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Research Article

The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Current address: Human-Animal Bond in Colorado, School of Social Work, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America

Affiliation Center for the Human-Animal Bond, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, United States of America

Roles Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Purdue University Libraries, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

• Kerri E. Rodriguez, 
• Jamie Greer, 
• Jane K. Yatcilla, 
• Alan M. Beck, 
• Marguerite E. O’Haire

• Published: December 2, 2020
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243302
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

9 Aug 2021: Rodriguez KE, Greer J, Yatcilla JK, Beck AM, O’Haire ME (2021) Correction: The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review. PLOS ONE 16(8): e0256071. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256071 View correction

Beyond the functional tasks that assistance dogs are trained for, there is growing literature describing their benefits on the psychosocial health and wellbeing of their handlers. However, this research is not only widely disparate but, despite its growth, has not been reviewed since 2012. Our objective was to identify, summarize, and methodologically evaluate studies quantifying the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic review was conducted across seven electronic databases. Records were independently screened by two authors. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they assessed outcomes from guide, hearing, medical, or mobility service dogs, if they collected original data on handlers’ psychosocial functioning, and if the outcome was measured quantitatively with a validated, standardized measure. Studies on psychiatric service dogs, emotional support dogs, and pet dogs were excluded. Of 1,830 records screened, 24 articles were identified (12 publications, 12 theses) containing 27 studies (15 cross-sectional, 12 longitudinal). Studies assessed the effects of mobility (18), hearing (7), guide (4), and medical (2) assistance dog partnerships with an average sample size of N = 83. An analysis of 147 statistical comparisons across the domains of psychological health, quality of life, social health, and vitality found that 68% of comparisons were null, 30% were positive in the hypothesized direction, and 2% were negative. Positive outcomes included significant effects of having an assistance dog on psychological wellbeing, emotional functioning, self-esteem, and vitality. However, it is of note that several methodological weaknesses of the studies make it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions, including inadequate reporting and a failure to account for moderating or confounding variables. Future research will benefit from stronger methodological rigor and reporting to account for heterogeneity in both humans and assistance dogs as well as continued high-quality replication.

Citation: Rodriguez KE, Greer J, Yatcilla JK, Beck AM, O’Haire ME (2020) The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review. PLoS ONE 15(12): e0243302. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243302

Editor: Geilson Lima Santana, University of Sao Paulo Medical School, BRAZIL

Received: July 22, 2020; Accepted: November 18, 2020; Published: December 2, 2020

Copyright: © 2020 Rodriguez et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting information files.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. Assistance dog placements and roles have grown rapidly in recent decades, especially in the United States, Canada, and Europe [ 2 ].

Assistance Dogs International (ADI) defines three types of assistance dogs, of which we use as terminology in this review: guide dogs who assist individuals with visual impairments, hearing dogs who assist individuals with hearing impairments, and service dogs who assist individuals with disabilities other than blindness or deafness [ 3 ]. Service dogs can assist individuals with physical disabilities (e.g. performing mobility-related tasks such as pulling a wheelchair or retrieving dropped items), individuals with medical conditions (e.g. alerting or responding to medical crises such hypoglycemia or seizures), and individuals with mental health disorders (e.g. psychiatric service dogs for posttraumatic stress disorder or autism spectrum disorder). Under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, a United States law, an assistance dog must do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability in order to receive public access rights [ 4 ]. While there are no legal requirements specifying that an assistance dog must be certified, registered, or receive any specialized training to receive public access rights, independent organizations such as ADI, the International Association of Assistance Dog Partners (IAADP), and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) define a set of minimum training and behavior standards for public access that help guide the assistance dog industry.

In parallel with an increasing amount of research quantifying the therapeutic benefits of companion dogs and therapy dogs on human health and wellbeing [ 5 , 6 ], there has been an increased focus on quantifying the physical, psychological, and social effects that assistance dogs may have on their handlers [ 7 – 9 ]. Research has indicated that beyond the physical or tangible benefits that an assistance dog is trained to provide (e.g. route finding, retrieving dropped items, alerting to a seizure), the assistance dog’s companionship, emotional and social support, and social facilitation effects in public may be particularly salient to improving the quality of life of individuals with disabilities [ 7 – 9 ]. After receiving an assistance dog, individuals retrospectively report increases to their social, emotional, and psychological health [e.g., 10 – 12 ]. Longitudinal studies have found that individuals report improvements to their emotional wellbeing, social functioning, and quality of life just 3 to 6 months after receiving an assistance dog [ 13 – 15 ]. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [ 16 , 17 ]. Additionally, research suggests the relationship between an assistance dog and its owner may also serve as a reciprocal attachment and caregiving relationship characterized by secure and strong attachments [ 18 , 19 ].

To date, there have been several reviews summarizing the literature on the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs on their handlers. One of the first reviews published by Modlin in 2000 [ 7 ] summarized nine published quantitative and qualitative studies on the benefits of guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs on their handlers (omitting unpublished theses). Another early review published by Sachs-Ericsson and colleagues in 2002 [ 8 ] summarized 14 quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog or hearing dog placement (omitting guide dogs). Neither of these early reviews employed a formal methodological assessment of studies, but limitations were listed for each included study. While both reviews found mostly positive findings regarding mobility, guide, and hearing dogs’ effects on their handlers’ health and wellbeing, social interactions, and activity participation [ 7 , 8 ], it was concluded that “the small number of studies and methodological limitations of these studies preclude any clear conclusions” [ 8 ].

A more recent systematic review published by Winkle and colleagues in 2012 [ 9 ] summarized 12 published quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog placement (omitting guide dogs, hearing dogs, and unpublished theses). The scientific rigor of each study was rated according to a 5-level system while the methodological quality of each study was scored on a 7-point scale. While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. The authors concluded that although results are promising, “conclusions drawn from the results must be considered with caution” [ 9 ].

Because medical service dogs are a relatively new category of assistance dog placements [ 2 ], there has been less research on the psychosocial effects of medical alert and response service dogs on their handlers. However, a recent 2018 review summarized five published quantitative studies describing outcomes from seizure alert and seizure response service dogs. The authors found three studies reporting an association between having a seizure alert or response dog and improvements to quality of life and wellbeing, concluding a need for more research.

Research in the field of human-animal interaction (HAI) and assistance dogs is not only rapidly growing but is often disparately published across multidisciplinary journals and outlets. Conducting periodic systematic reviews of this research is crucial to both disseminate knowledge as well as to identify knowledge gaps for future studies [ 20 ]. As research on the assistance animal-handler relationship continues to increase, there is a need for an updated, comprehensive collation of the literature encompassing studies on the effects of all varieties of assistance dogs (guide dogs, hearing dogs, and both mobility and medical service dogs) including both published studies and unpublished theses and dissertations. Further, as researchers increasingly incorporate standardized outcome measures into this research, collating and pooling findings will allow researchers to compare outcomes across different populations and interventions while estimating the magnitude of effects across domains.

This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. Specifically, this review sought to systematically identify, summarize, and evaluate studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with measures tested for reliability and validity among individuals with physical disabilities. The specific aims were to (1) describe the key characteristics of studies (2) evaluate the methodological rigor of studies (3) summarize outcomes.

Materials and methods

The systematic literature review was conducted according to The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 21 ]. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction.

Search procedure

As the field of animal-assisted intervention is multidisciplinary, a wide and extensive search was conducted encompassing medical and scientific databases. Further, as publication bias and the “file-drawer effect” is an often referenced weakness of the HAI literature [ 22 ], two dissertation and thesis databases and abstracts of two conferences were searched for unpublished studies.

A health information specialist (JY) constructed and executed comprehensive search strategies in six electronic databases: MEDLINE (PubMed platform), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (EBSCOhost platform), ERIC (EBSCOHost), Web of Science Core Collection (Web of Science), PsycINFO (EBSCOhost), and PsycARTICLES (EBSCOhost). The electronic searches were performed on July 23, 2018, and updated on January 23, 2019. The complete MEDLINE search strategy, which was adapted for the other databases, is shown in S1 Table . Grey literature was addressed by searching ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (ProQuest) and WorldCatDissertations and hand searching the abstracts of the International Society for Anthrozoology and International Association of Human Animal Interactions Organizations conferences.

Article selection

Studies were eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) The study population consisted of current or prospective owners/handlers of an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with a physical disability or chronic condition in which the assistance dog is trained to do work or perform tasks directly related to the disability or condition [ 4 ]; (2) The study collected original data on the effect of the assistance dog on their handler with at least one psychosocial outcome, including those quantifying aspects of mental health, social health, and health-related quality of life; and (3) The psychosocial outcome(s) were collected via a standardized measure tested for validity and reliability. The rationale for excluding studies on emotional service dogs and psychiatric service dogs is that the primary benefits of these dogs are psychological in nature, rather than physical or medical, which complicated comparisons of their psychosocial effects. The rationale for excluding qualitative studies from inclusion was to focus on outcomes using standardized measures to facilitate quantitative comparisons across studies.

Article screening

All articles were screened by two independent reviewers (authors KR and JG) using Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia). In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). After removing duplicate articles in EndNote following a validated protocol [ 23 ], articles were screened based on their title and abstract. At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability.

After the initial title and abstract review, articles were screened based on full text. Exclusion criteria were then used to select articles based on the following (in order): (1) irrelevant to study topic; (2) assessed an excluded study population (psychiatric service dogs, therapy dogs, emotional support dogs, or companion dogs); (3) did not report quantitative outcomes from assistance dog placement (literature reviews, instrument development, not original research); (4) reported unrelated outcomes (puppy raising, service dog training, or animal-related outcomes); (5) reported only non-psychosocial outcomes (medical or physical); (6) methodological exclusions (qualitative, case studies, single-subject design); (7) no full text available.

Data extraction

Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. To describe study characteristics, extracted items included participant characteristics (sample size, age, gender, country of origin), assistance dog characteristics (type and provider), and details of the study (design, measurement time points, comparison conditions). To assess methodological rigor, a total of 15 extracted items were sourced from methodological assessment tools including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools [ 24 ], the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) checklist [ 25 ], the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklists [ 26 ], and the Specialist Unit for Review Evidence (SURE) Checklists [ 27 ]. Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). Author KR then coded 100% of articles. To examine the relationship between methodological rigor score and year of publication as well as sample size, bivariate correlations were performed. To compare methodological rigor by study design, an independent t-test was used to compare mean scores across longitudinal and cross-sectional designs.

To summarize study outcomes, extracted items included statistical comparisons for any psychosocial outcomes from included studies. Because of the broad inclusion criteria, the 27 studies were widely varied in terms of human and dog participants, assessment time points, statistical analyses, and standardized outcomes. Therefore, due to observed heterogeneity, a meta-analysis was not pursued. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. However, due to large heterogeneity and poor reporting of effect sizes and raw data, a narrative synthesis of findings in comparison to unpublished theses and published articles was pursued instead.

A total of 1,830 records were screened via title and abstract in which 1,576 records were excluded due to irrelevancy (see Fig 1 for PRISMA diagram). A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. Exclusions included those based on population, outcomes, and methodology. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. Articles were published from 1994–2018 with publication dates in the 1990s (5), 2000s (9), and 2010s (10) indicating an increasing publication rate on this topic over time.

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Study characteristics

To achieve the first aim of the review–to describe study characteristics–we extracted several features of from each study and article ( Table 1 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243302.t001

Study designs.

Of 27 studies, 15 were cross-sectional and 12 were longitudinal. Studies compared outcomes of individuals with an assistance dog to before they received the dog (six longitudinal studies), to participants on the waitlist to receive an assistance dog (five longitudinal and seven cross-sectional studies), or to participants without an assistance dog (eight cross-sectional studies). Longitudinal assessment time points were varied. Most longitudinal studies (8/12) assessed participants at two time points: at baseline prior to receiving an assistance dog, and an average of 5.8 +/- 3.3 months after participants received an assistance dog (range of 3–12 months follow-up). The remaining four longitudinal studies assessed participants 3–5 times with final follow-up ranging from 9–24 months after receiving an assistance dog.

Study participants.

Most studies (15/27; 56%) were conducted in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom (6/27; 22%). Other countries where studies took place included Canada (3), Japan (2), New Zealand (1), and Sweden (1). A majority of studies (18/27; 67%) assessed outcomes from mobility service dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. These 18 studies recruited study populations with a range of physical impairments including para- or quadriplegia, musculoskeletal disorders, and neuromuscular disorders. Other studies assessed outcomes from hearing dogs (7/27; 26%), guide dogs (4/27; 15%), and medical alert/response service dogs (2/27; 7%). Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. Most studies (24/27; 89%) assessed outcomes from a single type of assistance dog (e.g. mobility or guide), thus restricting human participants to a single category of impairments. However, three studies collapsed analyses across several types of assistance dogs and impairments. Most studies (17/27; 63%) recruited from a single assistance dog provider organization, while the remaining studies recruited from a range of providers (7/27; 26%) or did not report the source of the assistance dogs in the study (3/27; 11%). The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies).

Samples sizes ranged from 10 to 316 participants with an average sample size across all studies of N = 83 +/- 74 participants and a median sample size of N = 53. Seven studies (26%) had sample sizes less than or equal to N = 20, all of which were longitudinal. However, more than half of all studies (16/27; 59%) had sample sizes greater than or equal to N = 50. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38–316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 10–55). Only a single study [ 16 ] assessed outcomes from child participants under the age of 18 (an additional study [ 38 ] had a minimum inclusion age of 16, but the youngest participant was 19). Average age across all studies was 42 +/- 13 years old. Samples ranged from 15% male to 85% male, with an average of 42% male participants across all studies.

Study methodologies

To achieve the second aim of the review–to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies–each study was assessed if they met a set of 15 methodological rating items using a scale of yes, no, or N/A ( Table 2 ). Fig 2 displays the total scores across each of the 15 items, separated by introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections (see S2 Table for individual study scores). Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design ( t (25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). Methodological rigor also did not significantly correlate with year of publication ( r = 0.327, p = 0.096) nor total sample size ( r = 0.258, p = 0.194).

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In introduction sections, all studies described an objective, but only 17/27 (63%) of studies stated a directional hypothesis. In methods sections, only 16/27 (59%) of studies indicated whether ethical approval for conducting human subjects research was sought and received. Most studies reported adequate detail on participant demographics such as age and sex or gender identity (23/27; 85%) as well as disability characteristics such as primary diagnoses or severity (22/27; 81%). However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). Only 5/27 studies (19%) described dogs’ breeds and sources. Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition.

In results sections, 15/21 studies with a control or comparison condition (71%) demonstrated that participants in each condition were comparable on demographic variables. This occurred by either matching groups on select criteria or statistically comparing groups’ demographic characteristics before performing main analyses. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g. t , F , or B values) and only 55% (15/27) of studies reported exact probability values from analyses. Only 6/27 (22%) reported any estimates of effect size in their results. Of 15 cross-sectional studies that surveyed individuals who owned assistance dogs for variable periods of time, 4/15 studies (27%) considered length of time of assistance dog ownership as a potential explanatory or moderating variable in analyses. Finally, in discussion sections, most studies (22/27; 81%) stated at least two limitations of their study.

Study outcomes

To achieve the third aim of the review–to summarize outcomes–psychosocial outcomes within each study were extracted. Studies made an average of 5.4 statistical comparisons on psychosocial outcomes, ranging from 1–15 comparisons. In total, 147 comparisons were made across the 27 studies that examined the effect of having an assistance dog on a standardized scale or sub-scale on a psychosocial outcome: 58 (39%) psychological outcomes, 43 (29%) social outcomes, 34 (23%) quality of life outcomes, and 12 (8%) energy/vitality outcomes. Of 147 comparisons, 44 (30%) were positive (improved or better functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 100 (68%) were null (no observed difference), and 3 (2%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Of the 44 positive comparisons, 36 (82%) were from published papers and 8 (18%) were from unpublished theses. Of the 100 null comparisons, 43 (43%) were from published papers and 57 (57%) were from unpublished theses.

Psychological outcomes.

Table 3 summarizes psychological outcomes across studies in terms of general psychological health, emotional health, mental health, and self-evaluation. Of 27 studies, 20 (74%) assessed a psychological outcome with a total of 24 different standardized measures. Of 58 total psychological outcomes, 21 (37%) were positive (improved or better psychological health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 37 (63%) were null (no difference), and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions).

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For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Six studies used standardized measures to assess general health and health symptoms, three of which [ 17 , 28 , 35 ] reported null findings on the general health domain of the RAND 36-Item Short Form Health Survey [SF-36; 47 ]. However, Lundqvist et al. [ 35 ] found increased SF-36 health transition scores after 3-months of having a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Guest [ 13 ] found an increase in general health 3-months after receiving a hearing dog using the 30-item General Health Questionnaire [GHQ-30; 48 ]. Three studies found positive findings on measures of overall psychological wellbeing or psychosocial health, including increased psychological wellbeing 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [ 35 ], 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog [ 14 ], and better overall psychosocial health in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [ 16 ]. On the other hand, Spence [ 34 ] found no improvement to a composite score of psychological health 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog.

Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Yarmolkevich [ 46 ] found a significant effect of having a guide dog on positive affect using the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience [SPANE; 49 ] compared to a control group, while others studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [ 29 ] or mobility service dog [ 39 ] on affect via the Positive and Negative Affect Scale [PANAS; 50 ]. Guest [ 13 ] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51 ], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. In terms of emotional functioning, two studies found positive results using the SF-36 role emotional domain; Lundqvist et al. [ 35 ] found increased functioning 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Shintani et al. [ 17 ] found better functioning among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group. On the other hand, Donovan [ 28 ] found no change in emotional functioning 4-months after receiving mobility service dog. Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. [ 16 ] found higher emotional functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group.

A total of 13 mental health outcomes were assessed in which 4 (31%) were significant across group or condition. Of 5 studies that used the mental health domain of the SF-36 or the shorter 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), only Shintani et al. [ 17 ] found an effect of having an assistance dog on mental health. The other four studies reported no changes in participants’ mental health 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [ 35 ], 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [ 28 ], and 7-months after receiving a hearing or mobility service dog [ 32 ]. Six comparisons were made to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on clinical measures of depression or anxiety. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52 ] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [ 39 – 41 ] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [ 28 ]. However, Guest et al. found significantly lower depression and anxiety using the POMS and GHQ-30, respectively, 6-months after receiving a hearing dog [ 13 ].

In the self-evaluation subcategory, 5/19 (26%) outcomes found a significant effect of having an assistance dog on standardized measures of self-esteem, self-concept, and other measures of self-evaluation. Nine studies assessed self-esteem as a primary outcome, with four studies [ 14 , 32 , 36 , 46 ] finding a significant effect of having a guide, hearing, mobility, or medical service dog on self-esteem as measured by the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale [RSES; 53 ]. However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [ 39 , 41 ] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [ 15 , 28 , 36 ]. Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54 ], Vincent et al. [ 15 ] found no difference in self-esteem, adequacy, or competency over 12-months following receiving a mobility service dog. Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [ 37 ] or guide dogs [ 46 ], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [ 28 ] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [ 38 ], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [ 46 ]. The only other positive outcome was from Allen et al. [ 14 ] which found significantly higher internal locus of control 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog.

Social outcomes.

Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. Of 43 total social outcome comparisons, 7 (16%) were positive (improved or better social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 36 (84%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions).

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In terms of general social functioning, 2/10 comparisons made were significant. Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. [ 35 ] found no improvement 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, Donovan [ 28 ] found no improvement 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and Shintani et al. [ 17 ] found no difference among mobility service dog users compared to controls. However, on different measures of social functioning Rodriguez et al. found better social functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [ 16 ] while Guest found improved social functioning 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog [ 13 ]. In addition, null findings were reported on standardized measures of family role 3-, 6-, and 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [ 15 ], discrimination and social inclusion 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [ 34 ], and family and social self-concept among mobility dog users compared to a control group [ 37 ].

