documents in research methodology

Document Analysis

First Online: 02 January 2023

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Benjamin Kutsyuruba 4

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This chapter describes the document analysis approach. As a qualitative method, document analysis entails a systematic procedure for reviewing and evaluating documents through finding, selecting, appraising (making sense of), and synthesizing data contained within them. This chapter outlines the brief history, method and use of document analysis, provides an outline of its process, strengths and limitations, and application, and offers further readings, resources, and suggestions for student engagement activities.

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Additional Reading

Kutsyuruba, B. (2017). Examining education reforms through document analysis methodology. In I. Silova, A. Korzh, S. Kovalchuk, & N. Sobe (Eds.), Reimagining Utopias: Theory and method for educational research in post-socialist contexts (pp. 199–214). Sense.

Kutsyuruba, B., Christou, T., Heggie, L., Murray, J., & Deluca, C. (2015). Teacher collaborative inquiry in Ontario: An analysis of provincial and school board policies and support documents. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 172 , 1–38.

Kutsyuruba, B., Godden, L., & Tregunna, L. (2014). Curbing the early-career attrition: A pan-Canadian document analysis of teacher induction and mentorship programs. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 161 , 1–42.

Segeren, A., & Kutsyuruba, B. (2012). Twenty years and counting: An examination of the development of equity and inclusive education policy in Ontario (1990–2010). Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 136 , 1–38.

Online Resources

Document Analysis: A How To Guide (12:27 min) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vOsE9saR_ck

Document Analysis with Philip Adu (1:16:40 min) https://youtu.be/bLKBffW5JPU

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Kutsyuruba, B. (2023). Document Analysis. In: Okoko, J.M., Tunison, S., Walker, K.D. (eds) Varieties of Qualitative Research Methods. Springer Texts in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04394-9_23

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Qualitative Research Journal

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Article publication date: 3 August 2009

This article examines the function of documents as a data source in qualitative research and discusses document analysis procedure in the context of actual research experiences. Targeted to research novices, the article takes a nuts‐and‐bolts approach to document analysis. It describes the nature and forms of documents, outlines the advantages and limitations of document analysis, and offers specific examples of the use of documents in the research process. The application of document analysis to a grounded theory study is illustrated.

Content analysis
Grounded theory
Thematic analysis
Triangulation

Bowen, G.A. (2009), "Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method", Qualitative Research Journal , Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 27-40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027

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Documentary Research: What it is, methodology & free examples

Social scientists often conduct documentary research. Its primary use is to assess various documents in the interest of social or historical value. Researchers also conduct documentary research to study multiple documents surrounding events or individuals.

What is documentary research?

Documentary research is the research conducted through the use of official documents or personal documents as the source of information.

Documents can include anything from the following:

Directories
Government statistical publications
Gramophone records
Photographs
Computer files

The above may not fit the traditional bill of a “document”, but companies can use them towards documentary research since they contain information.

Documentary research is similar to content analysis, which involves studying existing information recorded in media, texts, and physical items. Here, data collection from people is not required to conduct research. Hence, this is a prime example of secondary research.

It is essential to consider the quality of the documents while using it as evidence on social relations and social meanings. Keep in mind that, unlike surveys and research interviews, the records are originally published/generated without keeping the purpose of research in mind. It is good practice to cross-verify documents against other similar documents before reaching a decision.

Documentary research examples

Bellow, we can find a few real-life examples of documentary research applied to companies’ daily events.

1. Social research studies

Although documentary research is not used extensively today, it is the go-to research method to conduct social research studies. For example, Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim used documentary research extensively for their research.

Karl Marx used documents like:

Her Majesty Inspectors of Factories Reports
Royal Commission
Inland Revenue Reports

There’s also a record of his use of reports by the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, reports on children’s employment in factories, the Corn-laws, the Banking Acts, and Census Reports for Wales and England to name a few.

Durkheim, one of the founders of Sociology, wrote a book on suicide, which is recognized as the first modern example of a methodical and consistent use of documents for social research.

2. Archival inquiry

The field of sociology has a popular, longstanding tradition of documentary inquiry. Many historians refer to and rely on primary documents for their research. Historians give historical documents more emphasis while conducting research. Of course, as we evolve, virtual documents like emails will play a significant role in research activities conducted by these researchers.

3. Aesthetic interpretation

Documentary research is not limited to text only. Pictures, paintings, videos, audio files, monuments are also used to conduct research. Documentary researchers use these tools in addition to texts while studying social sciences. The use of these tools adds to the authenticity of the textual research, or may very well point out deviations in the findings.

This deviation suggests that investigators research more to draw accurate conclusions.

Documentary research methodology

Documentary research, if conducted thoroughly, can help develop a hypothesis or prove or disprove an existing theory. This of course depends on the methodology applied and the depth of research conducted. The researcher must conduct his/her own secondary research to analyze the contents before extracting it. They must handle the data scientifically.

Follow this four-step approach to control the quality of the content:

The authenticity of the documents

The credibility of the documents

Representativeness of the documents

The meaning derived from the documents

Let’s take a look at these in detail.

Authenticity implies whether the document’s origin is reliable, is the evidence genuine, are the intentions sincere, and what were the commitments to creating the document. The authenticity of the source is the primary criterion of documentary research.

Credibility means the subjective and objective components that make one believe the source of information and whether the data is free from distortion and error. The information must be trustworthy and must have some level of expertise.

Representativeness refers to whether the document represents a more extensive collection of the data point, and it is an aggregation of the topic being studied. That said, documents get distorted with time due to the inclusion of new factors, and a check has to be made to ensure the documents are representative.

Meaning means whether the findings are understandable and clear to be called evidence. The goal of examining documents is to understand its significance and meaning. Researchers must find out whether the document fits within the historical context or not.

Advantages of documentary study

Here are the advantages of the documentary research method:

Data readily available: Data is readily available in various sources. You only need to know where to look and how to use it. The data is available in different forms, and harnessing it is the real challenge.
Inexpensive and economical: The data for research is already collected and published in either print or other forms. The researcher does not need to spend money and time like they do to collect market research insights and gather data. They need to search for and compile the available data from different sources.
Saves time: Conducting market research is time-consuming. Responses will not come in quickly as expected, and gathering global responses will take a huge amount of time. If you have all the reference documents available (or you know where to find them), research is relatively quick.
Non-bias: Primary data collection tends to be biased. This bias depends on a lot of factors like the age of the respondents, the time they take the survey, their mentality while taking the survey, their gender, their feelings towards certain ideas, to name a few. The list goes on and on when it comes to surveying bias.
A researcher is not necessary during data collection: The researcher doesn’t need to be present during data collection. It is practically impossible for the researcher to be present at every point of the data source, especially thinking about the various data sources.
Useful for hypothesis: Use historical data to draw inferences of the current or future events. Conclusions can be drawn from the experience of past events and data available for them.

Disadvantages of the method

Here are the disadvantages of the documentary research method:

Limited data: Data is not always available, especially when you need to cross-verify a theory or strengthen your argument based on different forms of data.
Inaccuracies: As the data is historical and published, there is almost no way of ascertaining if the data is accurate or not.
Incomplete documents: Often, documents can be incomplete, and there is no way of knowing if there are additional documents to refer to on the subject.
Data out of context: The data that the researcher refers to may be out of context and may not be in line with the concept the researcher is trying to study. Its because the research goal is not thought of when creating the original data. Often, researchers have to make do with the available data at hand.

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Article Contents

Introduction, what is document analysis, the read approach, supplementary data, acknowledgements.

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Document analysis in health policy research: the READ approach

Article contents
Figures & tables

Sarah L Dalglish, Hina Khalid, Shannon A McMahon, Document analysis in health policy research: the READ approach, Health Policy and Planning , Volume 35, Issue 10, December 2020, Pages 1424–1431, https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czaa064

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Document analysis is one of the most commonly used and powerful methods in health policy research. While existing qualitative research manuals offer direction for conducting document analysis, there has been little specific discussion about how to use this method to understand and analyse health policy. Drawing on guidance from other disciplines and our own research experience, we present a systematic approach for document analysis in health policy research called the READ approach: (1) ready your materials, (2) extract data, (3) analyse data and (4) distil your findings. We provide practical advice on each step, with consideration of epistemological and theoretical issues such as the socially constructed nature of documents and their role in modern bureaucracies. We provide examples of document analysis from two case studies from our work in Pakistan and Niger in which documents provided critical insight and advanced empirical and theoretical understanding of a health policy issue. Coding tools for each case study are included as Supplementary Files to inspire and guide future research. These case studies illustrate the value of rigorous document analysis to understand policy content and processes and discourse around policy, in ways that are either not possible using other methods, or greatly enrich other methods such as in-depth interviews and observation. Given the central nature of documents to health policy research and importance of reading them critically, the READ approach provides practical guidance on gaining the most out of documents and ensuring rigour in document analysis.

Rigour in qualitative research is judged partly by the use of deliberate, systematic procedures; however, little specific guidance is available for analysing documents, a nonetheless common method in health policy research.

Document analysis is useful for understanding policy content across time and geographies, documenting processes, triangulating with interviews and other sources of data, understanding how information and ideas are presented formally, and understanding issue framing, among other purposes.

The READ (Ready materials, Extract data, Analyse data, Distil) approach provides a step-by-step guide to conducting document analysis for qualitative policy research.

The READ approach can be adapted to different purposes and types of research, two examples of which are presented in this article, with sample tools in the Supplementary Materials .

Document analysis (also called document review) is one of the most commonly used methods in health policy research; it is nearly impossible to conduct policy research without it. Writing in early 20th century, Weber (2015) identified the importance of formal, written documents as a key characteristic of the bureaucracies by which modern societies function, including in public health. Accordingly, critical social research has a long tradition of documentary review: Marx analysed official reports, laws, statues, census reports and newspapers and periodicals over a nearly 50-year period to come to his world-altering conclusions ( Harvey, 1990 ). Yet in much of social science research, ‘documents are placed at the margins of consideration,’ with privilege given to the spoken word via methods such as interviews, possibly due to the fact that many qualitative methods were developed in the anthropological tradition to study mainly pre-literate societies ( Prior, 2003 ). To date, little specific guidance is available to help health policy researchers make the most of these wells of information.

