historical research a guide

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Historical research : a guide

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The Princeton Guide to Historical Research

• Zachary Schrag

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The essential handbook for doing historical research in the twenty-first century

• Skills for Scholars

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The Princeton Guide to Historical Research provides students, scholars, and professionals with the skills they need to practice the historian’s craft in the digital age, while never losing sight of the fundamental values and techniques that have defined historical scholarship for centuries. Zachary Schrag begins by explaining how to ask good questions and then guides readers step-by-step through all phases of historical research, from narrowing a topic and locating sources to taking notes, crafting a narrative, and connecting one’s work to existing scholarship. He shows how researchers extract knowledge from the widest range of sources, such as government documents, newspapers, unpublished manuscripts, images, interviews, and datasets. He demonstrates how to use archives and libraries, read sources critically, present claims supported by evidence, tell compelling stories, and much more. Featuring a wealth of examples that illustrate the methods used by seasoned experts, The Princeton Guide to Historical Research reveals that, however varied the subject matter and sources, historians share basic tools in the quest to understand people and the choices they made.

• Offers practical step-by-step guidance on how to do historical research, taking readers from initial questions to final publication
• Connects new digital technologies to the traditional skills of the historian
• Draws on hundreds of examples from a broad range of historical topics and approaches
• Shares tips for researchers at every skill level

Skills for Scholars: The new tools of the trade

Awards and recognition.

• Winner of the James Harvey Robinson Prize, American Historical Association
• A Choice Outstanding Academic Title of the Year

• Introduction: History Is for Everyone
• History Is the Study of People and the Choices They Made
• History Is a Means to Understand Today’s World
• History Combines Storytelling and Analysis
• History Is an Ongoing Debate
• Autobiography
• Everything Has a History
• Narrative Expansion
• From the Source
• Public History
• Research Agenda
• Factual Questions
• Interpretive Questions
• Opposing Forces
• Internal Contradictions
• Competing Priorities
• Determining Factors
• Hidden or Contested Meanings
• Before and After
• Dialectics Create Questions, Not Answers
• Copy Other Works
• History Big and Small
• Pick Your People
• Add and Subtract
• Narrative versus Thematic Schemes
• The Balky Time Machine
• Local and Regional
• Transnational and Global
• Comparative
• What Is New about Your Approach?
• Are You Working in a Specific Theoretical Tradition?
• What Have Others Written?
• Are Others Working on It?
• What Might Your Critics Say?
• Primary versus Secondary Sources
• Balancing Your Use of Secondary Sources
• Sets of Sources
• Sources as Records of the Powerful
• No Source Speaks for Itself
• Languages and Specialized Reading
• Choose Sources That You Love
• Workaday Documents
• Specialized Periodicals
• Criminal Investigations and Trials
• Official Reports
• Letters and Petitions
• Institutional Records
• Scholarship
• Motion Pictures and Recordings
• Buildings and Plans
• The Working Bibliography
• The Open Web
• Limits of the Open Web
• Bibliographic Databases
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• Oral History
• What Is an Archive?
• Archives and Access
• Read the Finding Aid
• Follow the Rules
• Work with Archivists
• Types of Cameras
• How Much to Shoot?
• Managing Expectations
• Duck, Duck, Goose
• Credibility
• Avoid Catastrophe
• Complete Tasks—Ideally Just Once, and in the Right Order
• Maintain Momentum
• Kinds of Software
• Word Processors
• Means of Entry
• A Good Day’s Work
• Word Count Is Your Friend
• Managing Research Assistants
• Research Diary
• When to Stop
• Note-Taking as Mining
• Note-Taking as Assembly
• Identify the Source, So You Can Go Back and Consult if Needed
• Distinguish Others’ Words and Ideas from Your Own
• Allow Sorting and Retrieval of Related Pieces of Information
• Provide the Right Level of Detail
• Notebooks and Index Cards
• Word Processors for Note-Taking
• Plain Text and Markdown
• Reference Managers
• Note-Taking Apps
• Relational Databases
• Spreadsheets
• Glossaries and Alphabetical Lists
• Image Catalogs
• Other Specialized Formats
• The Working Draft
• Variants: The Ten- and Thirty-Page Papers
• Thesis Statement
• Historiography
• Sections as Independent Essays
• Topic Sentences
• Answering Questions
• Invisible Bullet Points
• The Perils of Policy Prescriptions
• A Model (T) Outline
• Flexibility
• Protagonists
• Antagonists
• Bit Players
• The Shape of the Story
• The Controlling Idea
• Alchemy: Turning Sources to Stories
• Turning Points
• Counterfactuals
• Point of View
• Symbolic Details
• Combinations
• Speculation
• Is Your Jargon Really Necessary?
• Defining Terms
• Word Choice as Analysis
• Period Vocabulary or Anachronism?
• Integrate Images into Your Story
• Put Numbers in Context
• Summarize Data in Tables and Graphs
• Why We Cite
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• Putting It Aside
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• Conferences
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• Graphic History, Movies, and Broadway Musicals
• Acknowledgments

"This volume is a complete and sophisticated addition to any scholar’s library and a boon to the curious layperson. . . . [A] major achievement."— Choice Reviews

"This book is quite simply a gem. . . . Schrag’s accessible style and comprehensive treatment of the field make this book a valuable resource."—Alan Sears, Canadian Journal of History

"A tour de force that will help all of us be more capable historians. This wholly readable, delightful book is packed with good advice that will benefit seasoned scholars and novice researchers alike."—Nancy Weiss Malkiel, author of "Keep the Damned Women Out": The Struggle for Coeducation

"An essential and overdue contribution. Schrag's guide offers a lucid breakdown of what historians do and provides plenty of examples."—Jessica Mack, Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, George Mason University

"Extraordinarily useful. If there is another book that takes apart as many elements of the historian's craft the way that Schrag does and provides so many examples, I am not aware of it."—James Goodman, author of But Where Is the Lamb?

"This is an engaging guide to being a good historian and all that entails."—Diana Seave Greenwald, Assistant Curator of the Collection, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum

"Impressive and engaging. Schrag gracefully incorporates the voices of dozens, if not hundreds, of fellow historians. This gives the book a welcome conversational feeling, as if the reader were overhearing a lively discussion among friendly historians."—Sarah Dry, author of Waters of the World: The Story of the Scientists Who Unraveled the Mysteries of Our Oceans, Atmosphere, and Ice Sheets and Made the Planet Whole

"This is a breathtaking book—wide-ranging, wonderfully written, and extremely useful. Every page brims with fascinating, well-chosen illustrations of creative research, writing, and reasoning that teach and inspire."—Amy C. Offner, author of Sorting Out the Mixed Economy

historyprofessor.org website, maintained by Zachary M. Schrag, Professor of History at George Mason University

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• University of Wisconsin–Madison
• University of Wisconsin-Madison
• Research Guides
• Introduction to Historical Research

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This guide is an introduction to selected resources available for historical research.  It covers both primary sources (such as diaries, letters, newspaper articles, photographs, government documents and first-hand accounts) and secondary materials (such as books and articles written by historians and devoted to the analysis and interpretation of historical events and evidence).

"Research in history involves developing an understanding of the past through the examination and interpretation of evidence. Evidence may exist in the form of texts, physical remains of historic sites, recorded data, pictures, maps, artifacts, and so on. The historian’s job is to find evidence, analyze its content and biases, corroborate it with further evidence, and use that evidence to develop an interpretation of past events that holds some significance for the present.

Historians use libraries to

• locate primary sources (first-hand information such as diaries, letters, and original documents) for evidence
• find secondary sources (historians’ interpretations and analyses of historical evidence)
• verify factual material as inconsistencies arise"

( Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age, Fifth Edition, by Diana Hacker and Barbara Fister, Bedford/St. Martin, 2010)

This guide is meant to help you work through these steps.