The sub-category of loneliness had 19 comparisons in which only 1/19 (5%) was significant. Of five studies using a version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale [ 55 ] only Yarmolkevich [ 46 ] found significantly lower self-reported loneliness in those with a guide dog compared to a control group. Four studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [ 29 ] or mobility service dog [ 39 , 41 ] on the UCLA Loneliness Scale. Two studies from the a single thesis [ 29 ] made the remaining 14 comparisons on measures of loneliness distress and complementary loneliness, finding no significant changes to loneliness six months after receiving a hearing dog and no significant group differences in loneliness compared to those without a hearing dog.

Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). Two studies found increased social participation 3-, 6-, and 12-months [ 15 ] as well as 7-months [ 33 ] after receiving a mobility service dog, while Donovan [ 28 ] found no change in social participation 4-months receiving a mobility service dog. Other studies found increased social connectedness 3-months after receiving a mobility or hearing dog [ 31 ] and increased community integration 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after receiving a mobility service dog [ 14 ]. Using the CHART, both Milan [ 41 ] and Davis [ 44 ] found no group differences in social integration among those with a mobility service dog control groups. Other null findings included no effect of having a guide dog on social conflict stress and interactions with others [ 42 ], no improvement in social relationships 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and null findings regarding self-reported friendship and companionship with a mobility or medical service dog [ 16 ] or 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [ 28 ].

Quality of life outcomes.

Table 5 displays all quality of life outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of overall quality of life, life satisfaction, and independence. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions).

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In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. Lundqvist et al. [ 35 ] found higher health-related quality of life 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog on one of three measures used [EuroQol Visual Analog Scale; 56 ]. Hall et al. [ 45 ] found higher health-related quality of life among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group, but not among those with a hearing dog. Other studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog on quality of life including more specific measures such as physical and environmental quality of life [ 33 , 34 ].

In the next sub-category, six studies assessed life satisfaction outcomes using Satisfaction with Life Scale [SWLS; 57 ]. However, only 1/6 (17%) found a significant effect, in which Yarmolkevich found higher life satisfaction among those with a guide dog compared to a control group. The other five studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog [ 32 ], hearing dog [ 29 , 32 ], or guide dog [ 38 ] on life satisfaction using SWLS.

In the sub-category of independence, a total of 20 comparisons were made in which 9 (45%) were significant, but 3 (15%) were in the negative direction. The most commonly used measure was the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique [CHART; 58 ] which assesses how people with disabilities function as active members of their communities. Using the occupation domain of the CHART, Rintala et al. [ 32 ] found no difference in occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a mobility service dog and Milan [ 41 ] found no group difference in those with and without a mobility service dog. However, 2 studies found worse occupational functioning in terms of employment, schooling, or homemaking. Rintala et al. [ 32 ] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [ 44 ] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group.

In the economic domain of the CHART, which assesses socio-economic independence, Davis [ 44 ] again found that those with a mobility service dog reported worse economic functioning than controls while two mobility dog studies reported null findings [ 30 , 41 ]. In the mobility domain, only Milan [ 41 ] found a significant effect of having a mobility service dog on the CHART mobility domain (which includes hours per day out of bed and days per week out of the house) while Davis [ 44 ] and Rintala et al. [ 32 ] reported no relationship between the mobility domain and having a service dog or hearing dog. Using other standardized measures of independence, Matsunaka & Koda [ 42 ] found that those with guide dogs reported and lower stress while being mobile. Similarly, Crudden et al. [ 43 ] found that individuals who had guide dogs reported less stress while walking, but not while using public transportation. Using the Reintegration to Normal Living Index [RNLI; 59 ], Hubert found improvements in the ability to return to ‘normal life’ after 7-months with a mobility service dog while Vincent et al. [ 15 ] found improvements to daily work activities 3- and 12-months after receiving mobility service dog (but not in self-care or dealing with life events). Finally, Rodriguez et al. [ 16 ] found that those with a mobility or medical service dog reported significantly higher work/school functioning than a control group.

Vitality outcomes.

Table 6 summarizes vitality outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general energy/vitality and sleep. Of 27 studies, 7 (26%) reported outcomes from at least one standardized measure of vitality with a total of five different standardized measures. Of 12 total vitality comparisons, 6 (50%) were positive (improved or better vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 6 (50%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243302.t006

In terms of general vitality and energy, four studies used the SF-36 to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on the vitality domain. Only Vincent et al. [ 15 ] found a significant increase in pep, energy, and feeling less worn out 3- and 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog while three studies found no relationship between the vitality domain and having a mobility service dog [ 17 , 28 ] or a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [ 35 ]. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51 ], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. Using another measure of energy and fatigue, Craft [ 40 ] found no difference in those with or without a mobility service dog. Regarding sleep, Guest found better self-reported sleep quality 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog while Rodriguez et al. [ 16 ] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group.

This systematic review summarized the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) on standardized outcomes of psychosocial health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. Our search procedure identified 24 articles containing 27 studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from a wide variety of human and assistance dog populations. These studies were reviewed to complete three specific aims: to describe the key characteristics of studies, to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies, and to summarize outcomes. The discussion section aims to review the findings from each aim and to provide targeted suggestions for future research.

Our first aim was to describe study characteristics of the literature. We found that most studies were conducted in either the United States or the United Kingdom, but there was international representation of the research in Canada, Sweden, New Zealand, and Japan. Most articles were published in the 2010s, indicating an increasing publication interest in this topic over time. In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [ 9 ]. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [ 2 ] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [ 60 ]. The most commonly studied type of assistance dog was mobility service dogs, followed by hearing dogs. Guide dogs were only assessed in four studies (all of which were cross-sectional, and one of which was an unpublished thesis [ 46 ]). The lack of guide dog-specific research is especially surprising given that guide dogs not only have the longest history of any type of assistance dog [ 61 ] but are also the most commonly placed assistance dog placed by professional facilities worldwide [ 2 ]. Future longitudinal research in this population is necessary to understand the complex psychosocial and physical roles that guide dogs play in the lives of their handlers. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [ 16 , 35 ], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. However, these are relatively new categories of assistance dogs [ 2 ], many of which may also be self-trained [ 62 ], and it appears that emerging research on this population has centered on medical benefits [ 63 ] rather than psychosocial. Future research should focus on assessing outcomes from these medical alert and response assistance dogs and how their roles may be similar or different than mobility, guide, or hearing dogs.

Study designs included both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, with only one randomized longitudinal study identified [ 14 ]. However, it should be noted that this study by Allen & Blascovich has received considerable critique due to incredibly large effect sizes, unrealistic retention and response rates, and severe methodological omissions including a lack of reporting on recruitment, funding, or where assistance dogs were sourced and trained [despite repeated requests for clarification; 64 , 65 ]. The remaining studies were quasi-experimental in that they did not use randomized assignment to treatment or control groups. Therefore, the current literature is limited to correlational, rather than causal conclusions regarding the benefits of assistance dogs on the psychosocial health of their owners. Overall, sample sizes were higher than what is usually observed in targeted animal-assisted intervention studies with dogs (e.g. [ 66 , 67 ]) but smaller than that of pet dog research [ 68 ]. Interestingly, only one included study [ 16 ] assessed outcomes from participants under the age of 18. Although outcomes from assistance dog placement for children and adolescents have been quantified with qualitative [e.g., 69 – 71 ] and observational [e.g., 72 ] study designs, effects on standardized measures of psychosocial wellbeing including social functioning have not been explored. Therefore, future studies are warranted that specifically assess health and wellbeing using validated parent-proxy or self-report measures to fully understand the potential effects that assistance dogs can have on children and adolescents with disabilities.

Methodological rigor

Our second aim was to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies. We found that similar to the range of study characteristics observed, there was considerable variation in the methodological rigor of included studies. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. First, only 59% of studies stated whether ethical approval for human subjects was sought and received. Future research should specify not only ethical protocols for human subjects research, but also for animal subjects, which is often underutilized and/or underreported in AAI research [ 73 ]. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. Future studies should provide detailed researcher-specified criteria for participation as well as organizational-specified criteria for placing/receiving an assistance dog, if applicable. For example, organizations that place assistance dogs may have housing, familial, physical, or even financial requirements for potential recipients that should be subsequently reported in the manuscript to fully define the population. It is unreasonable to assume that the changes to an individual’s life following receipt of an assistance dog is identical for all ages, gender identities, backgrounds, and disabilities. Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [ 74 ].

Finally, one of the most notable examples of poor methodological reporting across studies was the omission of information regarding assistance dogs’ sources (e.g. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). As the assistance dog itself is the key component of the intervention, details regarding the dog’s breeding, rearing, selection, and training, as well as the assistance dog-handler matching process are critical to disentangling potential mechanisms [ 75 ]. In addition, reporting detailed information on assistance dogs allows for the consideration of the dogs as individual agents in the therapeutic process rather than as uniform tools [ 1 , 74 ].

In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. Many studies did not confirm that participants across groups were statistically equivalent on key demographic variables such as age and sex/gender before conducting statistical analyses. This poses a severe threat to the validity of findings as group differences in outcomes could be caused by underlying differences in certain demographics or characteristics and cannot be confidently attributed to the presence of the assistance dog. Secondly, many studies did not report sufficient detail in results in terms of estimates of variability and effect size. Thorough reporting in terms of the magnitude and variability of effects observed will allow researchers to make informed comparisons across populations and interventions and conduct critically needed meta-analyses in the field.

The third aim of the review was to summarize psychosocial outcomes of studies. We found that studies reported mostly psychological outcomes (74%), followed by social outcomes (67%), quality of life outcomes (70%), and vitality (26%) outcomes. Overall, most (68%) of comparisons made across studies were null in which no statistical difference was found in the outcome compared to before getting an assistance dog or compared to a control group. Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. A total of 30% of comparisons made were positive in which having an assistance dog was associated with improved psychosocial functioning among individuals with disabilities. In fact, positive findings were identified in all domains and sub-domains of psychosocial health and wellbeing. Promising areas include psychological wellbeing, emotional wellbeing, and social participation in which several positive outcomes were identified. However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. The below discussion considers various potential explanations for the inconsistencies in findings across studies.

Variability in assessment times.

One of the main considerations in understanding the potential variability across findings is the aspect of time since assistance dog placement. In longitudinal studies, the first follow-up time point varied from 3- to 12-months after receiving an assistance dog. Within cross-sectional studies, number of years since first partnering with an assistance dog ranged from 6-months to 45 years with means ranging from 2–9 years. This variation in assessment times makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions on conflicting findings. Further, the number of years spent with the assistance dog at the time of surveying was unknown for half of the cross-sectional studies [ 29 , 37 , 40 , 42 – 45 ]. Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies).

Variability in interventions.

Another potential explanation for inconsistent findings across studies lies in the inherent variability of the assistance dog intervention itself. Assistance dog categories (guide, hearing, mobility, and medical) were collapsed for the purposes of this review, but undoubtedly contribute to the lives of individuals with disabilities in diverse ways. However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. Second, there is inherent variation in both the quality and quantity of interactions from one assistance dog-owner pair to the next. In addition to the different human and dog phenotypes that contribute to this heterogeneity, there are likely differences in the strength of the human-animal bond and attachment relationships formed between assistance dogs and handlers [ 19 , 76 ]. Moderator analyses will be useful in determining the potential explanatory effects that handler-service dog relationships have on psychosocial outcomes.

Variability in standardized measures.

Another potential reason for the inconsistencies in findings from studies assessing the same construct is disparities across standardized measures. Measures of the same outcome not only can have different wording and items, but also can measure functioning over different time periods or contexts. In one example, four studies included in this review failed to find significant results in comparisons of depression using the CES-D [ 28 , 39 – 41 ]. However, positive findings were found in depression using the POMS by a different study [ 13 ]. The CES-D asks participants to rate how often they had experienced 20 depressive symptoms in the prior week using statements such as “I thought my life had been a failure,” while the POMS asks participants to rate from not at all to extremely how they feel right now using single words such as “sad” and “unhappy.” It is also possible that some standardized measures do not capture the intended effects from having an assistance dog. One author argued that an “important methodological issue is the absence of appropriate measures” in measuring the effect of an assistance dog on recipients’ lives [ 32 ]. Future research is necessary to determine if in fact some measures are inappropriate to measure change following an assistance dog, which may be addressed using interviewing and focus group techniques among assistance dog handlers. The replicated measures identified in this review can serve as a basis for future researchers to collate the existing literature when making assessment choices.

Variability in study rigor.

A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. In particular, not only did studies vary largely in terms of sample size, but they also varied in the manner in which statistical analyses were conducted. As mentioned above, a surprisingly high number of studies did not ensure that assistance dog and control groups were statistically equal across demographic and disability characteristics prior to outcome analyses. In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [ 77 ]. In addition, many studies did not account for confounding variables such as having a pet dog, the progressiveness or type of disability, or relationship status.

Other considerations.

An important finding from this review was that most positive findings were reported in published studies, while unpublished theses were more likely to report null findings. This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [ 78 ]. Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. Thus, this pattern may be better explained by the “file drawer effect” in which there is a bias towards publishing positive findings over null findings [ 79 ]. Although this tendency occurs in many fields, the file-drawer bias may especially be prevalent in human-animal interaction research due to the preconceived notion that animals are beneficial for humans [ 80 ]. In fact, positive, null, and negative findings are equally instrumental in understanding the complexities of the role that assistance dogs play in the lives of individuals with physical disabilities. As Serpell and colleagues point out, individuals that don’t benefit from animal-assisted interventions may be just as informative from a scientific perspective as the ones that do, and “the entire field potentially suffers when these sorts of contrary or ambiguous findings get buried or ignored” [ 74 ]. Therefore, future efforts should be made to publish null findings in peer-reviewed journals and to encourage scientific transparency [ 80 ].

As a final consideration, it is possible that assistance dogs may not confer significant psychosocial benefits as quantified by some of the standardized measures used. First, there may be ceiling effects present whereby individuals are functioning at initially healthy levels of the measured construct (e.g., depression, self-esteem) prior to receiving an assistance dog and thus may not significantly improve on these measures. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. Further, in contrast to a psychiatric service dog or an emotional support dog, the assistance dogs in this review are not explicitly trained for mental health-related support and their effects on the psychosocial health of their handlers may be variable rather than population-wide. For example, the benefits of an assistance dog for a socially isolated individual who experiences periodic anxiety and depression may be significantly different than an individual without these characteristics. An important question for the field moving forward will be to determine for whom an assistance dog may confer the most significant psychosocial health benefits for, and under what contexts or conditions.

Conclusions

This systematic review identified 24 articles containing 27 studies that assessed a psychosocial outcome of having an assistance dog (guide dog, hearing dog, mobility service dog, or medical service dog). Included studies assessed psychosocial outcomes via standardized measures from assistance dogs that were trained for functional tasks related to a physical disability or medical condition (omitting psychiatric service dogs or emotional support dogs). Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. Methodological weaknesses including poor reporting of assistance dog interventions and statistical limitations prevent any clear conclusions made regarding the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs on individuals with disabilities. Inconsistencies in findings were discussed in terms of wide variability in assessment times, interventions, measures, and rigor, and recommendations were made to contribute to the knowledge of this growing application of the human-animal bond. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field.

Supporting information

S1 checklist. prisma 2009 checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243302.s001

S1 Table. MEDLINE search terms and search strategy.

The search strategy was adapted to the other databases, including mapping terms to each database’s thesaurus or prescribed vocabulary, as appropriate.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243302.s002

S2 Table. Summary of methodological rating scores by each of the N = 27 individual studies.

Studies are organized by design (longitudinal or cross-sectional).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243302.s003

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Table of contents

Service animals.

The ADA explains what businesses and state/local governments must do to make sure that they do not discriminate against a member of the public with a disability who uses a service animal.

Generally, businesses and non-profits that are open to the public as well as state/local governments must allow service animals to go most places where the public can go. This is true even if they have a “no pets” policy.

Read this to get a basic understanding of this topic.

• For more detailed information on a topic, view Guidance & Resource materials
• For information about the legal requirements, visit Law, Regulations & Standards

About Service Animals

Service animals are:.

Any breed and any size of dog

Trained to perform a task directly related to a person’s disability

Service animals are not:

Required to be certified or go through a professional training program

Required to wear a vest or other ID that indicates they’re a service dog

Emotional support or comfort dogs, because providing emotional support or comfort is not a task related to a person’s disability

If the dog’s mere presence provides comfort, it is not a service animal under the ADA. But if the dog is trained to perform a task related to a person’s disability, it is a service animal under the ADA. For example, if the dog has been trained to sense that an anxiety attack is about to happen and take a specific action to help avoid the attack or lessen its impact, the dog is a service animal.

Examples of Service Animal Tasks

A person who uses a wheelchair may have a dog that is trained to retrieve objects for them .

A person with depression may have a dog that is trained to perform a task to remind them to take their medication .

A person with PTSD may have a dog that is trained to lick their hand to alert them to an oncoming panic attack .

A person who has epilepsy may have a dog that is trained to detect the onset of a seizure and then help the person remain safe during the seizure .

Where Service Animals Can Go

Generally, service animals are allowed to be with their person, even in places that don’t allow pets. For example, service dogs can go into:

• Restaurants

EXAMPLE: A restaurant offers indoor and outdoor seating. A woman arrives at the restaurant with her service dog and asks to sit inside. The restaurant cannot require the woman to dine outside because of her service dog.

The ADA also applies to certain types of housing, including:

• Housing at public and private universities
• Public housing programs run by state, county, and city governments
• Emergency shelters

Other laws apply to housing

The Fair Housing Act applies to many types of housing, both public and privately owned, including housing covered by the ADA. Under the Fair Housing Act, there may be different rules that apply when a resident or applicant with a disability uses a service animal or other animal to assist with their disability. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development is responsible for administering the Fair Housing Act. Learn more at the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development or contact your Regional Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity Office .

Other laws apply to airplanes

The Air Carrier Access Act, not the ADA, protects the rights of people with disabilities in air travel. For information or to file a complaint, contact the U.S. Department of Transportation, Aviation Consumer Protection Division: 202-366-2220.

Other rules apply to employment

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is responsible for administering the ADA in employment settings.

Asking if a Dog is a Service Animal

If you are working at a business or state/local government facility and it is unclear to you whether someone’s dog is a service dog, you may ask for certain information using two questions .

You may ask:

Is the dog a service animal required because of a disability?

What work or task has the dog been trained to perform?

You are not allowed to:

Request any documentation that the dog is registered, licensed, or certified as a service animal

Require that the dog demonstrate its task, or inquire about the nature of the person’s disability

Because service animals are not required to wear vests, a dog that is wearing a vest is not necessarily a service animal. The dog still needs to be trained to perform a task for a person with a disability to be a service animal.

When a Service Animal Can Be Kept Out

A business or state/local government does not need to allow a service animal if the dog’s presence would fundamentally alter the nature of the goods, services, programs, or activities provided to the public.

In most settings, a service animal will not fundamentally alter the situation. But in some settings, a service dog could change the nature of the service or program. For example, it may be appropriate to keep a service animal out of an operating room or burn unit where the animal’s presence could compromise a sterile environment. But in general, service animals cannot be restricted from other areas of the hospital where patients or members of the public can go.

Learn more about when a service animal can be kept out in questions 23-26 in FAQs about service animals and the ADA .