The term ‘documents’ is defined here broadly, following Prior, as physical or virtual artefacts designed by creators, for users, to function within a particular setting ( Prior, 2003 ). Documents exist not as standalone objects of study but must be understood in the social web of meaning within which they are produced and consumed. For example, some analysts distinguish between public documents (produced in the context of public sector activities), private documents (from business and civil society) and personal documents (created by or for individuals, and generally not meant for public consumption) ( Mogalakwe, 2009 ). Documents can be used in a number of ways throughout the research process ( Bowen, 2009 ). In the planning or study design phase, they can be used to gather background information and help refine the research question. Documents can also be used to spark ideas for disseminating research once it is complete, by observing the ways those who will use the research speak to and communicate ideas with one another.

Documents can also be used during data collection and analysis to help answer research questions. Recent health policy research shows that this can be done in at least four ways. Frequently, policy documents are reviewed to describe the content or categorize the approaches to specific health problems in existing policies, as in reviews of the composition of drowning prevention resources in the United States or policy responses to foetal alcohol spectrum disorder in South Africa ( Katchmarchi et al. , 2018 ; Adebiyi et al. , 2019 ). In other cases, non-policy documents are used to examine the implementation of health policies in real-world settings, as in a review of web sources and newspapers analysing the functioning of community health councils in New Zealand ( Gurung et al. , 2020 ). Perhaps less frequently, document analysis is used to analyse policy processes, as in an assessment of multi-sectoral planning process for nutrition in Burkina Faso ( Ouedraogo et al. , 2020 ). Finally, and most broadly, document analysis can be used to inform new policies, as in one study that assessed cigarette sticks as communication and branding ‘documents,’ to suggest avenues for further regulation and tobacco control activities ( Smith et al. , 2017 ).

This practice paper provides an overarching method for conducting document analysis, which can be adapted to a multitude of research questions and topics. Document analysis is used in most or all policy studies; the aim of this article is to provide a systematized method that will enhance procedural rigour. We provide an overview of document analysis, drawing on guidance from disciplines adjacent to public health, introduce the ‘READ’ approach to document analysis and provide two short case studies demonstrating how document analysis can be applied.

Document analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents, which can be used to provide context, generate questions, supplement other types of research data, track change over time and corroborate other sources ( Bowen, 2009 ). In one commonly cited approach in social research, Bowen recommends first skimming the documents to get an overview, then reading to identify relevant categories of analysis for the overall set of documents and finally interpreting the body of documents ( Bowen, 2009 ). Document analysis can include both quantitative and qualitative components: the approach presented here can be used with either set of methods, but we emphasize qualitative ones, which are more adapted to the socially constructed meaning-making inherent to collaborative exercises such as policymaking.

The study of documents as a research method is common to a number of social science disciplines—yet in many of these fields, including sociology ( Mogalakwe, 2009 ), anthropology ( Prior, 2003 ) and political science ( Wesley, 2010 ), document-based research is described as ill-considered and underutilized. Unsurprisingly, textual analysis is perhaps most developed in fields such as media studies, cultural studies and literary theory, all disciplines that recognize documents as ‘social facts’ that are created, consumed, shared and utilized in socially organized ways ( Atkinson and Coffey, 1997 ). Documents exist within social ‘fields of action,’ a term used to designate the environments within which individuals and groups interact. Documents are therefore not mere records of social life, but integral parts of it—and indeed can become agents in their own right ( Prior, 2003 ). Powerful entities also manipulate the nature and content of knowledge; therefore, gaps in available information must be understood as reflecting and potentially reinforcing societal power relations ( Bryman and Burgess, 1994 ).

Document analysis, like any research method, can be subject to concerns regarding validity, reliability, authenticity, motivated authorship, lack of representativity and so on. However, these can be mitigated or avoided using standard techniques to enhance qualitative rigour, such as triangulation (within documents and across methods and theoretical perspectives), ensuring adequate sample size or ‘engagement’ with the documents, member checking, peer debriefing and so on ( Maxwell, 2005 ).

Document analysis can be used as a standalone method, e.g. to analyse the contents of specific types of policy as they evolve over time and differ across geographies, but document analysis can also be powerfully combined with other types of methods to cross-validate (i.e. triangulate) and deepen the value of concurrent methods. As one guide to public policy research puts it, ‘almost all likely sources of information, data, and ideas fall into two general types: documents and people’ ( Bardach and Patashnik, 2015 ). Thus, researchers can ask interviewees to address questions that arise from policy documents and point the way to useful new documents. Bardach and Patashnik suggest alternating between documents and interviews as sources as information, as one tends to lead to the other, such as by scanning interviewees’ bookshelves and papers for titles and author names ( Bardach and Patashnik, 2015 ). Depending on your research questions, document analysis can be used in combination with different types of interviews ( Berner-Rodoreda et al. , 2018 ), observation ( Harvey, 2018 ), and quantitative analyses, among other common methods in policy research.

The READ approach to document analysis is a systematic procedure for collecting documents and gaining information from them in the context of health policy studies at any level (global, national, local, etc.). The steps consist of: (1) ready your materials, (2) extract data, (3) analyse data and (4) distil your findings. We describe each of these steps in turn.

Step 1. Ready your materials

At the outset, researchers must set parameters in terms of the nature and number (approximately) of documents they plan to analyse, based on the research question. How much time will you allocate to the document analysis, and what is the scope of your research question? Depending on the answers to these questions, criteria should be established around (1) the topic (a particular policy, programme, or health issue, narrowly defined according to the research question); (2) dates of inclusion (whether taking the long view of several decades, or zooming in on a specific event or period in time); and (3) an indicative list of places to search for documents (possibilities include databases such as Ministry archives; LexisNexis or other databases; online searches; and particularly interview subjects). For difficult-to-obtain working documents or otherwise non-public items, bringing a flash drive to interviews is one of the best ways to gain access to valuable documents.

For research focusing on a single policy or programme, you may review only a handful of documents. However, if you are looking at multiple policies, health issues, or contexts, or reviewing shorter documents (such as newspaper articles), you may look at hundreds, or even thousands of documents. When considering the number of documents you will analyse, you should make notes on the type of information you plan to extract from documents—i.e. what it is you hope to learn, and how this will help answer your research question(s). The initial criteria—and the data you seek to extract from documents—will likely evolve over the course of the research, as it becomes clear whether they will yield too few documents and information (a rare outcome), far too many documents and too much information (a much more common outcome) or documents that fail to address the research question; however, it is important to have a starting point to guide the search. If you find that the documents you need are unavailable, you may need to reassess your research questions or consider other methods of inquiry. If you have too many documents, you can either analyse a subset of these ( Panel 1 ) or adopt more stringent inclusion criteria.

Exploring the framing of diseases in Pakistani media

In Table 1 , we present a non-exhaustive list of the types of documents that can be included in document analyses of health policy issues. In most cases, this will mean written sources (policies, reports, articles). The types of documents to be analysed will vary by study and according to the research question, although in many cases, it will be useful to consult a mix of formal documents (such as official policies, laws or strategies), ‘gray literature’ (organizational materials such as reports, evaluations and white papers produced outside formal publication channels) and, whenever possible, informal or working documents (such as meeting notes, PowerPoint presentations and memoranda). These latter in particular can provide rich veins of insight into how policy actors are thinking through the issues under study, particularly for the lucky researcher who obtains working documents with ‘Track Changes.’ How you prioritize documents will depend on your research question: you may prioritize official policy documents if you are studying policy content, or you may prioritize informal documents if you are studying policy process.

Types of documents that can be consulted in studies of health policy

During this initial preparatory phase, we also recommend devising a file-naming system for your documents (e.g. Author.Date.Topic.Institution.PDF), so that documents can be easily retrieved throughout the research process. After extracting data and processing your documents the first time around, you will likely have additional ‘questions’ to ask your documents and need to consult them again. For this reason, it is important to clearly name source files and link filenames to the data that you are extracting (see sample naming conventions in the Supplementary Materials ).

Step 2. Extract data

Data can be extracted in a number of ways, and the method you select for doing so will depend on your research question and the nature of your documents. One simple way is to use an Excel spreadsheet where each row is a document and each column is a category of information you are seeking to extract, from more basic data such as the document title, author and date, to theoretical or conceptual categories deriving from your research question, operating theory or analytical framework (Panel 2). Documents can also be imported into thematic coding software such as Atlas.ti or NVivo, and data extracted that way. Alternatively, if the research question focuses on process, documents can be used to compile a timeline of events, to trace processes across time. Ask yourself, how can I organize these data in the most coherent manner? What are my priority categories? We have included two different examples of data extraction tools in the Supplementary Materials to this article to spark ideas.

Case study Documents tell part of the story in Niger

Document analyses are first and foremost exercises in close reading: documents should be read thoroughly, from start to finish, including annexes, which may seem tedious but which sometimes produce golden nuggets of information. Read for overall meaning as you extract specific data related to your research question. As you go along, you will begin to have ideas or build working theories about what you are learning and observing in the data. We suggest capturing these emerging theories in extended notes or ‘memos,’ as used in Grounded Theory methodology ( Charmaz, 2006 ); these can be useful analytical units in themselves and can also provide a basis for later report and article writing.

As you read more documents, you may find that your data extraction tool needs to be modified to capture all the relevant information (or to avoid wasting time capturing irrelevant information). This may require you to go back and seek information in documents you have already read and processed, which will be greatly facilitated by a coherent file-naming system. It is also useful to keep notes on other documents that are mentioned that should be tracked down (sometimes you can write the author for help). As a general rule, we suggest being parsimonious when selecting initial categories to extract from data. Simply reading the documents takes significant time in and of itself—make sure you think about how, exactly, the specific data you are extracting will be used and how it goes towards answering your research questions.

