foundation for anthropological research and environmental studies

• Nonprofit Resources
• Support Charity Navigator

• Best Charities
• Charities with Perfect Scores
• Charities Rated Highly by their Participants
• Women's Advocacy
• Support Animal Welfare
• Mental Health
• Popular Charities
• Community Choice Awards
• Charities Everyone's Heard Of
• Most Followed Charities
• Most Frequently Viewed Charities
• Where To Give Now
• Humanitarian Crisis in Israel and Gaza
• Humanitarian Assistance in Sudan
• Ukraine Relief & Recovery
• Protect Your Giving
• Avoiding Charity Scams
• Protecting Your Data
• Avoiding Online Scams
• Giving And Taxes
• Donation Bunching
• Charitable Deductions
• Tax Benefits
• Estate Planning
• Donor Tools
• Giving Basket
• Volunteer Opportunities
• Estate Planner
• Giving Circle Finder
• Give a Donation in Your Loved One’s Name
• Donation Refunds
• Cost Per Outcome
• Support Underfunded Charities
• Pros and Cons of Community Foundations
• Why Did a Charity Send Me Money?
• Introduction to Effective Giving
• Does My Small Donation Really Matter?
• Charity Spotlight
• Capital Region Sponsor-A-Scholar
• DuPage PADS
• The Brotherhood Sister Sol
• Other Ways To Give
• How to Donate Food and Prevent Food Waste
• Why Aren't Donated Clothes Always Given Away for Free?
• Best Items to Donate to an Animal Shelter
• Donations Asks from Friends & Family
• Contact Us/FAQs
• Knowledge Base
• Update Your Nonprofit's Profile/Rating
• Become a Sponsor
• Board of Directors
• Standing Board Committees
• Expert Groups
• Council of Nonprofit Leaders
• Thought Leadership & News
• 2024 Methodology Enhancement
• Reflecting on 2023: A Year of Challenges and Growth in Philanthropy
• 2023 Holiday Season Donation Trends
• 2023 Fall Methodology Update
• Donors Prefer Charities that Earn All Four Beacons
• Why Advisories are now Alerts
• Our Methodology
• Curated Lists

Error attempting donation

You're too fast.

Your donation attempt encountered a problem. Please refresh the page to try again.

You're faster than our page! Give the page a little longer to finish loading and try your donation again.

Foundation for Anthropological Research and Environmental Studies

Rating information, rating report.

• Impact & Measurement
• Accountability & Finance
• Culture & Community
• Leadership & Adaptability

Key Accountability Metrics

Tax form disclosures and policies, website disclosures, financial metrics, additional information.

สล็อตเว็บตรง ระบบ Auto เว็บตรงลิขสิทธิ์แท้ 100% รองรับ ทรูวอเลท

สัมผัสความสนุกในการลงทุนกับเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเรา บนเว็บนี้ ด้วยระบบออโต้ที่สามารถรับรองในการทำรายการ สล็อตออนไลน์ ให้กับนักพนันได้อย่างสะดวกที่สุด เพราะเป็นเว็บไซต์ สล็อต ตรงที่มีลิขสิทธิ์แท้ถูกต้องตามกฎหมาย 100% นอกจากนี้ แล้วยังสามารถรับรองในการเข้าใช้บริการด้วย ทรูวอเลท ที่สามารถเชื่อมต่อในการเข้าใช้บริการ เว็บสล็อตใหม่ล่าสุด ได้ง่ายที่สุด และยังสามารถให้ นักพนันได้เลือกต้นทุนในการใช้งานได้ง่ายขึ้น 

กับรูปแบบต่างๆ ของเรา ในการเลือกก็ใช้บริการบน เว็บตรงสล็อต นี้ ที่มีกระบวนการวางเดิมพันที่ไม่ซ้ำซ้อน และยังสามารถให้ คุณได้ใช้บริการกับทุกฟังก์ชันของเราที่นี่ กันได้อย่างสะดวกอยู่ด้วย เพราะแต่ละประเภท เว็บสล็อต ของเรา ในการเลือกต้องใช้บริการจะสามารถให้ อัตราในการชนะกับนักพนันได้สูงที่สุด ซึ่ง สมัครสมาชิก สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเรา บนเว็บนี้ มีให้คุณได้เลือกเข้าใช้บริการมากกว่า 100 รูปแบบ 

สล็อตเว็บตรง คืออะไร ? ทำไมถึงต้องรองรับทรูวอเลท

เข้าถึงความสนุกกับเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเราที่นี่ กันได้ไม่ยากแน่นอน เพราะการเชื่อมต่อด้วย ทรูวอเลท จะสามารถทำให้คุณได้รับความสะดวกมากยิ่งขึ้น กับทุกการทำธุรกรรมบนเว็บเกมสล็อตของเราที่นี่ ได้ทั้งหมด สมัครเว็บสล็อต นอกจากนี้ แล้วยังสามารถให้ ประสบการณ์ใหม่ในการลงทุน เว็บสล็อต อันดับ 1 กับนักพนันได้เป็นอย่างดีด้วย เพราะเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเรา นั้นมีการอัพเดทกันได้อย่างสม่ำเสมอให้คุณใช้งานเป็นอย่างจุใจ

เพิ่มความมั่นคงทางการเงินให้กับนักพนันได้อย่างต่อเนื่องแน่นอน กับประเภทเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง แตกง่าย ของเรา ที่สามารถให้ การสัมผัสทุกความสนุก สล็อตเว็บตรงแตกหนัก กับนักพนันได้อย่างเต็มที่ นอกจากนี้ แล้วยังสามารถเปิดให้บริการกับนักพนันได้อย่างลงตัวอีกด้วยกับช่องทางต่างๆ ของเรา ในการเลือกเข้าใช้บริการ สล็อตเว็บตรง ฝาก-ถอน true wallet ไม่มี ขั้น ต่ํา ที่จะสามารถให้ การวางเดิมพันกับนักพนันได้สูงที่สุด และยังสามารถช่วยให้นักพนันได้มีผลประโยชน์ในทุกการสร้างรายได้ 

สล็อตเว็บตรง เว็บใหญ่มาแรง ระบบทันสมัย ใช้งานง่าย ฝากถอนไม่มีขั้นต่ำ 

เปิดระบบใหม่ในการลงทุนกับเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเรา ที่สามารถสมัครเข้ามาใช้บริการ สล็อตเว็บตรง ฝาก-ถอน true wallet ไม่มี ธนาคาร ไม่มี ขั้น ต่ํา กันได้ง่ายที่สุด ด้วยรูปแบบการใช้บริการในแต่ละฟังก์ชัน สล็อต เว็บตรงไม่ผ่านเอเย่นต์ไม่มีขั้นต่ำ ของเรา ที่สามารถให้ ความสะดวกกับนักพนันได้มากที่สุด ไม่ว่าจะเป็นการฝากถอนที่ไม่มีการจำกัดขั้นต่ำใดๆ ทั้งสิ้นหรือจะเป็นประเภทในการลงทุน สล็อตเว็บตรง ไม่ผ่านเอเย่นต์ ของเรา ที่สามารถให้ ความต่อเนื่องในการเข้าใช้บริการ เว็บตรง สล็อตฝากถอน ไม่มี ขั้นต่ำ 1 บาทก็ ถอนได้ กับนักพนันได้ทั้งหมดกับทุกช่องทาง 

รับรองได้เลยว่าเมื่อคุณได้เข้ามาใช้บริการไปกับเกม เว็บตรง100 ของเราที่นี่ จะสามารถทำให้นักพนันได้เลือกทำกำไรกันได้อย่างคุ้มค่าที่สุด แน่นอน นอกจากนี้ แล้วยังสามารถให้ ข้อเสนอสุดพิเศษกับนักพนันในการเลือกทำกำไร เว็บตรง ฝากถอน ไม่มี ขั้นต่ำ ได้เป็นอย่างดีอีกด้วย เพราะแต่ละประเภทเกม เว็บตรงไม่ผ่านเอเย่นต์ 100 ของรางวัลเว็บนี้ สามารถอำนวยความสะดวกให้กับนักพนันได้อย่างเต็มที่ด้วยการอัพเดทระบบใหม่กันได้แบบเรียลไทม์

ทำไมถึงต้องเลือกเล่น สล็อตเว็บตรง กับเรา ?

