summative assessment critical thinking reflection

Wk. 5 Summative Assessment: Critical Thinking: Reflection...

Wk. 5 Summative Assessment: Critical Thinking: Reflection

 Critical thinking reflection

Reliability, feeling, logic, and effective communication are essential aspects of critical thinking. Critical thinking frequently starts with an emotion of some type. That leads to the development of trust, reason, and communication. The reliability of a proposition depends on it having factual facts. Depending on your audience, it would be best to employ defense when deciding how to convey it. Additionally, you ought to be able to communicate effectively and explain your strategy so that everyone can understand. Sally would not even be able to demonstrate the proposal regarding the guaranteed extension and subsequently get it authorized without these elements.

Elements of Critical Thinking

Applying the principles of critical thinking to a problem typically yields favorable results since it ensures that all relevant factors have been considered before drawing a logical conclusion. There were obstacles to critical thinking in this situation. Sally, for instance, demonstrated conformity when she nodded in seeming agreement at the meal with coworkers rather than expressing her dissatisfaction. In this regard, Sally didn't reveal her capacity for critical thought; instead, she showed it by submitting to her coworkers' wishes to prevent a conflict. Later, when she presented the manager with an argument supported by facts, she developed critical thinking skills. The warranty was eventually extended because of her persistence despite the manager's use of fallacies to repel her. When Sally's manager rejected her results without offering a convincing defense after learning that the printer guarantee was insufficient, he demonstrated a type of reluctance to critical thinking. Despite having access to all the information, the manager chose not to learn more about the situation, revealing his ignorance.

Reason, Emotion, and Communication

Logic, feelings, and communication must all be used in critical thinking. Being effective in all these areas improves one's capacity for critical thought. In this case, Sally provided proof to support her argument that the 1-year warranty offered by the printer was insufficient. She also determined how many consumers who had malfunctioning printers bought replacements. After work, Sally was irritated and exhausted. Her emotional state limited her ability to reason, and Sally lacked the self-assurance to express her views to her coworkers. Despite not agreeing with her colleague's viewpoint, she still seems to have been a passive communicator since she did so to avoid a confrontation.

Fallacies and Argument

Arguments that include fallacies frequently turn deceitful and contain illogical or misleading justifications—a few misconceptions presented throughout this critical thinking scenario. Furthermore, there is the customer's use of Sally as a pawn in the sympathy fallacy. It was done by sally invoking his skill to print as the only means of ensuring that his family would eat to appeal to Sally's fascist sympathies. Second, instead of addressing the root causes of Sally's delay, her employer made the ad hominem mistake by attacking her. The primary debate in this reading concerned whether the company's printer warranty was appropriate, given that it did not give buyers enough time to determine if the equipment would function as intended. The allegation is legitimate because Sally offered proof that numerous printers broke only one month after the one-year guarantee ended.

When critical thinking is employed to debunk a claim, a successful outcome is almost certainly to be expected. Using the abilities needed to develop critical thinking, one might overcome obstacles in the way of one's ability to think critically. Even when fallacies are introduced, using sound reasoning techniques and effective communication will help you win most arguments. Emotions have the potential to either support or undermine critical thinking. When making decisions, emotions cannot take precedence over rationality since logical reasons given may be disregarded.

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Summative Assessment and Feedback

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Summative assessments are given to students at the end of a course and should measure the skills and knowledge a student has gained over the entire instructional period. Summative feedback is aimed at helping students understand how well they have done in meeting the overall learning goals of the course.

Effective summative assessments

Effective summative assessments provide students a structured way to demonstrate that they have met a range of key learning objectives and to receive useful feedback on their overall learning. They should align with the course learning goals and build upon prior formative assessments. These assessments will address how well the student is able to synthesize and connect the elements of learning from the entirety of the course into a holistic understanding and provide an opportunity to provide rich summative feedback.

The value of summative feedback

Summative feedback is essential for students to understand how far they have come in meeting the learning goals of the course, what they need further work on, and what they should study next. This can affect later choices that students make, particularly in contemplating and pursuing their major fields of study. Summative feedback can also influence how students regard themselves and their academic disciplines after graduation.