Step 3. Analyse data

As in all types of qualitative research, data collection and analysis are iterative and characterized by emergent design, meaning that developing findings continually inform whether and how to obtain and interpret data ( Creswell, 2013 ). In practice, this means that during the data extraction phase, the researcher is already analysing data and forming initial theories—as well as potentially modifying document selection criteria. However, only when data extraction is complete can one see the full picture. For example, are there any documents that you would have expected to find, but did not? Why do you think they might be missing? Are there temporal trends (i.e. similarities, differences or evolutions that stand out when documents are ordered chronologically)? What else do you notice? We provide a list of overarching questions you should think about when viewing your body of document as a whole ( Table 2 ).

Questions to ask your overall body of documents

HIV and viral hepatitis articles by main frames (%). Note: The percentage of articles is calculated by dividing the number of articles appearing in each frame for viral hepatitis and HIV by the respectivenumber of sampled articles for each disease (N = 137 for HIV; N = 117 for hepatitis). Time frame: 1 January 2006 to 30 September 2016

Representations of progress toward Millennium Development Goal 4 in Nigerien policy documents. Sources: clockwise from upper left: ( WHO 2006 ); ( Institut National de la Statistique 2010 ); ( Ministè re de la Santé Publique 2010 ); ( Unicef 2010 )

In addition to the meaning-making processes you are already engaged in during the data extraction process, in most cases, it will be useful to apply specific analysis methodologies to the overall corpus of your documents, such as policy analysis ( Buse et al. , 2005 ). An array of analysis methodologies can be used, both quantitative and qualitative, including case study methodology, thematic content analysis, discourse analysis, framework analysis and process tracing, which may require differing levels of familiarity and skills to apply (we highlight a few of these in the case studies below). Analysis can also be structured according to theoretical approaches. When it comes to analysing policies, process tracing can be particularly useful to combine multiple sources of information, establish a chronicle of events and reveal political and social processes, so as to create a narrative of the policy cycle ( Yin, 1994 ; Shiffman et al. , 2004 ). Practically, you will also want to take a holistic view of the documents’ ‘answers’ to the questions or analysis categories you applied during the data extraction phase. Overall, what did the documents ‘say’ about these thematic categories? What variation did you find within and between documents, and along which axes? Answers to these questions are best recorded by developing notes or memos, which again will come in handy as you write up your results.

As with all qualitative research, you will want to consider your own positionality towards the documents (and their sources and authors); it may be helpful to keep a ‘reflexivity’ memo documenting how your personal characteristics or pre-standing views might influence your analysis ( Watt, 2007 ).

Step 4. Distil your findings

You will know when you have completed your document review when one of the three things happens: (1) completeness (you feel satisfied you have obtained every document fitting your criteria—this is rare), (2) out of time (this means you should have used more specific criteria), and (3) saturation (you fully or sufficiently understand the phenomenon you are studying). In all cases, you should strive to make the third situation the reason for ending your document review, though this will not always mean you will have read and analysed every document fitting your criteria—just enough documents to feel confident you have found good answers to your research questions.

Now it is time to refine your findings. During the extraction phase, you did the equivalent of walking along the beach, noticing the beautiful shells, driftwood and sea glass, and picking them up along the way. During the analysis phase, you started sorting these items into different buckets (your analysis categories) and building increasingly detailed collections. Now you have returned home from the beach, and it is time to clean your objects, rinse them of sand and preserve only the best specimens for presentation. To do this, you can return to your memos, refine them, illustrate them with graphics and quotes and fill in any incomplete areas. It can also be illuminating to look across different strands of work: e.g. how did the content, style, authorship, or tone of arguments evolve over time? Can you illustrate which words, concepts or phrases were used by authors or author groups?

Results will often first be grouped by theoretical or analytic category, or presented as a policy narrative, interweaving strands from other methods you may have used (interviews, observation, etc.). It can also be helpful to create conceptual charts and graphs, especially as this corresponds to your analytical framework (Panels 1 and 2). If you have been keeping a timeline of events, you can seek out any missing information from other sources. Finally, ask yourself how the validity of your findings checks against what you have learned using other methods. The final products of the distillation process will vary by research study, but they will invariably allow you to state your findings relative to your research questions and to draw policy-relevant conclusions.

Document analysis is an essential component of health policy research—it is also relatively convenient and can be low cost. Using an organized system of analysis enhances the document analysis’s procedural rigour, allows for a fuller understanding of policy process and content and enhances the effectiveness of other methods such as interviews and non-participant observation. We propose the READ approach as a systematic method for interrogating documents and extracting study-relevant data that is flexible enough to accommodate many types of research questions. We hope that this article encourages discussion about how to make best use of data from documents when researching health policy questions.

Supplementary data are available at Health Policy and Planning online.

The data extraction tool in the Supplementary Materials for the iCCM case study (Panel 2) was conceived of by the research team for the multi-country study ‘Policy Analysis of Community Case Management for Childhood and Newborn Illnesses’. The authors thank Sara Bennett and Daniela Rodriguez for granting permission to publish this tool. S.M. was supported by The Olympia-Morata-Programme of Heidelberg University. The funders had no role in the decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The content is the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the views of any funder.

Conflict of interest statement . None declared.

Ethical approval. No ethical approval was required for this study.

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The Basics of Document Analysis

Document analysis is the process of reviewing or evaluating documents both printed and electronic in a methodical manner. The document analysis method, like many other qualitative research methods, involves examining and interpreting data to uncover meaning, gain understanding, and come to a conclusion.

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What is Meant by Document Analysis?

Document analysis pertains to the process of interpreting documents for an assessment topic by the researcher as a means of giving voice and meaning. In Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method by Glenn A. Bowen , document analysis is described as, “... a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents—both printed and electronic (computer-based and Internet-transmitted) material. Like other analytical methods in qualitative research, document analysis requires that data be examined and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge.”

During the analysis of documents, the content is categorized into distinct themes, similar to the way transcripts from interviews or focus groups are analyzed. The documents may also be graded or scored using a rubric.

Document analysis is a social research method of great value, and it plays a crucial role in most triangulation methods, combining various methods to study a particular phenomenon.

>> View Webinar: How-To’s for Data Analysis

Documents fall into three main categories:

Personal Documents: A personal account of an individual's beliefs, actions, and experiences. The following are examples: e-mails, calendars, scrapbooks, Facebook posts, incident reports, blogs, duty logs, newspapers, and reflections or journals.
Public Records: Records of an organization's activities that are maintained continuously over time. These include mission statements, student transcripts, annual reports, student handbooks, policy manuals, syllabus, and strategic plans.
Physical Evidence: Artifacts or items found within a study setting, also referred to as artifacts. Among these are posters, flyers, agendas, training materials, and handbooks.

The qualitative researcher generally makes use of two or more resources, each using a different data source and methodology, to achieve convergence and corroboration. An important purpose of triangulating evidence is to establish credibility through a convergence of evidence. Corroboration of findings across data sets reduces the possibility of bias, by examining data gathered in different ways.

It is important to note that document analysis differs from content analysis as content analysis refers to more than documents. As part of their definition for content analysis, Columbia Mailman School of Public Health states that, “Sources of data could be from interviews, open-ended questions, field research notes, conversations, or literally any occurrence of communicative language (such as books, essays, discussions, newspaper headlines, speeches, media, historical documents).

How Do You Do Document Analysis?

In order for a researcher to obtain reliable results from document analysis, a detailed planning process must be undertaken. The following is an outline of an eight-step planning process that should be employed in all textual analysis including document analysis techniques.

Identify the texts you want to analyze such as samples, population, participants, and respondents.
You should consider how texts will be accessed, paying attention to any cultural or linguistic barriers.
Acknowledge and resolve biases.
Acquire appropriate research skills.
Strategize for ensuring credibility.
Identify the data that is being sought.
Take into account ethical issues.
Keep a backup plan handy.

Researchers can use a wide variety of texts as part of their research, but the most common source is likely to be written material. Researchers often ask how many documents they should collect. There is an opinion that a wide selection of documents is preferable, but the issue should probably revolve more around the quality of the document than its quantity.

Why is Document Analysis Useful?

Different types of documents serve different purposes. They provide background information, indicate potential interview questions, serve as a mechanism for monitoring progress and tracking changes within a project, and allow for verification of any claims or progress made.

You can triangulate your claims about the phenomenon being studied using document analysis by using multiple sources and other research gathering methods.

Below are the advantages and disadvantages of document analysis

Document analysis may assist researchers in determining what questions to ask your interviewees, as well as provide insight into what to watch out for during your participant observation.
It is particularly useful to researchers who wish to focus on specific case studies
It is inexpensive and quick in cases where data is easily obtainable.
Documents provide specific and reliable data, unaffected by researchers' presence unlike with other research methods like participant observation.

Disadvantages

It is likely that the documents researchers obtain are not complete or written objectively, requiring researchers to adopt a critical approach and not assume their contents are reliable or unbiased.
There may be a risk of information overload due to the number of documents involved. Researchers often have difficulties determining what parts of each document are relevant to the topic being studied.
It may be necessary to anonymize documents and compare them with other documents.

How NVivo Can Help with Document Analysis

Analyzing copious amounts of data and information can be a daunting and time-consuming prospect. Luckily, qualitative data analysis tools like NVivo can help!

NVivo’s AI-powered autocoding text analysis tool can help you efficiently analyze data and perform thematic analysis . By automatically detecting, grouping, and tagging noun phrases, you can quickly identify key themes throughout your documents – aiding in your evaluation.

Additionally, once you start coding part of your data, NVivo’s smart coding can take care of the rest for you by using machine learning to match your coding style. After your initial coding, you can run queries and create visualizations to expand on initial findings and gain deeper insights.

These features allow you to conduct data analysis on large amounts of documents – improving the efficiency of this qualitative research method. Learn more about these features in the webinar, NVivo 14: Thematic Analysis Using NVivo.

