dysfunctional conflict essay

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10.2 Understanding Conflict

Learning objectives.

• Define conflict.
• Understand different types of conflict.
• Address whether conflict is always negative.

Let’s take a closer look at these social issues such as conflict to understand how they can derail companies and individuals alike—and what to do to prevent such consequences from happening to you. In this chapter, you’ll see that managing conflict and engaging in effective negotiation are both key for effective organizational behavior within organizations as well as daily life. Conflicts range from minor annoyances to outright violence. For example, one million workers (18,000 people per week) are assaulted on the job in the United States alone (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1997). One of the major ways to avoid conflicts escalating to these levels is through understanding the causes of conflict and developing methods for managing potential negative outcomes. Negotiation is one of the most effective ways to decrease conflict and will also be examined in depth in this chapter.

Similar to how conflicts can range from minor to major, negotiations vary in terms of their consequences. A high-stakes negotiation at work might mean the difference between a company’s survival and its demise. On the other end of the spectrum, we deal with minor negotiations on a regular basis, such as negotiating with a coworker about which movie to see. Maybe you make a concession: “OK, we’ll watch what you want but I get to pick where we eat.” Maybe you hold tough: “I don’t want to watch anything except a comedy.” Perhaps you even look for a third option that would mutually satisfy both parties. Regardless of the level, conflict management and negotiation tactics are important skills that can be learned. First, let’s take a deeper look at conflict.

Conflict is a process that involves people disagreeing. Researchers have noted that conflict is like the common cold. Everyone knows what it is, but understanding its causes and how to treat it is much more challenging (Wall & Callister, 1995). As we noted earlier, conflict can range from minor disagreements to workplace violence. In addition, there are three types of conflict that can arise within organizations. Let’s take a look at each of them in turn.

Types of Conflict

Intrapersonal conflict.

Intrapersonal conflict arises within a person. For example, when you’re uncertain about what is expected or wanted, or you have a sense of being inadequate to perform a task, you are experiencing intrapersonal conflict. Intrapersonal conflict can arise because of differences in roles. A manager may want to oversee a subordinate’s work, believing that such oversight is a necessary part of the job. The subordinate, on the other hand, may consider such extensive oversight to be micromanagement or evidence of a lack of trust. Role conflict, another type of intrapersonal conflict, includes having two different job descriptions that seem mutually exclusive. This type of conflict can arise if you’re the head of one team but also a member of another team. A third type of intrapersonal conflict involves role ambiguity. Perhaps you’ve been given the task of finding a trainer for a company’s business writing training program. You may feel unsure about what kind of person to hire—a well-known but expensive trainer or a local, unknown but low-priced trainer. If you haven’t been given guidelines about what’s expected, you may be wrestling with several options.

Interpersonal Conflict

Figure 10.2

Of the conflict between Michael Dell (shown here) and Steve Jobs, David Yoffie, a professor at the Harvard Business School who closely follows the computer industry, notes that the conflict may stem from their differences in terms of being from different generations and having different management styles.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY 2.0.

Interpersonal conflict is among individuals such as coworkers, a manager and an employee, or CEOs and their staff. For example, in 2006 the CEO of Airbus S.A.S., Christian Streiff, resigned because of his conflict with the board of directors over issues such as how to restructure the company (Michaels, Power, & Gauthier-Villars, 2006). This example may reflect a well-known trend among CEOs. According to one estimate, 31.9% of CEOs resigned from their jobs because they had conflict with the board of directors (Whitehouse, 2008). CEOs of competing companies might also have public conflicts. In 1997, Michael Dell was asked what he would do about Apple Computer. “What would I do? I’d shut it down and give the money back to shareholders.” Ten years later, Steve Jobs, the CEO of Apple Inc., indicated he had clearly held a grudge as he shot back at Dell in an e-mail to his employees, stating, “Team, it turned out Michael Dell wasn’t perfect in predicting the future. Based on today’s stock market close, Apple is worth more than Dell” (Haddad, 2001; Markoff, 2006). In part, their long-time disagreements stem from their differences. Interpersonal conflict often arises because of competition, as the Dell/Apple example shows, or because of personality or values differences. For example, one person’s style may be to “go with the gut” on decisions, while another person wants to make decisions based on facts. Those differences will lead to conflict if the individuals reach different conclusions. Many companies suffer because of interpersonal conflicts. Keeping conflicts centered around ideas rather than individual differences is important in avoiding a conflict escalation.