Other helpful guides

This is a list of other historical research guides you may find helpful:

• Learning Historical Research Learning to Do Historical Research: A Primer for Environmental Historians and Others by William Cronon and his students, University of Wisconsin A website designed as a basic introduction to historical research for anyone and everyone who is interested in exploring the past.
• Reading, Writing, and Researching for History: A Guide for College Students by Patrick Rael, Bowdoin College Guide to all aspects of historical scholarship—from reading a history book to doing primary source research to writing a history paper.
• Writing Historical Essays: A Guide for Undergraduates Rutgers History Department guide to writing historical essays
• History Study Guides History study guides created by the Carleton College History Department

• Next: Books >>
• Last Updated: Mar 4, 2024 12:48 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.wisc.edu/introhist

A Step-by-Step Guide to Doing Historical Research [without getting hysterical!] In addition to being a scholarly investigation, research is a social activity intended to create new knowledge. Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. These questions may concern such elements as looking at an event or topic, examining events that lead to the event in question, social influences, key players, and other contextual information. This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources Historical Analysis What is it? Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Choose a Topic Craft a Thesis Evaluate Thesis and Sources A Variety of Information Sources Take Efficient Notes Note Cards Thinking, Organizing, Researching Parenthetical Documentation Prepare a Works Cited Page Drafting, Revising, Rewriting, Rethinking For Further Reading: Works Cited Additional Links So you want to study history?! Tons of help and links Slatta Home Page Use the Writing and other links on the lefhand menu I. The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Back to Top Every period leaves traces, what historians call "sources" or evidence. Some are more credible or carry more weight than others; judging the differences is a vital skill developed by good historians. Sources vary in perspective, so knowing who created the information you are examining is vital. Anonymous doesn't make for a very compelling source. For example, an FBI report on the antiwar movement, prepared for U.S. President Richard Nixon, probably contained secrets that at the time were thought to have affected national security. It would not be usual, however, for a journalist's article about a campus riot, featured in a local newspaper, to leak top secret information. Which source would you read? It depends on your research topic. If you're studying how government officials portrayed student activists, you'll want to read the FBI report and many more documents from other government agencies such as the CIA and the National Security Council. If you're investigating contemporary opinion of pro-war and anti-war activists, local newspaper accounts provide a rich resource. You'd want to read a variety of newspapers to ensure you're covering a wide range of opinions (rural/urban, left/right, North/South, Soldier/Draft-dodger, etc). Historians classify sources into two major categories: primary and secondary sources. Secondary Sources Back to Top Definition: Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, to familiarize ourselves with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history. In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. This helps us identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove promsing topics. Types: History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic (scholarly) articles are secondary sources. To help you determine the status of a given secondary source, see How to identify and nagivate scholarly literature . Examples: Historian Marilyn Young's (NYU) book about the Vietnam War is a secondary source. She did not participate in the war. Her study is not based on her personal experience but on the evidence she culled from a variety of sources she found in the United States and Vietnam. Primary Sources Back to Top Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters, telegrams, emails, proclamations, government documents, and much more. Examples: A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source. II. Historical Analysis What is it? Back to Top No matter what you read, whether it's a primary source or a secondary source, you want to know who authored the source (a trusted scholar? A controversial historian? A propagandist? A famous person? An ordinary individual?). "Author" refers to anyone who created information in any medium (film, sound, or text). You also need to know when it was written and the kind of audience the author intend to reach. You should also consider what you bring to the evidence that you examine. Are you inductively following a path of evidence, developing your interpretation based on the sources? Do you have an ax to grind? Did you begin your research deductively, with your mind made up before even seeing the evidence. Historians need to avoid the latter and emulate the former. To read more about the distinction, examine the difference between Intellectual Inquirers and Partisan Ideologues . In the study of history, perspective is everything. A letter written by a twenty- year old Vietnam War protestor will differ greatly from a letter written by a scholar of protest movements. Although the sentiment might be the same, the perspective and influences of these two authors will be worlds apart. Practicing the " 5 Ws " will avoid the confusion of the authority trap. Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Back to Top Historians accumulate evidence (information, including facts, stories, interpretations, opinions, statements, reports, etc.) from a variety of sources (primary and secondary). They must also verify that certain key pieces of information are corroborated by a number of people and sources ("the predonderance of evidence"). The historian poses the " 5 Ws " to every piece of information he examines: Who is the historical actor? When did the event take place? Where did it occur? What did it entail and why did it happen the way it did? The " 5 Ws " can also be used to evaluate a primary source. Who authored the work? When was it created? Where was it created, published, and disseminated? Why was it written (the intended audience), and what is the document about (what points is the author making)? If you know the answers to these five questions, you can analyze any document, and any primary source. The historian doesn't look for the truth, since this presumes there is only one true story. The historian tries to understand a number of competing viewpoints to form his or her own interpretation-- what constitutes the best explanation of what happened and why. By using as wide a range of primary source documents and secondary sources as possible, you will add depth and richness to your historical analysis. The more exposure you, the researcher, have to a number of different sources and differing view points, the more you have a balanced and complete view about a topic in history. This view will spark more questions and ultimately lead you into the quest to unravel more clues about your topic. You are ready to start assembling information for your research paper. III. Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Back to Top Because your purpose is to create new knowledge while recognizing those scholars whose existing work has helped you in this pursuit, you are honor bound never to commit the following academic sins: Plagiarism: Literally "kidnapping," involving the use of someone else's words as if they were your own (Gibaldi 6). To avoid plagiarism you must document direct quotations, paraphrases, and original ideas not your own. Recycling: Rehashing material you already know thoroughly or, without your professor's permission, submitting a paper that you have completed for another course. Premature cognitive commitment: Academic jargon for deciding on a thesis too soon and then seeking information to serve that thesis rather than embarking on a genuine search for new knowledge. Choose a Topic Back to Top "Do not hunt for subjects, let them choose you, not you them." --Samuel Butler Choosing a topic is the first step in the pursuit of a thesis. Below is a logical progression from topic to thesis: Close reading of the primary text, aided by secondary sources Growing awareness of interesting qualities within the primary text Choosing a topic for research Asking productive questions that help explore and evaluate a topic Creating a research hypothesis Revising and refining a hypothesis to form a working thesis First, and most important, identify what qualities in the primary or secondary source pique your imagination and curiosity and send you on a search for answers. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels provides a description of productive questions asked by critical thinkers. While the lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) are necessary to a good history essay, aspire to the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Skimming reference works such as encyclopedias, books, critical essays and periodical articles can help you choose a topic that evolves into a hypothesis, which in turn may lead to a thesis. One approach to skimming involves reading the first paragraph of a secondary source to locate and evaluate the author's thesis. Then for a general idea of the work's organization and major ideas read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Read the conclusion carefully, as it usually presents a summary (Barnet and Bedau 19). Craft a Thesis Back to Top Very often a chosen topic is too broad for focused research. You must revise it until you have a working hypothesis, that is, a statement of an idea or an approach with respect to the source that could form the basis for your thesis. Remember to not commit too soon to any one hypothesis. Use it as a divining rod or a first step that will take you to new information that may inspire you to revise your hypothesis. Be flexible. Give yourself time to explore possibilities. The hypothesis you create will mature and shift as you write and rewrite your paper. New questions will send you back to old and on to new material. Remember, this is the nature of research--it is more a spiraling or iterative activity than a linear one. Test your working hypothesis to be sure it is: broad enough to promise a variety of resources. narrow enough for you to research in depth. original enough to interest you and your readers. worthwhile enough to offer information and insights of substance "do-able"--sources are available to complete the research. Now it is time to craft your thesis, your revised and refined hypothesis. A thesis is a declarative sentence that: focuses on one well-defined idea makes an arguable assertion; it is capable of being supported prepares your readers for the body of your paper and foreshadows the conclusion. Evaluate Thesis and Sources Back to Top Like your hypothesis, your thesis is not carved in stone. You are in charge. If necessary, revise it during the research process. As you research, continue to evaluate both your thesis for practicality, originality, and promise as a search tool, and secondary sources for relevance and scholarliness. The following are questions to ask during the research process: Are there many journal articles and entire books devoted to the thesis, suggesting that the subject has been covered so thoroughly that there may be nothing new to say? Does the thesis lead to stimulating, new insights? Are appropriate sources available? Is there a variety of sources available so that the bibliography or works cited page will reflect different kinds of sources? Which sources are too broad for my thesis? Which resources are too narrow? Who is the author of the secondary source? Does the critic's background suggest that he/she is qualified? After crafting a thesis, consider one of the following two approaches to writing a research paper: Excited about your thesis and eager to begin? Return to the primary or secondary source to find support for your thesis. Organize ideas and begin writing your first draft. After writing the first draft, have it reviewed by your peers and your instructor. Ponder their suggestions and return to the sources to answer still-open questions. Document facts and opinions from secondary sources. Remember, secondary sources can never substitute for primary sources. Confused about where to start? Use your thesis to guide you to primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources can help you clarify your position and find a direction for your paper. Keep a working bibliography. You may not use all the sources you record, but you cannot be sure which ones you will eventually discard. Create a working outline as you research. This outline will, of course, change as you delve more deeply into your subject. A Variety of Information Sources Back to Top "A mind that is stretched to a new idea never returns to its original dimension." --Oliver Wendell Holmes Your thesis and your working outline are the primary compasses that will help you navigate the variety of sources available. In "Introduction to the Library" (5-6) the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers suggests you become familiar with the library you will be using by: taking a tour or enrolling for a brief introductory lecture referring to the library's publications describing its resources introducing yourself and your project to the reference librarian The MLA Handbook also lists guides for the use of libraries (5), including: Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources (7th ed., New York: McGraw, 1994). Thomas Mann, A Guide to Library Research Methods (New York: Oxford UP, 1987). Online Central Catalog Most libraries have their holdings listed on a computer. The online catalog may offer Internet sites, Web pages and databases that relate to the university's curriculum. It may also include academic journals and online reference books. Below are three search techniques commonly used online: Index Search: Although online catalogs may differ slightly from library to library, the most common listings are by: Subject Search: Enter the author's name for books and article written about the author. Author Search: Enter an author's name for works written by the author, including collections of essays the author may have written about his/her own works. Title Search: Enter a title for the screen to list all the books the library carries with that title. Key Word Search/Full-text Search: A one-word search, e.g., 'Kennedy,' will produce an overwhelming number of sources, as it will call up any entry that includes the name 'Kennedy.' To focus more narrowly on your subject, add one or more key words, e.g., "John Kennedy, Peace Corps." Use precise key words. Boolean Search: Boolean Search techniques use words such as "and," "or," and "not," which clarify the relationship between key words, thus narrowing the search. Take Efficient Notes Back to Top Keeping complete and accurate bibliography and note cards during the research process is a time (and sanity) saving practice. If you have ever needed a book or pages within a book, only to discover that an earlier researcher has failed to return it or torn pages from your source, you understand the need to take good notes. Every researcher has a favorite method for taking notes. Here are some suggestions-- customize one of them for your own use. Bibliography cards There may be far more books and articles listed than you have time to read, so be selective when choosing a reference. Take information from works that clearly relate to your thesis, remembering that you may not use them all. Use a smaller or a different color card from the one used for taking notes. Write a bibliography card for every source. Number the bibliography