Use rubrics to provide consistency and transparency

A rubric is a grading guide for evaluating how well students have met a learning outcome. A rubric consists of performance criteria, a rating scale, and indicators for the different rating levels. They are typically in a chart or table format. 

Instructors often use rubrics for both formative and summative feedback to ensure consistency of assessment across different students. Rubrics also can make grading faster and help to create consistency between multiple graders and across assignments.

Students might be given access to the rubric before working on an assignment. No criteria or metric within a summative assessment should come as a surprise to the students. Transparency with students on exactly what is being assessed can help them more effectively demonstrate how much they have learned.  

Types of  summative assessments

Different summative assessments are better suited to measuring different kinds of learning. 

Examinations

Examinations are useful for evaluating student learning in terms of remembering information, and understanding and applying concepts and ideas. However, exams may be less suited to evaluating how well students are able to analyze, evaluate, or create things related to what they've learned.

Presentation

A presentation tasks the student with teaching others what they have learned typically by speaking, presenting visual materials, and interacting with their audience. This can be useful for assessing a student's ability to critically analyze and evaluate a topic or content.

With projects, students will create something, such as a plan, document, artifact, or object, usually over a sustained period of time, that demonstrates skills or understanding of the topic of learning. They are useful for evaluating learning objectives that require high levels of critical thinking, creativity, and coordination. Projects are good opportunities to provide summative feedback because they often build on prior formative assessments and feedback. 

With a portfolio, students create and curate a collection of documents, objects, and artifacts that collectively demonstrate their learning over a wide range of learning goals. Portfolios usually include the student's reflections and metacognitive analysis of their own learning. Portfolios are typically completed over a sustained period of time and are usually done by individual students as opposed to groups. 

Portfolios are particularly useful for evaluating how students' learning, attitudes, beliefs, and creativity grow over the span of the course. The reflective component of portfolios can be a rich form of self-feedback for students. Generally, portfolios tend to be more holistic and are often now done using ePortfolios .

• Deakin University
• Learning and Teaching

Critical reflection for assessments and practice

• Critical reflection writing

Critical reflection for assessments and practice: Critical reflection writing

• Reflective practice
• Critical reflection
• How to reflect
• Recount and reflect

Critically reflective language and writing

"Our language is the reflection of ourselves..."

Mahatma Ghandi -  Cries of Never  (1916)

Our language is part of our identity. How we speak or write or paint or move when communicating shapes our sense of self and our presence in this world.  Critical reflection uses particular language and writing styles.

What is reflective writing? 

Critical reflection uses particular language and writing styles, often linked to your study area. For example, critical reflection in Health disciplines is linked to evidence-based practice and therefore uses a combination of clinical language and first-hand clinician perspective. In contrast, critical reflective writing for a dance student may have technical terms and creative language. Regardless of area, reflective writing at uni needs you to link your reflection to theories. This means that there is a formal tone to reflective writing assessments.    

What does critical reflective writing include?

Critical reflective writing is not just a summary or description of an event or something that you have observed. Description is needed for context in a critical reflection but the core of good reflective writing is exploring the significance of events (the ‘why’ and ‘how’) by providing analysis and insights into your thinking.  

In critical reflective writing you need to:

This helps you to develop new insights and perspectives which can inform your future practice. 

Language of reflective writing

The language used in reflective writing allows you to discuss your personal experiences, feelings and ideas. It’s fine to refer to yourself and use “I”, “my” and “me”. 

You can also use action verbs when writing about your feelings and opinions, for example, “I felt…”, “I think…”, “I realise…”. 

Remember you also need to include theory to support what you are saying. Take a look at the  language of reflective writing  for more support in this area. 

What? So What? Now What? Model 

Just as there are models to help you critically reflect on your actions, thoughts and feelings, there are also models to help you write critical reflections. 

The 'What? So What? Now What?' model guides your own reflections and learning from events that are significant for you. It gives you prompts to help you identify and discuss the different components of critical reflective writing. 

Click on the plus symbols (+)  below to see what is discussed in each section. 

What? So What? Now What? template

To help you put this model into practice for your own context, download the template provided below to use for assessments. 

• What? So What? Now What? template

Essay versus critical reflection essay

At uni a common form of critical reflection writing is the critical reflection essay. For a quick recap on the major differences, look at this table.

