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The contribution of farmer field schools to rural development in Nepal

Research output : Thesis › external PhD, WU

 This thesis argues that Farmer Field Schools in Nepal contributed to agriculture and rural development and to gendered empowerment. The Nepalese government, but also NGOs involved in FFS applied a rather technocratic approach towards development (Li, 1999) and assumed that will well-defined plans, agricultural development and other objectives are products that can be rationally transmitted to farmers to produce desired outcomes. They considered development as a product that could be delivered to the farmers. This technocratic approach did not address political (Ferguson, 1998) and economic inequities or gender differences of farmers. Neither did it incorporate the multi-rationality of actors involved in the intervention (Grillo and Stirrat, 1997; Büscher, 2010). Drawing on the experience of active involvement in FFS at the start of the project in 1997, and consequently by collecting data during a mid-term project evaluation in 2002 and as a part of a PhD research project in 2009 this has become a longitudinal study of the institutional, social-cultural and political changes that have taken place during more than a decade. I have collected measurable data such as yield increase and I used survey data from 2002 and 2009. I have also collected qualitative information through Focus Group Discussions and in-depth individual semi-structured interviews with male and female farmers, project staff and government officials and NGO staff. Additionally I have gathered information from relevant project documentation and participatory observation among a wide range of actors in and around FFS. By looking at the different stages of FFS in Nepal, I reflect on its contribution to rural transformation and gendered empowerment. The Farmer Field School was first developed in 1989 Indonesia as a response to problems associated with the failure of the Green Revolution and particularly with the misuse of pesticides. FFS follows a participatory approach to agricultural extension and research, and aims to bring about change in rural areas. FFS has been implemented all over the world by various organisations. FFS was introduced in Nepal as an integrated pest management project in 1997 with concrete output oriented goals: the increase of agricultural production and the reduction of pesticide use. Despite the on-going debate on the impact of FFS, this thesis shows a rather consistently positive picture of short- and medium–term impact, with farmers able to improve their yield, reduced pesticide use and a better balanced fertilizer application system. Changing donor paradigms as well as a growing insight that farmers’ realities and needs were different and more complex than initially assumed during the planning of the project, made FFS more outcome and process oriented, focusing on empowerment and capacity-building of farmers. After more than a decade FFS indeed did contribute to rural development in Nepal not so much because of careful project planning, but rather in a complex way with largely unintended consequences, embedded in a socio-cultural context. When FFS started it was designed as a project, with a clear start, written documents in which the project duration was indicated, starting in 1997 and ending in 2002. I found that ten years after FFS was conducted, farmers still continued with some of the practices they learned in their FFS training. FFS has developed from a project into a continuous process of change. Although it might not be exactly the way project planners had envisaged in their documents, a fact is that farmers still apply agronomic practices as introduced in FFS. Farming practices have changed, yields increased. Fewer pesticides are used, less rice seedlings are planted per hill, and so on. Also more farmers started with vegetable production. For many women FFS was the first training in agriculture they received. It contributed to an increase in their knowledge and skills, boosted their confidence in participation in community events and speaking in public. Women appeared to be interested to participate in FFS to learn about farming and to contribute to the food security of their family. Men, on the other hand, were interested to use FFS to increase their livelihood options, to widen job opportunities or to earn a better income. At the turn of the century one of the objectives of FFS shifted from integrated pest management and agricultural production to farmer’s empowerment. Farmer field schools are vehicles for empowerment of farmers (Ooi, 1998; Pontius et al, 2002). Empowerment is an often debated concept in the academic world but in development practice it seems to be used without much debate, assuming that it is always a ‘good’ thing having a positive impact on farmers. In the FFS programme it was assumed that everybody had the same understanding of the concept of empowerment. My data showed that male and female farmers differ in their view on empowerment and that there is a big gap between policy makers, FFS facilitators and female and male farmers regarding the perception of empowerment. This research showed that empowerment is a social process that challenges our assumptions about empowerment as a deliverable, a product. Men and women FFS participants said that they experienced empowerment, but not in the way FFS technicians and policymakers had planned it, going through a rationally designed set of steps: identifying a problem in the field, experimenting with a solution and drawing conclusions. Our survey showed that women without FFS experience saw empowerment as increased individual strength, personal growth, stretching their comfort zone. Women who took part in FFS mainly considered empowerment as self-confidence and involvement in work and group activities. Men’s idea of empowerment was much more focused on their capacity to contribute to the improvement of society, on action outside the household, which would contribute to their prestige. FFS trainers spoke about empowerment in terms of a result of technology transfer or a change in behaviour that they had facilitated among farmers. Apparently, FFS staff had a very technical and non-political approach towards empowerment, not based on male and female farmers’ realities in rural Nepal. Most FFS facilitators claimed that they could empower farmers and they did not consider farmers’ interest and agency. FFS facilitators did not see empowerment as a process that farmers themselves are actively part of. Interviews confirmed that empowerment is a complex, multi-faceted process, which is not easily quantified or measured, let alone regulated in a technical way. Through participation in FFS men and particularly women expanded their framework of information, knowledge and analysis. It enlarged their room for manoeuvre, their negotiation space. They got involved in a process that enabled them to discover new options, new possibilities and eventually make better informed decisions in farming. Several female farmers replied that they could now make choices which were previously denied to them for historical and cultural reasons. They said that this was not the result of the discovery learning in FFS like it was assumed by policy makers, but of the group participation, singing and presenting, their learning to speak in a group. Women gained confidence, gained a voice in the weekly group sessions, as a result of the social space, the FFS team spirit and solidarity that was provided in the meetings. This ‘social capital route’ of empowerment (Bartlett, 2005), is rather different from the ‘human capital’ route that men follow in empowerment in Nepal. In this thesis I contend that FFS is ‘rendering technical’ (Li, 2007) a complex social, cultural, economic and political process of rural development by defining empowerment as a non-political tool, an asset that FFS participants can be taught, that they can learn to ‘own’. Consequently, gender differentiation, experiences of women being different from men and institutional structures that surround the poor and disempowered Dalit farmers, keeping them in poverty and powerless, were not addressed. I consider empowerment as a process in which people strengthen their own power and capacities, and improve their position in society. Empowerment is a process in which several factors but also actors play a role. The actors within the FFS project but also external actors like the state, the Maoist movement, NGOs, and individual forces are involved. They all work together in changing constellations, in time and place. An actor-oriented and contextual analysis of FFS, of how the actors implement FFS in the cultural, historical and political environment of Nepal at the turn of the century creates an understanding of state-society relations and governance issues. It provides an insight in decision-making processes and the power dynamics influenced by socio-cultural factors. A closer look at FFS reveals how the state seeks to govern the farmers, and the extent to which government agencies offer the means of empowerment to farmers. It also reveals how certain social categories in society remained excluded from participation until recently, especially women and Dalit. In project documents and interviews farmers are usually depicted as passive citizens, who are poor and in need of knowledge and new technologies. Farmers, on the other hand, consider the state as responsible to look after their well-being to a large extent, as care takers. But it is a rather simplified view to consider the government or NGOs as the actors or care-takers who can decide on behalf of farmers as passive beneficiaries or oppressed citizens. In this thesis I have described how relations between state and civil actors are subject to complex power dynamics. Power is woven into social relations at different levels (Wolf, 1999) starting from individual potency, to group interaction and structural or institutional levels. The implementation of FFS took place in the context of a dynamic environment where major political and socio-economic changes took place. The contribution of FFS to the development of Nepal cannot be studied without reference to history and the wider social, political-economic conditions during the last decade. The year 1997 when the Farmer Field Schools were introduced in Nepal was also the time that the Maoists officially declared their revolution. When data were collected in 2002 as part of a mid-term evaluation for FAO and the donor AUSAID there was a revolution going on and there were heavy fights between Maoists, the army and civilians. Many men had fled their homes to escape the violence and to resist being taken by either the government or the Maoists army. In 2001 King Birendra and a large part of his Royal family were murdered and the political scene was in turmoil. Migration for jobs abroad was at a rise and female-headed households in rural villages had increased (Gartaula, 2011). In 2009 during the last series of interviews, Nepal was in a flux again; a federal government had been elected, the Maoists had become part of the government, but disputes remained. The interim constitution was developed with much attention on social exclusion of marginalized groups. These changing political-economic conditions of rural transformation have resulted in an increased awareness of ethnic diversity, rights claims by historically marginalised groups, and interventions to divert caste discrimination in the rural areas where FFS has been conducted. Despite these changes FFS project staff keep focused on a technical, non-political approach and continue to speak about yield increase, opening market linkages, cash crop opportunities, as if these local dynamics do not matter.