Intergroup Conflict

Figure 10.3

Conflicts such as the Air Canada pilot strike can have ripple effects. For example, Air Canada’s parent company threatened to cancel a $6.1 billion contract with Boeing for new planes if they were unable to negotiate an agreement with the pilots who would fly them. Conflict consequences such as these could affect those working at this Boeing Factory in Seattle, Washington.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY-SA 3.0.

Intergroup conflict is conflict that takes place among different groups. Types of groups may include different departments or divisions in a company, and employee union and management, or competing companies that supply the same customers. Departments may conflict over budget allocations; unions and management may disagree over work rules; suppliers may conflict with each other on the quality of parts. Merging two groups together can lead to friction between the groups—especially if there are scarce resources to be divided among the group. For example, in what has been called “the most difficult and hard-fought labor issue in an airline merger,” Canadian Air and Air Canada pilots were locked into years of personal and legal conflict when the two airlines’ seniority lists were combined following the merger (Stoykewych, 2003). Seniority is a valuable and scarce resource for pilots, because it helps to determine who flies the newest and biggest planes, who receives the best flight routes, and who is paid the most. In response to the loss of seniority, former Canadian Air pilots picketed at shareholder meetings, threatened to call in sick, and had ongoing conflicts with pilots from Air Canada. The conflicts with pilots continue to this day. The history of past conflicts among organizations and employees makes new deals challenging.

Is Conflict Always Bad?

Most people are uncomfortable with conflict, but is conflict always bad? Conflict can be dysfunctional if it paralyzes an organization, leads to less than optimal performance, or, in the worst case, leads to workplace violence. Surprisingly, a moderate amount of conflict can actually be a healthy (and necessary) part of organizational life (Amason, 1996). To understand how to get to a positive level of conflict, we need to understand its root causes, consequences, and tools to help manage it. The impact of too much or too little conflict can disrupt performance. If conflict is too low, then performance is low. If conflict is too high, then performance also tends to be low. The goal is to hold conflict levels in the middle of this range. While it might seem strange to want a particular level of conflict, a medium level of task-related conflict is often viewed as optimal, because it represents a situation in which a healthy debate of ideas takes place.

Figure 10.4 The Inverted U Relationship Between Performance and Conflict

Task conflict can be good in certain circumstances, such as in the early stages of decision making, because it stimulates creativity. However, it can interfere with complex tasks in the long run (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003). Personal conflicts, such as personal attacks, are never healthy because they cause stress and distress, which undermines performance. The worst cases of personal conflicts can lead to workplace bullying. At Intel Corporation, all new employees go through a 4-hour training module to learn “constructive confrontation.” The content of the training program includes dealing with others in a positive manner, using facts rather than opinion to persuade others, and focusing on the problem at hand rather than the people involved. “We don’t spend time being defensive or taking things personally. We cut through all of that and get to the issues,” notes a trainer from Intel University (Dahle, 2001). The success of the training remains unclear, but the presence of this program indicates that Intel understands the potentially positive effect of a moderate level of conflict. Research focusing on effective teams across time found that they were characterized by low but increasing levels of process conflict (how do we get things done?), low levels of relationship conflict with a rise toward the end of the project (personal disagreements among team members), and moderate levels of task conflict in the middle of the task time line (Jehn & Mannix, 2001).

Key Takeaway

Conflict can be a problem for individuals and organizations. There are several different types of conflict, including intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intergroup conflict. Moderate conflict can be a healthy and necessary part of organizational life.

• What are the types of conflicts that individuals may have at work? Which type have you experienced the most?
• What are some primary causes of conflict at work?
• Explain how miscommunication might be related to a conflict at work.

Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal , 39 , 123–148.

Dahle, C. (2001, June). Is the Internet second nature? Fast Company , 48 , 144.

De Dreu, C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict: Team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology , 88 , 741–749.

Haddad, C. (2001, April 18). Why Jobs and Dell are always sparring. Business Week Online . Retrieved May 1, 2008, from http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/apr2001/nf20010418_461.htm .

Jehn, K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The dynamic nature of conflict: A longitudinal study of intergroup conflict and group performance. Academy of Management Journal , 44 , 238–251.

Markoff, J. (2006, January 16). Michael Dell should eat his words, Apple chief suggests. New York Times . Retrieved January 19, 2007, from http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/16/technology/16apple.html .