Asking Someone to Remove Their Service Animal

A business or state/local government can ask someone to remove their service animal if:

• The dog is not housebroken.
• The dog is out of control, and the person cannot get the dog under control.

Learn more in question 27 in FAQs about service animals and the ADA .

State and Local Laws

State/local governments can:.

Require service dogs to be licensed and vaccinated, if all dogs are required to be licensed and vaccinated

Offer voluntary service dog registration programs

State/local governments can’t:

Require certification or registration of service dogs

Ban a service dog based on its breed

Learn More About the ADA and Service Animals

The following technical assistance documents provide more helpful information about service animals:

• Frequently Asked Questions about Service Animals and the ADA
• ADA Requirements: Service Animals

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Service Dogs: Ethics and Education

Written by Barbara Handelman

• Back to Issue

Most Americans are familiar with the presence of service animals. [1] From the standard-bearer guide dog for the blind to the much photographed but rare service mini-horse, their stories are more and more visible. Sometimes we tell those stories in order to laud an impressive act of bravery or kindness, and other times to mock or cast doubt on a more suspect public pet. Each time we unexpectedly see someone in public with an animal, many people ask, “How come they’re allowed to have an animal here?”

And really, who wouldn’t want to take her dog with her everywhere? It’s easier than boarding him when you go on vacation or leaving her behind when you run to the store. It’s much cheaper to buy your dog a vest that says “service dog” than it is to pay a dog walker or day care.

It really is that easy. Anyone can buy service dog identification online, put it on their pet dog, and go forth into the world. [2]   For a price, and the answers to a few generic questions, even “certification” for a service dog can also be purchased online, without the dog having ever been seen by the certifying entity. [3] No matter what accessories he uses to adorn his pet, a person who pretends to have a disability or represents his pet dog as a service dog flouts the law. He also endangers the rights of citizens with disabilities who not only properly train their service dogs, but also rely on them for their wellbeing and safety.

At the same time that these pet owners endanger the rights of people with disabilities, there is a growing demand for trained service dogs. For example, there are thousands of men and women returning from war missing limbs and suffering from PTSD, traumatic brain injury (TBI), and many other debilitating conditions. There is growing evidence that their lives can be greatly improved by the help and companionship of a trained service animal. Unfortunately, too many people trying to provide breeding and training services for these returning veterans are unqualified to do so.

Yet, it might seem hard to fault the pet owners who disregard these risks, because disregarding them is so easy. There is no centralized authority or system for certifying working dogs. Some of this lack of regulation exists for good reason. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) no one can be asked to provide evidence of a disability in order to receive accommodations, access, or services. These laws provide important protections for citizens with disabilities, especially because many disabilities are not visible. One cannot know from looking at people whether or not they meet the ADA criteria for disability, nor can one see an emotional disorder.

This lack of certification requirements and centralized authority has created a chaotic system of names and rules that is ripe for abuse. It is no surprise, then, that there are some people who take advantage.

 What is a service dog?

Equipment and evidence of certification do not in themselves transform pets into working dogs. Just because she is wearing a vest, a dog won’t suddenly know how to behave appropriately on public transportation, in airplanes, in restaurants, at museums, or in other places of public accommodation.

Some dog owners do attempt to go beyond mere accessories in preparing their pets to accompany them in public. Some may decide to get their dogs certified as Canine Good Citizens (CGC). According to the American Kennel Club, their CGC program  “teaches good manners to dogs, and responsible dog ownership to their owners.” To pass the basic CGC, dogs must, among other challenges, tolerate handling from strangers, and move through crowds on a loose leash. There are now multiple levels of the CGC certification. They are worthy goals and a significant accomplishment for pets and their owners. Well-socialized dogs with basic obedience training are more likely to live out their lives in loving homes, and are less likely to be rehomed or surrendered to shelters. CGC training is undoubtedly beneficial, but it still does not qualify a dog to accompany a pet owner into places where pet dogs are not allowed to go. Service dogs are not pets; they are highly trained working animals.

For service dog candidates, passing a CGC test is an important benchmark from which they must continue with further acclimatization to novel environments and intensive obedience and task training. That is to say, the CGC is an excellent end goal for a pet, but it is only the beginning for a working dog.

Throughout this article I offer photographs of dogs at work. You will see service dogs representing a variety of breeds and breed mixes, from a tiny Papillion to a giant Anatolian Shepherd. These pictures illustrate the extraordinary circumstances that service dogs encounter in their daily lives – they enter environments to which pet dogs are rarely exposed and would likely find unsettling, frightening, or over-stimulating.

Service dogs, assistance dogs, emotional support dogs (ESDs), and therapy dogs are all working dogs, but not all are allowed access to public places. Each is covered under different statutes and held to different standards of training, despite the fact that at times they appear indistinguishable from one another when moving through the community with their handlers.

There is no standardized set of training requirements for working dogs, nor is there a single recognized certifying body that legitimizes their status as working dogs. [4] , [5]

The labels “service dog” and “assistance dog” are used interchangeably to refer to dogs that accompany handlers who have disabilities covered by the ADA. An individual with a disability is defined by the ADA as “a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities.”

The ADA does not grant rights to dogs . It is a civil rights law that protects people who have disabilities who might be blind, hard of hearing, or mobility challenged, and those who have diabetes, seizures, a traumatic brain injury, or another disabling physical conditions. The ADA also protects and grants rights to people with psychiatric diagnoses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), autism spectrum disorders, clinical depression, and pervasive anxiety disorder, among others.

In granting rights to citizens with these conditions, the ADA acknowledges service dogs as a form of assistance necessary for the individuals with a disabling condition to achieve equal access to places of public accommodation (places where pets are not allowed). According to the ADA’s definition : “service dogs are individually trained to do work or perform tasks for people with disabilities. The dog’s skills must mitigate some aspect of the person’s disability”. [6]

Selecting and training service dogs

How do dogs become service dogs? Becoming a service dog is an ongoing, highly selective process. Approximately 50 percent of all dogs bred, socialized, selected, and trained by owners or agencies to become service dogs either fail to complete training or must retire after a short career. Physical and behavioral reactions to cumulative stress are the most common reasons that dogs fail to become service dogs or must retire prematurely. Assistance Dogs International (ADI) has outlined minimum standards of training and behavior expected of a service dog.

Moon was the first dog the author selected and trained to be a service dog.  He retired at the age of 3. He was too small to do mobility assistance, and temperamentally unsuited to work around children in crowds.  Barbara and Moon went on to have a fun career as agility competitors, and he helped to raise his successors, Luca and Pan.

Training for a service dog is highly specialized. Dogs must learn myriad skills to meet the specific needs of people with a wide range of disabilities. The average cost of breeding, raising, and training a service dog is $20,000 to $30,000. The process takes an average of two years. Such rigorous preparations go far beyond the requirements for a CGC test.

Selecting an appropriate candidate for service dog training is the single most important element of preparing a dog for a working career. Temperament evaluations are essential, and do help weed out obviously inappropriate candidates, but offer no guarantees. In addition, some dogs will pass a temperament evaluation only to demonstrate their unsuitability later in the process after much time, money, and love has been invested in their apparent promise. [7]

Early enrichment opportunities and careful socialization to a wide variety of places, people of all ages and ethnicities, noises, smells, and other stimuli in myriad environments help to set dogs up for success in a working career.

Riggan Shilstone , long-time instructor for the Assistance Dog Club of Puget Sound, and author of service dog–related materials, wrote:

“There is no question that assistance dogs are expected to function at an extremely high level of reliability in surroundings that are very abnormal from a canine perspective. We ask them to disregard their genetic and evolutionary wiring: don’t touch food within easy reach; don’t run away from new or scary things; ignore enticing smells; don’t chase birds or squirrels; don’t bark or growl at someone who appears threatening. We place them in stressful environments foreign to the average dog: crowded shopping malls, noisy restaurants or concert halls, medical facilities filled with odors that must be overwhelming to sensitive canine noses. Yet, I truly believe that some dogs can live a happy and fulfilling life in the role of assistance animal.”

Shilstone is correct; we demand a lot of service dogs, but they are invaluable to those they can help. Allowing service dogs time to simply be dogs – play fetch, run and play with other dogs, and nap in the sun – enables them to de-stress in ways important to all dogs.

Service dogs are clearly doing many people a lot of good, so it is no surprise that they are currently in high demand. [8] The need for service dog candidates far exceeds the number of suitable dogs being knowledgeably bred, raised, and trained by experienced professionals. New training programs and private dog trainers with little experience in the specialized field of service dog training are rushing to provide dogs. With the best of intentions, these new entrants into the field may actually disappoint, and even endanger their most vulnerable clients – especially veterans recently home from war. Sadly, others are jumping on board to reap exorbitant fees for dogs that are selected without adequate knowledge and placed with little basic training and virtually no specialized training to meet the needs of the recipients.

The Department of Veterans Affairs estimates that approximately 30 percent of the veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan have been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [9] As many as 400,000 troops are possibly returning with the symptoms of PTSD. Dog partners have a tremendous stress reduction effect on their human partners as measured through cortisol levels, heart rate, and blood pressure. These dogs can quite literally become a serviceman’s or servicewoman’s best friend.

Quality programs offering professionally sound methods to recruit and train service dogs for veterans do exist. However, it may be hard for someone newly seeking a service dog to discern which programs offer beneficial services, and which are scammers out to capitalize on the needs of vulnerable potential clients.

Family pets are being recruited for service work without sufficient evaluation for suitability, and shelter dogs are being selected as candidates with increasing frequency and inadequate evaluation. When inappropriate dogs are chosen as service dog candidates it can be a recipe for extreme emotional and financial hardship. It also means people end up “making do” with temperamentally unsuitable dogs – dogs with fearful or aggressive behavior and other behavior problems.

Jeanne Hampl, former executive director of the Prison Pet Partnership Program, supervised the training of service dog candidates by prison inmates, placing the successful dogs with applicants. According to Hampl, the success rate for shelter dogs selected by professionals for service dog training is still only 15 to 20 percent.

Service dogs require unflappable temperaments. They must have both emotional stability and physical endurance to tolerate the day-to-day stressors service dogs encounter. Meeting the needs of their handlers is a demanding job. Hampl is often quoted as saying “service dogs are not rehabilitation projects.” A service dog must not have any behavioral issues such as fearfulness, shyness, reactivity, or aggression.

Service dog skills are not static. Working dogs require ongoing training and consistent refreshing of skill training. They also must learn new skills that adapt to changes when their handler’s disabling condition progresses or the person ages and his or her needs for assistance change accordingly.

Assistance Dogs International (ADI) has published the Public Access Test (PAT) . The PAT offers a baseline overview of the skills a generic service dog should have. As with temperament tests, the PAT is simply a window into the dog and handler’s skills and partnership on a single day, in only one environment. It cannot assess how those skills might appear in different situations, without the overlay of anxiety inherent in a test milieu. For example, the PAT includes an encounter with a “neutral dog.” In fact, service dogs at work must remain non-reactive when confronted by dogs that not only are not neutral, they also might bark and lunge at the working dog in a public place. A team can prepare for such encounters, but to include a reactive dog in the certification test might mean setting the handler and dog up for failure. Avoiding a reactive dog might require space and alternate routes not available in a test setting.

It is unethical to expect some dogs to perform as service dogs. These dogs include: ones with a shy or fearful temperament, those whose natural exuberance and high energy are not easily channeled to stay by the side of a sedate human, and others who are hyper-vigilant or aggressively protective. These dogs would ultimately suffer in the behaviorally restrictive role of a working dog.

This puppy was in training to become a psychiatric service dog.  Sadly, he did not have a temperament evaluation until after he began growling and snapping at people. He was far too stressed to become a working service dog.

Similarly, and thus unsurprisingly, most pets are not qualified for this kind of work either. And yet, as mentioned before, more and more pet owners are exploiting the rights accorded to people who have disabilities in order to bring their inadequately trained dogs with them as they shop, eat, and travel.

There are other all too common instances in which able-bodied pet owners take advantage of the rights granted to the people with disabilities. They do so in order to make their own lives easier. They make imposters of their dogs and risk doing great harm to the rights and well-being of members of their community who have disabilities.

Why are imposter dogs a problem? Poorly trained dogs appearing in places of public accommodation make the lives of people with disabilities more difficult. Putting service dog identification on a pet dog makes the dog an imposter, not a service dog. Posing as a person with a disability is plainly unethical and, in sixteen states in the U.S., it is even illegal . That being said, these violations are ethical failures that cannot be stopped simply by implementing regulation and certification procedures.

When some imposter dogs are brought into places where pet dogs are not allowed, they increase the likelihood that individuals with disabilities will be questioned. Imposters and their pet dogs increase suspicion from businesses, because pet dogs are less likely to behave well in public. Unruly dogs, even those whose handlers have disabilities, may legally be asked to leave a place of public accommodation. A dog causing a disturbance such as barking, relieving himself, threatening staff or patrons, or disrupting the flow of business should be asked to leave. Such behavior, understandably, makes people less welcoming and hospitable to patrons with dogs.

People with non-visible disabilities, for example veterans and others with TBI or PTSD, are especially vulnerable. They are most likely to be questioned about their service dogs and may even have their symptoms triggered or worsened by such questioning. Such questioning risks drawing undue attention and embarrassment.

In addition, badly behaved pet dogs are more likely to react to other dogs, including those who are working. Pet dogs who bark at service dogs, charge toward them – or worse, attack them – may cause a person with a disability who is accompanied by a service dog to fall, feel personally threatened, or need to protect his or her service dog – possibly incurring bodily injury or injury to the service dog under attack in the melee. Such attacks may also traumatize a service dog so he is no longer able to work.

Service dogs are working dogs, expertly selected and trained. The dogs require stable temperaments able to withstand stressful situations encountered on a daily basis. They receive highly specialized training to aid their handlers. Sometimes, they must also accompany their handlers to extraordinary events that may be impossible to simulate during training.

The huge influx of wounded returning veterans in need of service dogs has greatly increased the demand for trained dogs. Trainers committed to proper selection and training cannot keep pace with the demand. The best training programs may not even be taking applicants for dogs at this time. These facts leave the field open to scammers: unqualified organizations and private trainers who offer dogs at exorbitant prices. Some even offer to train unsuitable household pets or help clients select and train dogs from a shelter. They promise a fully trained dog in a matter of months , while professional standards recognize that it takes two years or more to select, socialize, and train a dog able to withstand the rigors of service dog work. Meanwhile, pet owners who intentionally violate public access regulations, further complicate the lives of people with disabilities.

Barbara’s discussion of these problems, and how they might be solved, continues in our next issue.

[1] Working dogs exist in other countries as well.

[2] All manner of service dog equipment: vests, harnesses, tags and patches can be purchased online by anyone who has the money.

[3] Do a Google search on any topic related to service dogs; the first links to pop up will inevitably be for bogus service dog registration. For example, at this site , one can answer a few generic questions and, for a fee, receive a registration certificate.

[4] For further clarification of the classification for working dogs and the laws pertaining to them, go to the Michigan State Univeristy Animal Legal and Historical Center website.

[5] People with emotional support dogs have access rights for rental housing under the Fair Housing Act (FHA). They may also fly with their dogs with them in cabin as regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). People with ESDs do not have rights to access in other places of public accommodation, such as hospitals, restaurants, or public transportation.

[6] A complete guide to laws applying to service dogs can be found here .

[7] Ethology and Behavior Lecture Series : March 2016.

[8] This excellent video gives an intimate view of the role service dogs play for a returning veteran with PTSD.

[9] While researching service dog training programs I discovered one that met all the criteria I respect in a legitimate training programs. Not surprisingly, in their website’s section on apply for a dog, I also found this notation:  PLEASE NOTE: We are currently not accepting applications for wounded warrior recipients at this time due to the overwhelming demand for At Ease Service Dogs that exceeds the number of dogs we can supply.

Barbara Handelman, M.Ed., CDBC is the author of Canine Behavior: A Photo Illustrated Handbook, and creator of the DVD series Clicker Train Your Own Assistance Dog. For more information about where these are available: email [email protected]

All photos and video copyright Barbara Handelman.

I didn’t know that it took about two years to fully prepare and train a service dog. My grandmother is anemic and will occasionally lose consciousness, we think that she would benefit from a service dog. We will look into our options to see if we can find a dog that will be able to help keep my grandmother safe.

After reading this comprehensive article, it’s evident that the value of genuine service dogs is immeasurable, and misrepresentation is truly harmful. I remember a close friend who had a legitimate service dog, and the amount of scrutiny they faced due to others misusing the system was disheartening. Clearer guidelines and awareness are crucial for both people with disabilities and the general public.

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Mobility and medical service dogs: a qualitative analysis of expectations and experiences

Kerri e. rodriguez.

a College of Veterinary Medicine, Center for the Human-Animal Bond, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Jessica Bibbo

b Benjamin Rose Institute on Aging, Center for Research and Education, Cleveland, OH, USA

Savannah Verdon

c Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Animals and Public Policy, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA

Marguerite E. O’Haire

To qualitatively describe and compare the expectations and experiences of living with a mobility or medical service dog among those with a physical disability or chronic condition.

Materials and methods:

A total of 64 participants living with a service dog and 27 on the waitlist to receive a service dog participated in a cross-sectional open-ended survey. Qualitative content analysis was used to identify themes and sub-themes.

A total of 101 codes were summarized into themes of Physical Benefits, Psychosocial Benefits, and Drawbacks to having a service dog. Psychosocial benefits included the human–animal relationship as well as emotional, quality of life, and social benefits. Drawbacks included service dog care, public access and education, lifestyle adjustments, and dog behaviour. While participants on the waitlist were more likely to anticipate physical benefits of having a service dog, those with a service dog largely described psychosocial benefits. Findings also suggest that some drawbacks, such as public discrimination, may be unanticipated by the waitlist.

Conclusions:

A comparison of expectations and experiences of service dog ownership highlights both the positive and negative aspects of the service dog–owner relationship and identifies potential aspects of having a service dog that may be unanticipated or overestimated by those on the waitlist.

Introduction

Service dogs are a potential complementary and integrative assistive aid for individuals with disabilities or chronic conditions. Their roles in society continue to grow as they can be trained to provide assistance, guidance or medical alert and response to individuals with a wide variety of disabilities and conditions [ 1 ]. In the United States, service dogs have been legally protected since 1990 as an assistive aid for those with a disability by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) [ 2 ]. As a form of assistive technology, service dogs can be trained for tasks that can improve independence for those with physical or mental limitations. For example, mobility service dogs can retrieve dropped items, open and close doors, or pull a wheelchair [ 3 - 5 ]. In addition, medical service dogs can be trained to alert to low blood sugar or respond to seizures for those needing diabetic or epileptic monitoring. However, in addition to the physical and medical functions they are uniquely trained for, service dogs may also provide their owners with psychosocial benefits due to their presence, companionship, and the impact of their assistance.

There is growing literature examining the psychosocial effects of service dogs on individuals with disabilities or chronic conditions. Specifically, studies using retrospective, longitudinal and cross-sectional designs suggest that service dogs can significantly impact health-related quality of life including psychological well-being, self-esteem and social functioning [ 6 , 7 ]. For example, findings from retrospective studies suggest that the addition of a service dog can improve confidence and self-esteem, decrease the need for assistance from others, and promote positive social interactions in public [ 8 - 12 ]. Longitudinal pilot studies have also provided promising findings regarding increases in independence, self-esteem and social functioning after receiving a service dog, but are limited by small sample sizes and the lack of a control group [ 4 , 11 , 13 ]. Cross-sectional studies comparing those with a service dog to matched controls without a service dog have found mixed results regarding outcomes, but some have reported a significant relationship between having a service dog and higher quality of life and psychosocial health [ 14 - 16 ]. Observational studies have also found that individuals in wheelchairs with a service dog present are more likely to be smiled at and engaged in conversation with strangers than individuals without a dog present [ 17 - 19 ].