• agricultural education
• rural development
• development
• least developed countries

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

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• https://edepot.wur.nl/238928

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• Contribution Social Sciences 100%
• Farmers Social Sciences 100%
• Schools Social Sciences 100%
• Rural Development Economics, Econometrics and Finance 100%
• Empowerment Social Sciences 80%
• Knowledge Economics, Econometrics and Finance 75%
• Information Economics, Econometrics and Finance 75%
• Learning Economics, Econometrics and Finance 50%

T1 - The contribution of farmer field schools to rural development in Nepal

AU - Westendorp, A.M.B.

N1 - WU thesis no. 5353

PY - 2012/11/20

Y1 - 2012/11/20

N2 -  This thesis argues that Farmer Field Schools in Nepal contributed to agriculture and rural development and to gendered empowerment. The Nepalese government, but also NGOs involved in FFS applied a rather technocratic approach towards development (Li, 1999) and assumed that will well-defined plans, agricultural development and other objectives are products that can be rationally transmitted to farmers to produce desired outcomes. They considered development as a product that could be delivered to the farmers. This technocratic approach did not address political (Ferguson, 1998) and economic inequities or gender differences of farmers. Neither did it incorporate the multi-rationality of actors involved in the intervention (Grillo and Stirrat, 1997; Büscher, 2010). Drawing on the experience of active involvement in FFS at the start of the project in 1997, and consequently by collecting data during a mid-term project evaluation in 2002 and as a part of a PhD research project in 2009 this has become a longitudinal study of the institutional, social-cultural and political changes that have taken place during more than a decade. I have collected measurable data such as yield increase and I used survey data from 2002 and 2009. I have also collected qualitative information through Focus Group Discussions and in-depth individual semi-structured interviews with male and female farmers, project staff and government officials and NGO staff. Additionally I have gathered information from relevant project documentation and participatory observation among a wide range of actors in and around FFS. By looking at the different stages of FFS in Nepal, I reflect on its contribution to rural transformation and gendered empowerment. The Farmer Field School was first developed in 1989 Indonesia as a response to problems associated with the failure of the Green Revolution and particularly with the misuse of pesticides. FFS follows a participatory approach to agricultural extension and research, and aims to bring about change in rural areas. FFS has been implemented all over the world by various organisations. FFS was introduced in Nepal as an integrated pest management project in 1997 with concrete output oriented goals: the increase of agricultural production and the reduction of pesticide use. Despite the on-going debate on the impact of FFS, this thesis shows a rather consistently positive picture of short- and medium–term impact, with farmers able to improve their yield, reduced pesticide use and a better balanced fertilizer application system. Changing donor paradigms as well as a growing insight that farmers’ realities and needs were different and more complex than initially assumed during the planning of the project, made FFS more outcome and process oriented, focusing on empowerment and capacity-building of farmers. After more than a decade FFS indeed did contribute to rural development in Nepal not so much because of careful project planning, but rather in a complex way with largely unintended consequences, embedded in a socio-cultural context. When FFS started it was designed as a project, with a clear start, written documents in which the project duration was indicated, starting in 1997 and ending in 2002. I found that ten years after FFS was conducted, farmers still continued with some of the practices they learned in their FFS training. FFS has developed from a project into a continuous process of change. Although it might not be exactly the way project planners had envisaged in their documents, a fact is that farmers still apply agronomic practices as introduced in FFS. Farming practices have changed, yields increased. Fewer pesticides are used, less rice seedlings are planted per hill, and so on. Also more farmers started with vegetable production. For many women FFS was the first training in agriculture they received. It contributed to an increase in their knowledge and skills, boosted their confidence in participation in community events and speaking in public. Women appeared to be interested to participate in FFS to learn about farming and to contribute to the food security of their family. Men, on the other hand, were interested to use FFS to increase their livelihood options, to widen job opportunities or to earn a better income. At the turn of the century one of the objectives of FFS shifted from integrated pest management and agricultural production to farmer’s empowerment. Farmer field schools are vehicles for empowerment of farmers (Ooi, 1998; Pontius et al, 2002). Empowerment is an often debated concept in the academic world but in development practice it seems to be used without much debate, assuming that it is always a ‘good’ thing having a positive impact on farmers. In the FFS programme it was assumed that everybody had the same understanding of the concept of empowerment. My data showed that male and female farmers differ in their view on empowerment and that there is a big gap between policy makers, FFS facilitators and female and male farmers regarding the perception of empowerment. This research showed that empowerment is a social process that challenges our assumptions about empowerment as a deliverable, a product. Men and women FFS participants said that they experienced empowerment, but not in the way FFS technicians and policymakers had planned it, going through a rationally designed set of steps: identifying a problem in the field, experimenting with a solution and drawing conclusions. Our survey showed that women without FFS experience saw empowerment as increased individual strength, personal growth, stretching their comfort zone. Women who took part in FFS mainly considered empowerment as self-confidence and involvement in work and group activities. Men’s idea of empowerment was much more focused on their capacity to contribute to the improvement of society, on action outside the household, which would contribute to their prestige. FFS trainers spoke about empowerment in terms of a result of technology transfer or a change in behaviour that they had facilitated among farmers. Apparently, FFS staff had a very technical and non-political approach towards empowerment, not based on male and female farmers’ realities in rural Nepal. Most FFS facilitators claimed that they could empower farmers and they did not consider farmers’ interest and agency. FFS facilitators did not see empowerment as a process that farmers themselves are actively part of. Interviews confirmed that empowerment is a complex, multi-faceted process, which is not easily quantified or measured, let alone regulated in a technical way. Through participation in FFS men and particularly women expanded their framework of information, knowledge and analysis. It enlarged their room for manoeuvre, their negotiation space. They got involved in a process that enabled them to discover new options, new possibilities and eventually make better informed decisions in farming. Several female farmers replied that they could now make choices which were previously denied to them for historical and cultural reasons. They said that this was not the result of the discovery learning in FFS like it was assumed by policy makers, but of the group participation, singing and presenting, their learning to speak in a group. Women gained confidence, gained a voice in the weekly group sessions, as a result of the social space, the FFS team spirit and solidarity that was provided in the meetings. This ‘social capital route’ of empowerment (Bartlett, 2005), is rather different from the ‘human capital’ route that men follow in empowerment in Nepal. In this thesis I contend that FFS is ‘rendering technical’ (Li, 2007) a complex social, cultural, economic and political process of rural development by defining empowerment as a non-political tool, an asset that FFS participants can be taught, that they can learn to ‘own’. Consequently, gender differentiation, experiences of women being different from men and institutional structures that surround the poor and disempowered Dalit farmers, keeping them in poverty and powerless, were not addressed. I consider empowerment as a process in which people strengthen their own power and capacities, and improve their position in society. Empowerment is a process in which several factors but also actors play a role. The actors within the FFS project but also external actors like the state, the Maoist movement, NGOs, and individual forces are involved. They all work together in changing constellations, in time and place. An actor-oriented and contextual analysis of FFS, of how the actors implement FFS in the cultural, historical and political environment of Nepal at the turn of the century creates an understanding of state-society relations and governance issues. It provides an insight in decision-making processes and the power dynamics influenced by socio-cultural factors. A closer look at FFS reveals how the state seeks to govern the farmers, and the extent to which government agencies offer the means of empowerment to farmers. It also reveals how certain social categories in society remained excluded from participation until recently, especially women and Dalit. In project documents and interviews farmers are usually depicted as passive citizens, who are poor and in need of knowledge and new technologies. Farmers, on the other hand, consider the state as responsible to look after their well-being to a large extent, as care takers. But it is a rather simplified view to consider the government or NGOs as the actors or care-takers who can decide on behalf of farmers as passive beneficiaries or oppressed citizens. In this thesis I have described how relations between state and civil actors are subject to complex power dynamics. Power is woven into social relations at different levels (Wolf, 1999) starting from individual potency, to group interaction and structural or institutional levels. The implementation of FFS took place in the context of a dynamic environment where major political and socio-economic changes took place. The contribution of FFS to the development of Nepal cannot be studied without reference to history and the wider social, political-economic conditions during the last decade. The year 1997 when the Farmer Field Schools were introduced in Nepal was also the time that the Maoists officially declared their revolution. When data were collected in 2002 as part of a mid-term evaluation for FAO and the donor AUSAID there was a revolution going on and there were heavy fights between Maoists, the army and civilians. Many men had fled their homes to escape the violence and to resist being taken by either the government or the Maoists army. In 2001 King Birendra and a large part of his Royal family were murdered and the political scene was in turmoil. Migration for jobs abroad was at a rise and female-headed households in rural villages had increased (Gartaula, 2011). In 2009 during the last series of interviews, Nepal was in a flux again; a federal government had been elected, the Maoists had become part of the government, but disputes remained. The interim constitution was developed with much attention on social exclusion of marginalized groups. These changing political-economic conditions of rural transformation have resulted in an increased awareness of ethnic diversity, rights claims by historically marginalised groups, and interventions to divert caste discrimination in the rural areas where FFS has been conducted. Despite these changes FFS project staff keep focused on a technical, non-political approach and continue to speak about yield increase, opening market linkages, cash crop opportunities, as if these local dynamics do not matter.