>> Watch Webinar NVivo 14: Thematic Analysis Using NVivo

Learn More About Document Analysis

Watch Twenty-Five Qualitative Researchers Share How-To's for Data Analysis

Introduction

Over the years, social scientists have used documentary research to understand series of events that have occurred or happened in the past. Here, they explore available recovered or existing documents and material to get information and gain insight into a research question or particular topic.

In this article, we would define the concept of documentary research, the various types of documentary research, its applications, and some valid examples.

Let’s dive right in.

What is Documentary Research?

In simple terms, documentary research is a form of research that uses records to get accurate information about a particular subject. It is a systematic investigation and analysis of existing records or documents. These documents can be in written forms, visual/audio materials, photographs, videos books, etc.

Documentary research is a valuable approach used in exploring historical events, cultural phenomena, and societal trends to get deep insight into a topic, subject or research question.

Documentary research is somewhat similar to content analysis, which also entails studying existing information/documents.

One of the most vital considerations when using documentary research is the quality of the material being utilized, hence the danger of falling into the single-story phenomenon.

To forestall this, the documents being reviewed must be assessed thoroughly before it is used. (see John Scott, A Matter of Record, 1990). The criteria for authenticity involves checking the documents thoroughly to ensure their genuineness.

List of Documentary Research Methods

Social Research Studies: This form of documentary research is commonly used in social research studies. For instance, Karl Max used documentary research extensively for his research and the documents he used include The Royal Commission, Inland revenue reports, and Her Majesty Inspectors of Factory reports, to mention a few. Emile Durkheim one of the founders of sociology authored a book on suicide and his work was recognized as the first modern example of consistent use of documents for social research.
Archival Inquiry: This is a field of sociology explored in documentary research. It entails using primary source documents stored in archives. This form of research is popular amongst historians and the archival documents are referred to as references in their research.
Content Analysis: This method involves the examination and interpretation of content in documents like articles, books, and speeches in other to find a connection, verify events, and identify patterns or trends.
Historical Analysis: This is the study and analysis of occurrences that took place in the past, but were documented in records like newspapers, government records, and diaries to understand past events accurately and use the information to understand the present.
Textual Analysis: This form of analysis is focused on printed texts, in a bid to understand pictures, symbols, and language in other to understand events or occurrences that happened in the lives of the subject.
Oral Tradition : Oral history involves gathering information via oral summations of people who had direct experience of the events or subject being researched. These interviews are recorded and transcribed, and then analyzed as documents.
Ethnographic Research: This form of research involves documenting the daily experiences of people in their natural environment, in other to understand how interactions in their personal space affect or impacts their experiences.
Comparative Analysis: Comparative analysis entails comparing documents from multiple sources to understand context, and periods and uncover any similarities or differences. The goal is to understand cultural or political variations.
Cross-Sectional Analysis: Cross-sectional analysis involves reviewing documents from multiple perspectives to understand changes, trends, or developments over a specific period.
Aesthetic Interpretation: This is analyzing visual documents, like paintings, photographs, and footage from videos. This is often used as a supplement to text to authenticate discoveries uncovered in text documents.

Understanding the Documentary Research Methodology

Documentary research involves several key steps, such as defining the objective or research question, identifying relevant resources, revising them, and drawing up a well-informed and accurate conclusion based on fact.

Here are some key points to help you understand the documentary research methodology:

Purpose: The essence of documentary research is to review existing documents to have insight into a research problem or question. The documents reviewed include written texts, such as books, articles, letters, diaries, newspapers, official reports, government publications, and archival materials, and non-written materials like videos, audio recordings, photographs, and digital documents.
Data Collection: This phase is when researchers gather relevant documents required for the research topic. These documents are evaluated carefully based on credibility and relevance.

Explore – Data Collection Methods: Definition + Steps to Do It

Data Analysis: Here, the gathered documents are analyzed systematically using relevant document research methodologies. This involves reading, grouping similar resources, and extracting information based on similarities, trends, etc.
Interpretation: After data analysis, the discoveries are interpreted and the answers are applied to the research question or objective.

Read More: What is Data Interpretation? + [Types, Methods & Tools]

Ethical Considerations: Ethical principles should be considered when carrying out documentary research. Copyright and intellectual property rights should be respected and all necessary permissions should be obtained before using confidential materials.
Strengths and Limitations: The documentary research methodology has several advantages. One of which is that it helps researchers study past events by providing relevant documentation that sheds light. It also offers rich and detailed insights into social, cultural, and historical contexts. However, as with every good thing, there are limitations, such as some form of biases in the selected documents, which could emanate from the author or source of the document, missing data, and validity of the findings.

Related: What are Ethical Practices in Market Research?

Applications of Documentary Research

The documentary research methodology has a broad range of applications across various disciplines. They include:

Historical Research : Documentary research is used extensively in historical studies to explore past events, in other to predict the future. Researchers review historical documents, like letters, diaries, government records, newspapers, and photographs, to better understand historical narratives, social and cultural contexts, and see how individuals or communities conducted their activities in the past.
Social Sciences: In social sciences, documentary research helps investigate social concepts and trends. Documents like surveys, census data, and organization records are studied and analyzed, in other to understand public opinion, social inequality, and organizational behavior.
Legal Research: Documentary research plays a vital role in legal studies. Lawyers, legal scholars, policymakers, etc analyze legal documents, regulations, court cases, and legal antecedents all in a bid to understand the legal framework and ways in which law evolves. Documentary research can support legal arguments, influence the development of legal theories, and inform policy-making.
Education Research: Documentary research is used to understand educational policies, curriculum development, and teaching practices. Researchers review educational documents, such as textbooks, educational policies, and assessment materials, to access educational systems, approaches, and the effect of these on learning outcomes.

Examples of Documentary Research

The Russian Revolution (1891 – 1924), With the aid of newspaper documents and personal diaries Orlando Figes, a British historian narrated the most important milestones of the revolution in that period and proffered a comprehensive portrait of everyday occurrences as it occurred then the book Figes. depicts how the Russian Revolution was a historical process that changed the lives of its people and had its influence globally.
The Vietnam War . The 990 minutes audiovisual documentary by Ken Burns narrates the Vietnam War (1955-1975). Throughout 10 episodes, the military operations of the Vietnam War were addressed, as well as the opposition to the war by the US.
Bios . Lives that marked yours: Luis Alberto Spinetta. This two-hour audiovisual documentary, produced by National Geographic, intimate and deeply details the life of Luis Alberto Spineta, an artist referred to as one of the fathers of Argentine rock. His family was part of the production,the100 hours documentary was directed by Catarina Spinetta and she used recordings, and testimonies from family members to review her father’s childhood until his final moments.
The Secret Decrees of the Dictatorship . This publication was released between March and May 2019, and more than 7000 secret decrees issued by the Military Juntas in Argentina between 1976-1983 were reviewed by the Data Unit of the news portal. These decrees signed by different dictators focused on deportations, the prohibition of books, and the sale of weapons. All of these materials were analyzed and presented along with eight notes, published in 2019.
World War II in Photographs, David Boyle . This book is an example of aesthetic documentary research. 900 high-quality photographs from various sources were used to portray World War II (1939–1945). The images uncover the scenarios as the warfare took place. The images were arranged in chronological order with images of the steppes of Russia, the deserts of Africa, the jungles of the South Pacific, and the seas of the Arctic and each one of them has a detailed explanation of the course of events.
The Silence of the Others . This documentary by the Spanish Pedro Almodóvar took 7 years to produce and over 450 hours of review of materials to uncover the crimes carried out during the Franco regime and the plight of the victims seeking justice.
The Berlin Wall . The border through a city, Thomas Flemming. This is another example of documentary research, with documents, photos, and illustrations, this book illustrates the history of the Berlin Wall. The daily life of the people who lived to the west and east of the city was portrayed in the book as well as the events that led to the fall of the border in 1989.

Purpose of Documentary Research

The purpose of documentary research is to gather verifiable evidence, that can help researchers understand clearly events that occurred in the past/present and also uncover new knowledge by analyzing existing documents and materials. It aids researchers in exploring topics that are difficult to decipher through other research methods and proffers a historical or contextual perspective on the subject being studied.

When to Use Documentary Research

Documentary research is best when researching events that occurred in the past, especially in instances where direct observation is not applicable. Here are some instances where documentary research is particularly useful:

Historical Studies: Documentary research is ideal when conducting historical research. Researchers can then analyze historical records or documents left behind to better understand past events, chronologically.
Exploratory Research: In cases where there are gaps in research studies. documentary research can serve as an exploratory method to fill gaps in knowledge by exploring different perspectives that can uncover new knowledge.
Policy Analysis : Documentary research is useful in examining policies and similar regulations. By analyzing policy documents, over a period, researchers can measure the impact policies had or have on a particular subject. Based on their review of existing documents, they can make recommendations and supervise their implementation. This method is particularly useful in fields such as public policy, education, healthcare, and social welfare.
Comparative Studies: Documentary research is useful for comparative analysis. Researchers can analyze documents from different sources and geographical locations to identify patterns, verify results or simply identify contradictions and uncover areas that require further investigation.

Characteristics of Documentary Research

Uses Existing Documents: Documentary research is based on existing documents as a primary source of data. These documents can be written(letters, diaries, articles, books)or unwritten documents(videos, photographs, inscriptions). These documents are analyzed to gain insight and understanding into a specific phenomenon.
Non-Experimental In Nature: Documentary research does not involve manipulated variables, meaning that the researcher can not change the outcomes by directly intervening in the research. All the results derived are based on phenomena that have d occurred, which have documented records to attest to their occurrence.
Data Analysis: Documentary research involves rigorous data analysis, as researchers have to carefully read, extract relevant information, categorize data, and use qualitative/quantitative analysis to derive results.
Interpretation of Findings: After data analysis. The findings of the research must be interpreted in a way that gives insight and deep understanding to anyone reading about the subject being researched. The interpretation phase involves synthesizing and relating the findings to the research questions or objectives.
Contextual Understanding : Documentary research emphasizes the importance of understanding the social, cultural, and historical, events in the context, in which the documents were recorded, reviewed, and analyzed.By context we mean, the period, cultural norms, political climate, socio-economic factors, etc where the events being studied took place and under what circumstances. This contextual understanding helps to interpret the findings and draw accurate conclusions.
Cross Reference and Validation: Documentary research is characterized by cross-referencing or triangulation, which involves using multiple sources or methods to corroborate findings. The combination of documentary research with other research methods strengthens the validity and reliability of their findings. This enhances the robustness of the research and helps minimize potential biases or inaccuracies.
Ethical Considerations: Documentary research requires that researchers respect ethical guidelines and principles. Copyright and intellectual property laws must be adhered to and necessary permissions obtained when using sensitive or confidential documents, as well as the privacy and anonymity of individuals mentioned in the documents.