cards. On the note cards, use the number rather than the author's name and the title. It's faster. Another method for recording a working bibliography, of course, is to create your own database. Adding, removing, and alphabetizing titles is a simple process. Be sure to save often and to create a back-up file. A bibliography card should include all the information a reader needs to locate that particular source for further study. Most of the information required for a book entry (Gibaldi 112): Author's name Title of a part of the book [preface, chapter titles, etc.] Title of the book Name of the editor, translator, or compiler Edition used Number(s) of the volume(s) used Name of the series Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication Page numbers Supplementary bibliographic information and annotations Most of the information required for an article in a periodical (Gibaldi 141): Author's name Title of the article Name of the periodical Series number or name (if relevant) Volume number (for a scholarly journal) Issue number (if needed) Date of publication Page numbers Supplementary information For information on how to cite other sources refer to your So you want to study history page . Note Cards Back to Top Take notes in ink on either uniform note cards (3x5, 4x6, etc.) or uniform slips of paper. Devote each note card to a single topic identified at the top. Write only on one side. Later, you may want to use the back to add notes or personal observations. Include a topical heading for each card. Include the number of the page(s) where you found the information. You will want the page number(s) later for documentation, and you may also want page number(s)to verify your notes. Most novice researchers write down too much. Condense. Abbreviate. You are striving for substance, not quantity. Quote directly from primary sources--but the "meat," not everything. Suggestions for condensing information: Summary: A summary is intended to provide the gist of an essay. Do not weave in the author's choice phrases. Read the information first and then condense the main points in your own words. This practice will help you avoid the copying that leads to plagiarism. Summarizing also helps you both analyze the text you are reading and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses (Barnet and Bedau 13). Outline: Use to identify a series of points. Paraphrase, except for key primary source quotations. Never quote directly from a secondary source, unless the precise wording is essential to your argument. Simplify the language and list the ideas in the same order. A paraphrase is as long as the original. Paraphrasing is helpful when you are struggling with a particularly difficult passage. Be sure to jot down your own insights or flashes of brilliance. Ralph Waldo Emerson warns you to "Look sharply after your thoughts. They come unlooked for, like a new bird seen on your trees, and, if you turn to your usual task, disappear...." To differentiate these insights from those of the source you are reading, initial them as your own. (When the following examples of note cards include the researcher's insights, they will be followed by the initials N. R.) When you have finished researching your thesis and you are ready to write your paper, organize your cards according to topic. Notecards make it easy to shuffle and organize your source information on a table-- or across the floor. Maintain your working outline that includes the note card headings and explores a logical order for presenting them in your paper. IV. Begin Thinking, Researching, Organizing Back to Top Don't be too sequential. Researching, writing, revising is a complex interactive process. Start writing as soon as possible! "The best antidote to writer's block is--to write." (Klauser 15). However, you still feel overwhelmed and are staring at a blank page, you are not alone. Many students find writing the first sentence to be the most daunting part of the entire research process. Be creative. Cluster (Rico 28-49). Clustering is a form of brainstorming. Sometimes called a web, the cluster forms a design that may suggest a natural organization for a paper. Here's a graphical depiction of brainstorming . Like a sun, the generating idea or topic lies at the center of the web. From it radiate words, phrases, sentences and images that in turn attract other words, phrases, sentences and images. Put another way--stay focused. Start with your outline. If clustering is not a technique that works for you, turn to the working outline you created during the research process. Use the outline view of your word processor. If you have not already done so, group your note cards according to topic headings. Compare them to your outline's major points. If necessary, change the outline to correspond with the headings on the note cards. If any area seems weak because of a scarcity of facts or opinions, return to your primary and/or secondary sources for more information or consider deleting that heading. Use your outline to provide balance in your essay. Each major topic should have approximately the same amount of information. Once you have written a working outline, consider two different methods for organizing it. Deduction: A process of development that moves from the general to the specific. You may use this approach to present your findings. However, as noted above, your research and interpretive process should be inductive. Deduction is the most commonly used form of organization for a research paper. The thesis statement is the generalization that leads to the specific support provided by primary and secondary sources. The thesis is stated early in the paper. The body of the paper then proceeds to provide the facts, examples, and analogies that flow logically from that thesis. The thesis contains key words that are reflected in the outline. These key words become a unifying element throughout the paper, as they reappear in the detailed paragraphs that support and develop the thesis. The conclusion of the paper circles back to the thesis, which is now far more meaningful because of the deductive development that supports it. Chronological order A process that follows a traditional time line or sequence of events. A chronological organization is useful for a paper that explores cause and effect. Parenthetical Documentation Back to Top The Works Cited page, a list of primary and secondary sources, is not sufficient documentation to acknowledge the ideas, facts, and opinions you have included within your text. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers describes an efficient parenthetical style of documentation to be used within the body of your paper. Guidelines for parenthetical documentation: "References to the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited" (Gibaldi 184). Try to use parenthetical documentation as little as possible. For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex. "The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself" (Murdock 17). She may feel abandoned and angry. Note: The author of The Heroine's Journey is listed under Works Cited by the author's name, reversed--Murdock, Maureen. Quoted material is found on page 17 of that book. Parenthetical documentation is after the quotation mark and before the period. Documenting a paraphrase: Ex. In fairy tales a woman who holds the princess captive or who abandons her often needs to be killed (18). Note: The second paraphrase is also from Murdock's book The Heroine's Journey. It is not, however, necessary to repeat the author's name if no other documentation interrupts the two. If the works cited page lists more than one work by the same author, include within the parentheses an abbreviated form of the appropriate title. You may, of course, include the title in your sentence, making it unnecessary to add an abbreviated title in the citation. > Prepare a Works Cited Page Back to Top There are a variety of titles for the page that lists primary and secondary sources (Gibaldi 106-107). A Works Cited page lists those works you have cited within the body of your paper. The reader need only refer to it for the necessary information required for further independent research. Bibliography means literally a description of books. Because your research may involve the use of periodicals, films, art works, photographs, etc. "Works Cited" is a more precise descriptive term than bibliography. An Annotated Bibliography or Annotated Works Cited page offers brief critiques and descriptions of the works listed. A Works Consulted page lists those works you have used but not cited. Avoid using this format. As with other elements of a research paper there are specific guidelines for the placement and the appearance of the Works Cited page. The following guidelines comply with MLA style: The Work Cited page is placed at the end of your paper and numbered consecutively with the body of your paper. Center the title and place it one inch from the top of your page. Do not quote or underline the title. Double space the entire page, both within and between entries. The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title of the article or book being cited. If the title begins with an article (a, an, the) alphabetize by the next word. If you cite two or more works by the same author, list the titles in alphabetical order. Begin every entry after the first with three hyphens followed by a period. All entries begin at the left margin but subsequent lines are indented five spaces. Be sure that each entry cited on the Works Cited page corresponds to a specific citation within your paper. Refer to the the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (104- 182) for detailed descriptions of Work Cited entries. Citing sources from online databases is a relatively new phenomenon. Make sure to ask your professor about citing these sources and which style to use. V. Draft, Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Back to Top "There are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I'm greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed." --John Kenneth Galbraith Try freewriting your first draft. Freewriting is a discovery process during which the writer freely explores a topic. Let your creative juices flow. In Writing without Teachers , Peter Elbow asserts that "[a]lmost everybody interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time words start to be born into consciousness and when they finally come off the end of the pencil or typewriter [or word processor] onto the page" (5). Do not let your internal judge interfere with this first draft. Creating and revising are two very different functions. Don't confuse them! If you stop to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar, you disrupt the flow of creative energy. Create; then fix it later. When material you have researched comes easily to mind, include it. Add a quick citation, one you can come back to later to check for form, and get on with your discovery. In subsequent drafts, focus on creating an essay that flows smoothly, supports fully, and speaks clearly and interestingly. Add style to substance. Create a smooth flow of words, ideas and paragraphs. Rearrange paragraphs for a logical progression of information. Transition is essential if you want your reader to follow you smoothly from introduction to conclusion. Transitional words and phrases stitch your ideas together; they provide coherence within the essay. External transition: Words and phrases that are added to a sentence as overt signs of transition are obvious and effective, but should not be overused, as they may draw attention to themselves and away from ideas. Examples of external transition are "however," "then," "next," "therefore." "first," "moreover," and "on the other hand." Internal transition is more subtle. Key words in the introduction become golden threads when they appear in the paper's body and conclusion. When the writer hears a key word repeated too often, however, she/he replaces it with a synonym or a pronoun. Below are examples of internal transition. Transitional sentences create a logical flow from paragraph to paragraph. Iclude individual words, phrases, or clauses that refer to previous ideas and that point ahead to new ones. They are usually placed at the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. A transitional paragraph conducts your reader from one part of the paper to another. It may be only a few sentences long. Each paragraph of the body of the paper should contain adequate support for its one governing idea. Speak/write clearly, in your own voice. Tone: The paper's tone, whether formal, ironic, or humorous, should be appropriate for the audience and the subject. Voice: Keep you language honest. Your paper should sound like you. Understand, paraphrase, absorb, and express in your own words the information you have researched. Avoid phony language. Sentence formation: When you polish your sentences, read them aloud for word choice and word placement. Be concise. Strunk and White in The Elements of Style advise the writer to "omit needless words" (23). First, however, you must recognize them. Keep yourself and your reader interested. In fact, Strunk's 1918 writing advice is still well worth pondering. First, deliver on your promises. Be sure the body of your paper fulfills the promise of the introduction. Avoid the obvious. Offer new insights. Reveal the unexpected. Have you crafted your conclusion as carefully as you have your introduction? Conclusions are not merely the repetition of your thesis. The conclusion of a research paper is a synthesis of the information presented in the body. Your research has led you to conclusions and opinions that have helped you understand your thesis more deeply and more clearly. Lift your reader to the full level of understanding that you have achieved. Revision means "to look again." Find a peer reader to read your paper with you present. Or, visit your college or university's writing lab. Guide your reader's responses by asking specific questions. Are you unsure of the logical order of your paragraphs? Do you want to know whether you have supported all opinions adequately? Are you concerned about punctuation or grammar? Ask that these issues be addressed. You are in charge. Here are some techniques that may prove helpful when you are revising alone or with a reader. When you edit for spelling errors read the sentences backwards. This procedure will help you look closely at individual words. Always read your paper aloud. Hearing your own words puts them in a new light. Listen to the flow of ideas and of language. Decide whether or not the voice sounds honest and the tone is appropriate to the purpose of the paper and to your audience. Listen for awkward or lumpy wording. Find the one right word, Eliminate needless words. Combine sentences. Kill the passive voice. Eliminate was/were/is/are constructions. They're lame and anti-historical. Be ruthless. If an idea doesn't serve your thesis, banish it, even if it's one of your favorite bits of prose. In the margins, write the major topic of each paragraph. By outlining after you have written the paper, you are once again evaluating your paper's organization. OK, you've got the process down. Now execute! And enjoy! It's not everyday that you get to make history. VI. For Further Reading: Works Cited Back to Top Barnet, Sylvan, and Hugo Bedau. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of Research-Based Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Gibladi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Horvitz, Deborah. "Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved." Studies in American Fiction , Vol. 17, No. 2, Autum, 1989, pp. 157-167. Republished in the Literature Research Center. Gale Group. (1 January 1999). Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: MacMillan, 1979. Back to Top This guide adapted from materials published by Thomson Gale, publishers. For free resources, including a generic guide to writing term papers, see the Gale.com website , which also includes product information for schools.