AB -  This thesis argues that Farmer Field Schools in Nepal contributed to agriculture and rural development and to gendered empowerment. The Nepalese government, but also NGOs involved in FFS applied a rather technocratic approach towards development (Li, 1999) and assumed that will well-defined plans, agricultural development and other objectives are products that can be rationally transmitted to farmers to produce desired outcomes. They considered development as a product that could be delivered to the farmers. This technocratic approach did not address political (Ferguson, 1998) and economic inequities or gender differences of farmers. Neither did it incorporate the multi-rationality of actors involved in the intervention (Grillo and Stirrat, 1997; Büscher, 2010). Drawing on the experience of active involvement in FFS at the start of the project in 1997, and consequently by collecting data during a mid-term project evaluation in 2002 and as a part of a PhD research project in 2009 this has become a longitudinal study of the institutional, social-cultural and political changes that have taken place during more than a decade. I have collected measurable data such as yield increase and I used survey data from 2002 and 2009. I have also collected qualitative information through Focus Group Discussions and in-depth individual semi-structured interviews with male and female farmers, project staff and government officials and NGO staff. Additionally I have gathered information from relevant project documentation and participatory observation among a wide range of actors in and around FFS. By looking at the different stages of FFS in Nepal, I reflect on its contribution to rural transformation and gendered empowerment. The Farmer Field School was first developed in 1989 Indonesia as a response to problems associated with the failure of the Green Revolution and particularly with the misuse of pesticides. FFS follows a participatory approach to agricultural extension and research, and aims to bring about change in rural areas. FFS has been implemented all over the world by various organisations. FFS was introduced in Nepal as an integrated pest management project in 1997 with concrete output oriented goals: the increase of agricultural production and the reduction of pesticide use. Despite the on-going debate on the impact of FFS, this thesis shows a rather consistently positive picture of short- and medium–term impact, with farmers able to improve their yield, reduced pesticide use and a better balanced fertilizer application system. Changing donor paradigms as well as a growing insight that farmers’ realities and needs were different and more complex than initially assumed during the planning of the project, made FFS more outcome and process oriented, focusing on empowerment and capacity-building of farmers. After more than a decade FFS indeed did contribute to rural development in Nepal not so much because of careful project planning, but rather in a complex way with largely unintended consequences, embedded in a socio-cultural context. When FFS started it was designed as a project, with a clear start, written documents in which the project duration was indicated, starting in 1997 and ending in 2002. I found that ten years after FFS was conducted, farmers still continued with some of the practices they learned in their FFS training. FFS has developed from a project into a continuous process of change. Although it might not be exactly the way project planners had envisaged in their documents, a fact is that farmers still apply agronomic practices as introduced in FFS. Farming practices have changed, yields increased. Fewer pesticides are used, less rice seedlings are planted per hill, and so on. Also more farmers started with vegetable production. For many women FFS was the first training in agriculture they received. It contributed to an increase in their knowledge and skills, boosted their confidence in participation in community events and speaking in public. Women appeared to be interested to participate in FFS to learn about farming and to contribute to the food security of their family. Men, on the other hand, were interested to use FFS to increase their livelihood options, to widen job opportunities or to earn a better income. At the turn of the century one of the objectives of FFS shifted from integrated pest management and agricultural production to farmer’s empowerment. Farmer field schools are vehicles for empowerment of farmers (Ooi, 1998; Pontius et al, 2002). Empowerment is an often debated concept in the academic world but in development practice it seems to be used without much debate, assuming that it is always a ‘good’ thing having a positive impact on farmers. In the FFS programme it was assumed that everybody had the same understanding of the concept of empowerment. My data showed that male and female farmers differ in their view on empowerment and that there is a big gap between policy makers, FFS facilitators and female and male farmers regarding the perception of empowerment. This research showed that empowerment is a social process that challenges our assumptions about empowerment as a deliverable, a product. Men and women FFS participants said that they experienced empowerment, but not in the way FFS technicians and policymakers had planned it, going through a rationally designed set of steps: identifying a problem in the field, experimenting with a solution and drawing conclusions. Our survey showed that women without FFS experience saw empowerment as increased individual strength, personal growth, stretching their comfort zone. Women who took part in FFS mainly considered empowerment as self-confidence and involvement in work and group activities. Men’s idea of empowerment was much more focused on their capacity to contribute to the improvement of society, on action outside the household, which would contribute to their prestige. FFS trainers spoke about empowerment in terms of a result of technology transfer or a change in behaviour that they had facilitated among farmers. Apparently, FFS staff had a very technical and non-political approach towards empowerment, not based on male and female farmers’ realities in rural Nepal. Most FFS facilitators claimed that they could empower farmers and they did not consider farmers’ interest and agency. FFS facilitators did not see empowerment as a process that