หากคนกำลังสงสัยว่าทำไมนักพนันทั่วเอเชียจึงต้องเลือกเข้ามาใช้บริการกับเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเราที่นี่ ฉะนั้นแล้วเรามีเหตุผลให้คุณได้รับทราบกันแบบง่ายๆ ว่าตัวเลือกในการก็ใช้บริการกับเว็บเกม สล็อตเว็บตรงไม่ผ่านเอเย่นต์ 2023 ของเราที่นี่ สามารถให้ คุณได้สัมผัสกับทุกความสนุก สล็อตเว็บตรงไม่ผ่านเอเย่นต์ ของเรา ที่ตอบโจทย์คุณได้อย่างลงตัวที่สุด แน่นอน แถมยังสามารถในการตอบสนองความต้องการกับนักพนันได้ดีที่สุด อีกด้วย 

มั่นใจได้เลยว่าทุกความมั่นคงทางการเงินกับเว็บไซต์ สล็อตเว็บตรง อันดับ 1 ของเรา ที่ได้จะสามารถช่วยให้นักพนันได้มีเปอร์เซ็นต์ ในการลงทุน สล็อตเว็บตรงแตกง่าย ที่สูงที่สุด กันได้อย่างคุ้มค่าแน่นอน และยังสามารถช่วยให้นักพนันได้รับประสบการณ์ใหม่ในการลงทุนบนเว็บไซต์ สล็อตเว็บตรง pg ไม่ผ่านเอเย่นต์ ของเราที่นี่ กันได้เป็นอย่างดีด้วย เพราะแต่ละรูปแบบในการเข้าใช้บริการ เว็บสล็อตออนไลน์ ที่ดีที่สุด ของเรา จะสามารถทำให้นักพนันได้รับความหลากหลายในการใช้งานได้จริง 

1. ฝากถอนระบบออโต้ ไม่มีขั้นต่ำ

รับประกันการทำรายการทางด้านธุรกรรมการเงินกับเว็บไซต์ ปั่นสล็อต ของเรา ที่มีการรับรองในการเข้าใช้งานด้วยระบบออโต้ที่ไม่มีการจำกัดขั้นต่ำใดๆ ในการเข้าใช้บริการ สล็อตออนไลน์ ได้เงินจริง ได้เลยทั้งสิ้นสามารถให้ นักพนันเชื่อมต่อ และใช้งานกับระบบ Auto ของเรา ได้ง่าย และรวดเร็วที่สุด 

2. คืนยอดเสียทุกยอดบิล

สำหรับเงื่อนไขในการคืนยอดเสียบนเว็บไซต์ สล็อตเครดิตฟรี ของเราที่นี่ มีการคืนยอดเสียให้กับนักพนันได้ในทุกบิล และทุกวันที่เข้ามาใช้บริการกันเลยด้วยนั่นเอง ซึ่งต้องบอกเลยว่าแต่ละรูปแบบในการสร้างรายได้กับเว็บไซต์ สล็อตวอเลท เว็บตรง ของเรา จะสามารถให้ การตอบโจทย์กับนักพนันได้อย่างลงตัว 

3. มีโปรโมชั่นแจกทุกวัน

ด้วย โปรโมชั่นสล็อต ของเรา บนเว็บไซต์นี้ สามารถจัดหนักจัดเต็มให้กับนักพนันได้ในทุกการเข้าใช้บริการบนเว็บไซต์ สล็อตวอเลท ไม่มีขั้นต่ํา ของเราที่นี่ ทั้งหมด เพราะว่าทุกโปรโมชั่นของเรา มีทั้งเครดิตฟรี และโบนัสฟรีให้คุณได้เลือกรับกันได้อย่างจุใจในทุกเป้าหมายที่คุณต้องการแน่นอน 

รวม 6 เว็บ สล็อตเว็บตรง แตกหนัก ที่มีอัตราจ่ายสูงที่สุด ในไทย

อัตราในการสร้างรายได้ไปกับแหล่งเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเราที่นี่ มีหลากหลายเครือข่ายที่คุณจะสามารถเข้ามาใช้บริการกันได้ง่ายที่สุด ซึ่งต้องบอกเลยว่าเครือข่ายพันธมิตรกับเกม สล็อต ฝาก-ถอน true wallet ไม่มี บัญชีธนาคาร ของเรา นั้นมีหลากหลายรูปแบบที่คุณจะต้องได้เผชิญกับหลากหลายเวอร์ชั่น รวมเว็บสล็อต ฝาก-ถอน true wallet ของเรา ที่ทำให้คุณได้รับความสนุก และความบันเทิงมากยิ่งขึ้นกับแหล่งเกม สล็อตฝากถอน true wallet ไม่มี ขั้นต่ำ ของเรา เหล่านี้ นั่นเอง ซึ่งเป็นอัตราในการชนะที่มีความเป็นไปได้สูงมาก 

รับรองได้เลยว่าเมื่อคุณได้เลือกเข้าใช้บริการกับแหล่งเกม สล็อตฝากถอน true wallet เว็บตรง ที่เราได้มีการแนะนำเหล่านี้ จะสามารถทำให้นักพนันได้เลือกรับรางวัลในการลงทุน สล็อตทรูวอเลท บนเว็บไซต์ของเราที่นี่ กันได้อย่างต่อเนื่องแน่นอน นอกจากนี้ แล้วยังสามารถให้ คุณได้กำหนดรวมเงินในการเข้าใช้บริการได้แบบง่ายๆ อยู่ด้วย เพราะว่าเว็บไซต์ สล็อตฝากถอนวอเลท ของเราที่นี่ สามารถเริ่มต้นด้วยการใช้งาน สล็อตเว็บตรงวอเลท กับอัตราเงินทุนเพียงแค่ 1 บาทเท่านั้นเอง ที่จะสามารถใช้งานได้ทุกประเภท 

เพลิดเพลินกันได้อย่างไม่มีขีดจำกัดแน่นอน ด้วยแหล่งเกมของเรา บนเว็บไซต์นี้ ที่สามารถให้ นักพนันได้กำหนดทุกวงเงินของเรา ในการเลือกต้องใช้บริการกันได้อย่างสะดวกที่สุด และยังเป็นอีกหนึ่งเครือข่ายเกมที่ใหญ่ที่สุด ในเมืองไทยให้คุณได้ใช้งานอย่างสะดวก 

รับประกันทุกช่องทางที่ให้ความทันสมัยกับนักพนันได้ดีที่สุด กับประเภทเกมของเรา บนเว็บไซต์นี้ ที่สามารถให้ คุณได้รับกำไรกันได้อย่างสะดวกสบายกับแต่ละรูปแบบเกมของเรา ในการเข้าใช้บริการที่นี่แน่นอน แถมยังสามารถลงทะเบียนเข้ามาใช้บริการได้ง่ายด้วย 

เพียงแค่ไม่กี่ขั้นตอนในการใช้งานกับเว็บไซต์ของเราที่นี่ ก็สามารถทำให้คุณได้เพลิดเพลินไปกับทุกผลประโยชน์ที่จะได้รับกันทั้งหมดแล้วด้วยนั่นเอง เพราะว่าการทดลองในการเข้าใช้บริการของเรา บนเว็บไซต์นี้ สามารถใช้งานได้ง่ายที่สุด โดยไม่มีค่าใช้จ่าย 

เพิ่มความมั่นใจให้กับนักพนันได้ง่ายที่สุด กับเว็บไซต์ของเรา ที่จะสามารถให้ อัตราในการชนะในรูปแบบการเดิมพันกับนักพนันได้เป็นอย่างดี และยังสามารถช่วยให้นักพนันได้มีประเภทในการใช้บริการกันได้ง่ายอีกด้วยจากรูปแบบต่างๆ ของเรา ในการเลือกสร้างรายได้ 

เปิดความนิยมสูงสุดให้นักพนันทำกำไรกันได้แบบง่ายๆ ด้วยช่องทางในการเข้าใช้บริการของเรา บนเว็บไซต์นี้ ที่ให้การบริการได้เต็มรูปแบบนอกจากนี้ แล้วยังมีการอัพเดททั้งเครือข่ายเกม และค่ายเกมยักษ์ใหญ่ให้คุณได้เข้ามาใช้บริการกันได้อย่างเพลิดเพลินมากกว่าพันเกม 

ความสุดพิเศษในการอัพเดททุกรางวัลให้คุณได้ใช้บริการกับเราบนเว็บไซต์นี้ ต้องบอกเลยว่าสามารถให้ คุณได้ใช้บริการได้แบบไม่ซ้ำใครแน่นอน นอกจากนี้ แล้วยังสามารถที่คุณได้เลือกลงทุนไปกับประสบการณ์ใหม่ของเรา บนเว็บไซต์นี้ กันได้อย่างต่อเนื่อง 

ทางเข้า สล็อตเว็บตรง เว็บใหม่ล่าสุด จ่ายหนักจัดเต็ม สมัครสมาชิกฟรี ที่นี่

เปิดทางเข้าในประเภทเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเราที่นี่ ใช้งานกันได้อย่างสะดวกสบายแน่นอน เพราะว่าเรามีรูปแบบเกม slot wallet แนวใหม่ให้คุณได้เข้ามาใช้บริการกันได้ตั้งแต่สมัครสมาชิก pgสล็อตวอเลท กันเลยด้วยนั่นเอง และต้องบอกเลยว่าระบบการต้อนรับในทุกๆ function ของเรา นั้นเป็นระบบอัตโนมัติที่สามารถรับรองในการเข้าใช้บริการ สล็อตวอเลท ไม่มีขั้นต่ํา ให้กับนักพนันได้อย่างสะดวกที่สุด กับแต่ละรูปแบบประเภทของเรา ในการใช้งาน 

ด้วยความล้ำสมัยกับทุกช่องทางบนเว็บไซต์ สล็อตวอเลท เว็บตรง ของเราที่นี่ สามารถทำให้นักพนันมั่นใจไปกับทุกผลประโยชน์ของเรา กันได้ไม่น้อยแน่นอน เพราะว่าเป็นอันดับต้นๆ ในเครือข่ายเว็บเกม สล็อต ฝาก-ถอน true wallet ไม่มี บัญชีธนาคาร ที่มีรางวัลให้กับนักพนันได้เลือกรับได้สูงที่สุด รวมเว็บสล็อต ฝาก-ถอน true wallet นอกจากนี้ แล้วยังสามารถอัพเดทเกมใหม่ให้คุณได้ใช้บริการก่อนใครรวมถึงเกมยอดฮิตที่มาแรงที่สุด คุณก็จะต้องได้ใช้บริการกันได้อย่างแน่นอน 

รวมเทคนิคการปั่น สล็อตเว็บตรง ทำกำไรจากสล็อตอย่างไร ?

รวมความพิเศษในการลงทุนกับเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเรา บนเว็บนี้ ให้คุณได้ใช้บริการกันได้อย่างมั่นใจมากขึ้นแล้วที่นี่ต้องบอกเลยว่าเป็นประสบการณ์ใหม่ในการลงทุน wallet slot ที่จะสามารถเชื่อมต่อกับทุกรางวัลให้กับนักพนันได้เล่นเกม สล็อตฝากถอน true wallet ไม่มี ขั้นต่ำ ของเราที่นี่ กันได้อย่างจุใจที่สุด และยังสามารถช่วยเพิ่มเป้าหมายในการลงทุนให้กับนักพนันได้ไม่น้อยอีกด้วยเพียงแค่มั่นใจกับการลงทุนเกม สล็อตฝากถอน true wallet เว็บตรง ของเรา ด้วยเทคนิคเหล่านี้ 

ต้องบอกเลยว่าใครที่ต้องการเพิ่มจำนวนกำไรให้กับตัวเอง เข้ากระเป๋าอยู่แล้วละก็ควรจะต้องเลือกใช้บริการด้วยสูตรหรือเทคนิคที่เรามีความคล่องตัวเท่านั้นจึงจะสามารถทำให้นักพนันได้รับรายได้ที่สูงที่สุด ออกไปจากเว็บไซต์ของเราที่นี่ ได้จริง และยังสามารถให้ นักพนันได้มีคุณสมบัติในการลงทุนกับเกม slot auto wallet ของเราที่นี่ กันได้ไม่น้อยอีกด้วยจากช่องทางต่างๆ ของเรา ในการใช้งาน

1. เลือกช่วงเวลาเล่นสล็อตตามสูตร

สำหรับช่วงเวลาในการเดิมพันกับเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ฝาก-ถอน true wallet ไม่มี ธนาคาร ไม่มี ขั้น ต่ํา นั้นมีองค์ประกอบที่สำคัญด้วยเช่นเดียวกัน ซึ่งถ้าหากว่าเราเลือกใช้บริการด้วยช่วงเวลาที่มีการปล่อยรางวัลได้เยอะที่สุด แล้วนั้นจะสามารถทำให้นักพนันได้เลือกรับกำไรได้ไม่น้อย และลดโอกาสความเสี่ยงได้เป็นอย่างดี 

2. เพิ่มเบทเดิมพันขึ้นเมื่อโบนัสแตก

อัตราการปรับเบทในการวางเดิมพันกับเกม สล็อตทรูวอเลท มีความสำคัญในการใช้งานได้ด้วยเช่นเดียวกัน เพราะว่าอัตราในการเข้าใช้บริการบนเว็บเกมสล็อตของเราที่นี่ มีจังหวะในการปรับเงินทุนที่จะสามารถทำกำไรให้กับนักพนันได้ง่ายขึ้น และมีโอกาสที่จะได้รับรางวัลได้สูง 

3. เลือกเกมที่มีฟีเจอร์ฟรีสปิน

การใช้รูปแบบเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ฝาก-ถอน true wallet ไม่มี ขั้น ต่ํา ของเราที่นี่ ควรต้องเลือกใช้บริการด้วยฟีเจอร์การรับฟรีสปินที่จะเป็นตัวช่วยในการใช้งานกับเกมสล็อตของเรา ได้เป็นอย่างดีด้วยนั่นเอง ซึ่งต้องบอกเลยว่าสามารถให้ ความเพลิดเพลินกับนักพนันได้อย่างลงตัวที่สุด เมื่อเข้ามาใช้งาน 

สล็อตเว็บตรง เดินพันเริ่มต้นเพียง 1 บาท เล่นได้ทุกเกม การันตี สล็อตแตกหนัก ที่สุด 

รูปแบบการเดิมพัน สล็อตเว็บตรง ของเรา บนเว็บนี้ สามารถให้ การการันตีกับทุกเป้าหมายของนักพนันในการลงทุนกันได้อย่างเต็มที่แน่นอน เพราะว่าทุกเกม สล็อตวอลเล็ต ของเรา บนเว็บนี้ ให้อัตราในการแตกรางวัลกับนักพนันได้อย่างหนักที่สุด และยังสามารถช่วยเพิ่มเป้าหมายในการบริการให้นักพนันได้เป็นอย่างดีอีกโดยเฉพาะแต่ละเกม สล็อตฝากถอนวอเลท ของเราที่นี่ มีการอัพเดทอย่างสม่ำเสมอไม่ให้มีซ้ำหน้าแน่นอน 

ต้องบอกเลยว่าการใช้บริการกับเกม สล็อต ฝาก-ถอน true wallet 2023 ของเรา ไม่ว่าจะเป็นประเภทเกมใดก็แล้วแต่คุณจะได้รับอิสระในการลงทุนกันได้มากที่สุด กับทุกประเภทเกมของเรา ในการเลือกเข้าใช้บริการบนเว็บไซต์นี้ แน่นอน แถมยังสามารถเลือกใช้งานได้โดยที่ไม่มีการจำกัดขั้นต่ำใดๆ ทั้งสิ้นอีกด้วย เพราะว่าการเป็นสมาชิก สล็อตเว็บตรงวอเลท กับเราบนเว็บไซต์นี้ สามารถให้ ความสะดวก และรวดเร็วไปกับทุกเป้าหมายของเราที่นี่ ได้จริง 

สล็อตเว็บตรง เว็บตรง ถอนผ่าน ทรูวอเลท รวมเกมจากคายชั้นนำ ที่นี่ที่เดียว

รวมความสนุกจากเกม สล็อตเว็บตรง ในหลากหลายประเภทให้คุณได้ใช้บริการ ทรูวอเลท บนเว็บไซต์เดียวของเราที่นี่ แล้ว รับรองได้เลยว่าสามารถจัดหนักจัดเต็มไปกับทุกประเภทเกมของเรา ในการเลือกเข้าใช้บริการบนเว็บไซต์นี้ ได้ทั้งหมด และยังเป็นแหล่งเกมที่สามารถทำกำไรให้กับนักพนันได้ไม่น้อยอีกด้วย เพราะว่าความนิยมจากการลงทุนด้วยเกม สลอตวอลเลต ของเราที่นี่ จะสามารถทำให้นักพนันเพลิดเพลินกันได้มากที่สุด 

สนุกกันได้ทุกที่ทุกเวลาที่คุณต้องการแน่นอน กับประเภทเกม สล็อต ของเรา ที่มีแนวเกมใหม่อัพเดทให้นักพนันได้ใช้บริการกันได้อย่างสม่ำเสมอ และยังสามารถให้ คุณได้ครบจบในเว็บเดียวอีกด้วยทุกความสนุกที่ เว็บสล็อตใหม่ล่าสุด คุณต้องการ เพราะว่าเกมแต่ละประเภทบนเว็บไซต์ของเราที่นี่ จะทำให้คุณได้รับความบันเทิงมากยิ่งขึ้นอย่างต่อเนื่องด้วยการอัพเดทระบบใหม่ๆ ของเรา กันแบบ Real Time ที่ให้ความสนุกกับนักพนันได้ทุกเวลา

FAQs คำถามที่พบบ่อย 

สล็อตเว็บตรง เล่นอย่างไรให้สล็อตแตก .

เดิมพันเกมสล็อตกับราบนเว็บไซต์นี้ ให้เป้าหมายในการลงทุนกับนักพนันได้เป็นอย่างดีที่สุด กับทุกประเภทเกมของเรา ในการเลือกเข้าใช้บริการบนเว็บไซต์นี้ แน่นอน เพราะว่าเรามีเทคนิค และสูตรให้คุณได้ศึกษาในทุกรายละเอียด 

สล็อตเว็บตรง คืนยอดเสียไหม ?

อัตราในการคืนยอดเสียบนเว็บเกมสล็อตของเราที่นี่ แน่นอน ว่าเรามีโปรโมชั่นในการคืนยอดเสียให้กับนักพนันได้ในทุกบิลที่คุณต้องการแน่นอน โดยที่เราจะไม่มีการจำกัดใดๆ ทั้งสิ้นแน่นอน 

สล็อตเว็บตรง เป็นระบบออโต้ไหม ?