• How it works

Historical Research – A Guide Based on its Uses & Steps

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

History is a study of past incidents, and it’s different from natural science. In natural science, researchers prefer direct observations. Whereas in historical research, a researcher collects, analyses the information to understand, describe, and explain the events that occurred in the past.

They aim to test the truthfulness of the observations made by others. Historical researchers try to find out what happened exactly during a certain period of time as accurately and as closely as possible. It does not allow any manipulation or control of  variables .

When to Use the Historical Research Method?

You can use historical research method to:

• Uncover the unknown fact.
• Answer questions
• Identify the association between the past and present.
• Understand the culture based on past experiences..
• Record and evaluate the contributions of individuals, organisations, and institutes.

How to Conduct Historical Research?

Historical research involves the following steps:

• Select the Research Topic
• Collect the Data
• Analyse the Data
• Criticism of Data
• Present your Findings

Tips to Collect Data

Step 1 – select the research topic.

If you want to conduct historical research, it’s essential to select a research topic before beginning your research. You can follow these tips while choosing a topic and  developing a research question .

• Consider your previous study as your previous knowledge and data can make your research enjoyable and comfortable for you.
• List your interests and focus on the current events to find a promising question.
• Take notes of regular activities and consider your personal experiences on a specific topic.
• Develop a question using your research topic.
• Explore your research question by asking yourself when? Why? How

Step 2- Collect the Data

It is essential to collect data and facts about the research question to get reliable outcomes. You need to select an appropriate instrument for  data collection . Historical research includes two sources of data collection, such as primary and secondary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources  are the original first-hand resources such as documents, oral or written records, witnesses to a fact, etc. These are of two types, such as:

Conscious Information : It’s a type of information recorded and restored consciously in the form of written, oral documents, or the actual witnesses of the incident that occurred in the past.

It includes the following sources:

Unconscious information : It’s a type of information restored in the form of remains or relics.

It includes information in the following forms:

Secondary Sources

Sometimes it’s impossible to access primary sources, and researchers rely on secondary sources to obtain information for their research. 

It includes:

• Publications
• Periodicals
• Encyclopedia

Step 3 – Analyse the Data

After collecting the information, you need to analyse it. You can use data analysis methods  like 

• Thematic analysis
• Coding system
• Theoretical model ( Researchers use multiple theories to explain a specific phenomenon, situations, and behavior types.)
• Quantitative data to validate

Step 4 – Criticism of Data

Data criticism is a process used for identifying the validity and reliability of the collected data. It’s of two types such as:

External Criticism :

It aims at identifying the external features of the data such as signature, handwriting, language, nature, spelling, etc., of the documents. It also involves the physical and chemical tests of paper, paint, ink, metal cloth, or any collected object.

Internal Criticism :

It aims at identifying the meaning and reliability of the data. It focuses on the errors, printing, translation, omission, additions in the documents. The researchers should use both external and internal criticism to ensure the validity of the data.

Step 5 – Present your Findings

While presenting the  findings of your research , you need to ensure that you have met the objectives of your research or not. Historical material can be organised based on the theme and topic, and it’s known as thematic and topical arrangement. You can follow these tips while writing your research paper :

Build Arguments and Narrative

Your research aims not just to collect information as these are the raw materials of research. You need to build a strong argument and narrate the details of past events or incidents based on your findings. 