farmers themselves are actively part of. Interviews confirmed that empowerment is a complex, multi-faceted process, which is not easily quantified or measured, let alone regulated in a technical way. Through participation in FFS men and particularly women expanded their framework of information, knowledge and analysis. It enlarged their room for manoeuvre, their negotiation space. They got involved in a process that enabled them to discover new options, new possibilities and eventually make better informed decisions in farming. Several female farmers replied that they could now make choices which were previously denied to them for historical and cultural reasons. They said that this was not the result of the discovery learning in FFS like it was assumed by policy makers, but of the group participation, singing and presenting, their learning to speak in a group. Women gained confidence, gained a voice in the weekly group sessions, as a result of the social space, the FFS team spirit and solidarity that was provided in the meetings. This ‘social capital route’ of empowerment (Bartlett, 2005), is rather different from the ‘human capital’ route that men follow in empowerment in Nepal. In this thesis I contend that FFS is ‘rendering technical’ (Li, 2007) a complex social, cultural, economic and political process of rural development by defining empowerment as a non-political tool, an asset that FFS participants can be taught, that they can learn to ‘own’. Consequently, gender differentiation, experiences of women being different from men and institutional structures that surround the poor and disempowered Dalit farmers, keeping them in poverty and powerless, were not addressed. I consider empowerment as a process in which people strengthen their own power and capacities, and improve their position in society. Empowerment is a process in which several factors but also actors play a role. The actors within the FFS project but also external actors like the state, the Maoist movement, NGOs, and individual forces are involved. They all work together in changing constellations, in time and place. An actor-oriented and contextual analysis of FFS, of how the actors implement FFS in the cultural, historical and political environment of Nepal at the turn of the century creates an understanding of state-society relations and governance issues. It provides an insight in decision-making processes and the power dynamics influenced by socio-cultural factors. A closer look at FFS reveals how the state seeks to govern the farmers, and the extent to which government agencies offer the means of empowerment to farmers. It also reveals how certain social categories in society remained excluded from participation until recently, especially women and Dalit. In project documents and interviews farmers are usually depicted as passive citizens, who are poor and in need of knowledge and new technologies. Farmers, on the other hand, consider the state as responsible to look after their well-being to a large extent, as care takers. But it is a rather simplified view to consider the government or NGOs as the actors or care-takers who can decide on behalf of farmers as passive beneficiaries or oppressed citizens. In this thesis I have described how relations between state and civil actors are subject to complex power dynamics. Power is woven into social relations at different levels (Wolf, 1999) starting from individual potency, to group interaction and structural or institutional levels. The implementation of FFS took place in the context of a dynamic environment where major political and socio-economic changes took place. The contribution of FFS to the development of Nepal cannot be studied without reference to history and the wider social, political-economic conditions during the last decade. The year 1997 when the Farmer Field Schools were introduced in Nepal was also the time that the Maoists officially declared their revolution. When data were collected in 2002 as part of a mid-term evaluation for FAO and the donor AUSAID there was a revolution going on and there were heavy fights between Maoists, the army and civilians. Many men had fled their homes to escape the violence and to resist being taken by either the government or the Maoists army. In 2001 King Birendra and a large part of his Royal family were murdered and the political scene was in turmoil. Migration for jobs abroad was at a rise and female-headed households in rural villages had increased (Gartaula, 2011). In 2009 during the last series of interviews, Nepal was in a flux again; a federal government had been elected, the Maoists had become part of the government, but disputes remained. The interim constitution was developed with much attention on social exclusion of marginalized groups. These changing political-economic conditions of rural transformation have resulted in an increased awareness of ethnic diversity, rights claims by historically marginalised groups, and interventions to divert caste discrimination in the rural areas where FFS has been conducted. Despite these changes FFS project staff keep focused on a technical, non-political approach and continue to speak about yield increase, opening market linkages, cash crop opportunities, as if these local dynamics do not matter.

KW - agrarisch onderwijs

KW - plattelandsontwikkeling

KW - ontwikkeling

KW - minst ontwikkelde landen

KW - zuid-azië

KW - agricultural education

KW - rural development

KW - development

KW - least developed countries

KW - south asia

M3 - external PhD, WU

SN - 9789461733948

CY - [S.l.]

• DSpace at Nepal National Library
• Dissertation
• 300 Social sciences

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23 Jun 2021

Assessment Report: Mainstreaming Migration into Education and Rural Development in Nepal 2019

Migration has become a key aspect of the development discourse in Nepal. Nepal is a major country of origin for labour migration, with more than half of all Nepali households having at least one family member engaged in international or internal migration or living in Nepal as a returned migrant. The large-scale outflow of Nepalis and the concurrent inflow of remittances opened up the Government, the development stakeholders and the international community to consider opportunities that would allow the harnessing of the potential of migration for the overall development of the country.

