single platform like CXone can orchestrate seamless customer journeys for experiences that your customers will delight in, not dread.

Consolidating systems onto one platform also has the huge advantage of managing 100% of interactions—whether they’re digital or agent-assisted. The information gleaned from these interactions can be fed right back into the solution for analysis, further refining your CX. And you can be reassured that no issue, no interaction will escape the attention it deserves.

One solution that harnesses the power of CX analytics is NICE Enlighten XO . Purpose-built AI analyzes your customer interactions to find the best opportunities for customer self-service and automation—no special code needed. Once the top opportunities by ROI are identified, Enlighten XO can build and train bots to enact these opportunities—and Enlighten XO makes any bot smarter. The result is more effective self-service and better leveraged automation for agents, so that your agents can focus on the complicated customer inquiries that require more finesse, allowing agents to do what they do best.

Open Network Exchange started evaluating 100% of interactions with NICE Enlighten AI and reaped the rewards . Alexandria Doucet, Quality Assurance Manager says, “Enlighten AI has totally changed the way our company operates—for the best. We’re able to measure how we’re treating our guests while still focusing on sales and driving revenue. What more could we ask for in a sales environment?”

#3 Gap—How a lack of digital fosters dissatisfaction

Agents can enjoy the experience of delighting a customer, one of the most satisfying aspects of their job. But—the flip side is that when those customers first come to them, the customers’ mood is often sour. Worse yet, the customers’ emotions may get even more negative during the interaction before the agent can turn it around.

Fifty-eight percent of agents report that a lack of digital capabilities leads to angry customers, while 42% of business leaders said customers take their anger out on agents when there are insufficient digital tools. Why the gap? Agents withstand customer frustration on a daily basis, while contact center leaders may not be as attuned to the nuances behind customer anger. Customers have come to expect fluid self-service options, but today’s businesses have a way to go to satisfy customers with digital or automated CX solutions. [1]

Omdia sums up the takeaway message for contact center leaders: “Businesses must prioritize digital transformation.” The perception gap between agents and contact center leaders suggests that leaders need to take a closer look at how digital investments affect customer experiences at a granular level and watch out for common pitfalls that can impede a successful digital transformation. With digital solutions on CXone , you can meet customers wherever they start their journeys to help themselves, easing aggravation downstream.

#4 Gap—The dance of dueling KPIs

Another perception gap between agents and business leaders highlights the perspective of business leaders—in the extent of conflicting KPIs. Thirty-one percent of agents report that they have conflicting KPIs, while 65% of business leaders say their company has conflicting KPIs. Agents may feel they are mostly hitting their targets, from one interaction to the next, but business leaders have the overall business strategy and goals in mind, and they can see more clearly how agent KPIs don’t always align with them. An agent may hit the mark on keeping calls short, for example, which raises productivity, yet business leaders can see that this cuts into their CSAT rates, hindering their goal to outpace a competitor with a reputation for white-glove service.

To Omdia, businesses must carefully evaluate agent objectives to ensure they are aligned with larger business goals. To raise the level of performance and efficiency for agents, the right AI technologies to engage and empower them are essential.

CXone Performance Management aligns agent performance goals throughout the organization, so that everyone from top to bottom is on the same page. Once those goals are set, agents and supervisors can easily see the data and progress on KPIs, and agents are motivated with game-like competition and camaraderie to boost performance. A single platform brings together KPIs, dashboards, and gamification for a powerful method to define and track business goals for true alignment—no more conflicting KPIs.

#5 Parity—Generative AI will improve customer experiences

There is a critical point that customers, agents, and business leaders agree upon—and that is the positive impact of generative AI on customer interactions. Eighty-four percent of customers said generative AI will improve agents’ ability to help customers, 89% of agents said generative AI will improve their ability to help customers, and 85% of business leaders said customers will have a significantly better experience with generative AI.

The main players involved in customer interactions have already seen the benefits of generative AI and have quickly accepted it. There are still some concerns among customers about security, privacy, and biased data, however, so Omdia advises companies to address them to reassure their customers.

CXone offers cutting-edge solutions that combine the power of generative AI with the precision and accuracy of AI models trained on CX data . Enlighten Copilot automatically generates suggested responses for an agent using conversational context and the approved knowledge base, so that the agent gives the right answer at the right time. Plus, supervisors have continuous, real-time visibility into agent behaviors to flag problem issues and receive suggested solutions.

Enlighten Autopilot provides engaging self-service for customers. It gives smart answers to customers based on conversations of top-performing agents and billions of voice and text customer interactions. The human-like conversations from Enlighten Autopilot can understand multi-level customer intents, making self-service even more powerful.

Enlighten Actions provides fast, powerful data analysis in conversational form to questions from business leaders. Leverage data like never before by pinpointing the best opportunities for automation, measuring the progress of your business goals, and identifying best next steps to achieve superior outcomes. Enlighten Actions is your super-smart business analyst who gives answers in a snap.

Closing the gaps

The perception gaps among customers, agents, and business leaders give the heads-up that your perception is not the same as someone else’s—and furthermore this difference can shape behaviors. Understanding where your customer or agent is coming from is critical for any business leader. And while it’s impossible to truly inhabit somebody else’s head, Omdia’s Mind the Gap survey report does the next best thing.

Through all of these gaps and one parity, one common thread is clear—the importance of investing in the right contact center platform and tools with AI. CXone is the most complete cloud CX platform, infused with Enlighten AI, with everything you need to excel with CX and scale everywhere. Mind the gaps, and then close them with CXone for exceptional CX .

[1] Frost & Sullivan: Reimagining the Power of Self-Service: How to Deliver CX to the Digital Doorstep (2022)

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