ทุกฟังก์ชันในการเข้าใช้บริการกับเว็บเกมสล็อตของเราที่นี่ เป็นระบบออโต้ที่คุณสามารถเลือกเข้าใช้บริการกันได้อย่างสะดวก และง่ายที่สุด ด้วยนั่นเอง ไม่ว่าจะเป็นการฝากถอนหรือการทำรายการทางด้านอื่นๆ ก็สามารถทำรายการได้อย่างรวดเร็ว 

Environmental Anthropology

Environmental anthropology brings together faculty with specialties in the anthropology of science, archeology, heritage studies, medical anthropology, political ecology, and political economy.  Faculty are broadly concerned with the ways that people grapple with political conditions that influence ideas and tensions about land, geography and nature.  As anthropologists, we largely focus on changing human relationships of the world over and throughout time.  Our research and teaching interests include chronicling issues of justice and accessibility posed by environmental resources, assessing new forms of stratification and inequality tied to commodification and various aspects of economy, developing new ways of thinking about interspecies interdependencies, and detailing the historical trajectories (including colonial, imperial, and military) that shape contemporary views about specific landscapes and the broader world.

Andrew Bauer

Paulla Ebron

James Ferguson

Duana Fullwiley

Angela Garcia

Matthew Kohrman

Amanah Nurish

Have an account? Log in

Foundation for Anthropological Research and Environmental Studies

CONDUCT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OF ANCIENT SOCIETIES IN THE PETEN JUNGLE OF NORTHERN GUATEMALA. THE FOUNDATION EXCAVATES, STUDIES, PRESERVES, AND CONSOLIDATES ANCIENT STRUCTURES. THE FOUNDATION WORKS CLOSELY WITH THE GUATEMALAN GOVERNMENT TO PRESERVE AND PROTECT THE AREA.

Is this your nonprofit?

Fill out your profile to be more discoverable and compelling to Millie donors.

This website uses cookies to ensure you get the best experience on our website. Without cookies your experience may not be seamless.

• The Environment in Anthropology (Second Edition): A Reader in Ecology, Culture, and Sustainable Living

In this Book

• Nora Haenn, Allison Harnish, Richard Wilk
• Published by: NYU Press

The Environment in Anthropology presents ecology and current environmental studies from an anthropological point of view. From the classics to the most current scholarship, this text connects the theory and practice in environment and anthropology, providing readers with a strong intellectual foundation as well as offering practical tools for solving environmental problems. Haenn, Wilk, and Harnish pose the most urgent questions of environmental protection: How are environmental problems mediated by cultural values? What are the environmental effects of urbanization? When do environmentalists’ goals and actions conflict with those of indigenous peoples? How can we assess the impact of “environmentally correct” businesses? They also cover the fundamental topics of population growth, large scale development, biodiversity conservation, sustainable environmental management, indigenous groups, consumption, and globalization. This revised edition addresses new topics such as water, toxic waste, neoliberalism, environmental history, environmental activism, and REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), and it situates anthropology in the multi-disciplinary field of environmental research. It also offers readers a guide for developing their own plan for environmental action. This volume offers an introduction to the breadth of ecological and environmental anthropology as well as to its historical trends and current developments. Balancing landmark essays with cutting-edge scholarship, bridging theory and practice, and offering suggestions for further reading and new directions for research, The Environment in Anthropology continues to provide the ideal introduction to a burgeoning field.

Table of Contents

• Title, Copyright
• Acknowledgments
• General Introduction
• Section 1. So, What Is Environmental Anthropology?
• 1. The Concept and Method of Cultural Ecology
• Julian Steward
• 2. Smallholders, Householders
• Robert McC. Netting
• 3. False Forest History, Complicit Social Analysis: Rethinking Some West African Environmental Narratives
• James Fairhead and Melissa Leach
• 4. Gender and Environment: A Feminist Political Ecology Perspective
• Dianne Rocheleau, Barbara Thomas-Slayter, and Esther Wangari
• 5. A View from a Point: Ethnoecology as Situated Knowledge
• Virginia D. Nazarea
• 6. Ethics Primer for University Students Intending to Become Natural Resources Managers and Administrators
• Richard J. McNeil
• Section 2. What Does Population Have to Do with It?
• 7. Ester Boserup's Theory of Agrarian Change: A Critical Review
• David Grigg
• 8. The Benefits of the Commons
• Fikret Berkes, David Feeny, Bonnie J. McCay, and James M. Acheson
• 9. 7 Billion and Counting
• David Bloom
• 10. Rural Household Demographics, Livelihoods, and the Environment
• Alex de Sherbinin, Leah VanWey, Kendra McSweeney, Rimjhim Aggarwal, Alisson Barbieri, Sabine Henry, Lori M. Hunter, Wayne Twine, and Robert Walker
• 11. Carrying Capacity's New Guise: Folk Models for Public Debate and Longitudinal Study of Environmental Change
• Lisa Cliggett
• 12. The Environment as Geopolitical Threat: Reading Robert Kaplan's "Coming Anarchy"
• Simon Dalby
• pp. 102-116
• Section 3. What Are Urban, Rural, andSuburban Environments?
• pp. 117-123
• 13. The Growth of World Urbanism
• Charles Redman
• pp. 124-139
• 14. Economic Growth and the Environment
• Theodore Panayotou
• pp. 140-148
• 15. Bhopal: Vulnerability, Routinization, and the Chronic Disaster
• S. Ravi Rajan
• pp. 149-158
• 16. The Lawn-Chemical Economy and Its Discontents
• Paul Robbins and Julie Sharp
• pp. 159-169
• 17. Addictive Economies and Coal Dependency: Methods of Extraction and Socioeconomic Outcomes in West Virginia, 1997-2009
• Robert Todd Perdue and Gregory Pavela
• pp. 170-184
• 18. The Anti-Politics Machine: "Development" and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho
• James Ferguson with Larry Lohmann
• pp. 185-196
• Section 4. How Does Globalization AffectEnvironment and Culture?
• pp. 197-201
• 19. How Do We Know We Have Global Environmental Problems? Science and the Globalization of Environmental Discourse
• Peter J. Taylor and Frederick H. Buttel
• pp. 202-213
• 20. Bottled Water: The Pure Commodity in the Age of Branding
• Richard R. Wilk
• pp. 214-221
• 21. Indigenous Initiatives and Petroleum Politics in the Ecuadorian Amazon
• Suzana Sawyer
• pp. 222-228
• 22. Land Tenure and REDD+: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
• Anne M. Larson, Maria Brockhaus, William D. Sunderlin, Amy Duchelle, Andrea Babon, Therese Dokken, Thu Thuy Pham, I. A. P. Resosudarmo, Galia Selaya, Abdon Awono, and Thu-Ba Huynh
• pp. 229-240
• 23. Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection
• Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing
• pp. 241-244
• Section 5. How Do Identities ShapeEcological Experiences?
• pp. 245-249
• 24. Cultural Theory and Environmentalism
• pp. 250-253
• 25. Endangered Forests, Endangered People: Environmentalist Representations of Indigenous Knowledge
• J. Peter Brosius
• pp. 254-273
• 26. The Nature of Gender: Gender, Work, and Environment
• Andrea Nightingale
• pp. 274-285
• 27. "But I Know It's True": Environmental Risk Assessment, Justice, and Anthropology
• Melissa Checker
• pp. 286-299
• 28. Bringing the Moral Economy Back in . . . to the Study of 21st-Century Transnational Peasant Movements
• Marc Edelman
• pp. 300-309
• 29. How to Queer Ecology: One Goose at a Time
• Alex Carr Johnson
• pp. 310-316
• Section 6. Can Biodiversity Be Conserved?
• pp. 317-323
• 30. Neoliberal Conservation: A Brief Introduction
• Jim Igoe and Dan Brockington
• pp. 324-331
• 31. The Power of Environmental Knowledge: Ethnoecology and Environmental Conflicts in Mexican Conservation
• pp. 332-343
• 32. Radical Ecology and Conservation Science: An Australian Perspective
• Libby Robin
• pp. 344-358
• 33. Stolen Apes: The Illicit Trade in Chimpanzees, Gorillas, Bonobos, and Orangutans
• Daniel Stiles, Ian Redmond, Doug Cress, Christian Nellemann, and Rannveig Knutsdatter Formo
• pp. 359-361
• 34. Difference and Conflict in the Struggle over Natural Resources: A Political Ecology Framework
• Arturo Escobar
• pp. 362-368
• Section 7. Is Green Consumerism the Answer?
• pp. 369-372
• 35. The Invisible Giant: Cargill and Its Transnational Strategies
• Brewster Kneen
• pp. 373-379
• 36. Treading Lightly? Ecotourism's Impact on the Environment
• Martha Honey
• pp. 380-389
• 37. What Is Degrowth? From an Activist Slogan to a Social Movement
• Federico Demaria, François Schneider, Filka Sekulova, and Joan Martinez-Alier
• pp. 390-400
• 38. Protecting the Environment the Natural Way: Ethical Consumption and Commodity Fetishism
• James G. Carrier
• pp. 401-410
• Section 8. Okay, Now What?
• pp. 411-415
• 39. Living Up to Our Words
• Paul Durrenberger
• pp. 416-422
• 40. Social Responsibility and the Anthropological Citizen
• Barbara Rose Johnston
• pp. 423-444
• 41. World Is Burning, Sky Is Falling, All Hands on Deck! Reflections on Engaged and Action-Oriented Socio-Environmental Scholarship
• Garrett Graddy-Lovelace, Allison Harnish, and Julianne A. Hazlewood
• pp. 445-481
• 42. A Wonderfully Incomplete Bibliography of Action-Oriented Anthropology and Applied Environmental Social Science
• Allison Harnish, Julianne A. Hazlewood, Amanda Bedker, and Sydney Roeder
• pp. 482-508
• Contributors
• pp. 509-518
• pp. 519-527

Additional Information

Project muse mission.