This assessment of the extent of migration mainstreaming into the education and rural development sectors in Nepal was undertaken in the framework of the IOM Mainstreaming Migration into International Cooperation and Development (MMICD) Project, funded by the European Union. The assessment comprises: (a) an analysis of Nepal’s migration, education, and rural development dynamics and governance arrangements; (b) an analysis of the extent to which the issue of migration and displacement is considered in education and rural development policies and programmes; and (c) a set of conclusions and recommendations for successfully mainstreaming migration and displacement into the education and rural development sectors of Nepal.  

• Migration situation analysis
• Recommendations
• 1.1 Objective of the assessment
• 1.2 Methodology
• 2.1 International migration
• 2.2 Diaspora remittances and investment
• 2.3 Return migration
• 2.4 Internal migration: rural–rural and rural–urban migration
• 2.5 Forced displacement and trafficking in persons 
• 2.6 Immigration
• 3.1 Migration governance
• 3.2.1 Policies
• 3.2.2 Initiatives
• 3.3.1 Labour migration
• 3.3.2 Immigration
• 3.3.3 Diaspora engagement 
• 3.3.4 Forced displacement
• 3.4.1 Land and rural settlement 
• 3.4.2 Urban development 
• 3.4.3 Diaspora engagement 
• 4.1 Conclusion 1: On the coordination between migration, development and sectoral policies
• 4.2 Conclusion 2: On mainstreaming migration into development planning
• 4.3 Conclusion 3: On addressing labour emigration and education
• 4.4 Conclusion 4: On rural development policies and internal migration and displacement
• Annex 1: Key legislative and policy documents
• Annex 2: Stakeholder map
• Annex 3: Interview guide
• Annex 4: Stakeholders consulted 
• Annex 5: Workshop terms of reference
• Annex 6: Migration for development: Integrating labour migration in the sectoral policy (second high-level consultation)
• Annex 7: Migration-related international instruments ratified by Nepal
• Annex 8: Migration data sources for Nepal
• BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Effect of COVID 19 pandemic on Pharmaceutical Industry in terms of Inventory and Logistics Management , Shubhabrata Basu and Rimu Chaudhuri

Hegemonic Instability? India’s Himalayan Hegemony in Theoretical and Historical Perspective , Philip Hultquist Ph.D. and Prakash Adhikari Ph.D.

Minimizing surface run-off, improving underground water recharging, and on-site rain harvesting in the Kathmandu valley , Ambika P. Adhikari and Keshav Bhattarai

Nature Of Health Insurance Demand In India , Brijesh C. Purohit Ph.D

Summary report of discussions at the forum “Nepali Diaspora Organizations in North America: Achievements, Opportunities, and Challenges”, Coppell, Texas, USA July 2022 , Ambika P. Adhikari

The Continuation of Civil War by Other Means? Post-Conflict Peacebuilding in Nepal, Supplemental Materials , Prakash Adhikari Ph.D., Wendy L. Hansen Ph.D., and Adnan Shahid

The Vortex: A True Story of History's Deadliest Storm, an Unspeakable War, and Liberation , Jason Miklian

Submissions from 2021 2021

An Impact Evaluation of COVID-19 Training Program: Knowledge and Awareness of Public Health Professionals of Province Five, Nepal , Alok K. Bohara, Swati Thapa, Siobhan K. Yilmaz, and Spencer H. McBee

Climate Change and Community Resilience , Mani Nepal, Pranab Mukhopadhyay Dr., Md Rumi Shammin Dr., and AK Enamul Haque Dr.

Colonial Institutions and Civil War Indirect Rule and Maoist Insurgency in India , Shivaji Mukherjee

The Economics of Solid Waste Management and Drainage: A Sustainable Approach for Making South Asian Cities Climate-Resilient , Mani Nepal

Towards Creating Smart Cities in Nepal , Ambika P. Adhikari and Keshav Bhattarai

Submissions from 2020 2020

Covid-19 Pandemic and Nepal: Issues and Perspectives , Basu Sharma and Ambika P. Adhikari

Forest carbon stock assessment in selected red panda habitats in Ilam and Panchthar districts, Nepal , Trilochana Basnet, Niroj Timalsina, Rajesh Bahadur Thapa, Damber Bista, Basant Pant, Bhaskar Singh Karky, and Kai Windhorst

Issues and Perspective on the Covid-19 and Nepal: An Introduction , Ambika P. Adhikari and Basu Sharma

Sustainability, Urban Planning and Development: Sustainable and Self-Reliant Urban Development in Post- Pandemic Nepal , Ambika P. Adhikari and Keshav Bhattarai

Urban Development in Nepal and the Impacts of Covid-19 , Ambika P. Adhikari and Keshav Bhattarai

Value of cleaner neighborhoods: Application of hedonic price model in low income context , Mani Nepal and Rajesh K. Rai

Submissions from 2019 2019

A Pilot Study on Adolescent Mobile Phone Use, Indirect Mental Health Costs and Cultural Context Considerations – REPORT , Siobhan K. Yilmaz and Alok Bohara

Conference Summary Report, International Conference Role of Nepali Diaspora in Higher Education in Nepal , Ambika P. Adhikari, Govinda P. Dahal, Basu Sharma, and Dinesh Gajurel

Diaspora’s Role in Nepal’s Development: Summary of the Forum held at the Nepali National Convention. Baltimore, MD, USA. July 5-7, 2019 , Ambika P. Adhikari, Diwakar Dahal, and Rajendra Khatiwada

Sino-Indian Relations and EU Development Policies in Post-Conflict Nepal , Bibek Chand

Submissions from 2017 2017

Challenging Hegemonic Gender Norms through STEM Education in Nepal , Todd Wallenius and Barbara Grossman-Thompson

Disaster Relief as a Political Tool: Analysing Indian and Chinese Responses after the Nepal Earthquakes , Bibek Chand

The Effect of School Construction on Educational Outcomes among Females: Evidence from Nepal , Animesh Giri and Vinish Shrestha

Violence Against Children in Nyarugusu Refugees Camp: Reporting and Perceptions Across Generations , Erin K. Fletcher, Seth R. Gitter, and Savannah Wilhelm

Submissions from 2016 2016

Extension Service and Farm Productivity in Nepalese Agriculture , Dadhi Adhikari and Naresh Nepal

Submissions from 2015 2015

Education, Health and Inequality: Schooling infrastructure and educational outcomes in Nepal , Vinish Shrestha

How are School Dropout Rates Related to Household Characteristics: Analysis of Survey Data from Bangladesh , Nusrat Farah

Implications of the Dragon’s Rise for South Asia: Assessing China’s Nepal Policy , Bibek Chand and Lukas Karl Danner

Labor market changes and human capital investment: Evidence from migration boom in Nepal , Rashesh Shrestha

Sustainable Livelihood Systems in Nepal: Principles, Practices and Prospects , Ambika P. Adhikari, Govinda P. Dahal, Ishara Mahat, Bishwa Regmi, Kalidas Subedi, and Bharat Shrestha (eds.)