Try to express your reactions, feelings, attitudes and views in an open and honest way. Avoid writing what you think others ‘want to hear’.

Remember that a critical reflection should describe, analyse and evaluate? Use this checklist to shape up a draft critical reflection based on a recent experience. Don’t forget to use the SWOT model to help prompt your writing

• A brief description of the event or context
• What you noticed
• What you were thinking and feeling
• Why this learning is significant to you
• What you have learnt from this experience
• How this will inform future practice.
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• Next: Recount and reflect >>
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Center for the Advancement of Teaching Excellence

Summative assessments.

Nicole Messier, CATE Instructional Designer February 7th, 2022

WHAT? Heading link Copy link

Summative assessments are used to measure learning when instruction is over and thus may occur at the end of a learning unit, module, or the entire course.

Summative assessments are usually graded, are weighted more heavily than other course assignments or comprise a substantial percentage of a students’ overall grade (and are often considered “high stakes” assessments relative to other, “lower stakes” assessments in a course), and are required assessments for the completion of a course.

Summative assessments can be viewed through two broad assessment strategies: assessments of learning and assessments as learning.

• Assessment of learning (AoL) provides data to confirm course outcomes and students the opportunity to demonstrate proficiency in the learning objectives.
• Assessment as learning (AaL) provides student ownership of learning by utilizing evidence-based learning strategies, promoting self-regulation, and providing reflective learning.

A summative assessment can be designed to provide both assessment of learning (AoL) and assessment as learning (AaL). The goal of designing for AaL and AoL is to create a summative assessment as a learning experience while ensuring that the data collected is valid and reliable.

Want to learn more about these assessment strategies? Please visit the  Resources Section – CATE website to review resources, teaching guides, and more.

Summative Assessments Heading link Copy link

Summative assessments (aol).

• Written assignments – such as papers or authentic assessments like projects or portfolios of creative work
• Mid-term exam
• Performances

Although exams are typically used to measure student knowledge and skills at the end of a learning unit, module, or an entire course, they can also be incorporated into learning opportunities for students.

Example 1 - Exam Heading link Copy link

Example 1 - exam.

An instructor decides to analyze their current multiple-choice and short-answer final exam for alignment to the learning objectives. The instructor discovers that the questions cover the content in the learning objectives; however, some questions are not at the same cognitive levels as the learning objectives . The instructor determines that they need to create some scenario questions where students are asked to analyze a situation and apply knowledge to be aligned with a particular learning objective.

The instructor also realizes that this new type of question format will be challenging for students if the exam is the only opportunity provided to students. The instructor decides to create a study guide for students on scenarios (not used in the exam) for students to practice and self-assess their learning. The instructor plans to make future changes to the quizzes and non-graded formative questions to include higher-level cognitive questions to ensure that learning objectives are being assessed as well as to support student success in the summative assessment.

This example demonstrates assessment of learning with an emphasis on improving the validity of the results, as well as assessment as learning by providing students with opportunities to self-assess and reflect on their learning.

Written assignments in any form (authentic, project, or problem-based) can also be designed to collect data and measure student learning, as well as provide opportunities for self-regulation and reflective learning. Instructors should consider using a type of grading rubric (analytic, holistic, or single point) for written assignments to ensure that the data collected is valid and reliable.

Summative Assessments (AaL) Heading link Copy link

Summative assessments (aal).

• Authentic assessments – an assessment that involves a real-world task or application of knowledge instead of a traditional paper; could involve a situation or scenario specific to a future career.
• Project-based learning – an assessment that involves student choice in designing and addressing a problem, need, or question.
• Problem-based learning – similar to project-based learning but focused on solutions to problems.
• Self-critique or peer assessment

Example 2 - Authentic Assessment Heading link Copy link

Example 2 - authentic assessment.

An instructor has traditionally used a research paper as the final summative assessment in their course. After attending a conference session on authentic assessments, the instructor decides to change this summative assessment to an authentic assessment that allows for student choice and increased interaction, feedback, and ownership.