Though the physical and psychosocial benefits of having a service dog have been the subject of several studies, many studies often fail to consider the potential drawbacks of service dog ownership. These drawbacks are important to quantify as they may have important psychological impacts on an individual with a physical disability/chronic condition or their family members. For example, as many individuals with disabilities experience significant societal discrimination, additional difficulties with public access or negative attention from having a service dog may be particularly relevant. In addition, service dogs require care, maintenance and financial responsibility which may be additionally taxing on parents or caregivers, who already experience significant burden and stress [ 20 , 21 ].

While findings from empirical studies offer evidence that service dogs can have measurable effects on standardized measures of health and well-being among individuals with physical disabilities, they fail to describe the specific characteristics of the service dog’s assistance, behaviour or demeanour that promote a successful service dog–owner relationship. They also fail to quantify how a service dog may affect quality of life from the owner’s point of view, which is critical for understanding the theoretical mechanisms that may explain the psychosocial benefits seen in quantitative studies. In this way, qualitative research can provide a richer and more in-depth exploration of the relationship between service dogs and their owners to aid in interpreting results from complementing quantitative research [ 22 ].

To date, there has been limited qualitative research exploring an individual’s relationship with a mobility or medical service dog. While some studies have quantified service dog use, benefits and drawbacks with closed-ended response options [ 10 , 23 , 24 ], this method does not allow participants to express their opinions in their own words and prevents responses that are unanticipated by the researchers. Few studies have taken a content or thematic analysis approach to exploring open-ended qualitative data regarding the relationship with a service dog, but have been largely limited by small sample sizes or lack in objective coding methodology. For example, a 2001 study explored common themes regarding experiences with mobility service dogs using ethnographic observation and interview, but was limited to five individuals [ 25 ]. Another study used a pre–post design to measure expectations (before getting a service dog) and actual experiences (after getting a service dog) among 22 individuals with mobility impairments, but lacked in a standardized coding methodology and a control group [ 11 ].

While service dog owners’ experiences are important to quantify, the relative perspectives of those without a service dog or on the waitlist to receive one are equally essential to quantify. In particular, understanding the expectations of those anticipating the benefits of a service dog has critical implications for rehabilitation. Specifically, recognizing the potential discrepancies between expectations and real-life experiences with a service dog is critical for rehabilitation professionals to fully prepare those considering incorporating a service dog as a new assistive technology in their lives. For similar reasons, an understanding of client expectations is also important for organizations who train and place service dogs. Knowing the expectations of the applying population may not only assist in setting realistic expectations about the potential negative aspects of owning a service dog, but may also assist with the preparation of service dogs for future owners.

The objective of the present study was to describe and compare both the experienced and expected benefits and drawbacks of partnering with a service dog by using a conventional content analysis approach. Specifically, the research focused on assessing the benefits and drawbacks of mobility and medical service dogs due to the population sampled. Our specific research goals were (1) to describe the specific physical and/or psychosocial aspects of having a service dog that are the most beneficial, (2) to explore the drawbacks of having a service dog and (3) to compare the relative frequency of experienced and expected responses across those with a service dog and those on the waitlist. This study builds on current knowledge by using a standardized qualitative analysis approach to include the perspectives of both those with a service dog and those on the waitlist in a large and diverse sample of individuals with physical disabilities and chronic conditions.

This study was approved by the Purdue University Human Research Protection Program Institutional Review Board (IRB Protocol #1602017187). No interactions occurred with any service dogs, therefore a waiver was obtained from the Purdue University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).

Participants

Participants were recruited from the database of Canine Assistants, a national service dog provider of mobility, seizure response and diabetic alert service dogs. Mobility service dogs are trained to assist individuals with physical disabilities by performing such behaviours as picking up objects from the floor, providing balance or opening doors. Seizure response service dogs assist individuals with seizure disorders, and remain next to the individual during a seizure or summon help in the event of a seizure. Diabetic alert service dogs alert individuals to changes in blood sugar or may summon help in the case of a medical event. Canine Assistants service dogs are purpose-bred Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, Poodles or hybrids/crosses of these breeds. Service dogs are prepared for placement during the first year and a half of their lives while being cared for and raised at the service dog provider facility by puppy-raising volunteers and Canine Assistants staff.

All recruited participants had been screened and accepted by the Canine Assistants program. Inclusion criteria for both current and service dog recipients included: (1) evidence of a physical disability, seizure condition or other special need (i.e., diabetes) verified via a physician-completed and signed medical history form, (2) no history or conviction of any violent crime or animal abuse and (3) a demonstrated ability of either the recipient or a family member to care for and maintain the health of a service dog. Service dogs are given at no cost to recipients; Canine Assistants covers the medical, food and training costs for the lifetime of every dog placed through sponsorships and donations.

Waitlist participants had been approved to receive a service dog but had not yet been placed with a dog. Service dog participants had already been placed with a dog at the time of the study, which involves attending a 2-week placement class at the service dog facility in which recipients learn how to care for, maintain training of, and work with their service dog. Recruited service dog participants were matched to those on the waitlist based on approximate age (±5 years) and the primary diagnosis of the service dog recipient (e.g., epilepsy, cerebral palsy).

The present study represents the qualitative data from a large cross-sectional study; a complete detailed account of procedures is described in Rodriguez et al. 2019 [ 16 ]. All potential participants were recruited with an email and a phone call invitation to participate in the study, which consisted of completing a 10–20 min long survey. After informed consent, participants completed the survey online (65%), over the phone (30%) or on paper through the mail (5%). Participant remuneration consisted of a randomized drawing of 20 cash prizes ranging from $25 to $100.

By choosing to participate in the study, participants gave consent for the researchers to access their application materials from the service dog provider. Demographic data obtained from applications included the date of waitlist assignment or service dog placement, date of birth, and primary medical diagnosis. Primary diagnoses were categorized into five categories: seizure disorders (e.g., epilepsy, Koolen DeVries syndrome), musculoskeletal disorders (e.g., Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy, osteogenesis imperfecta, Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease), neuromuscular disorders (e.g., cerebral palsy, spinal cord injury, spinal muscular atrophy, para/tetra/quadriplegia), developmental or intellectual disorders (e.g., Down syndrome, foetal alcohol syndrome), and a general “other” category (e.g., Type 1 diabetes, cystic fibrosis).

This study is based on data collected from four open-ended questions given to each participant at the end of the survey. The first three qualitative questions were phrased specifically to capture experiences (for those who lived with a service dog) and expectations (for those on the waitlist). The first question (Q1) asked, “What is (do you think will be) the most helpful aspect of having a service dog?” The second question (Q2) asked, “What does (do you think) the service dog (will) do that helps the most?” The third question (Q3) asked, “What are (do you think will be) the drawbacks of having a service dog?” The final open-ended question (Q4) was worded the same for all participants and asked, “Is there anything else you would like to share to advance the science and understanding of service dogs for individuals with disabilities and their families?” For those who completed the survey online or through the mail, the exact written text was used for analysis. For those who completed the survey on the phone, participants gave consent to record their answers to the open-ended questions which allowed for post-study transcription. For online and mailed surveys, simple grammatical errors and spelling mistakes were fixed by the authors, meaning that some quotes reported are not verbatim to original typed text (e.g., “She’s sometimes stuborn” is represented as “She’s sometimes stubborn” in the text).

This study employed a conventional content analysis to answer whether there were differences between the expected and experienced impact of a service dog. Conventional content analysis is an inductive approach which aims to describe a phenomenon [ 26 , 27 ]. The analysis is appropriate for describing differences between groups when there are no concrete hypotheses. While the researchers did have knowledge about the subject, it was based on the limited amount of existing evidence, particularly for the expectations of individuals hoping to receive a service dog in the future. Codes and themes were not created a priori ; instead, they emerged directly from the data through the process of open coding [ 26 ]. All coding and analyses were conducted with NVivo 11 (QSR International, Melbourne, Australia, 2008) qualitative data analysis software.

The process of developing and refining a coding manual was iterative and dependent on recurrent readings of the entire qualitative dataset. The unit of analysis was defined as a single linguistic clause; each clause was assigned a “code”. In clauses which contained multiple codes, two codes were assigned (e.g., “[My service dog] makes me feel safe and happy” would receive both the codes Security and Joy ). Clauses which could not be could not be interpreted without more context were coded as Ambiguous . Codes which were expressed more than once in a single response were coded as Redundant (e.g., “Our only drawback is the hair. She is a Golden Retriever – lots of hair.” would only receive the code Shedding/Hair once. This was done to accurately account for the percentage in each group that reported each code in their responses. Finally, clauses which were unrelated to the questions asked were coded as Irrelevant .

The coding manual was further refined through the establishment of inter-coder agreement. To establish this criterion, a minimum Cohen’s kappa value of acceptability was set to 0.80. Multiple rounds of inter-coder agreement were conducted. In each round, 20% of the data was randomly selected and coded independently by authors JB and SV. The authors conferred after each round and together refined the codes and their definition. A kappa at 0.87 was attained in the fifth round of coding. Author SV then independently coded 100% of the dataset and consulted with author JB as necessary.

A total of 91 of the 154 participants from the larger study were included for qualitative analysis after the following exclusions. Of the 154 participants in the larger study, 48 had responded as a proxy for those who were either under the age of 13 or unable to complete the survey on their own. These proxy responses were not included in the present analysis to preserve the validity of the data and focus solely on first-hand experiences. In addition, one case was excluded because the service dog had been in the home less than six months (this exclusion criterion was to account for the adjustment period following placement of a service dog; [ 7 ]). Finally, 14 participants were excluded as they only partially completed the survey and thus did not receive the qualitative questions at the end of the survey.

Demographic characteristics of the service dog and waitlist groups are displayed in Table 1 . Of 91 participants included in this study, 64 were currently living with a service dog while 27 participants were on the waitlist to receive a service dog. Participants on the waitlist had been waiting for placement with a service dog an average of 2.1 years ± 2.0 years. Participants with a service dog had been placed with their dogs for an average of 5.0 years ± 3.2 years. Half of all participants (50%) had neuromuscular diagnoses, followed by 28% with seizure disorders, 18% with musculoskeletal disorders, 3% with Type 1 diabetes and 2% with developmental or intellectual disorders. Groups did not significantly differ in age ( p = .119), gender ( p = .727), or in diagnosis distribution ( p = .061). However, those on the waitlist were significantly more likely to have a pet dog living in the home ( p = .029).

Demographic and clinical characteristics of participants across group.

M: mean; S.D.: standard deviation; n : partial sample size; N : total sample size; %: percentage of participants.

Themes and sub-themes

Responses were coded with an average of 1.97 ± 1.66 codes per question, and groups did not significantly differ in their response length (service dog group = 2.03+−1.59 codes per response, Waitlist group = 1.83 ± 1.83 codes per response, t (89)=0.524, p = .602). A total of 101 codes describing the expectations and experiences of living with a mobility or medical service dog were summarized into the two central categories of benefits and drawbacks. These central categories were further split into themes and sub-themes, described below. Table 2 provides the frequency and percentage for each theme and sub-theme for each group.

Number and percentages of participants in each group reporting themes and sub-themes.

Values represent the total number and percentage of participants in each group whose qualitative responses contained a code classified in each listed theme or sub-theme.

Benefits of having a service dog were mainly described in responses to the first two questions, “What is (do you think will be) the most helpful aspect of having a service dog” and “What does (do you think) the service dog (will) do that helps the most?” The Benefits category was split into two themes: (1) Physical Benefits and (2) Psychosocial Benefits.

Physical benefits

A total of 70% of participants with a service dog and 89% of those on the waitlist described physical benefits they’ve received or expect to receive from their service dog. Physical benefits of having a service dog were described in terms of two sub-themes: (1) Medical Assistance and (2) Physical Assistance . As the central role of the service dogs in the recruited sample was to provide mobility or medical assistance to the individual, this theme was prevalent across responses from both groups but was especially prominent among those on the waitlist.

Medical assistance.

The sub-theme of Medical Assistance included responses in which individuals described the service dog’s role in providing alert, response and recovery behaviours for medical events such as a seizure, low blood sugar or a fall. While medical benefits were the most commonly represented physical benefit described, only 31% of those with a service dog mentioned medical assistance in their responses compared to 67% of participants on the waitlist.

Of the codes included in Medical Assistance , 25% of all respondents described the service dogs’ abilities to aid with their seizures, reflecting the demographics of the sample. This included the service dog signalling or notifying the participant of an oncoming seizure (“she alerts to my seizures 30 min in advance so I can get somewhere to be safe”), responding to a seizure (“my service dog is the wet nose I get to wake up to after or during a seizure”) or helping the individual cope with their condition (“if I have a seizure, I know I will get through it with his help”).

Another common code in this sub-theme (mentioned by 19% of those on the waitlist and 11% of those with a service dog) was the service dog’s ability to get help in the event of a medical emergency. One individual on the waitlist described how she expects her service dog to “summon help if I fall or faint” while others noted how their service dog will retrieve help in the event of a seizure or hypoglycaemic episode. One participant described how “when [I’m] unable to, my service dog can get my meds, the phone and go get help.”

Physical assistance.

The sub-theme of Physical Assistance included responses in which individuals described the service dog’s role in providing assistance for balance, mobility and tasks involving movement and/or strength. Physical assistance was described in 50% of responses from those with a service dog and 44% of responses from the waitlist.

Within the Physical Assistance sub-theme, both those with a service dog and on the waitlist often described the service dog’s ability to help with dropped items. A total of 31% of participants with service dogs reported that the dog’s ability “to pick things up without having to ask others” was one of the most helpful behaviours. For those on the waitlist, 30% of participants similarly anticipated their future service dog to help with item retrieval (“[the service dog] could help me pick up my dropped pencil, book, toy, utensils, etc. so I wouldn’t be embarrassed to ask for help”).

Other behaviours in this sub-theme included help with performing tasks and providing a steady physical support for balance. For participants with neuromuscular or musculoskeletal disabilities, responses described how their service dogs have assisted with daily tasks that are difficult to perform such as opening doors or turning off and on lights. For individuals with problems with unsteadiness on their feet, service dogs provided a “4-legged cane for balance.” One participant on the waitlist described how she felt that “a cane makes a person feel and look older, not a pleasant feeling” and how she hoped her service dog would provide the stability and balance support that a cane can provide without the stigma.

Psychosocial benefits

Beyond the tangible medical and physical assistance that mobility and medical service dogs provide, both individuals on the waitlist and with a service dog often described the psychosocial benefits they expected or have experienced from being placed with a service dog. Almost all of those with a service dog (98%) described the psychosocial benefits they have received from their service dog. In contrast, only 74% of those on the waitlist anticipated psychosocial benefits from their future service dog, instead discussing the physical benefits they anticipated (see Physical Benefits section). The Psychosocial Benefits theme was grouped into four sub-themes: (1) The Human–Animal Relationship , (2) Emotional Benefits , (3) Quality of Life Benefits and (4) Social Benefits .

Human–animal relationship.

The Human–Animal Relationship was the most referenced sub-theme of Psychosocial Benefits , discussed by 80% of those with a service dog and 48% of those on the waitlist. This sub-theme described the powerful and unique relationship that was both experienced and expected from being paired with a service dog.

The most represented code in The Human–Animal Relationship theme described the service dog as being a companion or providing the qualities of companionship. The concept of companionship appeared in 44% of responses from participants with a service dog and a similar 41% of responses from those on the waitlist. In fact, when specifically asked what the most helpful aspect of having a service dog was (Q1), 36% of those with a service dog and 30% of those on the waitlist mentioned companionship in their answers. Another commonly discussed aspect of the service dog–handler relationship was the physical company that the service dog provides. One participant with a service dog described how “it’s an unnatural feeling when your safety sidekick isn’t attached to your hip. I can’t imagine any part of my life without her.” When describing this phenomenon, individuals described the dog’s actual presence (e.g., “When I feel isolated or cast out, [my service dog] could sit beside me”) and their conceptual presence (e.g., “My service dog is the gift of fur, my companion, my confidant…but most of all he is the one who is always there”). Others also described the physical affection received from the service dog’s presence (e.g., “kisses when you’re sad”, “snuggles” and “cuddles”).

The use of the words “friendship” and “bond” were exclusively mentioned by those living with a service dog. One participant with a service dog described how “we have more than a relationship, it’s a partnership with a powerful bonded friendship.” When asked to share anything else (Q4), one participant with a service dog noted how “my life would be difficult and lonely without my service dog, she is my best friend.”

A total of 19% of both individuals with a service dog and on the waitlist mentioned love in their responses. This included mentions of love for the service dog (e.g., “I love [my service dog] and don’t want to live without her”), love from the service dog (e.g., “[my service dog] just looks at me with complete and the most forgiving love”) or reciprocated love (“[my service dog] showers me with love and attention… I can only hope he feels the same from me”). One individual with a service dog also described the service dog as a family member, suggesting a powerful bond both between himself and the service dog, but also with the family.

Emotional benefits.

A commonly described psychosocial benefit was the service dog’s ability to provide emotional comfort and support, mentioned in 55% of responses among those with a service dog and 37% among those on the waitlist. One individual described how their service dog “helps probably more emotionally than physically”, while an individual on the waitlist argued that “more important than the physical help a service dog can apply may be the psychological benefits…people with any kind of ‘handicap’ need psychological acceptance and companionship.” Other accounts describe the dog being in tune with the participant’s emotions or feelings (e.g., “my service dog can sense my feelings” or “She knows when I’m angry or upset and she does everything she can to calm me down”). A particular emotional aspect of having a service dog that seemed to be unanticipated from those on the waitlist was the dog’s ability to assist with anxiety management, which was mentioned by 16% of those with a service dog but only 4% of those on the waitlist.

Other codes included in Emotional Benefits included the service dog instilling a sense of confidence and motivation in the hander. Both individuals on the waitlist and with a service dog described the expected or experienced increases in confidence from being placed with a service dog (e.g., “Having a disability makes you feel vulnerable. Your confidence is gone. Service dogs give you the comfort you need”). Participants also reported how a service dog can decrease loneliness (e.g., “My life would be difficult and lonely without my service dog”) and increase feelings of joy and happiness (e.g., “[My service dog] is my joy when I am down”, “[My service dog] makes everyone around me happy”).

As many service dogs assisted with medical response or alert, another commonly represented code in responses both on the waitlist and among those with a service dog was the “peace of mind” brought by a service dog’s presence. Specifically, the feeling of security that a service dog can instil was mentioned by 14% of those with a service dog and 15% of those on the waitlist. For example, an individual with a service dog described how “you always know that there is someone having your back” while an individual on the waitlist described how she hoped her service dog would “give me a sense of security, self-confidence, knowing that I have the added protection.”

Quality of life benefits.

Quality of Life Benefits were discussed by 45% of participants with a service dog and 33% of participants on the waitlist. This sub-theme included codes describing how having a service dog can bring about positive feelings of responsibility, including adding a routine to the day. Codes in this sub-theme also described the freedom and independence provided by having a service dog. One individual with a service dog stated: “I would not have the freedom I have if I did not have my service dog to help watch over me.” Another shared how her service dog gave her “freedom to do things without my mom being there.” One participant on the waitlist described how “a service dog allows you to live a more independent life,” while another hoped that after getting a service dog “maybe I will be able to get out more.”

This Quality of Life sub-theme was also often represented in answers to “Is there anything else you would like to share to advance the science and understanding of service dogs for individuals with disabilities and their families?” in which participants described the service dog being “life-changing.” For example, one individual with a service dog stated “I can’t imagine having my disability and not having my [service dog]. For me, he has given me a new lease on life instead of me being stuck at home.”