Organise your Argument

You can review the literature and other researchers’ contributions to the topic you’ve chosen to enhance your thinking and argument.

Proofread, Revise and Edit

After putting your findings on a paper, you need to proofread it to weed out the errors, rewrite it to improve, and edit it thoroughly before submitting it.

Are you looking for professional research writing services?

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• Whether you want a full dissertation written or need help forming a dissertation proposal, we can help you with both.
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In this world of technology, many people rely on Google to find out any information. All you have to do is enter a few keywords and sit back. You’ll find several relevant results onscreen.

It’s an effective and quick way of gathering information. Sometimes historical documents are not accessible to everyone online, and you need to visit traditional libraries to find out historical treasures. It will help you explore your knowledge along with data collection. 

You can visit historical places, conduct interviews, review literature, and access  primary and secondary  data sources such as books, newspapers, publications, documents, etc. You can take notes while collecting the information as it helps to organise the data accurately.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research

Frequently asked questions, what are the initial steps to perform historical research.

Initial steps for historical research:

• Define research scope and period.
• Gather background knowledge.
• Identify primary and secondary sources.
• Develop research questions.
• Plan research approach.
• Begin data collection and analysis.

You May Also Like

A variable is a characteristic that can change and have more than one value, such as age, height, and weight. But what are the different types of variables?

This article provides the key advantages of primary research over secondary research so you can make an informed decision.

A hypothesis is a research question that has to be proved correct or incorrect through hypothesis testing – a scientific approach to test a hypothesis.

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Home » Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
• Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
• Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
• Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
• Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
• Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

• Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
• Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
• Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
• Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
• Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
• Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

• Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
• Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
• Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
• Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
• Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
• Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
• Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

• Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
• Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
• Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
• Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
• Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
• Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
• Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

• Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
• Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
• Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
• Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

• To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
• To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
• To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
• To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

• When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
• When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
• When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
• When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

• Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
• Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
• Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
• Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
• Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
• Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
• Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
• Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

• Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
• Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
• Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
• Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
• Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
• Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

• Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
• Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
• Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
• Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
• Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• UTEP Library
• UTEP Library Research Guides

Graduate-Level Historical Research

• Research Methods
• Archival Research
• Historiography
• Select Databases
• Historical Newspapers
• Theses and Dissertations
• Media and Microfilm
• Government Documents
• UTEP Special Collections
• Citing Sources

Qualitative and Quantitive Research

Historians rely on primary and secondary sources when conducting research and writing historical works. They also use qualitative and/or quantitative research methods to support their arguments and conclusions.

Here are some sources about research design and writing:

• Using Archives: A Guide to Effective Research
• Using Photographs in Social and Historical Research by Penny Tinkler, Special Collections Reference HM511.T56 2013
• Historical Research: A Guide by W.H. McDowell, ebook
• A Concise Companion to History edited by Ulinka Rublack, Main Stacks D13.C663 2011
• Going to the Sources: A Guide to Historical Research and Writing by Anthony Brundage, Main Stacks D16.B893 2013
• Research Methods for History edited by Simon Gunn and Lucy Faire, ebook
• A Short Guide to Writing about History by Richard Marius, Main Stacks D13.M294 2002
• Historian's Guide to Statistics: Quantitative Analysis and Historical Research by Charles M. Dollar and Richard J. Jensen, Main Stacks HA29.D645
• Writing the Winning Thesis or Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Guide by Randy Joyner, William A. Rouse, and Allan A. Glathorn, Main Stacks LB2369.G56 2013
• The Craft of Research by Wayne C. Booth, ebook
• The Elements of Style by William Strunk and E.B. White, Main Stacks PE1408.S772 1972

Historians use the Chicago Manual of Style when writing papers, books, and articles and documenting sources. The manual is available here .

What is a Scholarly Article?

A scholarly or peer-reviewed article is one that is reviewed by a panel of experts in the field. The following are a few characteristics of a scholarly article:

• An abstract, or summary, before the main text of the article
• Footnotes and/or bibliographies that cite sources
• Graphs or charts detailing the research process and/or results
• Publication by a professional or academic organization
• Discipline-specific language
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• URL: https://libguides.utep.edu/hist_grads

History Research Guide

• Background Research
• Scholarly Articles & Dissertations
• Global History
• Historical Newspapers, Periodicals, and Newsmedia
• US Government Information

Information Overload!!!

The strength and the challenge of IU's history collection is its breadth . Do you feel overwhelmed? Can't find what you're looking for? This guide can help.

Getting Started

In a rush? Try the tabs below.

• Background Information
• Scholarly Articles
• Primary Sources

The main catalog of books at Indiana University is IUCAT. Watch the video below if you need help finding e-books in IUCAT.

Search IUCAT:

The Indiana University online catalog.

IUCAT, Indiana University's online library catalog, provides comprehensive access to millions of items held by the IU Libraries statewide, including books, recordings, US government publications, periodicals, and other types of material. Users can access IUCAT from any Internet-connected computer or device, whether in the libraries, on campus, or off campus.

If you are just starting a research project and need to know some basic information to get started, encyclopedias and historical dictionaries are great tools.

Database of encyclopedias and specialized reference sources.

Encyclopedias and specialized reference resources in: Arts, Biography, History, Information and Publishing, Law, Literature, Medicine, Multicultural Studies, Nation and World, Religion, Science, Social Science

• History Encyclopedias in IUCAT This link takes you to a list of hundreds of encyclopedias that are available as e-books

Most databases allow you click a box with a name like "scholarly articles," which does a reasonably good job of limiting your results to high-quality, academic articles.

Provides searchable full-text of historical runs of important scholarly journals in the humanities, arts, sciences, ecology, and business.

JSTOR, a not-for-profit organization established with the assistance of The Mellon Foundation, provides complete runs of hundreds of important journal titles in more than 30 arts, humanities, and social science disciplines. These scholarly journals can be browsed online and searched, and the page images can be printed for those available in full-text. The IUB Libraries subscribe to current content for only some titles available through JSTOR.  All journals in JSTOR start with the first volume. Many include content up to a "moving wall" of 3-5 years ago, although some journals have a fixed ending date for their content in JSTOR. Please check individual journals for exact dates of coverage.  For information about access to this resource for IU alumni, contact the Indiana University Alumni Association .

Index to journals, chapters and theses about world history, 1450 to present.

Covers modern world history (excluding the United States and Canada which are covered in the database America: History and Life) from 1450 to the present. It currently indexes about 2,300 journals in 40 languages, with indexing also for some books and dissertations. Most of the article citations include abstracts of 75-100 words.

Bibliographic database focusing on the history and life of the United States and Canada, indexing more than 1,800 journals published, dissertations and reviews.

In addition to the principle English language sources in the field, it includes some (about 10%) in other languages, as well as some state and local history journals. All aspects of historical inquiry are represented: diplomatic, ecclesiastical, agricultural, cultural, economic, political, military and others. The index also provides citations to book and media reviews from about 100 journals and references to abstracts of dissertations in the field. All abstracts are in English.

Although IU has access to newspapers from around the world, most of our large collections of historical newspapers center on the United States. Check out the "Old News" link below for non-American newspapers.

Digital archive of historical newspapers. Each issue of each title includes the complete paper, cover-to-cover, with full-page and article images.

Digital archive of American newspapers published between 1690 and 1922, representing every state in the U.S.

Based on a collection of rare newspapers held by the American Antiquarian Society, with contributions from the Boston Athenaeum, the Connecticut Historical Society, the Connecticut State Library, the Library Company of Philadelphia; the Library of Congress, the libraries of universities such as Brown and Harvard, and private collections. Fully text-searchable; browseable by newspaper title. Collections included: African American Newspapers, Series 1 ; African American Newspapers, Series 2 ;  Caribbean Newspapers ; Ethnic American Newspapers from the Balch Collection ; Hispanic American Newspapers ; Early American Newspapers, Series 1-7, 11-12, and 17-19.

Access to information about historic newspapers and select digitized newspaper pages. Search historic newspaper pages from 1789-1963 or use the U.S. Newspaper Directory to find information about American newspapers published between 1690-present.

Produced by the National Digital Newspaper Program (NDNP). NDNP, a partnership between the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) and the Library of Congress (LC), a long-term effort to develop an Internet-based, searchable database of U.S. newspapers with descriptive information and select digitization of historic pages.