First, the instructor introduced the summative project during the first week of class. The summative project instructions asked students to select a problem that could be addressed by one of the themes from the course. Students were provided with a list of authentic products that they could choose from, or they could request permission to submit a different product. Students were also provided with a rubric aligned to the learning objectives.

Next, the instructor created small groups (three to four students) with discussion forums for students to begin brainstorming problems, themes, and ideas for their summative project. These groups were also required to use the rubric to provide feedback to their peers at two separate time points in the course. Students were required to submit their final product, references, self-assessment using the rubric, and a reflection on the peer interaction and review.

This example demonstrates an authentic assessment as well as an assessment of learning (AoL) and assessment as learning (AaL). The validity and reliability of this summative assessment are ensured using a rubric that is focused on the learning objectives of the course and consistently utilized for the grading and feedback of the summative project. Data collected from the use of grading criteria in a rubric can be used to improve the summative project as well as the instruction and materials in the course. This summative project allows for reflective learning and provides opportunities for students to develop self-regulation skills as well as apply knowledge gained in an authentic and meaningful product.

Another way to create a summative assessment as a learning opportunity is to break it down into smaller manageable parts. These smaller parts will guide students’ understanding of expectations, provide them with opportunities to receive and apply feedback, as well as support their executive functioning and self-regulation skills.

WHY? Heading link Copy link

We know that summative assessments are vital to the curriculum planning cycle to measure student outcomes and implement continuous improvements. But how do we ensure our summative assessments are effective and equitable? Well, the answer is in the research.

Validity, Reliability, and Manageability

Critical components for the effectiveness of summative assessments are the validity, reliability, and manageability of the assessment (Khaled, 2020).

• Validity of the assessment refers to the alignment to course learning objectives. In other words, are the assessments in your course measuring the learning objectives?
• Reliability of the assessment refers to the consistency or accuracy of the assessment used. Are the assessment practices consistent from student to student and semester to semester?
• Manageability of the assessment refers to the workload for both faculty and students. For faculty, is the type of summative assessment causing a delay in timely grading and feedback to the learner? For students, is the summative assessment attainable and are the expectations realistic?

As you begin to design a summative assessment, determine how you will ensure the assessment is valid, reliable, and manageable.

Feedback & Summative Assessments

Attributes of academic feedback that improve the impact of the summative assessment on student learning (Daka, 2021; Harrison 2017) include:

• Provide feedback without or before grades.
• Once the grade is given, then explain the grading criteria and score (e.g., using a rubric to explain grading criteria and scoring).
•  Identify specific qualities in students’ work.
• Describe actionable steps on what and how to improve.
• Motivate and encourage students by providing opportunities to submit revisions or earn partial credit for submitting revised responses to incorrect answers on exams.
• Allow students to monitor, evaluate, and regulate their learning.

Additional recommendations for feedback include that feedback should be timely, frequent, constructive (what and how), and should help infuse a sense of professional identity for students (why). The alignment of learning objectives, learning activities, and summative assessments is critical to student success and will ensure that assessments are valid. And lastly, the tasks in assessments should match the cognitive levels of the course learning objectives to challenge the highest performing students while elevating lower-achieving students (Daka, 2021).

HOW? Heading link Copy link

How do you start designing summative assessments?

Summative assessments can help measure student achievement of course learning objectives as well as provide the instructor with data to make pedagogical decisions on future teaching and instruction. Summative assessments can also provide learning opportunities as students reflect and take ownership of their learning.

So how do you determine what type of summative assessment to design? And how do you ensure that summative assessment will be valid, reliable, and manageable? Let’s dive into some of the elements that might impact your design decisions, including class size, discipline, modality, and EdTech tools .

Class Size and Modality

The manageability of summative assessments can be impacted by the class size and modality of the course. Depending on the class size of the course, instructors might be able to implement more opportunities for authentic summative assessments that provide student ownership and allow for more reflective learning (students think about their learning and make connections to their experiences). Larger class sizes might require instructors to consider implementing an EdTech tool to improve the manageability of summative assessments.

The course modality can also influence the design decisions of summative assessments. Courses with synchronous class sessions can require students to take summative assessments simultaneously through an in-person paper exam or an online exam using an EdTech tool, like Gradescope or Blackboard Tests, Pools, and Surveys . Courses can also create opportunities for students to share their authentic assessments asynchronously using an EdTech tool like VoiceThread .