Project MUSE promotes the creation and dissemination of essential humanities and social science resources through collaboration with libraries, publishers, and scholars worldwide. Forged from a partnership between a university press and a library, Project MUSE is a trusted part of the academic and scholarly community it serves.

2715 North Charles Street Baltimore, Maryland, USA 21218

+1 (410) 516-6989 [email protected]

©2024 Project MUSE. Produced by Johns Hopkins University Press in collaboration with The Sheridan Libraries.

Now and Always, The Trusted Content Your Research Requires

Built on the Johns Hopkins University Campus

We've detected unusual activity from your computer network

To continue, please click the box below to let us know you're not a robot.

Why did this happen?

Please make sure your browser supports JavaScript and cookies and that you are not blocking them from loading. For more information you can review our Terms of Service and Cookie Policy .

For inquiries related to this message please contact our support team and provide the reference ID below.

The Wenner-Gren Foundation is a private operating foundation dedicated to providing leadership in support of anthropology and anthropologists worldwide.

Our mission, annual reports.

It’s somewhat of an accident that the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research exists. In 1941, Axel Wenner-Gren, founder of the Electro-Lux Corporation (and one of the richest men in the world), created the Viking Fund to resolve tax issues raised by the sale of a boat in Florida. The fund’s original mission was to promote advancements in science, charity, literature, education, and religion. Paul Fejos, a Hungarian avant-garde filmmaker, convinced Wenner-Gren to use the fund to support anthropological work. Renamed in 1951, the Wenner-Gren Foundation quickly became a key actor in this discipline.

In the early years, the Foundation pursued its aims through focused research and funding programs and by hosting a series of influential conferences and meetings. In 1959, the Foundation founded Current Anthropology , which became one of anthropology’s flagship journals.

As anthropology grew and changed, so did the Foundation. It developed a strong identity emphasizing the internationalism and broad-based nature of anthropology, featuring programs for archaeologists and sociocultural, biological, and linguistic anthropologists around the globe.

Today more than ever, the Foundation is committed to enabling the field of anthropology to flourish in its full diversity. We advance anthropological knowledge, amplify its impact, foster inclusivity, and address the precariousness of anthropology as a career and a field of study.

In concert with our board of trustees, the Foundation relies on an advisory council comprised of six international anthropologists who provide guidance on the Foundation’s programs and policies. We also depend on more than 60 reviewers to offer constructive feedback to all grant applicants and ensure that the research we fund is of the highest quality.

The Wenner-Gren Foundation is committed to playing a leadership role in anthropology. We help anthropologists advance anthropological knowledge, build sustainable careers, and amplify the impact of anthropology within the wider world. We dedicate ourselves to broadening the conversation in anthropology to reflect the full diversity of the field.

All of our programs contribute to the Foundation’s mission in more than one way, but broadly address these four major goals:

(1) Advance knowledge across anthropology’s many subfields and specializations.

Dissertation Fieldwork Grants (for doctoral students) and Post-PhD Research Grants (for established scholars) support individual research projects.

The Historical Archives Program preserves the anthropological record for future generations of scholars.

Engaged Research Grants support the work of scholars who advance conversations in anthropology through studies designed and carried out in collaboration with Indigenous and underserved communities.

Current Anthropology publishes articles and commentary covering all aspects of anthropological research worldwide.

(2) Amplify the discipline’s impact by giving anthropologists the skills and platforms they need to reach broader audiences and affirm the value of anthropology in a rapidly changing world.

SAPIENS shares anthropological insights with nonacademic audiences, while providing scholars based in academic settings a chance to hone their skills in writing and producing podcasts for a broader public. The SAPIENS Public Scholars Training Fellowship offers intensive instruction to doctoral students and anthropology PhDs of all ranks.

(3) Nurture and safeguard anthropology as a career and a discipline by helping anthropologists demonstrate its value and develop new ways to put their skills and insights to work.

Hunt Postdoctoral Fellowships, Fejos Postdoctoral Fellowships in Ethnographic Film, and Wenner-Gren Fellowships in Anthropology and Black Experiences provide recent doctorates with the support they need to complete articles, books, and films based on their findings.

SAPIENS Public Fellowships allow recent doctorates to gain skills in communicating with nonacademic audiences.

Global Initiatives Grants fund collaborative projects falling outside our regular funding programs that are designed to help the discipline survive and thrive.

(4) Foster inclusive conversations by supporting anthropologists with different backgrounds, perspectives, methods, and commitments.

Wenner-Gren Symposia provide an international forum for scholars to meet and discuss cutting edge developments in the discipline.

Wenner-Gren Seminars bring together accomplished junior and senior anthropologists who are working to change the debate on an emerging research question or theme.

Wenner-Gren Forums showcase diverse viewpoints on the future of anthropology.

Conference and Workshop Grants support international networking at professional meetings of all sizes.

Wadsworth International and Wadsworth African Fellowships enable scholars in places where anthropology is less established to gain doctorates in world-class departments. Wadsworth Institutional Grants enable departments in the Global South to nurture a culture of grant writing for international agencies.

The Foundation has also helped establish major anthropological associations, such as the European Association of Social Anthropology, the Pan-African Anthropological Association, and the World Council of Anthropological Associations.

Our board members, advisors, and teams work together on behalf of the field of anthropology. We come from all over the world.

Board of Trustees

Advisory Council

Current Anthropology

About Our President

Danilyn Rutherford received her bachelor’s degree in biology and history from Stanford University in 1983 and her doctorate in anthropology, with a minor in Southeast Asian studies, from Cornell University in 1997. She briefly taught at Goldsmiths College in London before joining the University of Chicago, where she served on the anthropology faculty from 1998 to 2009. While at the University of Chicago, she also served as director of graduate studies and on the committees of scores of graduate students, who worked with her on topics ranging from violence in East Timor to Slovenian contemporary art. In 2009, she joined the department of anthropology at the University of California, Santa Cruz, where she was chair from 2011 to 2016 and a member of the campus-wide Committee on Planning and Budget from 2015 to 2016.

Rutherford is a past president of the Society for Cultural Anthropology and has served on the executive committee of the Pacific Rim Fellowship Committee, on the board of the Papuan Resource Center, as principle investigator within a Carnegie Foundation/East-West Center project on internal conflicts in Asia, and as a reviewer for the Wenner-Gren Foundation, the Social Science Research Council, the Canadian Social Science and Humanities Research Council, American Anthropologist , American Ethnologist , Cultural Anthropology , Journal of Feminist Studies , Indonesia , Ethnos , HAU , Cornell University Press, and Duke University Press. She is also a member of the Institute for Advanced Studies. Before joining academia, she worked as an English teacher in Central Java with Volunteers in Asia and as associate director of a non-profit, the International Development Exchange (now Thousand Currents).

Rutherford is the author of three books on West Papua, where she has conducted the bulk of her research: Raiding the Land of the Foreigners: The Limits of the Nation on an Indonesian Frontier ; Laughing at Leviathan: Sovereignty and Audience in West Papua ; and Living in the Stone Age: Reflections on the Origins of a Colonial Fantasy . The Wenner-Gren Foundation was the first to support her work in West Papua; she also received a Javits Fellowship, a Fulbright Hayes Fellowship, and awards from the Social Science Research Council and the MacArthur Foundation Program on Global Security and Sustainability. Her interests are broad and eclectic. She has published essays and articles on kinship, Christian conversion, disability, nationalism, sovereignty, missionary language ideology, Franz Kafka’s “In the Penal Colony,” affect, money, technology, climate change, and the empirical nature of anthropological work. In 2016, she received a National Science Foundation Scholar’s Award to begin a new project on belief and communication in the social worlds of adolescents with severe and profound intellectual disabilities. Rutherford stepped in as president of Wenner-Gren in July 2017 and is thrilled to have an opportunity to contribute to anthropology in this role.

We value transparency.  The most recent Wenner-Gren financial statements, reports on completed research, and grant reviewers are listed below.