• Old News: Historical Newspapers and Periodicals by Scholars Commons Staff Last Updated Apr 12, 2024 1992 views this year

There are countless options for primary sources. In addition to all the physical collections at IU  (including the Lilly Library  and University Archives ), IU has paid for access to hundreds of online databases that include primary sources from all over the world and all periods of human history. Finally, libraries, archives, museums, and other institutions have digitized many of their collections and made them freely available. For most history research, at least through the undergraduate level, you can likely find the sources you need right in Bloomington. Contact me  if you need help.

Using Primary Sources for Research:

Online tool designed to support students of the humanities and social sciences. Introduces the key approaches to working with source materials and historical evidence, as well as the methodologies and practicalities of visiting archives, evaluating sources and writing up research. Includes access to module 1: Research Skills Foundations, and module 2: Interrogating Colonial Documents and Narratives.

Includes nearly 200 hundred essays, videos, "How to" guides and case studies by subject specialists which answer questions about working with primary sources. Materials provide guidance on where to find historical documents, and how to best to approach analyzing the content they hold.

Directories of Archives/Special Collections:

Provides access to online findings aids, detailed collection guides or inventories describing where to find an archival collection, how it's arranged, and what it contains.

ArchiveGrid is a collection of archival material descriptions, including MARC records from WorldCat and finding aids harvested from the web. It's supported by OCLC Research as the basis for experimentation and testing in text mining, data analysis, and discovery system applications and interfaces. Archival collections held by thousands of libraries, museums, historical societies, and archives are represented in ArchiveGrid.

Digitized Primary Sources:

Allows users to search all Adam Matthew digital collections.

Portal for accessing descriptions of archival and special collections held by libraries, archives and other cultural heritage units at Indiana University or affiliated with Indiana University.

Database covering source material dating from 1106 until 1960, aggregating indexes, catalogs, collections, and other finding aids.

Eight Centuries (formerly 19th Century Masterfile ) is a database covering source material dating from 1106 until 1960 (varies by source). 8C aggregates indexes, catalogs, collections, and other finding aids, and includes citations to 9,000 periodicals in 30+ languages. 8C provides access to articles, newspapers, books, U.S. patents, government documents, and images. Links to open access and subscription full-text sources are included where available.

Provides an interactive research environment that allows researchers to cross-search Gale digital archives.

Archival collections documenting topics in eighteenth- through twentieth-century American history. Provides access to digitized letters, papers, photographs, scrapbooks, financial records, diaries, and many more primary source materials taken from the University Publications of America (UPA) Collections.

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• Last Updated: May 13, 2024 9:16 AM
• URL: https://guides.libraries.indiana.edu/history-guide

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Additional resources

Featured databases.

• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) OneSearch@IU
• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) Academic Search (EBSCO)
• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) ERIC (EBSCO)
• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) Nexis Uni
• Resource available without restriction HathiTrust Digital Library
• Databases A-Z
• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) Google Scholar
• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) JSTOR
• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) Web of Science
• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) Scopus
• Resource available to authorized IU Bloomington users (on or off campus) WorldCat

Explore Colorado’s Japanese and Japanese American history with new research guide

After spending a few years teaching English abroad in Japan with the  Japanese Exchange and Teaching program  (JET),  Adam Lisbon , Japanese and Korean Studies librarian at the University Libraries, fell in love with the country and its culture and decided to pursue librarianship. 

Once he joined the CU Boulder community, Lisbon was contacted by Courtney Ozaki, founder of the Colorado-based  Japan Arts Network , to chat about his experience with the JET program and discuss a developing program designed for Japanese American young professionals to learn more about their community’s history in Colorado. Noticing a gap in the Japanese and Japanese Americans (J/JA) community’s storytelling and documentation of its own history, Lisbon and  Megan Friedel , lead archivist for the Libraries  Rare and Distinctive Collections  (RaD), seized the opportunity to start the  CU Boulder Japanese and Japanese American Community History Project , a collection highlighting the history of J/JA at CU Boulder and Colorado. Lisbon recently completed a  research guide for the project . 

“The research guide is a one-stop shop that depicts Colorado’s role in the Japanese and Japanese American story,” Lisbon said. “It makes related archives, including those we have at the University Libraries, more discoverable and accessible while guiding researchers through various resources on the history of Japanese Americans in the state.”

The new guide curates many stories and oral histories from archives across the country, including those from incarceration camps, the U.S Navy’s Japanese Language school, accounts of students’ campus involvement, and even narratives from current CU Boulder students, all centering around the question: What does it mean to be Japanese and Japanese American?

“This is a really valuable tool for research,” said Friedel. “Professor Lisbon’s research guide places our local CU Japanese & Japanese Community History Project in a much wider historical context. It allows researchers to explore the ways in which the experiences of CU’s J/JA faculty, students and staff are connected to both regional and national histories.”

In addition to individual stories, the research guide also has a section listing outside resources, including the books  Amache  by Robert Harvey, which contains interviews with survivors of the Amache incarceration camp, and Joyce Lebra’s  We Chose Colorado , which gathers various histories of Japanese and Japanese Americans who chose to build their lives in Colorado. The guide also includes Japanese newspapers like the  Colorado Times  and the  Rockī Shimpō , government reports, and even theses and dissertations from CU Boulder’s J/JA staff and faculty.    Before the birth of the CU Boulder Japanese and Japanese American Community History Project in 2019, RaD held some archival collections detailing J/JA histories, significantly those documenting the U.S. Navy Japanese Language School, which CU Boulder hosted during World War II. The project was led by Friedel and Lisbon, with support from archivist  David Hays , student interns and community organizations. The project was developed, in part, to honor the 75 th anniversary of the end of  Japanese American incarceration  in the United States. 

For more information on accessing RaD’s unique collections documenting Japanese and Japanese American history at CU and elsewhere, contact  [email protected] .

Check out the J/JA Community History Research Guide

• Spotlight All
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Digiday Media

• Modern Retail

Modern Retail+ Research: The 2024 brand guide to events

• 01 Introduction
• 02 Post-Covid, publisher events return as a brand tactic
• 03 Brands tap influencers to amplify event activations
• 04 Tech brands get the biggest boost from influencers' event posts

Brands have used events as a way to generate consumer interest in their products for years. From temporary shop-in-a-shop concepts to large tentpole events, marketers now have a wide assortment of event-focused tools at their disposal. As new event strategies continue to emerge, Modern Retail looked at the current events landscape by conducting a survey of 174 marketing professionals and by collecting data on influencers’ social media posts about brand events. 

Modern Retail found that publisher-hosted events are becoming a particularly useful marketing opportunity for brands since many publications plan to build their events businesses in 2024.  Events took a hit during the height of the pandemic when stay-at-home orders eliminated publishers’ ability to host large, in-person gatherings. However, in the first quarter of 2024, slightly more than half of publisher respondents (52%) told Modern Retail they would focus at least a little on growing their events business in the next six months.

“Pre-pandemic we had a massive events business,” said The Atlantic’s CEO Nicholas Thompson. “Obviously, we reduced that, to bring it back up again. It’s unlikely in the next five years, we will be the size that we were prior to the pandemic, but we’re expanding the number of events … and the amount of revenue we bring in is expanding. So, it is an important part of our strategy, both for brand awareness and our business model.” 

Influencer partnerships also emerged in our research as another key strategy that gives brands additional touch points for customer engagement.

Publisher events ground to a halt during the height of Covid-19 pandemic , stalling the revenue stream, and publishers were initially hesitant to invest a lot in the strategy as the world opened back up post-pandemic. However, in the beginning of 2024, some publishers have seen success in events . With some publishers seeing the benefits of events, brands have been able to find opportunities to collaborate or sponsor publishers’ events as part of their overall business strategies.

A particularly effective strategy focuses specifically on promoting brands themselves. In 2022, Gallery Media Group, a subsidiary of VaynerX that publishes PureWow and ONE37pm, started a new strategy through its semi-permanent experiences “ Gallery Houses .” The event franchises take up residence in locations like Miami, New York City or the Hamptons for weeks or months at a time, allowing multiple sponsors to come and go. The Gallery Houses create a space where brands can come in and feature themselves in collaboration with an editorial brand. For example, its upcoming Beach House experience includes brand partners like Patron and Origins, which will provide products and experiences for guests during the August event. This strategy boosts awareness for both the brands and the publisher, while giving consumers an immersive experience. One particular strength of this specific partnership is that the brands don’t need to handle leasing and logistics for the space. 