Major Coursework

When designing a summative assessment as a learning opportunity for major coursework, instructors should reflect on the learning objectives to be assessed and the possible real-world application of the learning objectives. In replacement of multiple-choice or short answer questions that focus on content memorization, instructors might consider creating scenarios or situational questions that provide students with opportunities to analyze and apply knowledge gained. In major coursework, instructors should consider authentic assessments that allow for student choice, transfer of knowledge, and the development of professional skills in place of a traditional paper or essay.

Undergraduate General Education Coursework

In undergraduate general education coursework, instructors should consider the use of authentic assessments to make connections to students’ experiences, goals, and future careers. Simple adjustments to assignment instructions to allow for student choice can help increase student engagement and motivation. Designing authentic summative assessments can help connect students to the real-world application of the content and create buy-in on the importance of the summative assessment.

Summative Assessment Tools

EdTech tools can help to reduce faculty workload by providing a delivery system for students to submit work as well as tools to support academic integrity.

Below are EdTech tools that are available to UIC faculty to create and/or grade summative assessments as and of learning.

Assessment Creation and Grading Tools Heading link Copy link

Assessment creation and grading tools.

• Blackboard assignments drop box and rubrics
• Blackboard quizzes and exams

Assessment creation and grading tools can help support instructors in designing valid and reliable summative assessments. Gradescope can be utilized as a grading tool for in-person paper and pencil midterm and final exams, as well as a tool to create digital summative assessments. Instructors can use AI to improve the manageability of summative assessments as well as the reliability through the use of rubrics for grading with Gradescope.

In the Blackboard learning management system, instructors can create pools of questions for both formative and summative assessments as well as create authentic assessment drop boxes and rubrics aligned to learning objectives for valid and reliable data collection.

Academic Integrity Tools

• SafeAssign (undergraduate)
•   iThenticate (graduate)
• Respondus LockDown Browser and Monitoring

Academic integrity tools can help ensure that students are meeting academic expectations concerning research through the use of SafeAssign and iThenticate as well as academic integrity during online tests and exams using Respondus Lockdown Browser and Monitoring.

Want to learn more about these summative assessment tools? Visit the EdTech section on the CATE website to learn more.

Exam Guidance

Additional guidance on online exams is available in Section III: Best Practices for Online (Remote Proctored, Synchronous) Exams in the Guidelines for Assessment in Online Environments Report , which outlines steps for equitable exam design, accessible exam technology, and effective communication for student success. The framing questions in the report are designed to guide instructors with suggestions, examples, and best practices (Academic Planning Task Force, 2020), which include:

• “What steps should be taken to ensure that all students have the necessary hardware, software, and internet capabilities to complete a remote, proctored exam?
• What practices should be implemented to make remote proctored exams accessible to all students, and in particular, for students with disabilities?
• How can creating an ethos of academic integrity be leveraged to curb cheating in remote proctored exams?
• What are exam design strategies to minimize cheating in an online environment?
• What tools can help to disincentive cheating during a remote proctored exam?
• How might feedback and grading strategies be adjusted to deter academic misconduct on exams?”

GETTING STARTED Heading link Copy link

Getting started.

The following steps will support you as you examine current summative assessment practices through the lens of assessment of learning (AoL) and assessment as learning (AaL) and develop new or adapt existing summative assessments.

• The first step is to utilize backward design principles by aligning the summative assessments to the learning objectives.
• To collect valid and reliable data to confirm student outcomes (AoL).
• To promote self-regulation and reflective learning by students (AaL).
• Format: exam, written assignment, portfolio, performance, project, etc.
• Delivery: paper and pencil, Blackboard, EdTech tool, etc.
• Feedback: general (how to improve performance), personalized (student-specific), etc.
• Scoring: automatically graded by Blackboard and/or EdTech tool or manual through the use of a rubric in Blackboard.
• The fourth step is to review data collected from summative assessment(s) and reflect on the implementation of the summative assessment(s) through the lens of validity, reliability, and manageability to inform continuous improvements for equitable student outcomes.

CITING THIS GUIDE Heading link Copy link

Citing this guide.