Advantages of Documentary Research

Access to Existing Data: In documentary research, existing data is readily available for review and analysis. There is no need to collect new data, via surveys and the like which can take time or require intensive resources. This makes documentary research a cost-effective and efficient method.
Rich and Dynamic Data: Documents and materials used in documentary research offer a rich pool of information and insights. This method covers a wide range of topics, periods, and perspectives. There is access to primary sources, such as original letters or historical documents, as well as secondary sources like scholarly articles or reports. This variety of data allows for a comprehensive and clear understanding of the research topic.
Longitudinal and Historical Perspectives: Documentary research allows researchers to study phenomena over extended periods and explore historical contexts. By examining documents spanning different periods, researchers can analyze patterns, trends, changes, and continuity across social, cultural, or organizational aspects.
Non-Intrusive Method : Since documentary research relies on existing documents, there is no direct involvement with research subjects or settings. Hence there is no need to disturb or manipulate the research environment or intrude on the lives of individuals. This makes it an ethical and practical method, especially for sensitive or personal topics.
Exploration of Inaccessible or Historical Data: Documentary research allows researchers to access data that cannot be duplicated anymore due to timelapse and changing circumstances. For instance, researchers can analyze archived documents, historical records, or rare texts which provide unique insights into the past or specific contexts.
Large-Scale Data Analysis : Documentary research deals with or involves large volumes of data. Numerous documents, texts, or media materials to identify patterns, themes, or trends can be examined. This exposure to extensive data sets enables comprehensive analysis and enhances the reliability of research findings.

Limitations of Documentary Research

The Danger of Biased Perspectives: The documents used in documentary research are subject to bias, as they could reflect the perspectives, agendas, or limitations of the authors or organizations that produced them. Critical evaluation is necessary to ensure the credibility of the documents.
No Control Over Data Collection : Documentary research relies on existing data that may not have been aimed at the research question it is being applied to. As researchers have limited control over the collection process, there is the potential for missing or incomplete information.
Subjective Interpretation: Documents analyzed require interpretation of findings, which can be subjective as different researchers can interpret the same document differently, leading to variations in findings and conclusions.

Documentary research is a valuable form of research methodology as it provides access to existing documents and materials for analysis and interpretation. There are many advantages of these methods, such as diverse sources of data, historical perspectives, and access to large volumes of data from analysis.

However, there are also limitations like biases based on the author’s perspective, no control over data collection, and challenges in interpretation. A clear understanding of the pros and cons of this research method would help users make informed decisions on how to apply documentary research to their subject of study.

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What Is Research Methodology? A Plain-Language Explanation & Definition (With Examples)

By Derek Jansen (MBA) and Kerryn Warren (PhD) | June 2020 (Last updated April 2023)

If you’re new to formal academic research, it’s quite likely that you’re feeling a little overwhelmed by all the technical lingo that gets thrown around. And who could blame you – “research methodology”, “research methods”, “sampling strategies”… it all seems never-ending!

In this post, we’ll demystify the landscape with plain-language explanations and loads of examples (including easy-to-follow videos), so that you can approach your dissertation, thesis or research project with confidence. Let’s get started.

Research Methodology 101

What exactly research methodology means
What qualitative , quantitative and mixed methods are
What sampling strategy is
What data collection methods are
What data analysis methods are
How to choose your research methodology
Example of a research methodology

What is research methodology?

Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of a research study. More specifically, it’s about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims, objectives and research questions . Specifically, how the researcher went about deciding:

What type of data to collect (e.g., qualitative or quantitative data )
Who to collect it from (i.e., the sampling strategy )
How to collect it (i.e., the data collection method )
How to analyse it (i.e., the data analysis methods )

Within any formal piece of academic research (be it a dissertation, thesis or journal article), you’ll find a research methodology chapter or section which covers the aspects mentioned above. Importantly, a good methodology chapter explains not just what methodological choices were made, but also explains why they were made. In other words, the methodology chapter should justify the design choices, by showing that the chosen methods and techniques are the best fit for the research aims, objectives and research questions.

So, it’s the same as research design?

Not quite. As we mentioned, research methodology refers to the collection of practical decisions regarding what data you’ll collect, from who, how you’ll collect it and how you’ll analyse it. Research design, on the other hand, is more about the overall strategy you’ll adopt in your study. For example, whether you’ll use an experimental design in which you manipulate one variable while controlling others. You can learn more about research design and the various design types here .

Need a helping hand?

What are qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods?

Qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods are different types of methodological approaches, distinguished by their focus on words , numbers or both . This is a bit of an oversimplification, but its a good starting point for understanding.

Let’s take a closer look.

Qualitative research refers to research which focuses on collecting and analysing words (written or spoken) and textual or visual data, whereas quantitative research focuses on measurement and testing using numerical data . Qualitative analysis can also focus on other “softer” data points, such as body language or visual elements.

It’s quite common for a qualitative methodology to be used when the research aims and research questions are exploratory in nature. For example, a qualitative methodology might be used to understand peoples’ perceptions about an event that took place, or a political candidate running for president.

Contrasted to this, a quantitative methodology is typically used when the research aims and research questions are confirmatory in nature. For example, a quantitative methodology might be used to measure the relationship between two variables (e.g. personality type and likelihood to commit a crime) or to test a set of hypotheses .

As you’ve probably guessed, the mixed-method methodology attempts to combine the best of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to integrate perspectives and create a rich picture. If you’d like to learn more about these three methodological approaches, be sure to watch our explainer video below.

What is sampling strategy?

Simply put, sampling is about deciding who (or where) you’re going to collect your data from . Why does this matter? Well, generally it’s not possible to collect data from every single person in your group of interest (this is called the “population”), so you’ll need to engage a smaller portion of that group that’s accessible and manageable (this is called the “sample”).

How you go about selecting the sample (i.e., your sampling strategy) will have a major impact on your study. There are many different sampling methods you can choose from, but the two overarching categories are probability sampling and non-probability sampling .

Probability sampling involves using a completely random sample from the group of people you’re interested in. This is comparable to throwing the names all potential participants into a hat, shaking it up, and picking out the “winners”. By using a completely random sample, you’ll minimise the risk of selection bias and the results of your study will be more generalisable to the entire population.

Non-probability sampling , on the other hand, doesn’t use a random sample . For example, it might involve using a convenience sample, which means you’d only interview or survey people that you have access to (perhaps your friends, family or work colleagues), rather than a truly random sample. With non-probability sampling, the results are typically not generalisable .

To learn more about sampling methods, be sure to check out the video below.

What are data collection methods?

As the name suggests, data collection methods simply refers to the way in which you go about collecting the data for your study. Some of the most common data collection methods include:

Interviews (which can be unstructured, semi-structured or structured)
Focus groups and group interviews
Surveys (online or physical surveys)
Observations (watching and recording activities)
Biophysical measurements (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, etc.)
Documents and records (e.g., financial reports, court records, etc.)

The choice of which data collection method to use depends on your overall research aims and research questions , as well as practicalities and resource constraints. For example, if your research is exploratory in nature, qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups would likely be a good fit. Conversely, if your research aims to measure specific variables or test hypotheses, large-scale surveys that produce large volumes of numerical data would likely be a better fit.

What are data analysis methods?

Data analysis methods refer to the methods and techniques that you’ll use to make sense of your data. These can be grouped according to whether the research is qualitative (words-based) or quantitative (numbers-based).

Popular data analysis methods in qualitative research include:

Qualitative content analysis
Thematic analysis
Discourse analysis
Narrative analysis
Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)
Visual analysis (of photographs, videos, art, etc.)

Qualitative data analysis all begins with data coding , after which an analysis method is applied. In some cases, more than one analysis method is used, depending on the research aims and research questions . In the video below, we explore some common qualitative analysis methods, along with practical examples.

Moving on to the quantitative side of things, popular data analysis methods in this type of research include:

Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, medians, modes )
Inferential statistics (e.g. correlation, regression, structural equation modelling)

Again, the choice of which data collection method to use depends on your overall research aims and objectives , as well as practicalities and resource constraints. In the video below, we explain some core concepts central to quantitative analysis.

How do I choose a research methodology?

As you’ve probably picked up by now, your research aims and objectives have a major influence on the research methodology . So, the starting point for developing your research methodology is to take a step back and look at the big picture of your research, before you make methodology decisions. The first question you need to ask yourself is whether your research is exploratory or confirmatory in nature.

If your research aims and objectives are primarily exploratory in nature, your research will likely be qualitative and therefore you might consider qualitative data collection methods (e.g. interviews) and analysis methods (e.g. qualitative content analysis).

Conversely, if your research aims and objective are looking to measure or test something (i.e. they’re confirmatory), then your research will quite likely be quantitative in nature, and you might consider quantitative data collection methods (e.g. surveys) and analyses (e.g. statistical analysis).

Designing your research and working out your methodology is a large topic, which we cover extensively on the blog . For now, however, the key takeaway is that you should always start with your research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread). Every methodological choice you make needs align with those three components.

Example of a research methodology chapter

In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of a research methodology from an actual dissertation, as well as an overview of our free methodology template .

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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Thanks for your comment.