• Financial Statements Download PDF
• Completed Research Download PDF
• Grant Reviewers Download PDF

For an exact search, surround your words with double quotes.

Foundations of Environmental Anthropology

In this lecture on the foundations of environmental anthropology, Dr. Eduardo Brondizio first highlights the modern era in world history as one great global acceleration in which the use of natural resources and economic development have increased exponentially. He traces the history of ideas used to study the relationship between human culture and environmental constraints starting with cultural ecology and moving through ecological anthropology, political ecology, ethnobiology, and historic and symbolic ecologies. He notes that these and other related theories and approaches all deal with complexity and connectivity and that the temporal and spatial scope of current change requires new frameworks for understanding. He shows that socio-environmental synthesis approaches draw on these distinct traditions in anthropology, but he perceives a lack of participation by anthropologists in shaping current socio-environmental synthesis frameworks. Recent trends within anthropology towards synthesizing these disparate traditions may also be an opportunity for anthropologists to contribute to developing socio-environmental synthesis approaches. He ends with questions about the Anthropocene and how anthropology and related disciplines are dealing with the epistemological and moral tensions inherent in current challenges facing humans and the environment. 

Authors named during the presentation: Will Steffen, Julian Steward, Rostow, Sidney Mintz, Eric Wolf, H.T; Odum, Clifford Geertz, Andrew Vayda, Roy Rappaport, Ben Orlove, Harold Conklin, Mary Strathern, James Acheson, Marvin Harris, Anthony Giddens, Arjun Appadurai

This video is a recording of a presentation given as part of SESYNC’s Socio-Environmental Immersion program.   

Eduardo Brondizio

Dr. Eduardo S. Brondizio is Professor of Anthropology at Indiana University Bloomington, co-director of the Center for the Analysis of Social-Ecological Landscapes (CASEL), and faculty member of the Ostrom Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis. Eduardo’s research combines field-based longitudinal studies of the transformation of rural and urban areas and populations in the Amazon with research on global change and sustainability. Eduardo has published extensively on human–environment interactions, small farmers’ livelihood and social identity, household socio-demography and mobility...

Dr. Eduardo S. Brondizio is Professor of Anthropology at Indiana University Bloomington, co-director of the Center for the Analysis of Social-Ecological Landscapes (CASEL), and faculty member of the Ostrom Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis. Eduardo’s research combines field-based longitudinal studies of the transformation of rural and urban areas and populations in the Amazon with research on global change and sustainability. Eduardo has published extensively on human–environment interactions, small farmers’ livelihood and social identity, household socio-demography and mobility, landscape and land use change, agroforestry and commodity chains, and more broadly on integrating geospatial and social–ecological methods, development and poverty, ecosystem services, and institutional analysis and governance. His current research includes analysis of social–environmental vulnerabilities of the Amazon delta and application of complexity systems approaches to analyze the co-evolution of rural, urban, conservation and indigenous areas in the Amazon. Eduardo has been closely engaged with international global changed research programs and has contributed to several past and on-going global assessments. Eduardo is a member of the Science Committee of  Future Earth  and co-Editor-in-Chief of  Current Opinions in Environmental Sustainability .

Presentation slides: 

Reading list:.

• This article is mentioned near the end of this talk. It identifies entrenched epistemological differences between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities and opportunities presented by the Anthropocene concept to overcome these barriers to cross-disciplinary collaboration. It is open access.

Eduardo Brondizio, Indiana University Bloomington

Related Content

Culture, cognition, and the environment, immersion workshop: anthropology, contemporary applications of anthropological concepts, foundations and debates in anthropology, households, populations, and complex socio-environmental systems.

• Skip to Guides Search
• Skip to breadcrumb
• Skip to main content
• Skip to footer
• Skip to chat link
• Report accessibility issues and get help
• Go to Penn Libraries Home
• Go to Franklin catalog

Anthropology: Overview

• Anthropological Archaeology This link opens in a new window
• Biological Anthropology
• Cultural and Linguistic Anthropology
• Medical and Global Health Anthropology
• Environmental Anthropology
• Tips for Researching and Writing an Anthropology Paper

This guide is intended to help students and researchers locate resources for research in anthropology. It is subdivided according to the concentrations from which undergraduate majors in the University of Pennsylvania's Department of Anthropology can select: General Anthropology, Anthropological Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Cultural and Linguistic Anthropology, Medical and Global Health Anthropology, and Environmental Anthropology.

Starting your library research

Start at the penn libraries' homepage ..

• Be sure to log in with your PennKey using the button in the top right corner of the page in order to see all the options available to you during your searching.
• Search the Franklin Catalog to locate print and electronic books, journals, videos, and maps held by Penn Libraries.
• Search keywords in Articles+ platform in order to find citations or online content that appear in many Penn-subscribed journals, e-books, and databases.
• Search Penn Libraries' customized Google Scholar  for more online content. 
• In order to narrow your search to resources used by anthropologists, use the databases recommended below. In addition to clicking on the links below, you can search the name of the database in the Franklin catalog to find a record from which you can access the database.

Major online databases and full-text resources for Anthropology

In addition to multidisciplinary databases such as academic search premier and web of science and large journal archives such as jstor and project muse , researchers will find the following subject-specific databases and full-text resources valuable for research in anthropology:.

• Abstracts in Anthropology Indexes journals in cultural and physical anthropology, as well as linguistics and archaeology.
• Anthropology PLUS Combines Anthropological Literature (based at Harvard University) and Anthropological Index (from Royal Anthropological Institute of the UK) into one database that provides worldwide indexing of most anthropological journals from the early 19th century to present. more... less... ACCESS NOTE: 5 users . Combines Anthropological Literature from Harvard University and Anthropological Index from the Royal Anthropological Institute of the UK. Offers worldwide indexing of all core periodicals, in addition to lesser known journals, from the early 19th century to today. Broad geographical coverage emphasizes the Commonwealth and Africa and extends to Eastern Europe, the Americas, Asia, Australasia, and the Pacific. Covers fields of social, cultural, physical, biological and linguistic anthropology, ethnology, archaeology, folklore, material culture and interdisciplinary studies.
• AnthroSource Indexes journals, newsletters, bulletins and monographs of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).
• eHRAF World Cultures The Electronic Human Relations Area Files databases (eHRAF) allow for browsing and searching large collections of ethnographic documents that are indexed at the paragraph level. more... less... The Collection of Ethnography, established 1949, currently contains nearly one million pages of information on over 360 cultures of the world, past and present. Each culture case contains a variety of source documents (books, articles, and manuscripts) which have been indexed and organized according to HRAF's comprehensive culture and subject classification system (Outline of World Cultures, OWC, and Outline or Cultural Materials, OCM). The electronic collection currently consists of documents pertaining to 48 culture groups, covering both North American immigrant groups and cultures from around the world.
• International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS)
• Oxford Bibliographies: Anthropology   / editor in chief: John L. Jackson, Jr.

Go to a full list of databases and resources for anthropology available through the University of Pennsylvania.

Selected reference and introductory books

• The Routledge Companion to Contemporary Anthropology by Simon Coleman (Editor); Susan Brin Hyatt (Editor); Ann Kingsolver (Editor) ISBN: 1315743957 Publication Date: 2016-12-08 The Routledge Companion to Contemporary Anthropologyis an invaluable guide and major reference source for students and scholars alike, introducing its readers to key contemporary perspectives and approaches within the field. Written by an experienced international team of contributors, with an interdisciplinary range of essays, this collection provides a powerful overview of the transformations currently affecting anthropology. The volume both addresses the concerns of the discipline and comments on its construction through texts, classroom interactions, engagements with various publics, and changing relations with other academic subjects. Persuasively demonstrating that a number of key contemporary issues can be usefully analyzed through an anthropological lens, the contributors cover important topics such as globalization, law and politics, collaborative archaeology, economics, religion, citizenship and community, health, and the environment. The Routledge Companion to Contemporary Anthropologyis a fascinating examination of this lively and constantly evolving discipline.

BEROSE International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology is a free, online, multilingual resource that features articles on anthropologists, ethnographers, anthropological institutions, anthropological journals, and major themes.

The Museum Library

Penn Museum respectfully acknowledges that it is situated on Lenapehoking, the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Unami Lenape.

The Museum Library, located in the Academic Wing of the Penn Museum, is the University of Pennsylvania's branch library for anthropology and archaeology. With over 145,000 volumes on-site with historic strengths in biological and physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, a  rchaeology worldwide, and Native American studies, it is one of the premier branch libraries for anthropology in the United States.

Ask a question

Learn more on the Museum Library's homepage .

Related Guides

• Archaeology  
• Data & GIS
• Ethnography
• International Development
• Preparing Literature Reviews in the Social Sciences
• Social Network Analysis

Virtual and Remote Services

Virtual help.