Messier, N. (2022). “Summative assessments.” Center for the Advancement of Teaching Excellence at the University of Illinois Chicago. Retrieved [today’s date] from https://teaching.uic.edu/resources/teaching-guides/assessment-grading-practices/summative-assessments/

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Heading link Copy link

Academic Planning Task Force. (2020). Guidelines for Assessment in Online Learning Environments .

McLaughlin, L., Ricevuto, J. (2021). Assessments in a Virtual Environment: You Won’t Need that Lockdown Browser! Faculty Focus.

Moore, E. (2020). Assessments by Design: Rethinking Assessment for Learner Variability. Faculty Focus.

Websites and Journals

Association for the Assessment of Learning in Higher Education website 

Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education. Taylor & Francis Online Journals

Journal of Assessment in Higher Education

REFERENCES Heading link Copy link

Daka, H., & Mulenga-Hagane, M., Mukalula-Kalumbi, M., Lisulo, S. (2021). Making summative assessment effective. 5. 224 – 237.

Earl, L.M., Katz, S. (2006). Rethinking classroom assessment with purpose in mind — Assessment for learning, assessment as learning, assessment of learning. Winnipeg, Manitoba: Crown in Right of Manitoba.

Galletly, R., Carciofo, R. (2020). Using an online discussion forum in a summative coursework assignment. Journal of Educators Online . Volume 17, Issue 2.

Harrison, C., Könings, K., Schuwirth, L. & Wass, V., Van der Vleuten, C. (2017). Changing the culture of assessment: the dominance of the summative assessment paradigm. BMC Medical Education. 17. 10.1186/s12909-017-0912-5.

Khaled, S., El Khatib, S. (2020). Summative assessment in higher education: Feedback for better learning outcomes

DEAL: Describe, Examine, and Articulate Learning

Ash & Clayton (2009) define Critical Reflection as “evidence based examination of the sources of and gaps in knowledge and practice with the intent to improve on both (p. 28).” With this goal in mind, they develop a structure of “best practices” for creating critical reflection assignments and the associated assessments. Facilitators of experiential learning should follow 3 steps for optimal results.

1. Determine the desired learning goals and associated learning objectives, moving from description and explanation to evaluation and critique.

2. Create reflection assignments which relate directly to these learning objectives and require higher-order critical thinking skills.

3. Integrate summative and formative assessments into the reflection assignments.

The authors represent their approach in the DEAL model: Describe, Examine, and Articulate Learning. (Diagram 2 below) Using this approach, students take responsibility for their own learning. The first step, Describe, can happen before, during, and after the EL activity. To avoid shallow lists or mundane diary entries, the reflection prompts must encourage mindful and attentive descriptions of the activity. The Examine stage of critical reflection builds upon this foundation. Reflection questions which ask the student to examine their experience allows them to make meaning out of their EL activity by identifying the links between the learning objectives and their personal experience. The final step, Articulate Learning, enables students to capture their learning so that they can act on it. This can only happen if students can clearly articulate their learning process. Answering questions such as: What did I learn?, How did I learn it? Why does it matter? and What will I do now? will transform the student’s experience into substantive, applicable learning.

For Ash & Clayton, assessment must be developed in tandem with critical reflection activities. Assessment, like the reflection questions themselves, must link explicitly with the learning goals as objectives of the EL activity. As such, assessment needs to incorporate both the Describe and the Examine aspects of the Deal model. Summative assessments would evaluate the student’s accomplishment of the learning objectives while formative assessments would provide the feedback necessary for students to act on their learning. The authors describe the creation of critical reflection and assessment as modeling the EL learning process, with the opportunity for teachers to continuously learn from their students’ responses to improve the experience, the efficacy of the reflection assignments, and student learning.

Ash, S. L., & Clayton, P. H. (2009). Generating, deepening, and documenting learning: The power of critical reflection for applied learning. Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Education , 1(1), 25-48.

Kleinhesselink K, Schooley S, Cashman S, Richmond A, Ikeda E, McGinley P, Eds. (2015). Engaged faculty institute curriculum . Seattle, WA: Community-Campus Partnerships for Health.

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How can I use reflection?