We can’t write your methodology for you. If you’re looking for samples, you should be able to find some sample methodologies on Google. Alternatively, you can download some previous dissertations from a dissertation directory and have a look at the methodology chapters therein.

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MLA Jansen, Derek, and Kerryn Warren. “What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology?” Grad Coach, June 2021, gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/.

APA Jansen, D., & Warren, K. (2021, June). What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology? Grad Coach. https://gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/

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Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

About the author.

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

This article is part of the research topic.

Multimodality in Face-to-Face Teaching and Learning: Contemporary Re-evaluations in Theory, Method, and Pedagogy

The multimodal organization of feedback and its documentation: Multiactivity during formal, formative reading assessment Provisionally Accepted

1 Hokkaido Bunkyo University, Japan

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

This multimodal conversation analytic study draws upon naturally-occurring data from formal, formative reading assessment in an elementary school, general education classroom to investigate the interactional practice of documenting feedback. This consists of the ways teachers and students engage in both oral feedback and its written documentation simultaneously during interaction. Such competencies have been underappreciated by educational research on assessment literacies. Moreover, prior interactional research on formal formative assessment has shed light on talk-based practices that enable oral feedback but have nonetheless neglected the embodied and material practices that are necessary for its written documentation. To investigate how talk, embodiment and materiality enable feedback to be documented within multiactivity, the current study collected instances of the practice from a multimodal corpus of audio-visual recordings and electronic scans of completed assessment materials. Examination of this collection uncovered straightforward, problematic and complex interactional trajectories as well as their relationships to institutional outcomes. The study concluded that the more participants to formal, formative reading assessment focus on feedback as talk-in-interaction, the less explicitly that talk-in-interaction is represented in the written documents they collaboratively produce. As a result, important details of both teacher interventions and student performances may be rendered opaque in the material record of the assessment events. These findings extend a burgeoning multimodal turn in the interactional analysis of formal formative assessment and aim to provoke subsequent educational research into interactional assessment literacies.

Keywords: multimodality, Feedback, Multiactivity, formative assessment, reading, conversation analysis

Received: 24 Feb 2024; Accepted: 13 May 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Tomasine. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Mr. Joseph S. Tomasine, Hokkaido Bunkyo University, Eniwa, Japan

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Data & Research
National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH)

National Survey of Children’s Health Questionnaires, Datasets, and Supporting Documents

The Data Resource Center for Child & Adolescent Health provides an easy to use Interactive Data Query for all years of the NSCH and a Guide to NSCH changes across survey years.

Guidance for data users

How-to instructions for using the NSCH data.

Historically enhanced 2016-2020 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) data files were released in April 2024 and are available on the NSCH datasets page . This data release is a continuation of the improvements that were made to the 2021 NSCH data set released in October 2023. These revised datasets should be used when combining or comparing with the 2022 NSCH. Please read the weighting revisions technical document (PDF) .

NSCH Enhancement Technical Document (PDF)
Guide to Multiply Imputed Data Analysis (PDF)
Guide to Multi-Year Analysis (PDF)
2023 Household Screener (PDF - 3 MB) | 2023 Household Screen Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2023 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) (PDF - 7 MB) | 2023 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) Spanish (PDF - 4 MB)
2023 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) (PDF - 6 MB) | 2023 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) Spanish (PDF - 3 MB)
2023 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) (PDF - 6 MB) | 2023 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) Spanish (PDF - 4 MB)
2022 Household Screener (PDF - 3 MB) | 2022 Household Screen Spanish (PDF - 2 MB)
2022 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) (PDF - 8 MB) | 2022 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) Spanish (PDF - 5 MB)
2022 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) (PDF - 4 MB) | 2022 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) Spanish (PDF - 4 MB)
2022 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) (PDF - 4 MB) | 2022 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) Spanish (PDF - 4 MB)

Methodology and data user FAQs

2022 FAQs (PDF)
2022 Source and Accuracy Statement (PDF)
2022 Survey and Sampling Administration Map (PDF - 620 KB)
2022 Methodology Report (PDF)

Variable lists and frequencies

2022 Screener Variable List (PDF)
2022 Topical Variable List (PDF)
2022 Screener PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2022 Topical PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2022 Guide to Topics and Questions Asked (PDF - 645 KB)

Note: See Sample Size footnote

2022 Interactive Data Query – Data Resource Center
2022 NSCH Data
2021 Household Screener (PDF - 1 MB) | 2021 Household Screener Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2021 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2021 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2021 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) (PDF - 771 KB) | 2021 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years Spanish (PDF - 873 KB)
2021 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) (PDF - 742 KB) | 2021 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) Spanish (PDF - 858 KB)
2021 FAQs (PDF)
2021 Source and Accuracy Statement (PDF)
2021 Survey and Sampling Administration (PDF - 624 KB)
2021 Methodology Report (PDF)
2021 Non-Response Bias Analysis (PDF)
2021 Screener Variable List (PDF)
2021 Topical Variable List (PDF)
2021 Screener PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2021 Topical PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2021 Guide to Topics and Questions Asked
2021 Interactive Data Query – Data Resource Center
2021 Revised NSCH Data

Revised 2021 NSCH data files were released on October 2, 2023, and are available now on the 2021 Data Release page . Please read : weighting revisions technical document (PDF)

2020 Household Screener (PDF - 1 MB) | 2020 Household Screener Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2020 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2020 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) Spanish (PDF - 2 MB)
2020 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) (PDF - 800 KB) | 2020 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) Spanish (PDF - 998 KB)
2020 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) (PDF - 761 KB) | 2020 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2020 FAQs (PDF)
2020 Source and Accuracy Statement (PDF)
2020 Survey and Sampling Administration Map (PDF - 600 KB)
2020 Methodology Report (PDF)
2020 Non-Response Bias Analysis (PDF)
2020 Screener Variable List (PDF)
2020 Topical Variable List (PDF)
2020 Screener PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2020 Topical PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2020 Guide to Topics and Questions Asked (PDF - 495 KB)
2020 Interactive Data Query – Data Resource Center
2020 NSCH Data
2019 Household Screener (PDF - 1 MB) | 2020 Household Screener Spanish (PDF - 622 KB)
2019 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) (PDF - 724 KB) | 2019 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years)Spanish (PDF - 759 KB)
2019 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) (PDF - 801 KB) | 2019 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) Spanish (PDF - 811 KB)
2019 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) (PDF - 760 KB) | 2019 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) Spanish (PDF - 784 KB)
2019 FAQs (PDF)
2019 Source and Accuracy Statement (PDF)
2019 Survey and Sampling Administration Map (PDF - 626 KB)
2019 Methodology Report (PDF)
2019 Non-Response Bias Analysis (PDF)
2019 Screener Variable List (PDF)
2019 Topical Variable List (PDF)
NSCH Crosswalk 2016-2019 (XLSX)
2019 Screener PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2019 Topical PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2019 Guide to Topics and Questions Asked (PDF - 595 KB)
Interactive Data Query – Data Resource Center
2019 NSCH Data
2018 Household Screener (PDF - 1 MB) | 2018 Household Screener Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2018 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2018 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2018 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2018 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2018 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2018 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2018 FAQs (PDF)
2018 Source and Accuracy Statement (PDF)
2018 Survey and Sampling Administration Map (PDF - 944 KB)
2018 Methodology Report (PDF)
2018 Non-Response Bias Analysis (PDF)
2018 Screener Variable List (PDF)
2018 Topical Variable List (PDF)
2016-2018 NSCH Crosswalk (XLSX)
2018 Screener PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2018 Topical PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2018 Guide to Topics & Questions Asked (PDF - 572 KB)

Note: See Sample Size footnote .

Interactive Data Query - Data Resource Center
2018 NSCH Data
2017 Household Screener (PDF - 1 MB) | 2017 Household Screener Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2017 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2017 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2017 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2017 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2017 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2017 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2017 FAQs (PDF)
2017 Source and Accuracy Statement (PDF - 1 MB)
2017 Survey and Sampling Administration Map (PDF - 804 KB)
2017 Methodology Report (PDF - 9 MB)
2017 Multiple Imputation Data Guide (PDF - 80 KB)
2017 Non-Response Bias Analysis (PDF - 1 MB)
2017 Multi-Year Analysis Guide (PDF - 811 KB)
2017 Screener Variable List (PDF)
2017 Topical Variable List (PDF)
2017 Screener PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2017 Topical PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2017 Guide to Topics & Questions Asked (PDF - 966 KB)
2017 NSCH Data
2016 Household Screener (PDF - 1 MB) | 2016 Household Screener Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2016 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2016 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 0-5 years) Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2016 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2016 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 6-11 years)Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2016 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years) (PDF - 1 MB) | 2016 Topical Questionnaire (Children, 12-17 years Spanish (PDF - 1 MB)
2016 FAQs (PDF - 720 KB)
2016 Source and Accuracy Statement (PDF - 480 KB)
2016 Survey and Sampling Administration Map (PDF - 771 KB)
2016 Methodology Report (PDF - 8 MB)
2016 NSCH Guide to Analysis with Multiple Imputed Data (PDF - 539 KB)
2016 Non-Response Bias Analysis (PDF - 1 MB)
2016 Screener Variable List (PDF)
2016 Topical Variable List (PDF)
2016 Screener PUF Frequencies (PDF)
2016 Topical PUF Frequencies (PDF)

Supplemental documents

2016 Insurance (PDF - 180 KB)
2016 Geography (PDF - 98 KB)
2016 Interactive Data Guide
2016 Guide to Topics & Questions Asked (PDF - 355 KB)

Title V changes

NPM and NOM Content Changes in 2016 (PDF - 201 KB)
2016 NSCH Data

A note on sample size

In both individual year and multi-year analyses, the NSCH sample size may be limited for smaller populations (e.g., American Indian (AI) /Alaska Native (AN)) and state-level subgroups or rare outcomes (e.g., adolescent children with special health care needs (CSHCN) or autism in a particular state).

Small sample sizes may produce unstable estimates.

To minimize misinterpretation, we recommend only presenting statistics with a sample size or unweighted denominator of 30 or more.