Others with a service dog also described the impact that their service dog had on their family (e.g., “[my service dog] has not only changed my life but the lives of my children”). Service dogs were also described to decrease family members’ stress and worry (e.g., “[my service dog] keeps my family from worrying about me”). One individual with a service dog noted that as a result of his service dog’s seizure alert behaviours, “my family hovers less which is nice” while an individual on the waitlist described how he hoped his service dog would provide “relief for family.” One participant with a service dog even noted how “since having [my service dog] my husband’s blood pressure stays more even.”

Social benefits.

Social Benefits involved the service dog’s effects on social interactions, relationships or the public’s perception. Social benefits were referenced by 30% of those with a service dog, but only 11% of those on the waitlist. The most represented codes in this sub-theme described positive experiences with community integration, communication with friends or strangers, and positive attention from the public.

Many individuals with a service dog described how their dog positively contributed to their ability to make friends and be social (e.g., “He’s made me more social. He’s made me more relaxed about talking to other people”). In addition, many responses described how the service dog can positively impact conversations. Several individuals described how service dogs can be “a topic of conversation with anyone” and that “[A service dog] helps because people that are able bodied don’t understand the disabled person. The service dog gives a point of common approach.” Another individual described how their service dog made them feel “more ‘normal’ and approachable in public.”

Another social benefit experienced by those with a service dog involved the public’s perception of them with a service dog. One individual with a neuromuscular disability noted how their service dog “makes the wheelchair disappear” and allows people to see past the disability. Another individual with a service dog noted how “prior to having [my service dog] they saw the chair first and now they see the dog first.” Other social benefits were specific to the service dog’s ability to draw positive attention in public. The service dog provider for which participants were recruited omits the traditional “Do Not Pet” patch in place of a “Please Pet Me” patch on their service dog’s vests. Thus, recipients noted how “since people are allowed to pet [the service dog], it helps people approach me and talk to me.”

When asked the question “What are (do you think will be) the drawbacks of having a service dog?” (Q3) most individuals both on the waitlist and with a service dog either anticipated or experienced drawbacks. However, 30% of those living with a service dog and 37% on the waitlist responded stating that no drawbacks were expected or experienced. For example, one individual with service dog stated “None. There aren’t any. You couldn’t ask for a better companion to be with you all day long. Nothing better.” In addition, two individuals living with a service dog explicitly stated the drawbacks were outweighed by the benefits in their answer (e.g., “All of the drawbacks are minor compared to the advantages – it is totally worth it”).

Among individuals who did report drawbacks, four sub-themes from responses emerged: (1) Dog Care , (2) Public Education & Access , (3) Life Adjustments and (4) Dog Behaviour .

Dog care drawbacks

The sub-theme of Service Dog Care included responses in which individuals described having to provide for either the general or specific needs of the service dog. Care and responsibility for the service dog was the most commonly discussed drawback, mentioned by 44% of participants with a service dog and 37% of participants on the waitlist.

The codes in this sub-theme largely echoed the needs of caring for any pet dog (“like any dog, [my service dog] needs care and sometimes, I’d rather not.”) For example, many individuals discussed how the dog needs walking (e.g., “It’s sometimes hard to get the energy to take my service dog on walk”), feeding (e.g., “Making sure [the service dog] is fed”) and taking to the bathroom (e.g., “Having to maintain a regular bathroom routine [for the service dog] while at school”). Others mentioned veterinary care and financial expenses of having a service dog (“I can’t think of any big drawbacks. But maybe the financial aspect”). One drawback noted that was specific to those with limited mobility was the inability to clean up after a service dog when they go to the bathroom in public (“Being in a wheelchair it is hard to clean up so [the service dog’s waste] becomes someone else’s problem”).

One particular breed-specific drawback was the dog’s shedding, mentioned by 9% of individuals with a service dog but no individuals on the waitlist. As one participant with a service dog described: “The shedding factor of a Lab is incredible! [My service dog] sheds no matter what I do to groom him, too. A lot of people I visit don’t appreciate me bringing him for that reason.”

Public access and education drawbacks

Concerns surrounding both public access and public education were prevalent; this sub-theme was mentioned by 44% of those with a service dog, but only 22% of those on the waitlist. In particular, negative attention from people in public was described by 20% of participants with a service dog, but no participants on the waitlist. This included mentions of other people’s unwanted behaviour or judgment as a result of the service dog’s presence (e.g., “by having my [service dog], people think that I am mentally challenged”; “In the beginning I did not want a service dog because epilepsy is an invisible disease. Having a service dog now made it visible”). Others described how having a service dog can result in unwanted attention from others (e.g., “[A drawback is] getting stopped by so many people. It’s enjoyable at times but when I am rushed I don’t want to be rude but I cut people off”; “Sometimes people will stare”). One individual living with a service dog described how the biggest drawback was being looked over in favour of the service dog (“Lots of people know me, mostly as the guy with the service dog, but I don’t know them at all or barely”).

Drawbacks regarding public access were discussed by both those with a service dog (16%) and those on the waitlist (15%). An individual on the waitlist said that he expects a drawback will be that his/her service dog “may not be allowed some places” while another anticipated the drawback of “people saying [my service dog and I] cannot go in their stores.” Only a couple of individuals both with a service dog (3%) and on the waitlist (7%) described the drawbacks of having a service dog in the context of impacting other people. Specifically, one individual on the waitlist was concerned that “some people are allergic to dogs,” while an individual with a service dog noted “there are people in my life that are allergic and that’s an issue… I wish [my service dog] was a breed that was hypoallergenic to most people.”

While not mentioned by any waitlist participants, 11% of those with a service dog mentioned the lack of public education about service dogs as a drawback. This included the public’s behaviour in the presence of a service dog (e.g., insisting they need to visit with the dog, stopping the individual to pet the dog; “trying to distract your dog from their job”) and the public’s lack of education about service dogs (e.g., “a lot of people do not know that service dogs are for people other than blind and deaf. People are not respectful of them because of that.” Concerns regarding “fake” service dogs were also only mentioned by participants with a service dog. Specifically, two participants described their negative experiences as a result of other’s abuse of public access (e.g., “Fake service dogs cause all sorts of problems where sometimes we are denied entry due to a fake’s bad behavior”; “When an untrained dog goes into a public place they ruin it for people who do have a disability and do need their dog with them. You now find yourself being even more discriminated against and turned away because of others”).

Lifestyle adjustment drawbacks

The sub-theme of Lifestyle Adjustments included both the experienced or expected adjustments necessary in order to incorporate a service dog into aspects of one’s life. This sub-theme was mentioned by 19% of participants with a service dog, and 26% of participants on the waitlist.

While establishing a close relationship with a service dog was often mentioned as a benefit (see Human–Animal Relationship ), the adjustment of having a service dog as a close relationship was also framed as a drawback. For example, separation from the service dog was a concern for 5% of participants living with a service dog who framed this as being a drawback (e.g., “On the rare occasion that [she] is not with me I feel like I am driving a car without wearing a seatbelt”). In addition, one participant with a service dog stated that “the only drawback would be having to take the dog everywhere with me.” Both individuals on the waitlist (11%) and with a service dog (8%) also mentioned the drawback of having to incorporate the needs of the service dog into their regular daily routine (e.g., “You always have to plan out your days exactly”) or maintaining commitment to taking care of the dog (e.g., “Service dogs can be a lot of trouble if you are not fully committed to their love and care”). The topic of death was only minimally mentioned; only one participant, who was on the waitlist, mentioned the fear of the service dog’s future death as a drawback.

Another aspect of lifestyle adjustment from having a service dog involved the needs of the service dog changing the logistical experience of leaving home. This involved the more difficult aspects of traveling with the service dog (e.g., “Getting in and out of our car so much could possibly be a hassle”; “[it] takes time, extra care, and special considerations of having to handle [service dogs] when traveling”) as well as the restraints that a service dog imposes on the ability to travel freely (e.g., “[The biggest drawback is] vacations because we can’t take [the service dog] everywhere we go; “There are some places it just doesn’t make sense to go if you have a dog with you”).

In addition to routine and travel, other lifestyle adjustments mentioned involved aspects of home life. Concerns about other pets in the home were mentioned solely by individuals on the waitlist, which may have been because individuals on the waitlist were more likely to have a pet dog in the home than those with a service dog. One participant on the waitlist described an anticipated drawback as “three dogs might be a little much” while another stated that “my pet dog (rescue dog) is still very nervous… worried that another dog will upset her.” In addition to concerns about existing pets, one individual on the waitlist described adjustments to her home and yard as an anticipated drawback (“having enough land for [the service dog] to run… [needing] excellent fencing to protect dog from road, cars, etc.”).

Dog behaviour drawbacks

The Service Dog Behaviour sub-theme addressed the drawbacks of the service dog’s behaviour both in public and in private. Concerns regarding the service dog’s behaviour were the least common drawbacks reported by the sample, described by 23% of those with a service dog but anticipated by only 7% of those on the waitlist.

Unwanted service dog behaviours included hyperactivity (e.g., “Sometimes [my service dog] jumps on other people and gets a little hyper”; “When people come over … [my service dog] can get a little hyper and takes her a couple minutes to settle down”), or other difficult traits (e.g., “Sometimes [my service dog] is stubborn”). Others with a service dog described their dog’s social needs as a drawback (e.g., “[My service dog] often is paying attention to others instead of me”; “[My service dog] has to be petted all day every day”). In addition, several individuals both on the waitlist and with a service dog noted the need for or the experience of training the service dog as a drawback (e.g., “Training continues. It is a constant work in progress”; “Just because it is already trained, doesn’t mean it is trained to your lifestyle”).

Other concerns

Several other concerns regarding service dogs that were not specifically benefits or drawbacks were described in the final question, “Is there anything else you would like to share to advance the science and understanding of service dogs for individuals with disabilities and their families?” (Q4). A total of 3% of participants with a service dog and 15% of participants on the waitlist described a general need for service dogs in their responses (e.g., “The most pressing matter is the amount of kids that need service dogs don’t get them”). Those on the waitlist specifically expressed concerns regarding acquiring a service dog (e.g., “[The] only problem with … service dogs is getting one because the process is difficult”). Three individuals with a service dog also recommended service dogs to others (e.g., “I would recommend a service dog for anyone with a significant disability”), or provided advice for future service dog owners. This included specific advice (e.g., “Don’t give up on your service dog, just give them some time”) as well as acknowledging that all service dog owners are paving the way for future owners (e.g., “Educate, not confront [people in the community] … This will prepare the way for future service dog owners”).

This study assessed the expectations and experiences of being placed with a mobility or medical service dog in a diverse sample of individuals with physical disabilities and chronic conditions. By comparing anticipated experiences (from those on the waitlist to receive a service dog) to actual experiences (from those currently placed with a service dog), a content analysis produced two themes categorizing both Benefits and Drawbacks of being placed with a mobility or medical service dog. A comparison of response frequency across group revealed several aspects of owning a service dog that were perceived by both groups as well as aspects which were relatively unanticipated by those on the waitlist. In addition, the study’s findings provide an in-depth exploration of benefits and drawbacks to the service dog relationship in the own words of service dog owners, providing a rich description of expectations and experiences to complement both the design and interpretation of quantitative research in the field.

Findings from this research are novel, as they represent one of the first explorations of the differences in expectations versus experiences among service dog applicants and recipients using a content analysis approach. Notable group differences were observed regarding the perceived benefits of owning a service dog. Specifically, when asked about the most helpful aspect of having a service dog, the majority (89%) of those on the waitlist anticipated benefits that were physical (compared to 70% living with a service dog), while nearly all (98%) of those with a service dog described benefits that were psychosocial (compared to 74% on the waitlist). These differences suggest that service dog applicants most often expect physical benefits to be the most helpful part of having a service dog, while those already paired with a service dog focus on the psychosocial benefits. It is not surprising that waitlist applicants expect a high proportion of physical assistance benefits, given that the anticipated physical, functional and medical benefits constitute the purpose of seeking out a mobility or medical service dog. However, our findings suggest that the experienced value of a service dog extends beyond traditional physical assistance to domains that may be unexpected by many service dog applicants and especially meaningful to those already partnered with a service dog.

The most widely represented psychosocial benefit was the human–animal relationship, discussed by 80% of those with a service dog and 48% of the waitlist. While companionship from the service dog was the most highly represented code among both groups, those with a service dog described their relationships with their dogs using the words “friendship” and “love” which reflected the perceived strength of this unique bond. This mirrors findings from several studies that have found the service dog’s companionship to be a central characteristic underlying the perceived benefits from the service dog–owner relationship [ 9 , 10 , 25 , 28 ]. This study expands upon previous knowledge by revealing that the strength and magnitude of the human–animal relationship may not be a specific benefit expected by those on the waitlist to receive a service dog.

The second most discussed psychosocial benefits were emotional benefits, including feelings of confidence, security and joy. Emotional benefits were discussed by 55% of those with a service dog and 37% of the waitlist. The high prevalence of emotional benefits in this study support findings from previous research indicating that the addition of a service dog into one’s life can increase feelings of self-worth and safety while contributing to higher positive affect [ 6 ]. For example, a survey of 24 individuals with a mobility or hearing service dog found that 92% of participants indicated they felt safer since obtaining their service dog, 70% reported having higher confidence and 70% felt less depressed and had better control of their anxiety [ 8 ]. Further, retrospective studies among individuals with diabetic alert service dogs or seizure response service dogs also suggested owners experienced decreased worry, improvements in mood, and decreased feelings of anxiety [ 29 , 30 ]. Thus, findings from both the current study and previous research indicate that service dogs may provide significant emotional support to improve self-worth, perceived safety and positive affect among those with disabilities or chronic conditions.

Improvements to quality of life were an additional psychosocial benefit both experienced (45%) and expected (33%). Quality of life benefits included the service dog’s ability to provide increased freedom, independence, and improvements to overall daily functioning. Several studies have described the use of mobility service dogs as a unique assistive technology option to improve functional ability and participation among those with physical limitations. A longitudinal study of 24 long-term manual wheelchair users found that the addition of a mobility service dog was not only associated with decreased pain and exertion, but also was associated with increased reintegration into normal life, increased ability to navigate their environment, and increased occupational performance [ 4 ]. Additionally, studies of medical service dogs suggest the service dog’s alert or response behaviours can provide feelings of freedom, safety and independence, especially in public or when unaccompanied by a caregiver [ 30 ]. These improvements to quality of life likely co-occur with the emotional and psychological benefits of improved mood, increased confidence, and higher overall satisfaction with life.

Finally, the last category of psychosocial benefits included those that occur in a social context, described by 30% of service dog owners but only 11% of applicants on the waitlist. Many participants with a service dog specifically cited the benefit of receiving positive attention from people in public, a phenomenon replicated in other published studies. For example, an observational study found that an individual in a wheelchair with a service dog was smiled at and approached more by strangers when they were with a service dog compared to when they were alone [ 12 ]. Further, studies have found that the presence of a service dog can produce a more positive implicit attitude bias towards individuals with physical disabilities [ 31 ]. Similarly, a retrospective study of 202 individuals with physical disabilities with service dogs found that 100% of respondents reported that more people approached them in public while 87% reported their social interactions increased [ 10 ]. Our study builds on these results by suggesting that among those anticipating a future service dog, these social benefits may be unexpected or relatively insignificant in comparison to the anticipated emotional benefits, quality of life benefits, and the human–animal relationship. This finding is similar to that of a 1996 study in which 77% of current hearing dog owners said that their dog had made a difference in social interactions within the community while only 29% of those on the waitlist anticipated this benefit.

In addition to the benefits expected or experienced, both those with and without a service dog described a range of drawbacks to having a mobility or medical service dog. However, when asked to report on experienced drawbacks, 30% of participants with a service dog stated that there were no drawbacks to having a service dog. This finding mirrors that of other service dog studies. Specifically, Rintala et al. found that 39% (7/18) of participants with a mobility service dog did not have drawbacks to report [ 11 ] while Camp indicated that drawbacks were not often discussed by participants, but rather difficulties were framed as “responsibilities” or “challenges” [ 25 ]. When asked to report on anticipated drawbacks, 37% of participants on the waitlist similarly reported that they did not expect any drawbacks from their future service dog. This finding suggests that a majority of those on the waitlist do in fact perceive future drawbacks of having a service dog, revealing realistic expectations.

The most common drawback discussed by participants both with a service dog (44%) and without (37%) involved responsibilities surrounding the dog’s care and maintenance. In particular, responses described responsibilities surrounding routine pet-care tasks as well as the impacts of shedding and grooming on owner’s lives. Of the studies that have examined drawbacks of service dog ownership, most have also described the difficulties surrounding dog maintenance [ 10 , 11 , 25 ]. Davis et al. found that caregivers of children with a service dog reported spending 6.2 h a week and an average of $1307 a year caring for the service dog, with 29% and 24% considering this time and cost burdensome, respectively [ 24 ]. In a study of Japanese individuals with physical, hearing or visual impairments who had chosen not to pursue a service dog as a form of assistive technology in their lives, 50% of participants with orthopaedic disabilities cited “They are hard to care for” as a reason for not obtaining one [ 32 ]. While maintaining a service dog’s eating, walking and bathroom schedule may be trivial to healthy adults, for those with impairments these added responsibilities may represent a substantial challenge.

The second most commonly discussed drawback was difficulties with public access and education, experienced by 44% of those with a service dog and 22% of individuals on the waitlist. Many individuals with a service dog specifically described difficulty with experiencing discrimination due to being with a service dog in public as well as a lack of public education on service dog etiquette and access. This mirrors findings from other studies in which a large proportion of service dog owners have described the frustration and difficulties experienced by public access and discrimination [ 10 , 24 ]. In fact, a survey of 482 service dog owners in the United States found that 68% of participants reported experiencing daily discrimination because of their service dog, which was especially prominent for those with “invisible” disabilities [ 33 ]. Further, 42% of participants reported that they often received “invasive personal questioning” while accompanied by the service dog, 50% reported choosing not to take their service dogs in public because of unwanted attention, and 77% reported that the legitimacy of their service dog was sometimes questioned [ 33 ]. While having a service dog in public may result in a variety of social benefits for service dog owners, it seems that the service dog’s presence may also contribute to negative experiences in the community. Further, as those on the waitlist rarely mentioned drawbacks in this category, issues with public access and education may be a relatively unexpected aspect of having a service dog.

In addition to the service dog’s care and issues with discrimination in public, there were several lifestyle adjustments framed as a drawback by 19% of those with a service dog and anticipated by 26% of those on the waitlist. These adjustments included changes to routines, traveling or separation limitations, and home adjustments. Camp also found most of the 10 participants with a service dog interviewed described the patience and frustration involved in the initial “adjustment period” of incorporating the service dog into their routine and life [ 25 ].

Limitations

This study is not without its limitations. As this was a cross-sectional study, we were unable to determine the extent to which benefits and drawbacks of having a service dog may potentially change with time. Future research will benefit from pursuing longitudinal designs to understand the trajectory of experiences with a service dog. Another limitation to the interpretation of findings was a potential selection bias in participants. As this was a voluntary study, there is a possibility that those who had relatively positive experiences with their service dog were more likely to participate in the study and share their experiences than others. A final population limitation was that pet dog ownership was unequal across groups, with the waitlist significantly more likely to have a pet dog in the home than those with a service dog. However, this difference was accounted for in a separate analysis of quantitative findings from this study on standardized surveys, and the effect on psychosocial outcomes was negligible [ 16 ].