Michaels, D., Power, S., & Gauthier-Villars, D. (2006, October 10). Airbus CEO’s resignation reflects company’s deep structural woes. Wall Street Journal , pp. A1–A10.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1997). Violence in the workplace. Retrieved November 14, 2008, from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/violfs.html .

Stoykewych, R. E. (2003, March 7). A note on the seniority resolutions arising out of the merger of Air Canada and Canadian Airlines. Paper presented at the American Bar Association Midwinter Meeting, Laguna Beach, CA.

Wall, J. A., & Callister, R. R. (1995). Conflict and its management. Journal of Management , 21 , 515–558.

Whitehouse, K. (2008, January 14). Why CEOs need to be honest with their boards. Wall Street Journal , Eastern edition, pp. R1–R3.

Organizational Behavior Copyright © 2017 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Dysfunctional Conflict

The basic idea, theory, meet practice.

TDL is an applied research consultancy. In our work, we leverage the insights of diverse fields—from psychology and economics to machine learning and behavioral data science—to sculpt targeted solutions to nuanced problems.

It is a common misconception that conflict in a team is bad and that it should be avoided. When friction leads to a breakdown of cooperation, we often blame a lack of communication, poor leadership, distrust among employees, unfounded or unnecessary rivalries, or simply high stress leading to burnout. While these are definitely issues that need to be addressed in a timely manner, conflict in general is healthy and normal in group settings. One such conflict, dysfunctional conflict, is what can be commonly described as a falling out among employees due to issues that encapsulate many if not all of the issues described above and more.

While each problem in isolation does not seem difficult to fix, the difficulty of resolving dysfunctional conflict is due to the multitude of potential offending items and the innately complex nature of human dynamics working in a group. Many times, a mediator or arbitrator is brought in to evaluate the set of problems causing the conflict and coming up with strategies that can resolve them in a holistic manner. It may involve trust building exercises, team retreats, or creating an office-wide conflict resolution policy. Dysfunctional conflicts are commonplace in the office but finding strategies that work for your specific team is the key.

Remember teamwork begins by building trust. And the only way to do that is to overcome our need for invulnerability. – Patrick Lencioni, The Five Dysfunctions of a Team: A Leadership Fable

Mediation - is an informal process where a third party (a mediator) is recruited to provide a subjective judgement on the issue between the two parties involved.

Arbitration - is a formal process where a third party (an arbitrator) hears the arguments of both sides and makes a decision that's usually binding.

In general, there are four stages of dysfunctional conflict that span from rooting out the source of the conflict at the earliest level to creating organization-wide policies that outline resolution strategies. 1 At each stage, methods of resolution are linked to the hierarchy progression of the organization. The first stage of dysfunctional conflict is being able to articulate the issues causing the conflict and provide a resolution based on the basic information. Incompatibility between the team members or between the team members and the work environment is often the source of misunderstandings and lack of communication. At the mid-level, it is imperative that resolutions incorporate policies for addressing future problems that could potentially arise and proactively resolve current issues or by bringing them to upper management. At this stage, it is important for employees to recognize and internalize the issues that cause the conflict in the first place. At the senior level, management should step in as a mediator or arbitrator to rectify the problem and finally, at the executive level, the firm should institute a standard policy or procedure one should follow should similar conflicts arise. While dysfunctional conflicts are inevitable and a common occurrence in the workplace, having clear steps to mediate the conflict at all stages will prevent panic and confusion in the moment.

Patrick Lencioni

Patrick Lencioni is an American author, speaker, and consultant who has written prolifically on the subject of organizational politics and team dynamics. Specifically in regards to dysfunctional conflict, he writes in his book The Five Dysfunctions of a Team , that there are five qualities or behaviours that if performed to its potential, will effectively reduce the possibility of dysfunctional conflict. The characteristics that he emphasizes are trust, conflict, commitment, accountability, and results. Each step builds on the previous and highlights issues such as the importance of building the core team, the need for competent leaders, recognition that time spent avoiding conflict is time wasted, and the ripple effect of leadership dynamics. He also claims that it is important to give timely feedback to the employees and give them time to process and reflect. 2

Consequences

Poor management in a team can have devastating consequences on a team’s productivity, morale, and overall performance. There are five characteristics of dysfunctional conflict. 3 The first characteristic is increased tension . When a team encounters dysfunctional office, tensions may rise due to anxiety, hostility, and frustration among the members. If the tension is not addressed, it could build up and result in more serious consequences. Along with increased tension, there would be an increase in dissatisfaction . Especially if a party loses or receives the short end of the stick in a resolution, this can imbed feelings of dissatisfaction that would adversely affect the productivity of the group. A prolonged environment of negativity will then lead to distrust . This would decrease the cohesiveness of the group and cause members to avoid interaction. An accumulation of unproductive actions without timely resolutions would distract members from organizational goals . This could directly lead to a decrease in the team’s output and affect organizational goals and projects. Ultimately, poor management in the face of dysfunctional conflict would cause high employee turnover rates . Thus, the firm not only suffers a loss due to an unproductive environment but also loses valuable human capital and transition costs.