Additionally, if the 95% confidence interval width exceeds 20 percentage points or 1.2 times the estimate (≈ relative standard error>30%), we recommend flagging for poor reliability and/or presenting a measure of statistical reliability (e.g., confidence intervals or statistical significance testing) to promote appropriate interpretation.

An official website of the United States government

Survey Statistician (Direct Hire Authority)

Department of commerce, associate director for research and methodology.

This vacancy is for a Survey Statistician (Direct Hire Authority) position in the Department of Commerce located at the U.S. Census Bureau Headquarters in Suitland, Maryland or any of the locations listed below. This Job Opportunity Announcement may be used to fill other Survey Statistician (Direct Hire Authority), 1530, 11/12, FPL GS-12 positions within the Census Bureau in the same geographical location with the same qualifications and specialized experience.

Accepting applications

Open & closing dates

09/12/2023 to 05/31/2024

$69,107 - $125,851 per year

Pay scale & grade

Berkeley, CA Few vacancies
Irvine, CA Few vacancies
Los Angeles, CA Few vacancies
Stanford, CA Few vacancies
Show more locations (28)
Boulder, CO Few vacancies
New Haven, CT Few vacancies
Washington, DC Few vacancies
Gainesville, FL Few vacancies
Atlanta, GA Few vacancies
Chicago, IL Few vacancies
Urbana, IL Few vacancies
Bloomington, IN Few vacancies
Ames, IA Few vacancies
Lexington, KY Few vacancies
College Park, MD Few vacancies
Suitland, MD Few vacancies
Boston, MA Few vacancies
Cambridge, MA Few vacancies
Ann Arbor, MI Few vacancies
Minneapolis, MN Few vacancies
Columbia, MO Few vacancies
Kansas City, MO Few vacancies
Lincoln, NE Few vacancies
Ithaca, NY Few vacancies
Chapel Hill, NC Few vacancies
Durham, NC Few vacancies
Columbus, OH Few vacancies
Austin, TX Few vacancies
College Station, TX Few vacancies
Dallas, TX Few vacancies
Seattle, WA Few vacancies
Madison, WI Few vacancies

Telework eligible

Yes—as determined by the agency policy.

Travel Required

Occasional travel - You may be expected to travel for this position.

Relocation expenses reimbursed

Appointment type, work schedule.

Multiple Schedules

Competitive

Promotion potential

Job family (series).

1530 Statistics

Supervisory status

Security clearance, position sensitivity and risk.

Moderate Risk (MR)

Trust determination process

Suitability/Fitness

Announcement number

23-ADRM-12125808-DHA-KW

Control number

This job is open to, career transition (ctap, ictap, rpl).

Federal employees who meet the definition of a "surplus" or "displaced" employee.

U.S. Citizens, Nationals or those who owe allegiance to the U.S.

Clarification from the agency

All qualified United States citizens.

Analyzes findings, evaluates statistical limitations of data, and specifies the range of logically possible explanations.
Plans procedures for collecting and tabulating data, recommends new or improved methods, and presents findings.
Adapts a variety of methods and develops new procedures to statistical projects
Plans, research, and implements the full scope of investigative projects requiring application of statistical theory.

Requirements

Conditions of employment.

Applicants must meet all qualification requirements by the closing date of this announcement.
U.S. Citizen
Suitable for Federal employment.
Registered for Selective Service if applicable. (www.sss.gov)
Time-in-grade/band requirements must be met by closing date.
A one-year probationary period may be required.
This is a NON-BARGAINING unit position.

Qualifications

Minimum Education Requirement: Degree: that included 15 semester hours in statistics (or in mathematics and statistics, provided at least 6 semester hours were in statistics), and 9 additional semester hours in one or more of the following: physical or biological sciences, medicine, education, or engineering; or in the social sciences including demography, history, economics, social welfare, geography, international relations, social or cultural anthropology, health sociology, political science, public administration, psychology, etc. Credit toward meeting statistical course requirements should be given for courses in which 50 percent of the course content appears to be statistical methods, e.g., courses that included studies in research methods in psychology or economics such as tests and measurements or business cycles, or courses in methods of processing mass statistical data such as tabulating methods or electronic data processing. OR Combination of education and experience -- courses as shown in A above, plus appropriate experience or additional education. The experience should have included a full range of professional statistical work such as (a) sampling, (b) collecting, computing, and analyzing statistical data, and (c) applying statistical techniques such as measurement of central tendency, dispersion, skewness, sampling error, simple and multiple correlation, analysis of variance, and tests of significance. AND Specialized Experience: For the GS-11 , you must have one year of experience at a level of difficulty and responsibility equivalent to the GS-09 in the Federal service applying statistical techniques, methodology, and methods; assisting in developing research plans and conducting research using large-scale surveys; communicating with management and other staff to relate progress of data collection operations; and experience writing reports, papers or presentations about surveys and the interpretation of the data. OR Education: 3 years of progressively higher-level graduate education leading to a Ph.D. degree or Ph.D. or equivalent doctoral degree. Specialized Experience: For the GS-12 , you must have one year of experience at a level of difficulty and responsibility equivalent to the GS-11 in the Federal service. Experience for this position includes applying statistical techniques, methodology, and methods; evaluating critical factors and technical writing such as, reports of findings and methods; communicating with management and other staff relating to progress of data collection operations and resolve issues and propose recommendations; and interpreting, adapting, and applying organizational regulations, policies, precedents, and practices. Education cannot be substituted for experience at this grade level. Experience refers to paid and unpaid experience, including volunteer work done through National Service programs (e.g., Peace Corps, AmeriCorps) and other organizations (e.g., professional; philanthropic; religious; spiritual; community, student, social). Volunteer work helps build critical competencies, knowledge, and skills and can provide valuable training and experience that translates directly to paid employment. You will receive credit for all qualifying experience, including volunteer.

Additional information

Given our continuing need for professionals in this field, we will routinely review applications and refer candidates for potential interviews multiple times during the open period of the announcement. This is an open continuous announcement. The initial cutoff date for referral is 9/22/2023. After this date, the cut off dates are as follows:

The following links provide information on various hiring authorities that may enable you to apply through merit assignment procedures, or be eligible for a non-competitive appointment.

VRA (GS-11 or below)
VEOA ( permanent positions )
30% or more disabled
Persons with Disabilities

The Department of Commerce provides reasonable accommodations to applicants with disabilities. If you need a reasonable accommodation for any part of the application and hiring process, please notify the Human Resources Office. The decision on granting reasonable accommodation will be on a case-by-case basis. TTY users can contact the Human Resources Office via the Federal Relay Service, 1-800-877-8339.

Review our benefits

How You Will Be Evaluated

You will be evaluated for this job based on how well you meet the qualifications above.

Your resume, optional cover letter and supporting documentation will be reviewed to determine if you meet the minimum qualification requirements for the position. Under the provisions of the Direct-Hire Authority (DHA), rating, ranking and veterans' preference does not apply; therefore, your responses to the questionnaire will not be used to determine a scored rating. All applicants who meet the minimum qualification requirements, as defined in the job opportunity announcement, will be referred for selection consideration. While veterans' preference does not apply in DHA, preference eligibles are encouraged to submit their supporting documentation (DD-214 stating disposition of discharge or character of service, VA letter, SF-15, etc.). Applicants applying as CTAP or ICTAP candidates, and are determined CTAP or ICTAP eligible, must exceed the minimum qualification requirements to be referred under this selection priority placement program by attaining at least a rating of 85 out of 100. For those deemed eligible and who meet the minimum qualifications, we will compare your resume, optional cover letter and supporting documentation to your responses on the scored occupational questionnaire (True/False, Yes/No, Multiple Choice questions). Your resume and/or optional cover letter must support your responses to the scored occupational questionnaire, or your score may be lowered. CTAP/ICTAP eligibles who are not determined well-qualified by scoring at least 85 will not be referred under the CTAP/ICTAP selection priority placement program; however, will be referred for selection consideration with other minimally qualified applicants. The scored occupational questionnaire will evaluate you on the following competencies, please do not provide a separate written response. The scored occupational questionnaire will evaluate you on the following competencies; please do not provide a separate written response:

Communication
Project Management
Technical Competence

We recommend that you preview the online questions for this announcement before you start the application process. Do NOT include the following types of information in your application:

Social Security Number (SSN)
Date of Birth (DOB)
Photos of yourself ( if included on your resume you will not be considered for this position )
Personal information: such as age, gender, religious affiliation, etc.

As a new or existing federal employee, you and your family may have access to a range of benefits. Your benefits depend on the type of position you have - whether you're a permanent, part-time, temporary or an intermittent employee. You may be eligible for the following benefits, however, check with your agency to make sure you're eligible under their policies.

A complete application consists of the following:

Resume showing relevant experience; cover letter optional. Your resume must list your educational and work experience including the dates (mm/dd/yy) of each employment along with the number of hours worked per week. If applying under CTAP/ICTAP your resume may be used to validate your responses to the scored occupational questionnaire. Your resume should indicate your citizenship and if you are registered with the Selective Service System if you are a male born after 12/31/59.
Career Transition Assistance Plan (CTAP) and Interagency Career Transition Assistance Plan (ICTAP) documentation , if applicable (see other information).
Education Documentation: If this position requires proof of higher education, or you are substituting education for experience, you must submit an unofficial transcript or a list of courses that includes the following information: name of accredited institution, grades earned, completion dates, and quarter and semester hours earned. This also includes Census Bureau employees. Education completed in foreign colleges or universities may be used to meet the requirements. Please refer to http://www.opm.gov/qualifications/policy/ApplicationOfStds-04.asp for more information.