Submissions from 2014 2014

Reversing the Flood of Forced Displacement: Shedding Light on Important Determinants of Return Migration , Prakash Adhikari Ph.D. and Wendy L. Hansen Ph.D.

Submissions from 2013 2013

Can Improved Cooking Stoves Work? The Nepal Chulo Experience , Dipika Gawande, Bijendra Shrestha, and Amarsingh Gawande

Household-level Effects of Electricity on Income , Brandon Bridge, Dadhi Adhikari, and Matías Fontenla

Submissions from 2012 2012

Healthy Mothers, Healthy Children: Does Mothers' Demand for Antenatal Care Matter for Child Health in Nepal? , Nafisa Halim

Papers, Abstracts, and Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Himalayan Policy Research Conference , Vijaya R. Sharma, Mukti P. Upadhyay, Jeffry Drope, Naresh Nepal, and Alok Bohara

Submissions from 2011 2011

Building Community 'Gegran' Beneficiary Group: a case of Lothar Khola Watershed Chitwan, Central Nepal , Ramesh M. Tuladhar

Effectiveness of Some Local Baits for the Managment of Hornets in Apiaries of Kathmandu Valley , Chet Prasad Bhatta and Aananda Shova Tamrakar

Submissions from 2010 2010

An Opportunity to improve Service Delivery in Nepal through Local Governance , Yam Sharma and Abd Muwonge

A Proposal for an Open University of Nepal for Providing Higher Education to the Rural and Marginalized People , Pramod Dhakal, Ambika Adhikari, and Drona Rasali

Conflict Resolution and Institutional Arrangements for Flood Disaster Management on Indo Nepal Fringe: Focus on Kosi Basin , NMP Verma

Economic Growth and Human Development in South Asia: Experience of Selected Countries , Ranjit Singh Ghuman and Amarjit S. Bhullar

Economics of Sedimentation Management in Large Reservoirs , Biswo Poudel

Geographic Isolation and Poverty among Indigenous Peoples in Nepal , Gyanesh Lama, Marth N. Ozawa, and Palsang Lama

Impact of Industrial Environment on Socio-economic Conditions of Mine Workers: A study of Coal Industries in Odisha , Abhaya K. Naik and Krupasindh Pradhan

Local people's perception on Climate Change, its impact and adaptation practices in Himalaya to Terai regions of Nepal , Krishna R. Tiwari, Kashab D. Awasthi, Mohan K. Balla, and Bishal K. Sitaula

Media Contribution in Transfer of Power in Nepal , Binod C. Agrawal

Micro-level Estimation and Decomposition of Poverty and Inequality in Nepal , Mani Nepal and Alok Bohara

Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) and Economic Development of Odisha , Krupasindh Pradhan and Santosh Kumar Munda

Moving out of Chronic Poverty: Community Level Study on Poverty over the Time , S.A.N.C. Samaraweera and N.R. Abeynayake

Prospects of a Trilateral Trans-Himalayan Economic Cooperation Agreement (THECA): China, Nepal, and India , Alok K. Bohara

Protection and comparative advantage of rice production in Bangladesh: A policy analysis matrix , Abu Hayat Md. Saiful Islam and Dieter Kirschke

Swine Flu: A Preliminary Study of the Planning and Policy of Nepal to Combat the H1N1 Pandemic , Rojee Rajbanshi

The Economic Cost of Health Problems due to Indoor Air Pollution at the Household Level in Tamil Nad , B.P. Chandramohan, T.K.S. Villalan, and S. Karthikeyan

Use of Modern Technology in Rural Development — A case study of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) in Odisha , Abhaya K. Naik and Sukhamaya Swain

Submissions from 2009 2009

E-Prostitutions and its Impact in Society , Rashida Valika

Experience of Nepali Families with Foreign Remittance: Evidence from the Nepal Living Standard Survey , Udaya R. Wagle

Submissions from 2008 2008

Bullets, Ballots and Bounty: Maoist Victory in the Twenty-first Century, Nepal , Mahendra Lawoti

Cooperative Federal Structure: A Workable Political-economy Approach for a New Nepal , Alok Bohara

Determinants of Awareness and Usage of Best Available Local Maternal and Child Health Care Facility by Women in a Selected Rural Area of Nepal , Vijaya R. Sharma and Tirshana Sharma

Determinants of Deforestation in Nepal's Central Development Region , Keshav Bhattarai

Factors Affecting Application of New Public Management Oriented Reforms for Reforming Nepalese Public Administration , Bharat Raj Gautam

Faithful Leisure, Faithful Work: Religious Practice as an Act of Consumption in Nepal , Charis Boke

Financial Management of the Small Municipalities of Nepal: Sustainability Issues , Mahesh Baral

Heritage Conservation in Nepal: Policies, Stakeholders and Challenges , Neel Kamal Chapagain

Natural Disaster and Sickness Shocks: Evidence of Informal Social Insurance from Bangladesh , Pallab Mozumder

POLITICAL CONFLICT AND MIGRATION: How has Violence and Political Instability Affected Migration Patterns in Nepal? , Nathalie Williams and Meeta S. Pradhan

Reproductive Health Services: An Entry Point to Reach Labor Migrants and Their Wives for Providing HIV and STI Services in Nepal , Laxmi Bilas Acharya

Rural Poverty Analysis: A case study of a district of Nepal , Uddhab Bhandary

The Limits of Success? NGOs, Microfinance and Economic Development in Pakistans Northern Areas' , Feisal Khan

The Role of Land Reform in Reducing Poverty Across Nepal , Chandra Adhikari

Towards Developing Indicators of Environmental Sustainability for Kathmandu, Nepal , Ambika Prasad Adhikari

Submissions from 2007 2007

A Community Based Micro Hydro: A Promising Technology for Rural Development in Nepal , Bishwa Koirala

An Assessment of the Causes of Conflict in Nepal , Bishwa Nath Tiwari

Community based integrated natural resource management: Policy options and areas of intervention , Sabita Thapa, John Soussan, Dhruba Pant, Umesh Nath Parajuli, Khem Raj Sharma, and Binod Bhatta

Coping with Unreliable Water Supplies and Willingness to Pay for Improved Water Supplies in Kathmandu, Nepal , Hari Katuwal and Alok Bohara

Domestic Health Hazard and Indoor Air-Pollution: An Approach to Find Alternative Energy Source for Rural Bangladesh to Minimize the Threat , Reazul S.M. Ahsan and Jinia Afrin

Economic Inequality in the Democratic' Nepal: Dimensions and Implications' , Udaya R. Wagle

Effects of Deforestation on Tree Diversity and Livelihoods of Local Community A Case Study from Nepal , Krishna Karkee

Identification of natural resources at watershed level: an initial step of mainstreaming of the Federal restructure in Nepal , Madan Koirala

Inequality, Polarization and Violent Conflict: The Maoist Insurgency in Nepal , Mani Nepal, Alok K. Bohara, and Kishore Gawande

Peoples Perceptions of Green Space Park in Pokhara, Nepal' , Murari Suvedi, Krishna Shrestha, Bishwo Kallyan Parajuli, and Padam Giri

Political Participation and Civic Literacy in Bajung: An Empirical Study with Correlation Analysis , Khadga K.C.