Controversies

When a group is hit with dysfunctional conflict, not only can internal controversy slowly deteriorate the unity of a team, but the way the situation is handled can reflect to the outside community the values and priorities of the team and subsequently, the entire organization. From what we gleaned before about the characteristics of dysfunctional conflict, it is vital to build a sense of trust and camaraderie between members. Just like how constructive criticism is most efficient and useful as feedback, a “constructive controversy” uses styles of communication that is centered around issues and ideas instead of personal criticism. 4

Sometimes dysfunctional conflicts may occur in an environment where disharmony between team members may result in life or death consequences. According to a study done by Michael A.E. Ramsay on physicians in hospital settings, a “dysfunctional physician presents an insidious cost to any practice or health care organization.” 5 The individual becomes a liability to his or her colleagues and their patients. In an already high-stress environment, the study states that the consequences are severe: resulting in poor job performance which can lead to unnecessary harm to the patients and subsequent lawsuits towards the physician or the hospital. The study analyzes several ways to resolve or prevent conflicts such as the good-cop bad-cop approach and also the establishment of a professional code of conduct that sets ground rules for discipline. The study concludes that one of the most important aspects of resolving dysfunctional conflict is the need for an emotionally intelligent and competent leader. He or she should be able to handle tense situations and difficult people with diplomacy and consistency.

Related TDL Resources

The Key To Effective Teammates Isn’t Them. It’s You.

In order to prevent conflicts in your team, it can be an impactful strategy to open up to your team members and not be afraid to be your “authentic self”. In this piece by Kaylee Somerville, we learn that by being honest about our capabilities in the workplace we can not only increase productivity but also maintain a healthy office culture.

How Reciprocity Can Fuel Innovation

If you are looking to spark some life into your tired office staff or to inspire new ideas, read this piece by Tiago Rodrigo which suggests various strategies that you can use to foster relationships and innovation through reciprocity.

How Working From Home Can Amp Up Your Team’s Communication and Creativity

It is no secret that working from home has placed some strain in terms of communication between team members. This piece by Natasha Ouslis outlines some communication skills aimed at building trust, bridging gaps in communication, and motivating your staff to produce better work.

• https://www.plianced.com/compliance-wiki/dysfunctional-conflict-in-organizations-how-to-identify-and-resolve-it-quickly/#:~:text=Dysfunctional%20conflict%20is%20conflict%20that,lack%20of%20sufficient%20motivating%20conflict .
• Patrick Lencioni (2002), The Five Dysfunctions of a Team , Jossey-Bass
• https://www.mbaofficial.com/mba-courses/human-resource-management/management-of-conflict/what-is-dysfunctional-conflict/
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227793142_Critical_Success_Factors_for_Cross-Functional_Teamwork_in_New_Product_Development
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1291328/

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How To Deal With Functional And Dysfunctional Conflict

When Mayank got a job he had coveted for a long time, he was on top of the world. He…

When Mayank got a job he had coveted for a long time, he was on top of the world. He had the right skills for the job and was appreciated at the new workplace.

However, eventually, he realized that he had major political differences with some of his colleagues. Normal office chatter would easily deteriorate into heated arguments.

This eventually led to conflicts and started affecting the overall productivity of the team. Mayank, too, was disheartened that things didn’t turn out the way he had expected them to.

While some conflicts like functional conflicts are essential for progress, dysfunctional conflicts usually tend to hinder the process of communication and affect the morale of the workforce and create unnecessary animosity.

Differentiating between functional vs. dysfunctional conflict and dealing with them effectively is essential to maintain a smooth and steady workflow. While a leader is responsible for conflict resolution, every employee should be prepared to understand the reason for conflict and work towards de-escalating it.

The differences between functional and dysfunctional conflict

Both functional and dysfunctional conflict can occur in any workplace. Dealing with it in a healthy, empathetic, and timely manner is imperative to maintain and improve the productivity and the efficiency of any organization. For better conflict resolution, it is necessary to understand the types of conflict.