How does it align with the module learning outcomes does it assess  skills and knowledge that are key to the discipline.

Reflection is key to learning, so formative reflective tasks align with all programmes of study. However, summatively assessed reflection should directly connect to learning outcomes of the module.  Reflection is useful for courses where there is a strong focus on self-regulated learning, critical thinking and analysing experience. It is particularly useful for all courses with a practical element, professional or service placement, or internship. It can also be useful for students undertaking projects or group work.

Will it be formative or Summative? If summative, how will I give opportunities for practice? When will it occur in the term/module? What will the weighting be?

A task on its own? If the skills assessed by reflection are a core Learning Outcome, it can be a stand-alone summative assignment.

Integral to another task? Students might be given a summative assignment in which reflection forms a small percentage of the weighting. This can either be graded or its completion can be assessed using a merit, pass, fail system.

A formative part of a larger summative task? Students can be given a reflective task on the process of completing a summative assignment which identifies what has been learned so far, what sources they have found and how, and what could have been done differently. Setting the deadline a few weeks before the final assessment could deter students from procrastination on the summative task. Students should be informed that if they fail to complete the task, they will miss out on valuable feedback.

Separate or repeated small tasks to be completed throughout a module? Reflection is often more useful when it is an iterative process and students have opportunities for practice and feedback. These tasks can be summative or formative. They should be small but meaningful to prevent can  surface learning where students prioritise studying for traditional summative assessments.

What criteria will I use? How will I give feedback?

This depends on the use of the reflective task. It can be quite difficult to assess equitably unless a fairly rigid structure for the writing is in place, which can stymy honesty and creativity.

Formative tasks should be given feedback but not grades.

Summative tasks are more difficult to assess and different tasks and disciplines will require different definitions of ‘good’ reflective writing. This should be discussed in module or programme teams.

Some examples of criteria for assessment are provided by DePaul

Plack et al (2005)   and Wald et al (2012) provide more complex frameworks for how to assess reflective journals. These can also be used as training for students on writing reflectively in academia.

How will I address potential challenges?

Do i need to make any modifications for accessibility/inclusivity can i build these into the design.

Many students are uncomfortable with reflection as they might feel aspects of their personality are being judged. Perhaps offer students the choice of how to reflect (through a presentation, journal or video diary) OR make the reflection a formative assessment.

Do I need to make any modifications for large cohort sizes?

Assessing reflection can be quite time-consuming, although you can integrate reflective tasks into larger assignments or use digital technology to embed reflection within the course.

• You can use Moodle to generate self-reflection quizzes. Students can test themselves on the content of the lectures and reflect on their learning on the same platform OR create a personal development plan for their revision.
• Pebblepad- students can set up and run their own reflective journals or create personal learning environments

It is unlikely that students will engage with reflection in the same way if they feel it is not an inherent part of the course.

How can I introduce it to students?

It is important to provide clear assignment briefs and exemplars , as well as preferably a formative assessment for practice.

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Summative Assessments

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by Josie Baudier

Offering varied types of assessments allows learners to express expertise and mastery in different ways.

Summative assessments shift the focus of learning from practice, in formative assessments, to mastery of the course goals. These types of assessments usually follow numerous opportunities for students to practice what they have learned in class through low-to mid-stakes assignments (formative assessments) supported by instructor feedback. In summative assessment, students should be ready to show proof of learning of the course goals. Examples of summative assessment include exams, papers, projects, or portfolios.

Although summative assessments are a critical component in a course, it is also important to support student learning through formative assessments and frequent feedback. For example, Weimer (2013) points out that providing feedback through the semester on writing will prepare students better for expectations on final papers or projects. By giving ungraded feedback on parts or drafts of a final summative event, students are more likely to meet the thresholds of the course goal established by the instructor. Formative assessments give students feedback which, in turn, supports their ability to show proof of learning on a summative assessment. Weimer’s (2013) focus on learner-centered experiences reminds instructors that a balance needs to be established between grades and assessments. The focus should be on learning processes and assessments should measure “critical thinking, logical reasoning, and the ability to synthesize and evaluate” (Weimer, 2013, p. 169). In order to demonstrate these skills, consider some of the following types of summative assessments and how to use them effectively in a course.