Gallery’s CRO Chris Anthony and chief brand officer Mary Kate McGrath are trying to stretch the value of event sponsorships even further in 2024 , which is especially important given the fact that nearly every client call they have revolves around events. “I cannot get over how many people are [asking], ‘What is your experiential strategy? How are you gathering your community?’ It’s every call,” McGrath said in the fall.

In addition to its publishing operations, Gallery Media Group has an influencer marketing business with talent it can tap into for events – stay tuned for more on influencer-specific strategies in the next sections. These events that feature influencers are consumer facing and focused on generating buzz both for Gallery Media Group and its sponsors’ products — an effective strategy to attract B2C brands and advertisers. 

“We have influencers here, the products here, this beautiful venue here and we already have all of the best in class [photographers] and editors. … Let’s not just get one piece of content [that’s meant to create] FOMO from a consumer who doesn’t really care. Let’s instead give you months of content by shooting [a sponsor’s product] in 16 different ways,” McGrath said.

Media company Apartment Therapy utilizes a similar event experience through its Small/Cool home decor pop-ups . The pop-ups incorporate more shopping opportunities in an effort to drive revenue, according to company president Riva Syrop. Unlike some other events that focus on generating buzz and brand recognition, Apartment Therapy features affiliate links and QR codes through the pop-up to stimulate sales. Sales made through the affiliate links cost brands 10% to 20% of purchases, which is on par with Apartment Therapy’s standard commission rates. 

While both of these publisher event examples allow brands to promote their products through sponsorships and collaborations, they do have different goals of generating buzz versus driving sales. 

As more brands invest in experiential marketing events to build a stronger brand narrative, marketers are discovering that combining influencer marketing and event marketing can help boost an event’s exposure and create a lasting impression with an extended audience. Partnering with influencers who align with a brand’s values can create positive buzz among new and existing customers. 

Influencers, too, have noted that brand event collaborations provide a unique consumer experience during which brands can provide shoppers with product education. They also provide an opportunity for influencers to meet with colleagues. “I get to network. I get to connect with people who love beauty as much as I do, and we’re all there for the same reason,” said beauty influencer Stephanie Valentine. For influencers who work independently at home, these events serve as important professional experiences.

Glossy’s 2024 Influencer Index found that last year, 10 out of the 15 influencers included in the index posted about brand events on their Instagram accounts. On YouTube, three out of the 11 influencers with active YouTube channels posted videos about brand events in 2023. Posts featuring influencers getting ready for a brand event or from the brand events themselves garnered significant attention from their audiences. On average, posts about brand events on Instagram had a higher engagement rate than all other types of sponsored posts – at 5.6% versus the average at 4.0%. The same results occurred on YouTube, where videos about brand events had a higher average engagement rate than other types of sponsored videos.

Influencers have also noticed that their audiences respond well to posts about brand events. “I like when I get to post the actual event and what happens at the event because it takes [your audience] with you,” said beauty influencer Mikayla Noguiera. “That’s something I like to do with my audience, really immerse them and take them with me. I love doing it. I think it’s worth it.”

Most brands don’t expect influencers to post from their events, but most influencers do make event-centered posts, according to Noguiera. “I’ve talked to so many brands and asked them why they do brand trips. The No. 1 thing they say is to build relationships with the influencers,” said Noguiera. “They don’t expect you to post. It’s not a requirement, and they’re not trying to get you to sell the products. They’re just trying to build a stronger relationship with you in the hopes that they can work with you in the future.” 

The built-in opportunities for content creation at brand events, such as creative product displays and photobooths, provide natural moments for influencers to film and post during the events. This makes attendance mutually beneficial for influencers — who get to use interesting and unique backdrops for their social posts which will live online forever — and brands — whose social presences are strengthened by the influencers’ posts.

On average, influencer Katie Fang’s brand event-focused Instagram posts had a 33.8% engagement rate — the highest rate among the observed group of influencers. Fang attended two Fenty Beauty events and a Rare Beauty event last year and accumulated over 253,000 likes on her posts for the event.

Fang’s audience responded well to these brand partnerships, commenting things like “oh my goodness this is so cool!!!!” and “insane😍” on her posts about the events. Overall, Fenty Beauty and Rare Beauty align well with Fang’s personal brand and are aspirational brands for her audience, making these partnerships very effective for her in particular.

Influencers’ posts about technology companies’ brand events received the highest engagement among theevent categories included in Glossy’s index. These included brand events hosted by Amazon, TikTok and Google. Because audiences respond well to these posts, which, in turn, helps elevate the marketing impact of these events, technology companies are starting to lean further into event collaborations with influencers. 

According to experience agency Innovate Marketing Group, technology companies are mastering influencer events by providing influencers with new events opportunities, rather than just collaborating with them on one-off sponsored posts or campaigns. TikTok is building its creator programs by giving influencer partners the opportunity to host pop-up events across the country. Amazon developed the Amazon Creator Summit to connect with influencers and provide them with professional development opportunities that feature keynote speakers and panels with successful Amazon creators. This kind of symbiotic relationship between tech firms and influencers is becoming more important for brands of all types to build in order to encourage influencers to attend their events. 

“I like brands that do a mix of things — an education section where they’re actually sitting down educating you about the product, the chemistry of the product, why they created the product, the meaning of the product — and then [they] show you how to use the product,” said Noguiera, when asked about her preferred brand event format. “I like trips that have [an] interactive [section] and get you to be involved with the other influencers invited, so you can get to know them. I think that is so critical, every brand having a brand trip needs to do that.”

More in Marketing

Brands have used events as a way to generate consumer interest in their products for years. From temporary shop-in-a-shop concepts to large tentpole events, marketers now have a wide assortment of event tools at their disposal. As new event strategies continue to emerge, Modern Retail looked at the current events landscape by conducting a survey of 174 industry professionals and by collecting data on influencers’ social media posts about brand events. 

Food conglomerates are embracing high-protein breakfast items

Protein-rich products are taking up more space in food brand portfolios. This is partly thanks to the rise of weight loss drugs — like Ozempic, Mounjaro and Wegovy — as well as the rise of people being more interested in consuming nutrient-dense meals.

Fast-food chains like McDonald’s & Wendy’s are locked in a price war

Major fast-food chains are introducing value-based meals to try and convince customers to come back to restaurants. But low-priced deals may not be enough to keep business afloat, analysts say.

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Lifeway Research

Enlightening today’s church with relevant research and insights

Practical Help for Building a Thriving Ministry to Women in Your Church

Insights | Church Life & Ministry | May 29, 2024

Whether your church is launching a women’s ministry or has a rich history of ministry to women, you can cultivate a thriving ministry.

By Marissa Postell Sullivan

According to the State of Ministry to Women report from Lifeway Research, having an organized ministry to women benefits not only the women in the church but also the church as a whole. But for churches that don’t already have a women’s ministry, knowing how to get started can be challenging. And many with an organized ministry to women can take steps to better equip their women’s ministry leaders and support ministry to women in and through the church.

In her book A Short Guide to Women’s Ministry , long-time director of women’s ministry, Nora Allison, helps pastors and women’s ministry leaders navigate ministry to women—whether in a church launching a women’s ministry for the first time or a church with a rich history of ministry to women. Allison calls leaders to develop relationships that help women build community and grow in their walk with God. Here’s a look at a recent conversation with Allison on how pastors can champion ministry to women in their congregations.

Why is it good for the church if women are part of an organized ministry to women?

Nora Allison: I think it’s vital because women make up at least half the church . And as image bearers, they need to be discipled; they need to be trained. They’re going to give advice and input to lots of other people in the church. And it will either be theologically-sound, good, God-honoring advice and input or not. So, it’s important they are trained in theology, in knowing how to study their Bibles, and in knowing how to glean the truth from their Bibles about who God is and who He made them to be. It’s a disservice to the whole church if we’re not making sure all its members are built up and encouraged.

In your book, you say there are two starting places for building a ministry to women: where you are and where you want to go. Why do these starting places that may sound conflicting go hand-in-hand?

We have to know what the purpose is of women’s ministry, of discipling people—where we want to take them. We need to know what God’s goal is for all of us—that we would know Him well, that we would become like Him, that we would be good ambassadors for Him, that we would spread His fame. And we need to make sure everybody knows that’s what we’re aiming for.

But if we don’t realize where our starting point is, we can falsely adopt all sorts of programs and classes. And sometimes that’s not where God wants us to start, because that’s not the people He has at our church. The programs that worked somewhere else might not be the particular needs of your church, or it might not be the gifting He has in your church that He wants to use to build the ministry. We need to know where we need to go. But we also need to know where we’re starting—what our resources are, who we’re dealing with, and the particular needs of that church.