Functional conflict is termed so because it is in line with the policies and goals of the organization. It increases productivity and motivates employees to find a creative solution for the problems at hand.

On the other hand, dysfunctional conflict can arise from personal differences and non-work-related issues such as different belief systems. While the issues are not related to the work at hand, these conflicts can interfere with peoples’ ability to focus on their tasks.

How to deal with functional and dysfunctional conflict?

The first step would be identifying the difference between functional vs. dysfunctional conflict. Suppose there’s a meeting and personal issues between some people due to their behavior traits disrupt it. It is important to understand that these issues may have started off earlier in an unprofessional capacity.

Ego games and office politics, where some employees look for personal gains rather than professional or organizational gains, should be identified and discouraged.

This is because functional and dysfunctional conflict can seem interwoven if left unnoticed for a long time. Strategic one-on-one meetings and periodic employee reviews can help the leader gain insight into the situation.

Differences in opinions should be encouraged if they are about work. A leader must be open-minded and entertain every idea and suggestion and comment on the work’s quality and structure.

Functional conflict should be structured, where everyone gets an equal opportunity to voice their opinions. If someone feels she is treated unfairly, it is necessary to recognize the problem and enquire about her opinion on the matter at hand. Brilliant ideas and new perspectives can emerge from debates and discussions.

Every employee should be encouraged to provide their opinion on any issue and nobody should receive any special treatment.

A transparent and democratic process can bring about positive changes and can boost progress.

If every worker feels that he or she has a voice in the decision-making process, productivity will increase and everyone will be motivated to work harder and faster.

Dysfunctional conflict should be discouraged. Any personal remarks or comments that could affect any particular individual or a group negatively should be addressed immediately. If the conflict is arising from the increased stress or workload levels, put in a system in place to resolve such situations.

Workers who have access to anti-burnout mechanisms tend to be more productive. Therefore, time and workload management skills should be imparted.

Setting up equal and fair vertical or horizontal growth opportunities helps boost morale and avoid any unnecessary conflicts. Recognizing employees with excellent work ethics sets an example for all the employees. Further, transparency in promotions or demotions will ensure that no one is treated unfairly.

Harappa Education’s Navigating Workplaces course can help you learn and identify the difference between functional and dysfunctional conflict for efficient and effective conflict management. It can teach you techniques that can help resolve such matters quickly. With the help of world-class professional faculty, you can master the skills such as the Thomas Kilmann framework to deal with functional and dysfunctional conflict and ensure peace, productivity, and healthy relationships at the workplace.

Explore topics such as  Conflict Management Techniques ,  Characteristics of an Effective Team ,  Thomas Kilmann Model ,  Types of Conflicts in an Organization & How to  Manage Crisis in our Harappa Diaries section in order to build trust-rich relationships at work.

Structural Functional and Dysfunctional Conflicts

Conflict is something that occurs in any workplace, it is an inevitable part of the work routine. Sometimes it can be actually helpful, as conflicts highlight a particular problem, and then it is possible to create a discussion around it and then find the solutions to the issue. Such type of conflicts is called functional because it provides a positive result. But in other cases, conflicts, if not solved immediately, can be destructive as they create a hostile atmosphere in the workplace.

This type of conflict is called dysfunctional as it worsens the performance of the staff. There are several reasons that may produce a conflict, one of them being the structure of work. The reasons for such conflicts are based around the way the organization is structured and work is organized. It means that the actual arrangement of an organization is to blame, as well as the company’s rules, standards and values. For instance, companies with a low level of cultural and ethical work awareness are less likely to involve in negotiation and conversation with their staff. The employers in such organizations would rather act one-sidedly and forcefully.

However, the employers who understand different work approaches, values and objectives of their employees are more likely to take part in communication and search for mutual agreement and conflict resolution. There are several factors of work conflicts that are related to structure: they include specialization, resources, differences in objectives, relationship within a workgroup, relationships between staff and authorities.

When dysfunctional conflict occurs because of the structure, the most obvious solution is structural change. For example, two parties can disagree on the process of new product development. One party suggests purchasing a setlist of components that are needed for the design of the product. However, the other party rejects the suggestion and postpones the whole project because the price of components disturbs the budget. The delays in the project create conflict between the manager and the staff, and the staff cannot come up with the compromise; thus, the whole atmosphere of the workplace and the performance is damaged.