The use of an open-ended format questionnaire to gather qualitative data had both positive and negative aspects. The benefit of this design was that this gave participants an opportunity to describe their thoughts in their own words, allowing us to describe responses using participant-reported themes rather than predetermined themes (as would be the case with a checklist or ranking of benefits and drawbacks). However, we were unable to determine the relative weighting of benefits and drawbacks within and across individuals. Even though we did frame questions using rank-promoting language (i.e., “What is the most helpful aspect of having a service dog?”) it is possible that certain benefits may be more or less meaningful to quality of life than others. Additionally, we were unable to understand the relative severity of the drawbacks and how they potentially impact wellbeing. Specifically, because we could not probe participants for a deeper discussion, it is unclear if a stated drawback is viewed as simply a nuisance or has negatively impacted a service dog recipient’s psychosocial health or quality of life. Future research would benefit from semi-structured or more in-depth interviews to allow for that kind of understanding.

An important consideration of this research is that we omitted caregiver/parent-proxy reported data to solely capture the views of service dog applicants and recipients themselves. This limited the sample to those who were older than 13 and possessed the capacity to report on their own behalf, which excluded those who were nonverbal or intellectually impaired. Future research will benefit from including this important population of service dog owners, who may have unique experiences or face different challenges than those who are more independent. For instance, future studies may focus on the benefits and drawbacks of having a service dog from the perspective of children who bring their dogs to school with them or from the perspective of a caregiver for a nonverbal adult child.

A final limitation of the study is that we cannot determine whether the same pattern of expectations and experiences would be generalizable to other types of service dogs (guide, hearing or psychiatric) and their owners. In this context, it would be beneficial to know if there are certain aspects of service dog ownership that are commonly experienced by all owners (e.g., the human–animal relationship) or if there are aspects that may be particularly salient to one type of service dog owner (e.g., those with an “invisible” disability or those who are severely socially isolated). As the study population in this research was limited to those with seizure disorders, mobility limitations or diabetes, some of the emergent themes in the qualitative analysis (e.g., medical assistance) are likely a product of our sample and limited to a certain type of service dog. However, some themes (e.g., emotional benefits) may be generalizable to other types of service dogs, emotional support dogs or companion dogs in general. In addition, the sampled population of service dog owners were recruited from a single service dog provider, so findings may reflect characteristics specific to the provider. For example, the service dog provider Canine Assistants focuses heavily on the human–animal bond during the service dog–owner matching and training process, which may have had an impact on the relative frequency of the perceived human–animal relationship benefits.

Implications and future directions

This study’s findings have important implications for occupational therapists and rehabilitation professionals. Understanding the positive and negative lifestyle changes experienced by those with a service dog, professionals recommending this practice can gain a better understanding of both the benefits and challenges that clients may expect and experience. As this study directly compared the expectations of those on the waitlist to the real-life experiences of those with a service dog, findings also provide professionals with information regarding effects of the service dog–owner relationship that may be unanticipated. This may help prepare individuals who are planning to apply for a service dog realize the future challenges and changes to their lives that may occur, thereby potentially facilitating the initial adjustment period.

This research highlights the need to include and measure both the positive and negative aspects of service dog ownership into future studies. Specifically, quantitative studies investigating the potential effects of service dog ownership on psychosocial health and quality of life will benefit from incorporating standardized measures of both the human–animal relationship as well as drawbacks into future research. An example of a standardized measure that captures both the human–animal relationship as well as the daily maintenance and responsibility of caring for the dog is the Monash Dog–Owner Relationship Scale [ 34 ]. For caregivers of those with severe impairment who may be responsible for both the handler and the service dog’s health and wellbeing, it may be useful to adapt a caregiver burden scale for measuring the responsibilities surrounding the service dog’s care into their routines. Finally, as public discrimination was commonly reported both among our sample and others [e.g., 33] service dog-related discrimination is likely to be of particular importance to consider when measuring psychosocial wellbeing and social functioning in this population.

Conclusions

In conclusion, this study compared the expectations and experiences of both future and current mobility and medical service dog owners to describe the benefits and drawbacks to service dog ownership. Results suggest that in combination with the medical and physical benefits the service dog is trained to provide, those with a service dog experience substantial psychosocial benefits from their service dog’s assistance and companionship to a degree that may be unanticipated by future service dog owners. The study’s findings provide evidence to suggest that the social, emotional, and quality of life benefits from a service dog’s assistance and companionship are an important aspect of the service dog–owner relationship. Further, the drawbacks of having a service dog, specifically those that involve the service dog’s behaviour and public access and education, are important considerations to prepare those anticipating the addition of a service dog in their lives.

IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION

• When asked about helpful and important aspects of having a service dog, 98% of service dog owners described the psychosocial benefits of their dog’s assistance and companionship.
• The human–animal relationship was the most discussed psychosocial benefit from both current owners as well as those on the waitlist, demonstrating the unique strength of the service dog–owner bond in this population.
• Those on the waitlist to receive a service dog did not anticipate as many drawbacks as current owners described. In particular, difficulties with public access and education as well as dog behaviour were commonly experienced, but not expected, drawbacks to service dog ownership.
• Findings identify aspects of having a service dog that may be unanticipated or overestimated by those on the waitlist, providing rehabilitation professionals with a basis for preparing those who may be considering incorporating a service dog into their lives.

This research was supported by a grant from Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly and Company. This publication was made possible with partial support from Grant # KL2TR001106 and UL1TR001108 (A. Shekhar, PI) from the National Institutes of Health, National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, Clinical and Translational Sciences Award. We would also like to thank our collaborators at Canine Assistants for their assistance and support.

Disclosure statement

The authors report no declarations of interest.

Everything You Need to Know About Service and Assistance Dogs

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You have probably heard the terms service dog and assistance dog before, but do you know what these terms truly mean? Generally speaking, a service dog or assistance dog is a working dog specially trained to help a person or group of people with a disability or specific needs. However, there is a bit more to the definition of a service dog, especially in the eyes of the law. A service dog is a type of working dog but is very different from other working dogs like police dogs, cadaver dogs , and search-and-rescue dogs. 

How Does the Law Define a Service Dog?

According to the Americans with Disabilities Act , "service animals are defined as dogs that are individually trained to do work or perform tasks for people with disabilities." The dog must not be a pet, but be specially trained to assist the handler with something directly related to his or her disability. Neither emotional support dogs nor therapy dogs are considered service animals in the eyes of the law.

The ADA also notes that their definition of a service dog "does not affect or limit the broader definition of 'assistance animal' under the Fair Housing Act or the broader definition of 'service animal' under the Air Carrier Access Act."

Under the ADA, service dogs cannot be denied entrance to businesses, even food service establishments, state and local government facilities or nonprofit organizations that serve the public. However, service dogs must be under control at all times. This generally means they should be leashed or harnessed—unless these get in the way of the dog's duties, in which case the dog must still be under the handler's control. 

The ADA mandates that a disabled person cannot be asked questions about his or her disability. The staff of businesses can only ask two questions to the handler of a service dog:

• Is the dog indeed a service animal and required to assist with a disability?
• What specific task(s) has the dog been trained to do in service to the handler? 

Handlers of service dogs cannot be charged more money because of their dogs, nor can they be denied the rights and access granted to those without service animals. Disabled persons with service dogs can only be asked to leave the premises if the dog is out of control and it cannot be corrected by the handler, or if the dog is not house trained .

Types of Service Dogs

There are many types of service dogs , and some even serve multiple purposes. Potential service dogs go through rigorous training programs before they can team up with a handler. Here are just a few types of service dogs:

• Guide dogs for the blind
• Hearing dogs for deaf or hearing impaired persons
• Mobility assistance dogs for wheelchair-bound persons or those with mobility limitations  
• Seizure response dogs  to protect and help persons with seizure disorders when a seizure occurs
• Diabetes assistance dogs to detect blood sugar highs and lows by scent
• Mental health service dogs or psychiatric service dogs are task-trained to assist those with PTSD, panic disorders, anxiety disorders, major depression, autism spectrum disorders and much more.

How to Spot a Service Dog

Most of the time, service dogs can be easily identified. Many wear special vests and/or harnesses and pay close attention to their handlers. However, special identification is not actually required. Never assume that a dog is or is not a service animal. Always be sure to ask before petting a dog—even if the dog is a pet, this is essential to prevent bites . Service dogs should not be petted, fed, or otherwise given attention while at work. Please be respectful and allow these dogs to do their jobs. They make a major difference in the lives of disabled persons.

There are no specific rules about what a service dog should or should not wear. They do not need to be identified with special harnesses or vests.

Requirements for Getting a Service Dog

Have you ever seen a service dog with its handler and wished you could take your dog everywhere with you too? You're not alone. However, wanting this and needing this are two different things. Too many people are trying to pass their dogs off as service animals, and they are ruining it for the people who truly need service animals.

People with service dogs rely upon their dogs to let them live their lives more as the average person can do without a dog. The ADA rules are intended to ensure that no disabled person is interrogated or made to feel inferior. This is an important rule. However, it also makes it easy for selfish people to take advantage of the law and try to pass off their pet dogs as real service animals. Most states have no laws against this, and even if they did, it would be difficult to prove you are not faking. However, the simple truth is this: it is unethical and immoral to pretend your dog is a true service dog.

In most cases, service dogs are trained from puppyhood by specialized programs. However, there are exceptions where people have been surprised to find that the loyal family dog has a natural talent, such as the ability to detect low blood sugar and wake up a sleeping diabetic and save a life. Even then, the dog should be trained to clearly alert their handler to low blood sugar. Then, the dog will have to be trained to behave properly in public so that the pet can be called a legitimate service dog.

The Problem With Service Dog Impersonators

Putting a vest on your pet dog does not make them a service animal. There are plenty of online service dog registries that will gladly take your money and issue a certificate. That does not make your dog a true service animal. If you do not have a disability but try to make your pet dog into a so-called service dog to get them on a plane with you, into a restaurant, or into some other public place, you will only add to the mistrust business owners sometimes have towards service animals.

Unfortunately, many phony service dogs behave poorly in public, most likely because they have not gone through rigorous training programs. Fake service dogs may cause damage to property, harass other customers, or create general chaos. This unruly behavior could potentially harm the business, making proprietors suspicious of future service dogs. It also makes legitimate service dogs and their handlers look bad.

Even if your dog is well-behaved, passing off your dog as a service animal is just plain wrong. Doing so is only going to make it more difficult for truly disabled persons to have the service dogs that they honestly need.

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Essay on Service Dogs

Do you know of someone who uses or has a service dog? Have you or someone else recognized how much support that a service dog provides someone? Service dogs are valuable partners and companions to over eighty million Americans who have a disability (AKC Staff). Service dogs have many types of abilities and are able to perform a variety of different tasks. There are many benefits to having a service dog if you have a disability. A service dog can help disabled individuals do the tasks in everyday normal life that they would not have been able to complete without the help. Assistance dogs have to train for up to two and a half years to learn all of the jobs and tasks that they would need to perform. Assistance dogs learn all of the commands in order to do their specific job or task (Schuh). There are no restrictions on the size of a service dog as long as they can perform the job that they were trained to do. Service dogs have a huge impact on those in need, including those who are visually, physically, emotionally and hearing impaired.

Guide dogs are dogs that are trained to lead blind and visually impaired people. This type of service dog can navigate around certain obstacles, help their owners get around more easily, and help them quickly get to the place they need to be. Visually impaired people have been using guide dogs for hundreds of years. The first guide dog school was started in Europe after World War I in 1918. This school was used to train dogs to help the soldiers that had become blinded or visually impaired in the war. The first guide dog school in the United States opened in 1927, this school was called The Seeing Eye (McDaniel).

Guide dogs are allowed in any public place with their owner as long as their behavior is good and they do not cause any type of harm to any other visitors of a public place. A common misconception about guide dogs is that they show their owner where to go, actually the owner who is visually impaired or blind shows the dog where to go and the guide dog helps their owner by leading the way. Getting a guide dog requires a high life of maturity and discipline. Guide dogs mainly work with older teens and adults because of this (Dog Guide). Guide dogs can be related to psychiatric service dogs as they help their owners get around easier and quicker.

Physical impairment is when a disability that limits a person’s ability to move or to get around. Physical impairment may include people who have cerebral palsy, a spinal cord injury, amputation, multiple sclerosis, back injuries, arthritis, or any other injury that affects the person's ability to walk or move (Canine Partners).

Physically impaired people can have a service dog  that can help in many different ways. They can provide support or stability, retrieving objects such as a phone, hitting an elevator button or a open door button and or close door button, and  retrieving dropped items. Being physically imapired prevents a physically impaired person from doing your day to day tasks, with a service dog these tasks can be achieved faster and easier (Canine Partners). As physical and emotional impairment are two different impairments, service dogs can provide comfort to both and assist their humans in many different ways.

An emotional impairment is defined as the inability to learn to build a relationship with peers, to have challenges that cannot be explained, to be depressed or have an overall attitude of unhappiness, or to have an inappropriate behavior against self or others. The type of disorders that may fall under emotional impairment include anxiety, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, conduct disorder, etc (Kimberly).

Emotionally support dogs require no specialized training but they have no public access like other service dogs may have. Emotional support dogs can be any breed of dog ranging from very small to very large (Kea). Emotional support dogs provide therapeutic benefits to those with an emotional impairment. Emotional support dogs must be prescribed by a licensed mental health professional, unlike other support animals (Kimberly). Other service dogs than emotional support dogs require training and don’t require a license by a mental health professional.

Service Dogs for the Hearing

Service dogs for the hearing impaired serve as their owners ears and provide the benefit of companionship. Certain sounds a service dog for hearing can alert the owner of includes a door knock, a smoke alarm, an alarm clock, tea kettle, a cell phone ringing, keys dropping, approaching traffic, and other general sounds (Dog Guide). Service dogs that are used for the hearing impaired are very sensitive to the slightest of sounds because they are always alert. The noises that these service dogs experience alert the dog of what is going on and what type of environment that they could be in.

With these different sounds, the service dog can alert their owner of things going on around them or if something dangerous is approaching that the owner may be unaware of (Dog Guide). Service dogs for the hearing impaired communicate with their death or loss of hearing owners by making physical contact with them. Smaller service dogs may jump up on or walk near their owner when there is something to alert their owner of, while larger dogs may seek out their owners hand with their nose to make contact with their owner (Canine Partners). Most of us have come in contact with a service dog at some point in our lives and we don’t only see how well behaved a controlled the dog is, but we see how much that service dog supports their owner.

In conclusion, service dogs have a huge impact on those in need, including those who are visually, physically, emotionally and hearing impaired. The use of service dogs has become more popular in the United States as the human-animal bond continues to strengthen and grow (What is). Assistance dogs can help address the certain needs of different people with different disabilities. Awareness of service dogs should be shown for those who are seeking assistance and help in their daily lives. People who could generally use the help of a service dog don’t realize the support and the capabilities of a service dog. Service dogs can help many different things, as there are many different types of service dogs. 

The most common type of service dogs are guide dogs, hearing dogs, psychiatric service dogs, and emotional support dogs.  All of these different types of service dogs can improve the life of their owner tremendously. Guide dogs help their owners get around easier and faster, hearing dogs are the ears for their owners and allow their owner to be alerted of any danger or things that may be approaching, psychiatric service dogs allow for their owners to get around easier and help them with things such as opening doors and picking up dropped items, and lastly emotional support dogs help provide support their owner and give their owners emotional comfort. Many of us have owned a dog and they are like your best friend or child almost. Dogs deserve the best as they provide so much support to those who need it and show that through their behavior and how they help us humans.

Works Cited

AKC Staff. Service Dog Training 101—Everything You Need to Know. www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/service-dog-training-101/.

Alt, Kimberly. "Service Dog vs Therapy Dog vs Emotional Support Dogs." Canine Journal, www.caninejournal.com/service-dog-vs-therapy-dog-vs-emotional-support-dogs/.

"Canine Partners for Life." Mobility Assistance Dogs, /k94life.org/mobility-assistance-dogs/.

Dog Guide for People with Vision Loss. /www.visionaware.org/info/everyday-living/essential-skills/an-introduction-to-orientation-and-mobility-skills/dog-guides-for-people-with-vision-loss/1234.

Grace, Kea. The Difference Between Service Dogs, Therapy Dogs, Emotional Support Animals and More. 

www.anythingpawsable.com/the-difference-between-service-dogs-therapy-dogs-emotional-support-animals-and-more/.

McDaniel, Melissa. Guide Dogs.

Paws with a cause. Hearing Dogs.

www.pawswithacause.org/what-we-do/assistance-dogs/hearing-dogs/.

Schuh, Mari. Assistance Dogs. 2010.

Tagliaferro, Linda. Service Dogs. 2005.

What is the Americans with Disabilities Act? adata.org/learn-about-ada.

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32 things to know about service dogs

A rchaeological evidence suggests that dogs have been domesticated for some 30,000 years. Man and dog have long walked hand in paw, with our four-legged friends not only enriching our lives but also providing loyal service, whether it’s in the form of protection, their hunting skills, or simply companionship.

But for some people, their dog’s contribution to their lives is not just invaluable, but essential. Step in “service dogs”, whose primary role is to assist those with disabilities. As such, they are highly trained working dogs with specific skills to help their handlers and are not considered pets. Although these heroes will still enjoy some of the best dog treats for all their hard work.

A service dog can be any size, breed, age, or personality – what links them all is their capacity to learn a skillset and work their socks off for their handler. Let’s take a look at what all dog lovers should know about service dogs.

1. “Service animals” means dogs 

Dogs are the primary service animals. The only possible exception is a miniature horse which has been trained to perform specific tasks to assist a person with a disability, and is also housebroken as well as meeting other safety requirements.

According to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) , new regulations now include the provision of miniature horses, however, they are not included in the definition of a service animal, which remains limited to dogs.

2. They may be any breed or size

While we may be familiar with golden retrievers , Labradors, and German shepherd dogs working alongside people with disabilities, any breed that can be trained to do the job required can be a service dog.

According to the American Kennel Club , alongside this trio, other popular service dog breeds include poodles , collies, and pomeranians.

3. Professional training is not a prerequisite

In the US, service dogs are not required to be certified or go through a professional training program. However, how the dog is trained is what distinguishes it as a service animal. Although many are professionally trained, there is nothing to stop their handler from learning how to train a service dog themselves – so long as their training directly relates to their disability.

Dogs that are still in training are not considered service dogs, they need to be fully equipped to do their job if they are working. However, some places will permit training dogs to help them progress.

4. Service dogs are not therapy dogs

Dogs who are used to provide emotional support or comfort are not service dogs. Service dogs perform tasks directly related to a person’s disability, which does not cover emotional support and comfort. Although dogs are still one of the best emotional support animals .

There is a distinction between psychiatric service animals and emotional support animals, according to the ADA regulations. If the dog has been trained to sense an imminent anxiety attack and take specific actions then it would classify as a service dog. However, if it is simply providing comfort by being there, then that is an emotional support dog rather than a service dog. 

5. They are not required to wear a vest or carry ID

Although service dogs often do wear a vest and it is helpful to mark them out, it is not required in the US. In other countries, a vest and ID document is obligatory. 

There are strict rules around how someone can go about finding out if the dog is indeed a service dog, despite the lack of an obligatory vest and ID. Business or facility managers are permitted to ask only two questions: if the dog is a service animal required because of a disability, and what tasks the dog is trained to perform – but not for any proof of documentation nor request that the dog demonstrates its skills.

6. Most businesses open to the public must permit service dogs to enter

Service animals generally have an all-access pass to buildings that are open to the public, even if they have a no-pets policy. 

This includes state and government buildings, restaurants, shops, hospitals, schools and hotels, housing at public and private universities, public housing programs run by state, county, and city governments, and emergency shelters.