What advice would you give a pastor looking for someone to lead an organized ministry to women in the church?

God always looks at character. You have to find a woman who’s walking with the Lord in a way that’s a model for the other women in the church. They can look up to her and see not that she’s perfect and certainly not that she’s sinless but that she goes to the Lord. She’s dependent on Him for all her needs. She goes to Him and readily confesses and realizes when she falls short.

Then, it comes down to gifting and calling. And it’s a matter of the pastor’s discernment in speaking to women and trying to see if God might be calling them to take a leadership role. Pray and take some time to get to know some of the women. See who other women in the church are responding to, who they look up to. Then approach that woman and see if she would be interested in taking on that role. Sometimes, especially if it’s new, it’s good to see if there’s a woman or two who might want to work together. But ultimately, you need someone who’s in charge.

What other practical tips do you have for pastors looking to start a ministry to women in their churches?

It’s important he sees the ministry as a vital ministry to the church—that it’s not sidelined. The pastor should work with the women’s ministry leader to bring that ministry under the umbrella of the church. So, he would constantly communicate what the vision is for the church and how this ministry fits into that vision. Too often, there will be some passion on the part of women but not buy-in from the pastors or elders. So, it’s like a two-ring circus going on.

Since some of women’s needs and where they’re going is a little different, it’s important to have a women’s ministry. But it needs to be incorporated into the big picture of the church. Schedule meetings and reports with the women’s ministry leader to see how things are progressing and how the church’s leadership can serve the women’s ministry as well. A women’s ministry director should be at the staff meetings if at all possible. She should be invited and welcome. I invited myself when I was volunteering. I was going to be a part to know where we’re going, to be a part of the vision, and to be able to represent women.

What ideas do you have for collaborating with a women’s ministry director who can’t attend regular staff meetings?

If she can’t go to the scheduled staff meeting, she should meet with a staff member. She should have someone she reports to. It should be clear to her who she’s responsible to, and she should meet regularly with that person. This allows them to talk about where they’re going, what struggles she might be having, and what upcoming things are happening. This way, if she’s not in the staff meeting, she can at least be represented by someone else.

And if possible, if there are announcements during the service, she should be the one to give them for the women’s events or courses, because she can best communicate her heart for women’s ministry and what the event or course would be about.

How can churches provide training for those leading women’s ministry?

There are a lot of things women can do to be trained online. Online training resources should be made available and encouraged for the women’s director and any other women interested. Wherever there are gaps in her training, it’s the role of the pastor and the elders to help fill that. We want to build people up to be more and more like Christ. That entails helping them know how to study the Bible and pray, helping them know theology and doctrine and how to communicate that, and helping them counsel people better.

There are so many conferences, books, schools, and online classes. I don’t think we have an excuse for not being able to provide that sort of thing for women. If we have any kind of discipleship training for men, we should also have it for women.

What do you wish more pastors understood about ministry to women?

As image bearers and co-laborers, we need to recognize that women are an essential part of the church. And as such, their shoulders need to be tapped to use their gifts, abilities, and influence in the church.

They need to realize all kinds of training—and especially theological training—is a necessity for women, not just men. It can’t be an afterthought. Pastors need to do all they can to make sure women are built up to feel comfortable in leadership roles and are challenged to grow into greater responsibility in their churches.

Too often, we have thought of women’s ministry as programs or social events to get the women together, and that’s not what women’s ministry’s about at all. It’s about helping people see where God wants them to be and get there. It’s about discipleship of our women. We’re not trying to build strong ministry programs for women. We’re trying to build strong women who can minister to other women. Programs can be useful, but they’re only a means. The key is focusing on the women and then using various means to disciple them and build them up.

This interview has been edited for length and clarity.

For permission to republish this article, contact  Marissa Postell Sullivan .

Marissa Postell Sullivan

@marissapostell

Marissa is the managing editor for LifewayResearch.com.

A Short Guide to Women’s Ministry

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Historical Research in Archives: A Practical Guide (Students and Professional Concerns) Paperback – January 1, 2013

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• Print length 66 pages
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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ American Historical Association (January 1, 2013)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 66 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0872292029
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0872292024
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• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 5.25 x 0.25 x 8.25 inches
• #916 in Research Reference Books
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About the author

Samuel j. redman.

Professor Samuel J. Redman studies U.S. social, cultural, and intellectual history. He received his B.A. in anthropology and history from the University of Minnesota, Morris, and an M.A. and Ph.D. in American history at the University of California, Berkeley.

An expert on the history of museums, Redman is the author of three books. His first book,  Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums was published by Harvard University Press in 2016. Bone Rooms was selected as a Choice Top-25 Outstanding Academic Title, Nature Top-20 book of 2016, and Smithsonian Top History Book of 2016. His second book, Prophets and Ghosts: The Story of Salvage Anthropology (Harvard University Press 2021), explores salvage anthropology's fraught history and legacy. A third book is titled, The Museum: A Short History of Crisis and Resilience (NYU Press 2022). The Museum traces how cultural institutions responded to episodes of crisis over the past century in the United States.

He lives in Northampton, Massachusetts.

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Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event Timed Research and rewards

Stakataka and Blacephalon make their debut in Pokémon Go

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Pokémon Go is hosting an “ Ultra Space Wonders ” event to wrap up the “World of Wonders” season, which will end in June. The event runs from May 23-28 and it features the debut of the Ultra Beasts Stakataka and Blacephalon .

The event also boosts the spawn of poison-type Pokémon, adds the last leg of the “World of Wonders” Special Research , and rewards doubled XP for winning raids against Ultra Beasts. Mareanie is also available shiny for the first time ever .

Below, we list out all the perks of the Pokémon Go “Ultra Space Wonders” event, including the paid Timed Research, Collection Challenge, and event Field Research.

This is a paid research for $5 . Once you buy it, you’ll only have until May 28 at 8 p.m. in your local time to complete it.

Is the ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ paid research ticket worth it?

The value of the “Ultra Space Wonders” paid research ticket is technically worth it, but I would only buy this if you are really hunting for shiny Mareanie or if you want the Naganadel Wings cosmetic.

Step 1 of 1

• Catch 5 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 2,000 Stardust (10 Revives)
• Catch 10 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 4,000 Stardust (10 Hyper Potions)
• Catch 15 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 6,000 Stardust (15 Poké Balls)
• Catch 20 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 8,000 Stardust (15 Great Balls)
• Catch 25 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Earn 10,000 Stardust (15 Ultra Balls)
• Catch 30 poison-type Pokémon (Mareanie encounter)
• Win a raid (1 Lucky Egg)

Rewards : 4 Premium Battle Passes, Mareanie encounter, Naganadel Wings cosmetic

Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event Collection Challenge

There are a few Collection Challenges to complete that involve you catching and evolving specific Pokémon.

Ultra Space Wonders Collection Challenge: Catch

• Catch a Tentacool
• Catch a Mareanie
• Catch a Skrelp

Rewards : 1,000 XP, Mareanie encounter

Ultra Space Wonders Collection Challenge: Research

• Catch a Nidoran-F
• Catch a Nidoran-M
• Catch a Trubbish

Rewards : 5,000 XP, Mareanie encounter

Ultra Space Wonders Collection Challenge: Raid

• Catch a Bagon
• Catch a Deino
• Catch a Druddigon

Rewards : 10,000 XP, Mareanie encounter

Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event Field Research and rewards

Spinning a PokéStop during the event period may yield one of these tasks:

• Catch 10 Pokémon (Nidoran-F or Nidoran-M encounter)
• Power up Pokémon 5 times (Trubbish encounter)
• Power up Pokémon 10 times (Mareanie encounter)
• Win a raid (Goomy encounter)
• Win 3 raids (Jangmo-o encounter)

Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event boosted spawns

These Pokémon will spawn more frequently during the event period:

Pokémon Go ‘Ultra Space Wonders’ event raid targets

The following Pokémon will be in raids during the event:

• Paldean Wooper (1-star)
• Hisuian Qwilfish (1-star)
• Hisuian Sneasel (1-star)
• Bagon (1-star)
• Deino (1-star)
• Galarian Weezing (3-star)
• Druddigon (3-star)
• Turtonator (3-star)
• Stakataka (5-star, eastern hemisphere only)
• Blacephalon (5-star, western hemisphere only)
• Mega Pidgeot (Mega)
• Pokémon Go guides
• “Rediscover Kanto” Special Research
• How to find Wiglett
• Ditto disguises

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