Davis (2009) provides a few general strategies for using examinations. Some of these are listed here with explanations:

1. Begin constructing an exam by focusing on learning outcomes

Align the type of exam and/or type of question to the learning outcomes and learning objectives (McKeachie, 2011).

2. View testing as an opportunity to understand students’ intellectual progress

For new learners in their first or second year, consider frequent testing events. As student develop skills, tests can become less systematic and more about “integration and analysis” of concepts (McKeachie, 2011, p. 84). Tests should begin about three or four weeks into a semester and should represent the type learning expected for the semester. Tests administered earlier in the semester may be used more for “motivational and diagnostic than evaluative” purposes (McKeachie, 2011, p. 83).

3. Create questions that test skills other than recall

Many exams are constructed with multiple choice questions as the main mechanism to prove learning. While these tests can be useful, it can be difficult to write multiple choice questions that measure the upper levels of cognition. The upper levels in the cognitive domain in Bloom’s Taxonomy include: analyzing, evaluating, creating (Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R., et al, 2001. Adding short answer or essay questions may help to satisfy the need to test for more sophisticated knowledge acquisition or critical thinking skills.

4. Take precautions to avoid cheating

One way to reduce academic dishonesty is to lessen the anxiety of graded exams.  Offering multiple and varied types of assessments allows students to prove mastery of content in different expressions. This approach reduces student anxiety when they only have a limited number of grading opportunities (McKeachie, 2011). Another way to reduce cheating is to create a safe space for students to ask questions and clarify misconceptions. Developing trust and rapport with students will create a welcoming environment (McKeachie, 2011) and, therefore, students feel like they can get feedback on their learning progress.

5. Encourage reflection

If students are struggling, the instructor can talk with them about how they are studying. Introduce exam wrappers or metacognitive reflection activities to help students diagnose why they may or may not have been successful (Ambrose et al., 2010). By reflecting on their learning processes, exam preparation, and establishing ways of studying that should improve their learning, students will begin to feel in control of their learning.

Alternative summative assessments

Students can benefit from expressing their learning through papers, projects, or portfolios. Offering varied types of assessments allows learners to express expertise and mastery in different ways. McKeachie (2011) suggests a few different activities or assignments:

1 . Graphic representation of concepts

Through concept maps or graphic organizers, student can learn to organize their thoughts and the content of course. Having students create the schema or connections by using a mapping tool helps to move the information from short-term to long-term memory. Building these connections is key to success in developing “flexible and effective knowledge organization” (Ambrose et al., 2010, p.65). These representations can be used as a summative evaluation or to create a project or paper.

2. Annotated bibliographies          

Annotated bibliographies can be used for students to frame a research paper or they can be used by an entire class to improve their writing on particular topics (McKeachie, 2011). Adding an annotated bibliography to a group project or presentation helps students divide up the focus of group projects and also ground their thoughts in research.

3. Portfolios

A portfolio is used to collect and highlight work from a student over a specific period of time. Students compose papers, exams, documents, or favorite content from a course throughout the semester in order to show evidence of learning. Students can use this to show their progress of learning, to solicit feedback during the process, or to simply explain their own development with certain content. In this way, a portfolio approach can be helpful to the students as well as instructors (McKeachie, 2011; Davis, 2009).

Consider offering students a range of summative assessments which provide different ways for students to demonstrate their mastery of the course objectives. Students will benefit from variety in their assessments by being motivated to show evidence of learning beyond the traditional midterm and final exam format. Alternative assessments may allow for student to process and make connections to the content. When using a traditional exam for assessment be sure to consider the strategies for aligning questions and varying the types of questions. There are several ways for students to prove their learning and show evidence of it. These options will enhance the learner-centeredness and student motivation in a course.

Ambrose, S., Bridges, M., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M., Norman, M. (2010). How learning

works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Anderson, L.W. (Ed.), Krathwohl, D.R. (Ed.), Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer,

R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, an assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Complete edition). New York: Longman.

Davis, B. G. (2009). Tools for teaching (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Svinicki, M. & McKeachie, W. (2011). McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies, research,

and theory for college and university teachers (13th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice (2nd ed.).

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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