The ADA gives the example of a woman arriving at a restaurant with her service dog and asking to dine inside although dogs are only permitted outside. The restaurant cannot deny her request.

7. There are areas that are no-go for service dogs

A service dog can be denied access to a public building or business if their presence fundamentally alters the nature of goods, services, or activities provided to other users. For example, a sterile area of a hospital, or areas of a zoo where dogs are either natural prey or predators of the animals displayed. 

8. Specialized skillsets

Different service dogs have different skills. Although many people picture assistance dogs as providing support for blind people, there are many other tasks they can fulfill for people with a range of disabilities. 

For example, a wheelchair user’s dog may be trained to retrieve objects for them; someone with depression may have a dog trained to remind them to take medication; a PTSD sufferer’s service dog may lick their hand to alert them to an imminent panic attack. A person with epilepsy may have a dog trained to recognize the signs of an oncoming seizure and help them to stay safe. 

9. Service dogs can be removed from the premises

If the dog is not house-trained or it is out of control and cannot be brought back under control, then a business or facility is permitted to ask the handler to remove their service dog. 

10. A service dog is a working dog, but not the other way round

While service dogs are working dogs, there are many other working dogs providing wonderful services that don’t fit under the legal service animal umbrella. Service dogs have been carefully trained to help provide for the specific needs of a person with a disability. 

Other working dogs may include police dogs, search and rescue dogs, sniffer dogs, explosive detection dogs – and even those used for sports such as gundogs. 

11. Service dogs in the canteen and kitchen

Although many restaurants are dog-friendly, they aren’t usually allowed in the areas where food is served or prepared. Service dogs are exempt from this. They must be allowed to accompany their handlers through self-service salad bars, for example, and in communal food preparation areas such as you might find in shelters. 

However, they are not allowed to be seated at the table! 

12. Waiving hotel room fees

While most hotels charge extra for guests who bring dogs because of the inevitable cleaning burden of shifting the dog hair and dander, they aren’t allowed to add this cost to the bill for a service animal – unless they cause damage.  So feel free to visit the top US cities to have a dog . 

13. You can have two service dogs working at once

If a person has two disabilities – for instance, they are partially sighted and have epilepsy – they may have a service dog to perform tasks related to each condition. One to help them find the way, the other to alert them to imminent seizures and keep them safe.  

14. Banned breeds do not apply to service dogs

Where a municipality has banned a certain canine breed, they have to make an exception for a service dog, even if it is a prohibited breed. The only caveat is, of course, that the dog does not pose any threat. 

So while specific dogs of a prohibited breed may be excluded on a case-by-case basis, banning a dog simply because of its breed is not permitted. 

15. Service dogs do not always have to be leashed

Usually, it is expected that service dogs will be leashed. They must be harnessed with one of the best dog harnesses, leashed or tethered in public except where this interferes with how they assist the person with a disability. 

Examples of when being off-leash is permissible would include: a veteran with post-traumatic stress disorder may have a service dog that is trained to go and check out a room before his handler enters because they suffer from anxiety about unfamiliar spaces. Or a wheelchair user may require their dog to go and fetch an item for them. 

16. Not welcome in places of worship

Although individual states may have their own laws, in general, religious institutions and organizations are exempt from ADA legalization. 

However, in practice, many churches and places of worship will permit service dogs, but it needs to be requested.

17. Using the bathroom on command

Service dogs are trained to do their business on command so that they are unlikely to foul in a public place. Now that’s a handy trick!

18. Multi-tasking 

Service dogs are typically trained to perform around 50–60 tasks, for example, crossing roads safely, turning on lights, pushing elevator buttons, opening doors, alerting their owner to doorbells, alarm clocks, and so on.

This takes quick and easy tricks to teach your dog to another level.

19. Peace and quiet

Service dogs should not bark repeatedly. They are trained not to bark unless asked to, making them an unobtrusive visitor to indoor spaces such as public transport and libraries. 

20. Always ask before approaching a service dog

A service dog is at work, performing life-enhancing – sometime life-saving – tasks for their handler. They are taught to ignore strangers’ commands. Other people coming up to pet the dog or ask questions are a distraction, so always check with the owner before interacting with the dog. 

21. Over a century of guide dog training

Back in 1916, the first official school for training service dogs opened in Germany. It was set up to train dogs to help veterans and those with visual impairments. This was the catalyst for the establishment of service dog training schools across the globe.

22. Presidential seal of approval

Sully, a yellow labrador , is one of the most famous service dogs. He served the 41st US president George H.W. Bush during his years with dementia and helped him with numerous everyday activities such as turning on lights, fetching things, and seeking help in emergencies. 

After Bush’s death, Sully went on to work with veterans at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center. 

23. They know how to let their hair down

Like most of us, service dogs often have different faces for work and play. While they take their jobs very seriously, when they‘re off duty many of them love to run around and play like any other dog.

24. An expensive education

Training, or buying, a service dog is an expensive business. A fully trained service dog is likely to cost at least $15,000, and possibly up to $50,000 from one of the main US training organizations depending on the breed and degree of training, according to the National Service Animal Registry .

Those that already have a dog that they want to train to be a service dog, expect to pay a considerable hourly rate for this exclusive level of obedience training.  However, financial aid is available for people with disabilities that require a service dog. 

25. Free plane tickets

Service dogs must be allowed to accompany you in the cabin of an aircraft at no cost, according to the Air Carrier Access Act 49. Each airline has its own guidelines beyond this legislation. 

26. A long training process

Service dogs are typically started on specific task training from the age of six months. But it will take up to two years for a dog to be trained to its full potential.

And budding trainers of service dogs need to study for even longer. Most assistance dog training programs have a two to three-year apprentice training program, according to Assistance Dogs International . 

27. There are only half a million service dogs 

In the US, it is estimated there are around 500,000 service dogs, according to ShareAmerica , the US Department of State’s platform for sharing stories and debate. Although this number is expanding, it is an extremely low figure compared to the estimated 61 million American adults with a disability, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 

28. Rescue dogs can make great service animals

NEADS World Class Service Dogs runs a breeding program to ensure the most appropriate genes are perpetuated to make the best service dogs. However, they also select alert, energetic dogs from animal shelters as ideal candidates for training as hearing dogs. 

29. Not all service dogs in training make the cut

Training to be a service dog, that will potentially save their handler’s life time and again, is rigorous. The training standards are sky-high and it is estimated that around 50–70% of dogs-in-training do not make the cut. 

However, these dogs are far from being drop-outs. They had already been selected for their wonderful temperaments and intelligence, and it’s usually easy to find them a loving home as a well-trained pet. 

30. Watch out for fakes

Sadly, because federal laws protect people with disabilities from intrusive lines of questioning, some people fraudulently pretend their dog is a service animal, for example, to get their dog into the cabin on a plane, for free.

This is detrimental to those who do genuinely have a disability and affects their reputation. Untrained animals being manifested as service dogs can be a danger both to the public and to real service dogs. Some state and local governments have laws that make it an offense to misrepresent untrained animals as service dogs. 

31. The discernment of hearing service dogs

Hearing dogs are not only able to differentiate between the sounds such as a doorbell, alarm clock, smoke alarm or voice and what they signify, but can communicate that effectively to their handler. Wow! 

32. The power of the sense of smell

Seizure assistance dogs are trained to detect changes in the smell of their handler's blood, which could be a sign of an imminent seizure. They will then communicate this to their handler, with enough time to enable them to take appropriate precautions before it is too late.  

Likewise, allergy-detecting dogs can sniff out minute amounts of life-threatening allergens for children, enabling them to lead normal lives without panicking about hidden threats.

Benefits of Service Dogs for Veterans

Researchers at the University of Arizona College of Veterinary Medicine have taken a step toward better understanding the relationship between veterans and service dogs, which they believe could lead to life-changing improvements in health care for veterans. L ead study author is Sarah Leighton , a graduate student studying psychology and a member of the Organization for Human-Animal Interaction Research and Education ( OHAIRE) research group in the College of Veterinary Medicine. She points out that the lack of data on service dogs as medical care has created challenges for veterans seeking treatment.

To find out whether working with a service dog can impact medical outcomes, Leighton and her colleagues recruited 81 participants i n a new study published in the medical journal JAMA Network Open. This group of participants were partnered with service dogs at no cost  through national nonprofit, K9s For Warriors. The veterans filled out a PTSD Checklist and were also assessed against the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (also known as CAPS-5) by medical professionals with no knowledge of the experiment conditions. Their wellness based on these assessments was measured at the start of the study and after three months.

Researchers found that veterans who worked with service dogs experienced significantly lower self-reported and clinician-rated PTSD symptom severity, lower anxiety and depression, a significantly higher quality of life, and fewer feelings of isolation. Veterans working with service dogs also had 66% lower odds of receiving a PTSD diagnosis from a mental health professional after three months with a dog.

For more on the study, the lab and researchers, and general information on benefits and challenges of veteran and service dog relationships:

Read the full UA News article

Updated: 06/05/24

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• Essay on Psychology

Service Dogs, Therapy Dogs And Emotional Support Animals Essay Examples

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Psychology , Dog , Disabilities , Services papers , Animals , Pets , Training , Therapy

Words: 1800

Published: 03/29/2020

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There are different types of dogs as defined under the Americans with disabilities act (ADA). There is a lot of confusion in understanding the terms therapy dogs, service dogs, as well as emotional support animals. This paper looks at various definitions and distinguishes the differences among the three types of dogs. It also gives instructions on how to certify therapy dogs, service dogs and emotional dogs. They all serve different duties according to their training and the rights that their owners are granted by the American Disabilities. Some may not be pet dogs as many people would think, and thus, it would be important differentiate the three classes. First, the service dogs are defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act as dogs trained individually to perform or work for people with disabilities. Their functions vary differently according to their training. For instance, there are guide dogs for the blind, mobility dogs, hearing dogs, psychiatric service dogs as well medical assistance dogs. The dogs go through a wide training in undertaking their tasks. Some of these service dogs are registered or certified although the American with Disability Act does not require such registration for those service dogs. In addition to that, there is no registration of service dogs that can be recognized by the Disability Act (Davis, Bunnell, & White, 2007). Certification of service dogs is a lengthy process. The first step is basic obedience test that can be performed (by a professional trainer) to certify that the dog has been trained. The AKC Canine Test is done to show that the dog can work efficiently in public, with a stranger and other dogs. The second step is to practice commands like sit, stand, and come to experience that the dog can work in public. The third step is giving the dog time to understand the obedience and the commands. Then the dog should be trained to execute obedience behavior on and off. The log training notes should be taken during the training. Documentation of this paperwork is vital since the state laws and the federal differ. Therefore, one needs to know the laws in case he or she meets someone asking about such laws while in public. Health issues should be well considered. The important vaccination should be done, and certificate for health provided after this test. The dog need to be trained to be social as it is introduced to a new environment that it is expected to offer the services. Then the obedience test should again be reviewed and obedience. Then the paper is presented together with the health and certificate of obedience and command for review. Once certified, the dog becomes a qualified service dog, and it is free to carry out its functions. For identification purposes, service dogs should wear vests that have patches for identification and unique harness. They are all meant to identify the dogs as guides and can be used for medical purposes. The second type of dogs is the therapy dogs. These dogs are specially trained to offer comfort and affection to the people in nursing homes, hospitals, hospices, schools and retirement homes. They are also available for individuals with difficulties in learning as well as those people in disaster areas. They have absolutely different duties as compared to service dogs. They have low or stable temperament, easy going personalities and are friendly. The dogs are allowed to interact with the public especially during their duties. Their roles can vary from giving confidence to the disabled children to physical rehabilitation therapy. These types of dog can also go ahead to work in the psychotherapy practices. There is a set procedure that should be followed to certify therapy dogs. It should be executed or conducted (by the organization) to train, test and then certify the dog. First, registration papers should be obtained from the organization’s website. For instance, some of these organizations include Angel on the leash, American Kennel and many more. If the requirements are certified, the dog can get to the next step where training would be offered. The training can be offered online or through special classes. However some of the organizations or companies do not offer training to the dog but instead, they take the dog through Canine Good Citizen program for the dog to acquire basic obedience training. From here, the owner of the dog is encouraged to take the dog through regular health checks. Some companies encourage the owners to vaccinate their dogs to with bortatella vaccination, rabies, and DHLPP to continue with the process. After that, the following crucial step would be to evaluate the therapy dog. This should be done through evaluating the dogs’ behavior through a representative of the organization. This evaluation is usually easy as the dog is expected to obey orders like stay, sit, come and others. The evaluation requires a dog that is not aggressive toward other dogs and among strangers. Next, the owner is expected to fill out registration paper then submit the paper to the organization. The letter should be accompanied with evaluation and health certification. Also, a picture of the dog should be included for identification. Certification for therapy dogs is not a free exercise and thus, the owner should pay a set amount of money as registration fee while submitting the above indicate paperwork. The last step is to wait for the approval. If the certificate is finally issued, the dog qualifies to be a therapy dog. A fully certified therapy dog performs duties like affection and comfort to the elderly, hospitalized individuals, children with learning disabilities, and other related duties. Again the dog can visit public facilities like, nursing homes, libraries, hospitals, school and other institutions that require assistance from therapy dogs.In regards to training, therapy dogs can be trained by nearly anyone. However, the dogs must achieve the standards set (by a certain company or organization) to be registered and certified for participation to that organization. The dogs should be handled by their owners although, in case of Animal Assisted Therapy, the dogs can be handled or dealt with by special people or trained professionals (Hutmacher, 2010). While some organizations and institutions offer these dogs access to care benefits for the patients, customers, guest or clientele, the owner or handlers of the dogs lack the rights to be accompanied by the therapy dogs where pets are not allowed. Therapy dogs are, therefore, allowed to be in public, but with their handlers. They are supposed to be certified after the achievement of the training required by the American Disabilities Act. After confirmation, the dogs are then registered and allowed to carry out their duties in the respective areas. Again, people are encouraged and allowed to pet therapy dogs since petting would be part of their duties and duties. Therapy dogs are usually in bandanas or vests composed of patches that for identification purposes. I t should be understood that not all the PetSmart locations offer evaluation for the Therapy dogs. All in all In New York there is a center where such service is offered. For such information one can contact the contact information for the Huntington Station NY location is: 1-631-425-0913. Again for an evaluator within the same area, you can feel free to contact Harry Lozada in Massapequa Park NY 1-516-578-5809 and Janice Costa in Bethpage NY 1-516-735-8887 Finally, the Emotional Support Animals would not be required to be put through specialized training. Their major roles include providing the disabled owners or handlers with emotional comfort. These Emotional support animals could benefit a disabled person, psychologically, in unexpected ways. The expected main gift of companionship, as well as unconditional concern and affection, could be the expected therapy to cater for a condition for instance, debilitating depression (Charleson, 2013). While the American Disability Act does not grant handlers or owners of emotional support animals dogs the freedom to be with the animals, the Fair Housing Act allows for the disabled owners who have the emotional support animals residing in a house that posses a “No Pets” policy, representing a reasonable accommodation, the freedom to be with their animals. Since an emotional support animal could not be classified as a "working" or as a normal dog, the dogs as well as their owners are not provided with the equal rights together with protections covered under federal law of American Disabilities Act, representing working service dogs. Therefore, apart from the differences in the definition (in service animals) as well as emotional support animals or dogs, emotional support animals competently qualify for travelling and housing rights. In conclusion, there are clear differences between therapy dogs, emotional support animals and service dogs. Service dogs perform tasks for the disabled people. They perform a couple of duties and thus, they are of different types. Service dogs must be registered under the American Disabilities Act although it would not be important to register service dogs. They are allowed in public and private areas but only when they are accompanied by their owners or handlers. They are not pets and thus they should not be incorporated in the line of duty. Therapy dogs, on the other hand, are engaged in therapeutic contact for the purpose of spending time with people or petting. The dogs undergo special training thus passing the Canine Good Citizen test as well as a therapy dog certification test is a must. They are not as trained as service dogs, but they are the types that are well exposed to the people. The dogs are well labeled with vest to identify them. They are allowed to the public places and private areas as well since they are supposed to be petted. Emotional support Animals are supposed to provide emotional support to the disabled person or for comfort purposes. These dogs do not undergo special training like the other sets of dogs. Their rights are from the Fair Housing Act as well as Air carrier Access Act. They are not allowed in public areas as well private areas unless licensed. Transports of this type of animal especially in aircraft require recommendation by a professional indicating the person travelling should be accompanied by the animal for therapeutic reasons.

Charleson, S. (2013). The Possibility Dogs: What a Handful of Unadoptables Taught Me about Service, Hope, and Healing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Davis, M., Bunnell, M., & White, B. (2007). Working Like Dogs: The Service Dog. Crawford: Alpine Publications. Hutmacher, K. M. (2010). Therapy Dogs. Chicago: Capstone.

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Service Dogs Work Wonders for Veterans With PTSD: Study

By Dennis Thompson HealthDay Reporter

WEDNESDAY, June 5, 2024 (HealthDay News) -- Military veterans often struggle with their mental health once their service ends, but the first clinical trial of its kind has found that having a service dog helps lower the risk of PTSD for these former soldiers.

Veterans paired with a service dog had 66% lower odds of a PTSD diagnosis, compared to a control group of vets still waiting for a service dog, researchers reported June 4 in the journal JAMA Network Open .

These vets also experienced lower anxiety and depression levels, as well as improvements in most areas of emotional and social well-being, researchers found.

“This research reinforces what we have been studying for almost a decade -- that service dogs are linked to significant benefits for many veterans suffering from PTSD and other invisible wounds of war,” said lead researcher Maggie O’Haire , associate dean for research at the University of Arizona College of Veterinary Medicine.

“Service dogs are more than pets — they can be essential partners in helping veterans readjust and thrive after they return from service,” O’Haire said.

For the study, researchers tracked more than 150 military veterans over three months. 

Vets received their dogs through the program K9s For Warriors, the nation’s largest provider of trained service dogs for military veterans.

Most of the dogs provided by K9s For Warriors are rescues, researchers noted. The program trains them, on average, for six months, then pairs them at no cost with veterans who are struggling emotionally and at great risk of suicide.

It’s estimated that nearly 20 veterans die by suicide every day, and that more than 1 million vets suffer from PTSD, traumatic brain injury or military sexual trauma, researchers said.

“Having paired more than 1,000 service dogs with veterans, our work has clearly demonstrated that these dogs are lifesaving and life-transforming. These dogs have enabled our Warriors to better connect with family, friends and their community and to begin living the life they previously didn’t think was possible,” said Kevin Steele , chief program officer at K9s For Warriors.

“The results of this study further prove what we do here at K9s works, and we continue to have the research to back up the success of our program,” Steele added in a K9 for Warriors news release.

More information

K9s For Warriors has more about its service dog program . The American Psychiatric Association has more on the mental health benefits of pets .

SOURCE: K9s For Warriors, news release, June 4, 2024

Copyright © 2024 HealthDay . All rights reserved.

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72 Dog Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

To find good research titles for your essay about dogs, you can look through science articles or trending pet blogs on the internet. Alternatively, you can check out this list of creative research topics about dogs compiled by our experts .

🐩 Dog Essays: Things to Consider

🏆 best dog titles for essays, 💡 most interesting dog topics to write about, ❓ questions about dog.

There are many different dog essays you can write, as mankind’s history with its best friends is rich and varied. Many people will name the creatures their favorite animals, citing their endearing and inspiring qualities such as loyalty, obedience, bravery, and others.

Others will discuss dog training and the variety of important roles the animals fulfill in our everyday life, working as shepherds, police members, guides to blind people, and more.