You are not required to submit official documents at this time; copies are sufficient. Special Instructions for Foreign Education: Qualifying education from colleges and universities in foreign countries must be evaluated in terms of equivalency to that acquired in U.S. colleges and universities. Applicants educated in whole or in part in foreign countries must submit sufficient evidence, including transcripts, to an accredited private organization for an equivalency evaluation of course work and degree. A listing of these accredited organizations can be found on the Department of Education's website - http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-visitus-forrecog.html . You must provide a copy of the letter containing the results of the equivalency evaluation with a course by course listing along with your application. Failure to provide such documentation when requested will result in lost consideration. CTAP and ICTAP candidates: CTAP and ICTAP candidates will be eligible for selection priority if it is determined that they have exceeded the minimum qualifications for the position by attaining at least a rating of 85 out of 100. Information about CTAP and ICTAP eligibility is on the Office of Personnel Management's Career Transition Resources website at: https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/workforce-restructuring/employee-guide-to-career-transition/ctap_guideline.pdf .CTAP applicants MUST submit the following documents:

A copy of your RIF separation notice; notice of proposed removal for declining a directed geographic relocation outside of the local commuting area; a Certificate of Expected Separation (CES); or certification that you are in a surplus organization or occupation (this could be a position abolishment letter, a notice of eligibility for discontinued service retirement, or similar notice).
A copy of your SF-50 "Notification of Personnel Action" noting current position, grade/band level, and duty location;
A copy of your latest performance appraisal including your rating; and
Any documentation from your bureau/operating unit that shows your current promotion potential.

ICTAP applicants MUST submit the following documents:

A copy of your RIF separation notice; notice of proposed removal for declining a directed geographic relocation outside of the local commuting area; notice of disability annuity termination; certification from your former agency that it cannot place you after your recovery from a work-related compensable injury; or certification from the National Guard Bureau or Military Department that you are eligible for disability retirement.
A copy of your SF-50 "Notification of Personnel Action", documenting your RIF separation, noting your position, grade/band level, and duty location, and/or Agency certification of inability to place you through RPL, etc.;
Any documentation from your agency that shows your current promotion potential.

NOTE: You will not be considered if you fail to provide all required documents.

If you are relying on your education to meet qualification requirements:

Education must be accredited by an accrediting institution recognized by the U.S. Department of Education in order for it to be credited towards qualifications. Therefore, provide only the attendance and/or degrees from schools accredited by accrediting institutions recognized by the U.S. Department of Education .

Failure to provide all of the required information as stated in this vacancy announcement may result in an ineligible rating or may affect the overall rating.

To begin, click Apply Online to create a USA JOBS account or log in to your existing account. Follow the prompts to select your USA JOBS resume and/or other supporting documents and complete the occupational questionnaire.
Click Submit My Answers to submit your application package.

Agency contact information

Ymani washington.

[email protected]

You will be notified of your application status through USAJOBS at four points during the hiring process, as applicable. You can check the status of your application by accessing the USAJOBS website at http://usajobs.gov , and clicking on "Applications." The status will be visible next to the corresponding positions. The four points of notification are:

Application Received or Application Incomplete;
Minimum Qualification Requirement Met or Minimum Qualification Requirement Not Met;
Referred or Not Referred; and
Selected or Not Selected.

By submitting your application, you are certifying the accuracy of the information contained in your application. If you make a false statement in any part of your application, you may not be hired; you may be terminated after you begin work; or, you may be fined or jailed. After making a tentative job offer, we will conduct a suitability/security background investigation. You will be required to submit official documentation prior to appointment. The agency will then verify the information provided on your application (i.e., degree, veterans' preference, disability, etc.).

The Federal hiring process is set up to be fair and transparent. Please read the following guidance.

Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Policy
Criminal history inquiries
Reasonable accommodation policy
Financial suitability
Selective Service
New employee probationary period
Signature and false statements
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(PDF) CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction
(PDF) Research Methodology: An Introduction
Example Of Methodology
Research Methodology: An Introduction
Methodology Example In Research Pdf
Research Statement

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Research Methods Definitions Types and Examples
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Intoduction to Fact finding tenchiques
Introduction to documentary research
Mastering Research Methodology

COMMENTS

Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method
This article examines the function of documents as a data source in qualitative research and discusses document analysis procedure in the context of actual research experiences. Targeted to ...
Documentary Research
Documentary Research. Definition: Documentary research is a type of research method that involves the systematic investigation and analysis of existing documents or records. These documents can be in the form of written, visual, or audio materials, such as books, articles, photographs, videos, and audio recordings.
Document Analysis
The origins of document analysis as a social science research method can be traced back to Goode and Hatt (), who recommended that scholars screen, count, and code documents content and use it as appropriate evidence.Later, Glaser and Strauss argued that documents should be considered in social investigation similar to "anthropologist's informant or a sociologist's interviewee" (p. 163).
What Is a Research Methodology?
Step 1: Explain your methodological approach. Step 2: Describe your data collection methods. Step 3: Describe your analysis method. Step 4: Evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made. Tips for writing a strong methodology chapter. Other interesting articles.
Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method
This article examines the function of documents as a data source in qualitative research and discusses document analysis procedure in the context of actual research experiences. Targeted to research novices, the article takes a nuts‐and‐bolts approach to document analysis. It describes the nature and forms of documents, outlines the ...
Documentary Research: What it is, methodology & free examples
Documentary research examples. Bellow, we can find a few real-life examples of documentary research applied to companies' daily events. 1. Social research studies. Although documentary research is not used extensively today, it is the go-to research method to conduct social research studies. For example, Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim used ...
How to use and assess qualitative research methods
The methods of qualitative data collection most commonly used in health research are document study, observations, semi-structured interviews and focus groups [1, 14, 16, 17]. Document study These can include personal and non-personal documents such as archives, annual reports, guidelines, policy documents, diaries or letters.
Document analysis in health policy research: the READ approach
Document analysis (also called document review) is one of the most commonly used methods in health policy research; it is nearly impossible to conduct policy research without it. Writing in early 20th century, Weber (2015) identified the importance of formal, written documents as a key characteristic of the bureaucracies by which modern ...
Library Guides: Research Methodologies Guide: Documentary
From diaries and letters to surveys and interview transcripts, documents are a cornerstone of social science research. This book guides you through the documentary research process, from choosing the best research design, through data collection and analysis, to publishing and sharing research findings. Documentary Research by Gary McCulloch.
PDF Qualitative Research Journal
Bowen, Glenn A., 2009, 'Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method', Qualitative Research Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 27-40. DOI 10.3316/QRJ0902027. This is a peer-reviewed article. Downloaded by University of Tennessee at Knoxville At 06:46 29 September 2016 (PT)
Documentary Analysis
Documentary Analysis. Definition: Documentary analysis, also referred to as document analysis, is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents.This method involves a detailed review of the documents to extract themes or patterns relevant to the research topic.. Documents used in this type of analysis can include a wide variety of materials such as text (words) and images that ...
A Comprehensive Guide to Methodology in Research
Research methodology plays a crucial role in any study or investigation. It provides the framework for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, ensuring that the research is reliable, valid, and credible. Understanding the importance of research methodology is essential for conducting rigorous and meaningful research.
Research Methods
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
The Basics of Document Analysis
Published: Dec. 12, 2023. Document analysis is the process of reviewing or evaluating documents both printed and electronic in a methodical manner. The document analysis method, like many other qualitative research methods, involves examining and interpreting data to uncover meaning, gain understanding, and come to a conclusion.
Conducting a Qualitative Document Analysis
The research method of this descriptive implementation study was qualitative document analysis. ... (2022) states that document analysis is a research method for analyzing written documents such ...
PDF 1
It is a matter of questioning the subject in all its dimensions, formulating it in a short sentence, selecting important concepts and looking for synonyms. This step allows you to set the issue, identify documentary needs and select the key concepts/words in order to question your sources. 1 - Define the topic.
Documentary Research: Definition, Types, Applications & Examples
Documentary research is a valuable form of research methodology as it provides access to existing documents and materials for analysis and interpretation. There are many advantages of these methods, such as diverse sources of data, historical perspectives, and access to large volumes of data from analysis.
What Is Research Methodology? Definition + Examples
As we mentioned, research methodology refers to the collection of practical decisions regarding what data you'll collect, from who, how you'll collect it and how you'll analyse it. Research design, on the other hand, is more about the overall strategy you'll adopt in your study. For example, whether you'll use an experimental design ...
Documentary research
Documentary research. Documentary research is the use of outside sources, documents, to support the viewpoint or argument of an academic work. The process of documentary research often involves some or all of conceptualising, using and assessing documents. The analysis of the documents in documentary research would be either quantitative or ...
What Is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and ...
PDF Comparing the Five Approaches
Case study research has experienced growing recognition during the past 30 years, evidenced by its more frequent application in published research and increased avail-ability of reference works (e.g., Thomas, 2015; Yin, 2014). Encouraging the use of case study research is an expressed goal of the editors of the recent . Encyclopedia of Case Study
Research Methodology
Qualitative Research Methodology. This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.
Literature review as a research methodology: An ...
As mentioned previously, there are a number of existing guidelines for literature reviews. Depending on the methodology needed to achieve the purpose of the review, all types can be helpful and appropriate to reach a specific goal (for examples, please see Table 1).These approaches can be qualitative, quantitative, or have a mixed design depending on the phase of the review.
Frontiers
Such competencies have been underappreciated by educational research on assessment literacies. Moreover, prior interactional research on formal formative assessment has shed light on talk-based practices that enable oral feedback but have nonetheless neglected the embodied and material practices that are necessary for its written documentation.
National Survey of Children's Health Questionnaires, Datasets, and
Attention. Historically enhanced 2016-2020 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) data files were released in April 2024 and are available on the NSCH datasets page.This data release is a continuation of the improvements that were made to the 2021 NSCH data set released in October 2023.These revised datasets should be used when combining or comparing with the 2022 NSCH.
USAJOBS
This vacancy is for a Survey Statistician (Direct Hire Authority) position in the Department of Commerce located at the U.S. Census Bureau Headquarters in Suitland, Maryland or any of the locations listed below.<br> <br> This Job Opportunity Announcement may be used to fill other Survey Statistician (Direct Hire Authority), 1530, 11/12, FPL GS-12 positions within the Census Bureau in the same ...