Political predictions in Nepal , Aditya Man Shrestha

Poverty, Inequality, Violent Conflict, and Welfare Loss: Micro-Level Evidence from Nepal , Mani Nepal

Prioritizing and Estimating Hydropower Project Construction Risks: A Case Study of Nyadi Hydropower Project , Kamalesh Panthi

Pursuing Democracy: Explaining Political Transitions in Nepal , Prakash Adhikari and James D. Timberlake

Recruiting Rebels: Indoctrination and Political Education in Nepal , Kristine Eck

"Retainer" Bureaucracy: An Impediment to the Process of Democratic Governance in Nepal , Sucheta Pyakuryal

Rural Vulnerability and Tea Plantation Migration in Eastern Nepal and Darjeeling , Sarah Besky

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Academic literature on the topic 'Rural development in Nepal'

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Journal articles on the topic "Rural development in Nepal":

Khatri, Chakra Bahadur. "Rural Development Practices in Nepal." Nepal Journal of Multidisciplinary Research 2, no. 2 (November 8, 2019): 27–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/njmr.v2i2.26283.

Gautam, Murari Krishna. "Rural Development in Nepal: A Historical Perspective." Interdisciplinary Journal of Management and Social Sciences 1, no. 1 (October 1, 2020): 66–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijmss.v1i1.34513.

Umesh Acharya. "People’s Participation and Rural Development: Nepal’s Case." Interdisciplinary Journal of Management and Social Sciences 3, no. 1 (June 30, 2022): 148–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijmss.v3i1.50242.

Thakuri, Indra Bahadur Malla, and Govind Nepal. "Community Oriented-Rural Tourism Development Model." American Economic & Social Review 2, no. 1 (January 2, 2018): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.46281/aesr.v2i1.149.

Hatlebakk, Magnus. "Triadic Power Relations in Rural Nepal." Journal of Development Studies 47, no. 11 (November 2011): 1739–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2010.509787.

Chaudhary, Deepak. "Agricultural Policies and Rural Development in Nepal: An Overview." Research Nepal Journal of Development Studies 1, no. 2 (November 1, 2018): 34–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/rnjds.v1i2.22425.

Kaini, Malati. "Agro-tourism and Rural Development in Nepal." Patan Pragya 7, no. 1 (December 31, 2020): 101–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/pragya.v7i1.35111.

Chaudhary, Phanindra Kumar, and Rajan Binayek Pasa. "Agriculture Education for Rural Development in Nepal." Journal of Training and Development 1 (July 31, 2015): 38–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jtd.v1i0.13089.

Acharya, Umesh. "Population growth and Rural Development in the interface of Climate Change in Nepal: A review." Pragya Darshan प्रज्ञा दर्शन 5, no. 1 (February 15, 2023): 39–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/pdmdj.v5i1.52305.

Kharel, Suman. "Local Governance and Rural Development Practices in Nepal." NUTA Journal 6, no. 1-2 (March 22, 2019): 84–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/nutaj.v6i1-2.23233.

Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Rural development in Nepal":

Jungblut, Benjamin Pablo. "Understanding the Changing Dynamics of Rural Development in Dolakha, Nepal." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för geovetenskaper, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-412361.

Bhattarai, Saroj K. "Monitoring and evaluation system for rural development projects in Nepal." Virtual Press, 1986. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/508013.

Roberts, Eryl Haf. "Rural development by extension and indigenous communication systems in Nepal." Thesis, Loughborough University, 1997. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/27623.

McMillan, Carolyn Lesley. "Entrepreneurship and development as freedom : the case of women in rural Nepal." Thesis, University of Strathclyde, 2017. http://digitool.lib.strath.ac.uk:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=28364.

Subedi, Anil. "A study of farmers communication networks in relation to the diffusion of innovations in the hills of Nepal." Thesis, University of Reading, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.296631.

Shrestha, Ava Darshan. "Eating cucumbers without any teeth : variations in the capacities of rural women to participate in rural development in Nepal." Thesis, University of Bath, 1994. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.318033.

Kumar, Sharan, University of Western Sydney, of Science Technology and Environment College, and School of Environment and Agriculture. "Filling the sinful stomach : a critical, systematic learning action research approach to food security in the eastern hills of Nepal." THESIS_CSTE_EAG_Kumar_S.xml, 2001. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/210.

Bahadur, K. C. Krishna. "Combining socio-economic and spatial methodologies in rural resources and livelihood development a case from mountains of Nepal." Weikersheim Margraf, 2005. http://deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=2674443&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm.

Morrison, Joanna. "Understanding the effect of a participatory intervention with women's groups to improve maternal and neonatal health in rural Nepal." Thesis, University College London (University of London), 2009. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/18566/.

Pradhan, Merina [Verfasser]. "Community mobilization and energy as a tool for development : impact of rural energy programme in Nepal / Merina Pradhan." Flensburg : Zentrale Hochschulbibliothek Flensburg, 2007. http://d-nb.info/1018283617/34.

Books on the topic "Rural development in Nepal":

Pokharel, Bharat. Rural political economy of Nepal . Kirtipur: New Hira Books Enterprises, 2004.

Agrawal, Govind Ram. Decentralization for rural development in Nepal . Kathmandu: Centre for Economic Development and Administration, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, 1986.

Gurung, Sant Bahadur. Rural development approaches in Nepal: Some experiences . Kathmandu: Development Associates for Rural & Regional Development, 1998.

Paudyal, Durga P. Access improvement and sustainable development: Rural road development in Nepal . Kathmandu: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, 1998.

Bista, Santosh Kumar. Rural development in Nepal: An alternative strategy . Kathmandu: Udaya Books, 2000.

Hamal, Krishna Bahadur. Rural development policy and poverty in Nepal . [Kathmandu?: Winrock Project?], 1987.

Miller, Casper J. Decision making in village Nepal . Kathmandu, Nepal: Sahayogi Press, 1990.

Shrestha, Shashi M. Challenges in rural development through education in Nepal . [Kathmandu]: S.M. Shrestha, 1985.