• Send a Question
• Video Consultation
• How to Access Electronic Resources (On and Off Campus / EZ Proxy)
• Get Easy Off-Campus Access with Lean Library
• Visit the Virtual Computer Lab
• Contact the Library IT Help Desk

Remote Library Services

• FAQs on Library Service Availability
• Books by Mail To use this service you must register before making requests. more... less... This service is available for current Penn students and staff (and faculty through the Faculty Express Service), within North America. International requests will be reviewed on a case-by-case basis.
• Books by Mail Registration Register here to be eligible to use the Books by Mail service.
• Pickup@Penn Available for Penn faculty, students, and staff to request books and pick them up outside Van Pelt-Dietrich Library Center.
• Request Digital Delivery Formerly Scan and Deliver. more... less... This service enables current students, faculty and staff to obtain scans of selected book chapters and journal articles in the general, non-Reserve, collections of the University of Pennsylvania Libraries for your research. Restrictions apply: Staff will copy a specific article or book chapter, up to 50 pages, as long as this does not exceed fair use guidelines. Staff will process one chapter or article per request. Please submit requests for each specific article or book chapter needed on a separate request form.
• Next: Anthropological Archaeology >>
• Last Updated: May 16, 2024 3:23 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.upenn.edu/anthropology

• abbreviation
• word in meaning

Examples: NFL , NASA , PSP , HIPAA , random Word(s) in meaning: chat   "global warming" Postal codes: USA: 81657 , Canada: T5A 0A7

What does FARES stand for?

Fares stands for foundation for anthropological research and environmental studies.

• Science, medicine, engineering, etc.
• Organizations, NGOs, schools, universities, etc.

See other definitions of FARES

• MLA style: "FARES." Acronym Finder . 2024. AcronymFinder.com 17 May. 2024 https://www.acronymfinder.com/Foundation-for-Anthropological-Research-and-Environmental-Studies-(FARES).html
• Chicago style: Acronym Finder . S.v. "FARES." Retrieved May 17 2024 from https://www.acronymfinder.com/Foundation-for-Anthropological-Research-and-Environmental-Studies-(FARES).html
• APA style: FARES. (n.d.) Acronym Finder. (2024). Retrieved May 17 2024 from https://www.acronymfinder.com/Foundation-for-Anthropological-Research-and-Environmental-Studies-(FARES).html
• Abbreviation Database Surfer
• « Previous
• Next »
• Foundation for Air-Medical Research and Education (Alexandria, VA)
• Foundation for Association Research & Education (La Fondation de Recherche et d'Enseignement pour l'Avancement des Associations)
• Fractionnement des Agroressources et Environnement (French: Fractionation of Agricultural Resources and Environment)
• Frontières, Acteurs, Représentations de l'Europe (French: Borders, Actors, Representations of Europe)
• Fellow of the Association for Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
• Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron
• Far Eastern Land Forces (British Army)
• Filipino American Real Estate Professional Association (Milpitas, CA)
• First American Real Estate Solutions, LLC
• Forensic Analysis of Risks in Enterprise Systems
• Frontiers in Availability, Reliability and Security (international workshop)
• Fast Reactor Test Design
• Fire Ant Research and Education Team (est. 2003; Tennessee)
• Fanconi Anemia Research Fund, Inc. (Eugene, Oregon, USA)
• Federal Access Recovery Fee (telecommunications surcharge)
• Florida Association of Rehabilitation Facilities (Tallahassee, FL)
• Foreign Artsy Rare Films (New College of Florida, Sarasota, Florida)
• Funding Allocation Request Form
• Farm and Ranch Freedom Alliance (Austin, TX; also seen as FRFA)
• Federal Aviation Regulations for Flight Crew

• What we do?
• Where & What?
• Who We Are?
• Our Approach
• Principal objectives
• Our History

1-800-654-3083

WHAT IS THE MIRADOR BASIN?

“The Mirador Basin is a geological depression found in the rainforest of Petén. The entire system spreads across 1.6 million acres of pristine tropical forest”

WHERE IS THE MIRADOR BASIN?

“The Mirador Basin is a geological depression found in the rainforest, north of Petén in Guatemala Central America.”

WHAT WE DO AT MIRADOR BASIN?

“Through our Foundation , Mirador Basin provides resources for archeological investigations, education, health and protection of the ecosystem”

IT IS CRUCIAL TO CONSERVE THE MIRADOR BASIN…

“It is crucial to conserve the Mirador Basin to the fullest extent possible, and in a manner that is sustainable, economically viable and inclusive to the local communities”

OUR HISTORY

“The Mirador Basin exists as one of the world’s greatest cultural and natural treasures”

MAKE A DONATION

“Mirador Basin relies heavily on donations, fundraising and volunteer work to help reach our goals made possible thorough our non-profit arm, The Foundation for Anthropological Research and Environmental Studies (FARES) . If you believe in our efforts to preserve the natural and cultural wonders of the Cradle of the Mayan Civilization and help the families surrounding the Mirador Basin, please consider donating to help us make the change”

FLY-IN TO MIRADOR BASIN

RICHARD AND JODI HANSEN

LOST CITY OF THE MAYA

Archeology interview with

Richard hansen, sheila flores - technician in archeology.

Sheila works since 2016 as an archaeological laboratory assistant in Guatemala City as well as in the archaeological site of El Mirador Basin. She worked also as a supervisor for the archaeological sites at the Institute of Anthropology and History. She has participated in archaeological and museum summits, seminars-workshops, in planning and conservation methodologies. Her collaborative and professional ethics makes the processes of more effective and efficient.

Sheila has achieved a degree at USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala) as a Technician in Archeology from the School of History at the University of San Carlos in Guatemala and also a degree on Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

Richard D. Hansen - Co-Director/Archaeologist

Richard is a specialist on the early Maya and is the Director of the Mirador Basin Project and a leading archaeological research and scientific studies for 40 years, and the founder and president of the Foundation for Anthropological Research and Environmental Studies (FARES). Hansen graduated with a Ph.D. in Archaeology from UCLA in 1992, as an Outstanding Graduate Student and with highest honors. He previously held a double major B.S. degree (cum laude) in Spanish and Archaeology from Brigham Young University in 1978, and a M.S. degree in Anthropology in 1984. Hansen’s currently involves scholars from 66 universities and research institutions from throughout the world.

He is an Adjunct Professor of Anthropology at the University of Utah. He was Research Professor in the Department of Anthropology at Idaho State University for 8 years and was Senior Scientist at the Institute for Mesoamerican Research at ISU. Prior to that, he was Assistant Research Scientist (Level IV) at the UCLA Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics for 12 years.

He received the Achievement Award and was named Environmentalist of the Year in Latin America by the 161,000 members of the Latin Trade Bravo Business Association and Co-organizer of several major Maya exhibit in museums, 27 films including National Geographic, Discovery Channel 3 Net. He was the principal consultant for Mel Gibson’s Apocalypto. As a project, his team has currently published 2 books, 229 scientific papers, abstracts, and 826 technical reports and mapped, excavated and studied more than 51 ancient and largest cities in the Mirador Basin in the Peten and Central America.

Lorena Gonzalez - Technician in Archeology

She began her work in 2015 carrying out archaeological excavations in El Mirador. She has been in charge of the inventory of skeletal remains from the last 40 years following up on all investigations of the site, which has allowed her to work with experts on her specialty. She has participated in the organization committee of archaeological exhibitions on pre-Hispanic themes and industrial archeology. Lorena has achieved a Bachelor degree of Business Administration from GAIA Business School and has achieved a degree as a Technician in Archeology from USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala).

Lilian Vega de Zea - Archaeologist/Professor

Lilian works at the Mirador Basin Project since 2000 as a curator of archaeological materials. She has a 37-year experience specialty in ceramic, lithic, shell, bone and stucco conservation. She mainly works in the laboratory in Guatemala City and also at the field. She also has participated in 7 archaeological projects, and has been a professor at USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala) and Universidad Landívar. Her natural affinity guides her in her work with Guatemala’s natural heritage. Lilian is an Archaeologist graduated from the School of History at the USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala) and has received training in conservation issues.

She has been trained in enameled ceramics, documentary preventive, restoration, tissue collections, among others.

Gustavo Martinez - Consultant/Archaeologist

Mr. Martinez has been working at the Mirador Basin Project since 2006. He is a professional analyst of pre-Hispanic ceramics and keeps this position up to date. He also works in the archaeological laboratories in Guatemala City as well as the countryside. He has 30 years of experience in archaeological research related to the Mayan lowlands and the Guatemalan altiplano. He has also been an advisor on issues of Cultural and Natural Heritage Conservation and Real Estate Restoration and has worked as a consultant on environmental matters. Mr. Martinez has been an assistant professor at the School of History at the USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala), Universidad del Valle and a university extension of Peten CUDEP. Gustavo is an Archaeologist graduated from USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala) and an expert in environmental impact studies. He’s also a candidate for a Master’s Degree in Environmental Management and Planning by USAC.

Enrique Hernández - Technician in Archeology

Mr. Hernandez has been a part of the Mirador Basin Project since 2004. He started with regional mapping and is now a specialist in that area. His most recent work is focused on the excavation of roads and lowlands. Enrique is a Technician in Archeology at the School of History of the University of San Carlos de Guatemala. Experienced in various software use such as AutoCAD, Photoshop, Illustrator, spreadsheets.