Some people will be more interested in dog breeding and the incredible variety of the animals show, ranging from decorative, small Yorkshire terriers to gigantic yet peaceful Newfoundland dogs. All of these topics are interesting and deserve covering, and you can incorporate all of them a general essay.

Dogs are excellent pet animals, as their popularity, rivaled only by cats, shows. Pack animals by nature, they are open to including members of other species into their groups and get along well with most people and animals.

They are loyal to the pack, and there are examples of dogs adopting orphaned kittens and saving other animals and children from harm.

This loyalty and readiness to face danger makes them favorite animals for many people, and the hundreds of millions of dogs worldwide show that humans appreciate their canine friends.

It also allows them to work many important jobs, guarding objects, saving people, and using their noses to sniff out various trails and substances.

However, dogs are descended from wolves, whose pack nature does not prevent them from attacking those outside the group. Some larger dogs are capable of killing an adult human alone, and most can at least inflict severe harm if they attack a child.

Dogs are trusted and loved because of their excellent trainability. They can be taught to be calm and avoid aggression or only attack once the order is given.

They can also learn a variety of other behaviors and tricks, such as not relieving themselves in the house and executing complex routines. This physical and mental capacity to perform a variety of tasks marks dogs as humanity’s best and most versatile helpers.

The variety of jobs dogs perform has led humans to try to develop distinct dog breeds for each occupation, which led to the emergence of numerous and different varieties of the same animal.

The observation of the evolution of a specific type of dog as time progressed and its purposes changed can be an interesting topic. You can also discuss dog competitions, which try to find the best dog based on various criteria and even have titles for the winners.

Comparisons between different varieties of the animal are also excellent dog argumentative essay topics. Overall, there are many interesting ideas that you can use to write a unique and excellent essay.

Regardless of what you ultimately choose to write about, you should adhere to the central points of essay writing. Make sure to describe sections of your paper with dog essay titles that identify what you will be talking about clearly.

Write an introduction that identifies the topic and provides a clear and concise thesis statement. Finish the paper with a dog essay conclusion that sums up your principal points. It will be easier and more interesting to read while also adhering to literature standards if you do this.

Below, we have provided a collection of great ideas that you can use when writing your essays, research papers, speeches, or dissertations. Take inspiration from our list of dog topics, and don’t forget to check out the samples written by other students!

• An Adventure with My Pet Pit-Bull Dog “Tiger” One look at Tiger and I knew that we were not going to leave the hapless couple to the mercies of the scary man.
• Dogs Playing Poker The use of dogs in the painting is humorous in that the writer showed them doing human things and it was used to attract the attention of the viewer to the picture.
• The Benefits of a Protection Dog Regardless of the fact that protection dogs are animals that can hurt people, they are loving and supportive family members that provide their owners with a wide range of benefits.
• How to Conduct the Dog Training Properly At the same time, it is possible to work with the dog and train it to perform certain actions necessary for the owner. In the process of training, the trainer influences the behavior of the […]
• “Dog’s Life” by Charlie Chaplin Film Analysis In this film, the producer has used the comic effect to elaborate on the message he intends to deliver to the audience. The function of a dog is to serve the master.
• Cesar Millan as a Famous Dog Behaviorist Millan earned the nickname “the dog boy” because of his natural ability to interact with dogs. Consequently, the dog behaviorist became a celebrity in different parts of the country.
• Debates on Whether Dog is the Best Pet or not The relationships between dogs and man have been improving over the years and this has made dogs to be the most preferable pets in the world. Other pets have limited abilities and can not match […]
• Breed Specific Legislation: Dog Attacks As a result, the individuals that own several canines of the “banned” breeds are to pay a lot of money to keep their dogs.
• Cats vs. Dogs: Are You a Cat or a Dog Person? Cats and dogs are two of the most common types of pets, and preferring one to another can arguably tell many things about a person.
• Dog Food: Pedigree Company’s Case The attractiveness of the dog food category is manifested through the intense competitive nature of the various stakeholders. The third and final phase of the segmentation is to label the category of dog food as […]
• Border Collie Dog Breed Information So long as the movement of the Border Collies and the sheep is calm and steady, they can look for the stock as they graze in the field.
• “Love That Dog” Verse Novel by Sharon Creech In this part of the play, it is clear that Jack is not ready to hide his feelings and is happy to share them with someone who, in his opinion, can understand him.
• “Marley: A Dog Like No Other” by John Grogan John Grogan’s international bestseller “Marley: A Dog Like No Other” is suited for children of all ages, and it tells the story of a young puppy, Marley, who quickly develops a big personality, boundless energy, […]
• Dog Training Techniques Step by Step The first step that will be taken in order to establish the performance of this trick is showing the newspaper to the dog, introducing the desired object and the term “take”.
• The Great Pyrenees Dog Breed as a Pet In the folklore of the French Pyrenees, there is a touching legend about the origin of the breed. The dog will not obey a person of weak character and nervous.
• Dog Food by Subscription: Service Design Project For the convenience and safety of customers and their dogs, customer support in the form of a call center and online chat is available.
• Compare and Contrast Your First Dog vs. Your Current Dog Although she was very friendly and even tried to take care of me when I was growing up, my mother was the real owner.
• “Everyday” in The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Haddon The novel presents Christopher who passes through many changes in his life, where he adapts to it and acclimatizes the complications that come with it.
• A Dog’s Life by Charles Chaplin The theme of friendship and love that is clear in the relationship between Tramp and Scraps. The main being that Chaplin makes it very comical thus; it is appealing to the audience, and captures the […]
• What Dog Are You? All of them possess individual traits that have to suit the profile and character of the owner for them to create a harmonious and beneficial union and to feel comfortable together first of all, every […]
• Why Does Your Dog Pretend to Like You? Children and the older generation can truly cherish and in the case of children can develop as individuals with the help of dogs.
• Caring for a Dog With Arthritis For Monty, the dog under study, the size, and disposition of the dog, the stage of the disease as also its specific symptoms and behaviour need to be observed and then a suitable choice of […]
• Animal Cruelty: Inside the Dog Fighting In most cases the owner of the losing dog abandons the injured dog to die slowly from the injuries it obtained during the fight. The injuries inflicted to and obtained by the dogs participating in […]
• Dog House: Business Law Today Based on the definition of a shareholder’s derivative suit, it is possible to say that corporations can be expected to benefit from this type of litigation.
• “Traditional” Practice Exception in Dog Act One of those who wanted the word to remain in the clause was the president of the Beaufort Delta Dog Mushers and also an Inuvik welder.Mr.
• “How to Draw a Dog” Video Lecture Critique The video begins with an introduction to the character that the artist is going to draw. The artist provides a more detailed description of the process later when he begins to draw dog’s eyebrows and […]
• Small Dog Boarding Business: Strategic Plan Based on the first dimension of the competing values framework, the dog boarding business already has the advantage of a flexible business model, it is possible to adjust the size of the business or eliminate […]
• Small Dog Boarding Business: Balanced Scorecard Bragonier posits that SWOT analysis is essential in the running of the business because it helps the management to analyze the business at a glance.
• Non-Profit Dog Organization’s Mission Statement In terms of the value we are bringing, our team regards abandoned animals who just want to be loved by people, patients with special needs, volunteers working at pet shelters, and the American society in […]
• Dog’ Education in “The Culture Clash” by Jean Donaldson The second chapter comes under the title, Hard-Wiring: What the Dog comes with which tackles the characteristic innate behaviors that dogs possess naturally; that is, predation and socialization. This chapter sheds light on the behaviors […]
• Implementing Security Policy at Dog Parks To ensure that people take responsibility for their dogs while in the parks, the owners of the parks should ensure that they notify people who bring their dogs to the park of the various dangers […]
• Operant Conditioning in Dog Training In regards to negative enforcements, the puppy should be fitted with a collar and upon the command “sit”, the collar should be pulled up a bit to force the dog to sit down.
• First in Show Pet Foods, Inc and Dog Food Market Due to the number of competitors, it is clear that First in Show Pet Food, Inc.understands it has a low market share.
• Animal Assisted Therapy: Therapy Dogs First, the therapist must set the goals that are allied to the utilization of the therapy dog and this should be done for each client.
• The Tail Wagging the Dog: Emotions and Their Expression in Animals The fact that the experiment was conducted in real life, with a control group of dogs, a life-size dog model, a simultaneous observation of the dogs’ reaction and the immediate transcription of the results, is […]
• Moral Dilemma: Barking Dog and Neighborhood Since exuberant barking of Stella in the neighborhood disturbs many people, debarking is the appropriate measure according to the utilitarian perspective.
• The Feasibility Analysis for the Ropeless Dog Lead This is because it will have the ability to restrict the distance between the dog and the master control radio. The exploration of different sales models and prices for other devices indicates that the Rope-less […]
• Classical Conditioning: Teaching an Old Dog New Tricks According to Basford and Stein’s interpretation, classical conditioning is developed in a person or an animal when a neutral stimulus “is paired or occurs contingently with the unconditioned stimulus on a number of occasions”, which […]
• The Movements and Reactions of Dogs in Crates and Outside Yards This study discusses the types of movements and reactions exhibited by dogs in the two confinement areas, the crate and the outside yard.
• A Summary of “What The Dog Saw” Gladwell explores the encounters of Cesar Millan, the dog whisperer who non-verbally communicated with the dogs and mastered his expertise to tame the dogs.
• Evolution of Dogs from the Gray Wolf However, the combined results of vocalisation, morphological behavior and molecular biology of the domesticated dog now show that the wolf is the principle ancestor of the dog.
• The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time Haddon therefore manages to carry the reader into the world of the novel and holds the reader to the end of the novel.
• Attacking Dog Breeds: Truth or Exaggeration?
• Are Bad Dog Laws Unjustified?
• Are Dog Mouths Cleaner Than Humans?
• Can Age Affect How Fast a Dog Runs?
• Can Chew Treats Kill Your Dog?
• Can You Control Who the Alpha Dog Is When You Own Two Dogs?
• Does Drug Dog Sniff Outside Home Violate Privacy?
• Does the Pit Bull Deserve Its Reputation as a Vicious Dog?
• Does Your Dog Love You and What Does That Mean?
• Does Your Dog Need a Bed?
• How Can People Alleviate Dog Cruelty Problems?
• How Cooking With Dog Is a Culinary Show?
• How Can Be Inspiring Dog Tales?
• How Owning and Petting a Dog Can Improve Your Health?
• How the I-Dog Works: It’s All About Traveling Signals?
• What Can Andy Griffith Teach You About Dog Training?
• What Makes the Dog – Human Bond So Powerful?
• What the Dog Saw and the Rise of the Global Market?
• What Should You Know About Dog Adoption?
• When Dog Training Matters?
• When Drug Dog Sniff the Narcotic Outside Home?
• At What Age Is Dog Training Most Effective?
• Why Are People Choosing to Get Involved in Dog Fighting?
• Why Are Reported Cases of Dog-Fighting Rising in the United States?
• Why Dog Attacks Occur and Who Are the Main Culprits?
• Why Does Dog Make Better Pets Than Cats?
• Why Every Kid Needs a Dog?
• Why Should People Adopt Rather Than Buy a Dog?
• Why Could the Dog Have Bitten the Person?
• Will Dog Survive the Summer Sun?
• Animal Rights Research Ideas
• Inspiration Topics
• Animal Welfare Ideas
• Wildlife Ideas
• Emotional Development Questions
• Zoo Research Ideas
• Endangered Species Questions
• Human Behavior Research Topics
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Expository Essay

Expository Essay About Dogs

Expository Essay About Dogs: Steps, Examples & Topics

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Are you writing an expository essay about dogs? Do you need help with how to do it?

Writing an essay about man's best friend can be really interesting and fun. However, it can also be frustrating if you don't know where to start.

But don't fret! This guide is here to make to help you write the perfect expository essay about dogs.

In this blog, you'll get sample essays, writing steps, and helpful tips. In short, everything you need to craft a perfect essay on dogs.

So read on!

• 1. What is Expository Essay?
• 2. Steps For Writing an Expository Essay About Dogs
• 3. Expository Essay About Dogs Examples
• 4. Essay About Dogs Topics

What is Expository Essay?

An expository essay is a type of academic writing that is used to explain something or describe it in detail. It's often written in a more academic tone and style.

So how would you write an expository essay about our good companions?

The purpose of an expository essay about dogs is to provide facts and information about the topic. It should be well-researched with reliable sources and organized in a logical way.

For example, when writing about a specific dog breed, you mention information about their behavior, history, and characteristics.

Now that you have some ideas for what to write about, let’s move on to the writing steps.

Steps For Writing an Expository Essay About Dogs

Writing an essay about dogs can be a fun experience – but only if you have clear and structured steps. 

Here is a step-by-step guide for writing a good essay about dogs

Step 1 – Choose a Topic 

Choosing the right topic for your essay is an important first step. You know your topic should be related to dogs, but that’s not enough to choose a good topic. Here are some tips to help you out:

• It’s best to pick a topic that isn’t too broad or narrow. For example, you could write about a specific breed of dog, dog training techniques, the history of dogs in art, or the role of dogs in therapy.
• Moreover, choose a topic that is interesting and unique. This can make your essay stand out and pique the reader's interest.
• Make sure you have enough information and research material available on the subject. Having access to credible sources and reference materials is essential for supporting your arguments and claims.

Step 2 – Do Research

Researching your topic is an essential step toward making your essay credible. You can use books, online resources, articles, and other materials for reference. Gather facts, statistics, and opinions from reliable sources to back up your essay’s claims.

Moreover, make sure to cite all the sources accurately in your essay.

Step 3 – Write an Outline

Once you are done with research, the next step is to write an expository essay outline . An essay outline helps you organize your thoughts and makes writing easier. It also helps you stay on track and makes sure all the information is in a logical order.

Here is how to make an outline:

Step 4 – Start Writing Your First Draft

Now comes the fun part – writing!

Start with an attention-grabbing essay introduction and provide a brief overview of the topic. For example, you could start by talking about how dogs are one of the most popular pets in the world.

Then go on to explain your points and back them up with evidence from reliable sources. Each paragraph should be focused on only one main point.

In addition, make sure each body paragraph links to the next one through transition words and that they all support your main argument.

Finally, end your essay with a conclusion that neatly wraps up the points you made in the body of your essay.

Step 5 – Proofread and Edit

Proofreading and editing are essential parts of the essay-writing process. Take your time to go over your essay and make sure it’s free from any mistakes. Check the grammar, spelling, punctuation, sentence structure, etc.

Also, look for any factual inaccuracies or areas that can be improved upon. Revise and rewrite until you are happy with the final product.

These are the steps for writing a good essay about dogs. With these guidelines in mind, you can write an impressive essay that will get you high grades. 

Let's read a few essay samples to get an idea.

Expository Essay About Dogs Examples

Check out these short essay samples. Reading these examples will give you an idea of what you can do with your own essay.

Why Are Dogs Important Essay Example PDF

5 Paragraph Essay About Dogs - PDF Example

Dog Essay 300 Words - Free PDF Sample

Check out more expository essay examples on various other topics to learn more.

Essay About Dogs Topics

There is so much to write about Dogs. They are one of the most popular pets in the world. According to the American Kennel Club, there are over 78 million dogs in homes across the United States.

People love pet dogs for a variety of reasons – they are loyal companions, great protectors, and fun-loving friends.  So there is a lot of room for you when deciding a topic.

Here are a few topic ideas to get you started:

• How german shepherds make great police dogs 
• The medical benefits of having a dog living with you
• The strong sense of smell in dogs and its uses 
• The intelligence of different breeds of dog 
• Dog adoption and the importance of rescuing abandoned domestic dogs 
• Examining the relationship between Dogs and humans throughout history
• Common health problems in smaller-sized dog breeds.
• The Golden Retriever: characteristics and behavior
• The role of dogs in therapy, emotional support, and reducing stress
• The history of dogs as domestic animals

These topics will help you come up with your own topic. 

You can also check out some general expository essay topics to help you brainstorm.

To wrap it up, 

Dogs are beloved companions and have been an important part of people's lives for centuries. Writing an essay about dogs can be fun if you follow the proper steps.

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Essay on Dog for Students and Children

500+ words essay on dog.

The dog is a pet animal. A dog has sharp teeth so that it can eat flesh very easily, it has four legs, two ears, two eyes, a tail, a mouth, and a nose. It is a very clever animal and is very useful in catching thieves. It runs very fast, barks loudly and attacks the strangers. A dog saves the life of the master from danger. One can find dogs everywhere in the world. Dogs are a very faithful animal. It has a sharp mind and a strong sense of hearing smelling the things. It also has many qualities like swimming in the water, jumping from anywhere, good smelling sense.

Importance of Dog

A dog has a strong power of smell . They are more liked by people because of their faithfulness. They are intelligent, they are watchfulness. The dogs have many colors such as grey, white, black, brown and red. They are of many kinds such as bloodhound, greyhound, german shepherd, Labrador, Rottweiler, bulldog poodle, etc.

Usually, the dog eats fish, meat, milk, rice, bread, etc. Dogs are sometimes called canines. Dogs are sometimes referred to as man’s best friend because they are kept as domestic pets and are usually loyal and like being around humans. They are also helpful in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression, loneliness, encourage exercise and playfulness and even improve your cardiovascular health. A dog also provides valuable companionship for older adults.

The dogs are so loyal to his master that nothing can induce him to leave his master. His master might be a poor man or even a beggar but still, the dog will not leave his master from far off. Dogs see their master coming home from work they rush to them and jump on them to show their love. Dogs are honest friends who are always ready to die to save a friend. It can bite a thief or stranger when they ignore its barking and try to mischief. Dogs always give security to the owner day and night.

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Life Span 0f a Dog

The lifespan of a dog is very small however it can live around 12-15 years long which depend on their size such as smaller dogs lives a longer life. A female dog gives birth to a baby and feed milk that’s why dogs under the mammal category. The dog baby is called a puppy or pup and dog home is called kennel. Dogs are categorized according to their service to people such as guard dogs, herding dogs, hunting dogs, police dogs, guide dogs, sniffer dogs, etc. It has a strong power of smell with the assistance of police can arrest murderers, thieves, and dacoits. The Military trains the dogs to track and detect bombs.

Need for Dogs

Detection dogs can be employed at airports, police stations, borders, and schools. Tracking and Hunting dogs, hounds, terriers, and dachshund are the most popular types of hunting and tracking dogs. These dogs are trained to be the eyes, ears, and retrievers for their human companions.

Dogs are a very excellent swimmer. They are really a very helpful pet animal. He respects his owner from the heart and can easily guess his/ her presence through their smell. We should take good care of it and keep them in good condition.

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Why Dogs are the Best Pets: Exploting Persuasive Arguments

Table of contents, unconditional love and loyalty, stress relief and emotional support, encouragement of physical activity, enhanced social interactions, protection and security.

• Odendaal, J. S. (2000). Animal-assisted therapy—Magic or medicine? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 49(4), 275-280.
• Anderson, W. P., & Reid, C. M. (1992). The short-term effects of pet therapy on the elderly. Gerontology, 38(6), 307-310.
• Wood, L., Martin, K., Christian, H., Nathan, A., Lauritsen, C., Houghton, S., ... & McCune, S. (2015). The pet factor—Companion animals as a conduit for getting to know people, friendship formation and social support. PLoS ONE, 10(4), e0122085.
• Wells, D. L. (2009). The effects of animals on human health and well-being. Journal of Social Issues, 65(3), 523-543.
• Nagasawa, M., Mogi, K., & Kikusui, T. (2009). Attachment between humans and dogs. Japanese Psychological Research, 51(3), 209-221.

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