Dunsmore, J. R. KHARDEP: Rural development in the hills of Nepal. Surbiton: Land Resources Development Centre, 1987.

Subedi, Nani Ram. Rural development in Nepal, prospects and challenges: Magnitude of development, relation between rural development and politics . Kathmandu: Centre for Good Governance and Development, 2006.

Book chapters on the topic "Rural development in Nepal":

Thapa, Dhiraj, Dai Griffiths, and Ann L. Kolodziejski. "Constraining and Enabling Factors in the Use of ICT in Rural Schools in Nepal." In Information and Communication Technologies for Development , 102–13. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65828-1_9.

Petley, David N., Gareth J. Hearn, and Andrew Hart. "Towards the Development of a Landslide Risk Assessment for Rural Roads in Nepal." In Landslide Hazard and Risk , 595–619. Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470012659.ch20.

Gyawali, Netra Pd. "Microhydro-Based Mini grid for Sustainable Development of Rural Communities: A Case Study of Nepal." In Sustainable Power Systems , 151–74. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2230-2_8.

Vaidya, Binod, and Jagan Nath Shrestha. "Rural Digital Library: Connecting Rural Communities in Nepal." In Lecture Notes in Computer Science , 354–65. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/3-540-36227-4_41.

Atkinson, Christopher L. "Rural Development." In Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance , 5528–33. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20928-9_1014.

Atkinson, Christopher L. "Rural Development." In Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance , 1–7. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_1014-1.

Rodwell, Dennis. "Rural development." In The Routledge Handbook on Historic Urban Landscapes in the Asia-Pacific , 406–23. New York : Routledge, 2020.: Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429486470-24.

Ali, Tanvir, Babar Shahbaz, Muhammad Iftikhtar, Ijaz Ashraf, Shoukat Ali, Ghazanfar Ali Khan, Aqeela Saghir, and Muhammad Saleem Mohsin. "Rural Development." In Developing Sustainable Agriculture in Pakistan , 703–29. Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2018.: CRC Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781351208239-32.

Devkota, Binod, Richard Thwaites, and Digby Race. "Community forestry, rural livelihoods and poverty reduction in Nepal." In Community Forestry in Nepal , 59–81. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2018. | Series: The Earthscan forest series: Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315445168-4.

Pain, Adam, and Kjell Hansen. "What is rural development?" In Rural Development , 1–33. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2019.: Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315773643-1.

Conference papers on the topic "Rural development in Nepal":

Ghimire, Dilip C., Sudip Adhikari, Sunil Adhikary, Hideo Uchida, and Masayoshi Umeno. "Energy Demand, Availability in Nepal and Present PV Cost Analysis." In ASME 2005 International Solar Energy Conference . ASMEDC, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/isec2005-76226.

Lombard, Antoinette, Hein Johan Wiese, and Jan Smit. "Economic Upliftment and Social Development through the Development of Digital Astuteness in Rural Areas." In InSITE 2016: Informing Science + IT Education Conferences: Lithuania . Informing Science Institute, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.28945/3491.

Ramankutty, Roshan, Kate Lassalle-Klein, Elise Herrmannsfeldt, Suparna Jasuja, Silvia Figueira, Skip Stritter, and David Sowerwine. "Lesson Planner for Rural Nepal." In 2018 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC) . IEEE, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ghtc.2018.8601917.

Amatya, Swoyambhu Man. "Functioning of rural tele-centers in Nepal." In the 3rd International Conference . New York, New York, USA: ACM Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1693042.1693106.

Groeli, Robert. "Building 8500+ Trail Bridges in the Himalayas." In Footbridge 2022 (Madrid): Creating Experience . Madrid, Spain: Asociación Española de Ingeniería Estructural, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.24904/footbridge2022.125.

Primadona. "Rural Development." In International Conference on Applied Science and Technology on Social Science (ICAST-SS 2020) . Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210424.090.

STREIKUS, Dionizas, Algirdas JASINSKAS, Rolandas DOMEIKA, Sigitas ČEKANAUSKAS, Nerijus PEDIŠIUS, Tomas VONŽODAS, and Andres ANNUK. "EVALUATION OF GIANT KNOTWEED AND MISCANTHUS AS PERSPECTIVE ENERGY PLANTS AND ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCED BIOFUEL QUALITY INDICATORS." In RURAL DEVELOPMENT . Aleksandras Stulginskis University, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.15544/rd.2017.004.

CÂRDEI, Petru, and Dragoș MANEA. "MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR THE HEAT EXCHANGE OF GREENHOUSE AND SOLARIUM SOIL IN THE PLANT ROOT AREA." In RURAL DEVELOPMENT . Aleksandras Stulginskis University, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.15544/rd.2017.001.

KLIMAS, Evaldas, Jolanta LELIŪNIENĖ, and Ligita BALEŽENTIENĖ. "VERNALISATION IMPACT ON BIOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF FESTULOLIUM VARIETIES." In RURAL DEVELOPMENT . Aleksandras Stulginskis University, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.15544/rd.2017.002.

LELIŪNIENĖ, Jolanta, Ligita BALEŽENTIENĖ, and Evaldas KLIMAS. "FESTULOLIUM METABOLITES ACCUMULATION RESPONSE TO PHOTOPERIOD OF FLOWERING TERMOINDUCTION." In RURAL DEVELOPMENT . Aleksandras Stulginskis University, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.15544/rd.2017.003.

Reports on the topic "Rural development in Nepal":

Paudyal, D. P. Access Improvement and Sustainable Development; Rural Road Development in Nepal . Kathmandu, Nepal: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.53055/icimod.271.

Slavchevska, Vanya, Cheryl Doss, Erdgin Mane, Susan Kaaria, Anuja Kar, and Victor Villa. Rural outmigration and the gendered patterns of agricultural labor in Nepal . Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134190.

Ahmad, F., M. B. Gurung, and S. R. Joshi. Beekeeping and Rural Development . Kathmandu, Nepal: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.53055/icimod.458.

Bock, Bettina B. Rural Futures : Inclusive rural development in times of urbanisation . Wageningen: Wageningen University & Research, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.18174/465253.

Research Institute (IFPRI), International Food Policy. Estimating the impact of access to infrastructure and extension services in rural Nepal . Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/9780896291881.

Gurung, M. B., Uma Pratap, N. C. T. D. Shrestha, H. K. Sharma, N. Islam, and N. B. Tamang. Beekeeping Training for Farmers in Afghanistan: Resource Manual for Trainers [in Urdu] . International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.53055/icimod.564.

Gunatilake, Herath, Priyantha Wijayatunga, and David Roland-Holst. Hydropower Development and Economic Growth in Nepal . Asian Development Bank, June 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/wps200161-2.

Jiménez, Raúl. Development Effects of Rural Electrification . Inter-American Development Bank, January 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0000629.