His interests include archaeological photography and drawing. He has participated as an exhibitor in several symposiums, meetings and conventions, both nationally and international. and he enjoys the gift of communication, always seeking simpler and more effective solutions.

Edgar Ortega - Project supervisor

Edgar began working in 2008 as a draftsman of archaeological materials at the project laboratory in Guatemala City. He has extensive experience in drawing, mapping and model techniques. At the basin he carries out archaeological investigations for the Mirador project. He has worked in various archaeological sites at Peten and the Guatemalan Altiplano. He has held various positions at the Institute of Anthropology and History, from project supervisor to interim headquarters within the Institution. His quality and sharpness in his drawings has led him to be one of the best illustrators in publications. Edgar has a degree as Technician in Archeology from the School of History at the University of San Carlos in Guatemala.

Beatriz Balcarcel - Architecture of ceramics/Archaeologist

Mrs. Balcarcel is currently working as Coordinator of the archaeological laboratories in Guatemala City and El Mirador Basin. She started in 2001, and has more than 25 years of experience in sites of the Mayan Lowlands, the Altiplano and the South Coast of Guatemala. One of her special skills is the architecture of ceramics, pre-Hispanic iconography and education. She was Co-Director for the New World Archaeological Foundation in Provo Utah, Brigham Young University. She also was awarded a scholarship by Spain and Israel and a teacher at the University of San Carlos in Guatemala. She has a degree in environmental education and ecotourism. She also has the quality of being discipline to direct and coordinate work groups.

Beatriz is an Archaeologist graduated from the School of History of the University of San Carlos in Guatemala, and has postgraduate studies in Education with an Environmental orientation. She is currently a PhD candidate from the Faculty of Architecture of the University of San Carlos and has accomplished studies in Art and conservation.

Danilo Callen - Ph.D. on Architecture/Consultant/Professor

Mr. Callen started in the Mirador Basin Project in 2012 working as a consultant on conservation and restoration projects. He also has the expertise on keeping tracks and records of all virtual models, evaluations, restorations and photogrammetry at the basin. He worked as an editor for Avances magazine and a researcher for DIGI (Direccion General De Investigacion). Mr. Callen is also a professor at the Faculty of Architecture of the University of San Carlos in Guatemala City. Beside his professional and academic background, Mr. Callen cutting-edge digital knowledge and teaching skills are among many of his many talents. Mr. Callen also owns a Ph.D. on Architecture from the UNAM. (Universidad Autónoma De México), a Master’s Degree in Conservation of Monuments and Historical Sites and a Bachelor degree on Architecture from USAC at the Faculty of Architecture of the University of San Carlos in Guatemala.

Douglas Mauricio - Archaeologist

Douglas began working at the basin in 2005 as part of the regional mapping and recognition program, which became his specialty. In addition to mapping, he has made archaeological investigations in pre-classic and classic sites such as “Casa de Coral”. He’s also responsible for the registration and inventory of special ceramic and lithic materials. He has participated in congresses, symposiums and forums, both nationally and internationally. Douglas has the ability to keep a rigorous control at the site and also the ability to work as a team player among his colleges. Douglas is an Archaeologist graduated from the School of History at USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala).

Anaite Ordoñez - Archaeologist

Anaité, started at the Mirador Basin project in 2005, doing excavations at “La Danta” archaeological site. Currently, she’s focused on its archaeological excavations and programs aimed to the education for all the children at the community. Anaité, has knowledge of German, English, Italian and Mayan languages. She also specializes in working with people with special needs, mainly deaf people, with difficulties in articulating phonemes and language. Based on her skills and communicative personality, she has allowed herself to interact in a better way with the community at the Mirador Basin and abroad. Anaité is an Archaeologist graduated from the School of History at USAC, (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala).

Carlos Morales - Archaeologist/Field director

Mr. Morales is an archaeologist, field director at FARES Foundation and Mirador Basin Project since 2002. He has coordinated the Mapping Program and the archeological map of the basin and its periphery. He was also the Co-Director of the Petén-Norte Naachtun Laboratory Project “Archéologie des Amériques” at the CNRS-UMR8096, France. Its many attributes vary form, Landscape Archeology, the studies of Settlement Patterns, Spatial Analysis, the application of Remote Sensing GIS in archaeological research, and the study of the Sociopolitical Organization of the Classic and Postclassic periods.

Carlos is an archaeologist graduated from the School of History at the USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala) and has postgraduate studies in Geographic Information Systems (SIG) from the Faculty of Engineering from the same university. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in Archeology from the Sorbonne University in Paris, France. He also has received several scientific research grants awarded by the government of France. He is one of the pioneer Guatemala archaeologists to use LiDAR technology for the environmental study of the electricity sector and the detection of archaeological sites for various research projects. He currently resides in the United States and enjoys visiting national parks with his family.

Edgar Suyuc - Co-Director/Archaeologist

Mr. Suyuc, started in 2002 as Co-Director of the Mirador Basin Project until now. His specialty is lithics, of which he has made several publications. He had the interim and auxiliary head of Archeology of the Department of Pre-Hispanic and Colonial Monuments of the Institute of Anthropology and History of the Ministry of Culture. He was an assistant professor at the School of History at USAC (Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala). Mr. Suyuc is an Archaeologist graduated from the School of History at USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala), he is currently a candidate for a Master’s Degree in Social Anthropology at CUNOC (Centro Universitario de Occidente). He also earns a diploma in Stone Materials Conservation from the National Institute of Culture, Panama.

Josue Guzman - Deputy Director/Archaeologist

Josué started his work at the Mirador project in 2006. He’s currently the Deputy Director of the Conservation and Restoration unit. His work consists of the identification, documentation and diagnosis of architectural pathologies, construction materials, intervention proposals and execution of restoration work on historical monuments and stucco art. He’s also expert on laboratory work related to the management of registration, packaging and delivery of cultural assets to the Institute of Anthropology and History (IDAEH) Josué is an Archaeologist graduated from the School of History at USAC (Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala). He is currently a candidate for the Master’s Degree in Restoration of Monuments from the Faculty of Architecture at USAC. He’s been awarded from the College of Engineers and he’s completing his Technical degree with a Bachelor degree on Arts.

Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

Article sidebar.

Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

[1] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[2] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[3] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk ; Kimmelman, J., Hyun, I., Benvenisty, N.  et al.  Policy: Global standards for stem-cell research.  Nature   533 , 311–313 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/533311a

[4] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk

[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality.  Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences ,  4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

[6] Vazin, T., & Freed, W. J. (2010). Human embryonic stem cells: derivation, culture, and differentiation: a review.  Restorative neurology and neuroscience ,  28 (4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2010-0543

[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

[26] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

• Utility Menu

• Internal Resources
• EDIB Committee
• Shane Rice ('25) Awarded 2024 General Education Prize

The Department of Anthropology at Harvard University is pleased to share that Shane Rice (’25, Archaeology concentrator) has been selected as a recipient of the 2024 General Education Prize for an essay he wrote about his experiences in, and the impact of, the course Gen Ed 1105 Can We Know Our Past? taught by Professors Rowan Flad  and Jason Ur . There were many excellent submissions, but the Prize Committee was particularly impressed by Shane's essay outlining how GENED 1105 served as a catalyst for his intellectual and personal development, and ultimately provided him with a platform to integrate a wide range of life experiences and intellectual interests while reconciling past identities with present aspirations. We hope you will join us in congratulating Shane on this honor. 

Shane shares with us: 

I would like to thank the Harvard College Program in General Education for considering me for this prize. I would also like to thank Professor Flad, Professor Ur, and the TF’s of GENED 1105 for putting on such an inspiring course. I hope this award serves to encourage other students to seek out opportunities for exploring their passions and interests.

Shane stated in his prize abstract: “In this submission, I recount my journey of personal growth during my first years at Harvard University. Amidst personal and academic rigors, I found myself grappling with a profound crisis of identity and purpose tied to my transition from service in the Marines to civilian life in college. The crux of my narrative revolves around my enrollment in GENED 1105: "Can We Know Our Past?", which served as the catalyst for my intellectual and personal development. Through its curriculum, I embarked on a journey of discovery, academic enrichment, and self actualization. GENED 1105 provided me with a platform to integrate a wide range of life experiences and intellectual interests while reconciling past identities with present aspirations. This transformative experience underscored the irreplicable value of a liberal arts education and the role of General Education courses in facilitating holistic personal development. Ultimately, my narrative advocates for the General Education program at Harvard as an essential component of my personal, professional, and academic development, and I ardently believe in its potential to enrich others’ lives as it has mine.”

Read the full submission here .

Latest News

• David Chen ('24) Awarded Hoopes Prize
• Ashton Body ('24) Awarded 2024 General Education Prize
• Brian Zhou ('24) Awarded Hoopes Prize
• West Foster ('24) Awarded Kathryn Ann Huggins Prize for Most Outstanding Thesis
• Harvard Anthropology Professor Peter Manuelian Named Cabot Fellow