However, the manager can produce a solution for this dysfunctional conflict. For instance, the management can impose a new task for both parties to evaluate the cost of components while making sure that the risk of quality issues is reduced. In this instance, if the conflict occurs between two departments, a solution is to modify the structure, so those departments connect their goals.

If the conflict occurs between members of the working staff, the most obvious solution is to change the arrangement of the team, separating the conflicted individuals from each other. In cases where conflict is caused by differences in working styles, norms, and standards between members of the working team, finding a substitute for some of these workers may resolve the problem. If that cannot be done due to the unavailability of such substitutes, a physical layout solution should be taken into consideration, as dysfunctional conflicts poorly influence the work process.

On the contrary, functional conflicts improve work performance in the long run. For example, when the two parties have different ideas on how to manage common resources. The management can resolve this conflict by listening to both sides and finding a compromise, which equally includes some of the ideas of two parties. In this way, work routine can be modified in a positive way, satisfying every side of the conflict and providing fruitful results. Moreover, functional conflicts eventually improve work efficiency and encourage communication among staff workers as such conflicts teach people to listen and understand each other’s values.

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Functional Conflict, Its Sources and Resolution Styles Case Study

Source of the conflict, styles of conflict management, advice to nick cunningham, a case of past organizational conflict, works cited.

Sims defines functional conflict as disagreements that arise in an organization resulting in positive impacts not only on business but also on all stakeholders (246). The parties affected by the conflict reach a compromised position that ends in a win-win situation. According to Sims, functional conflict promotes analytical thinking (246). The affected parties work together to identify alternative solutions to a current stalemate. Sims alleges, “Functional conflict helps in diffusing tension among the members of a group” (247). Individuals get an opportunity to express themselves freely and share their concerns, thus minimizing anxiety. On the other hand, dysfunctional conflict refers to squabbles that arise in an organization, which results in one party benefiting at the expense of others. Increased employee turnover, high tension, distrust, and augmented dissatisfaction are some features that characterize dysfunctional conflict. According to Liu et al., dysfunctional conflict is costly to business as it kills employee motivation and reduces customer satisfaction (225). Moreover, an organization drifts away from its goals because leaders engage in a supremacy battle, thus diverting their attention from organizational mission and vision.

The conflict affecting Synergon and Beauchamp companies is dysfunctional. The leadership of Synergon is taking advantage of the business’s financial strength to dominate the operations of Beauchamp (Cliffe 32). It does not consider the interests of the employees, customers, and suppliers of Beauchamp Company. The decision to shut down the cafeteria and do away with the bonus plan does not consider the interests of the employees who work hard to ensure the success of Beauchamp. The bureaucracy in the provision of consumer credit is meant to benefit Synergon at the expense of customers.

According to Spaho, task conflict arises when “two parties are unable to move forward on a task due to differing needs, behaviors or attitudes” (107). The conflict can be over organizational policies and procedures, modes of executing projects, or resource allocation. Limbare identifies three components of task conflict, which are cognitive, behavioral, and affective (175). The cognitive component entails disagreements between parties due to discrepancies in objectives, interests, and needs. The behavioral component arises when one party meddles with the aims or goals of another. The affective component is due to negative emotions such as resentment, anger, and aggression. The conflict between Synergon and Beauchamp is due to task issues.

The leadership of the two companies does not agree on various organizational policies. For instance, Julian is not happy with the management of Synergon changing travel policies for the company due to his health conditions. Additionally, Synergon has introduced numerous policies aimed at helping the company to realize its targets. The policies contravene Beauchamp’s business culture. They have resulted in Julian receiving numerous complaints from customers as well as suppliers, which are hurting Beauchamp’s operations. At one point, Julian tells Nick that the only way Beauchamp can realize the goals set by Synergon is by allowing it to stick to its business culture. Nick is not happy with J.J d’Amato, Synergon’s chief executive officer’s (CEO) attitude. The CEO does not consider the views of his juniors in decision-making. He believes in taking by force whatever he sets his eye on without taking into account the plight of other parties. Nick is not happy with the way the CEO treats the merger between Synergon and Beauchamp. He is also not pleased with his ultimatums.

Shearouse identifies five styles of conflict management, which are accommodating, compromising, dominating, collaborating, and avoiding (39). The accommodating style entails embracing the views of another party at one’s expense, especially when one does not have adequate skills on the matter. It minimizes resistance and encourages cooperation between the affected parties. Additionally, it helps to maintain future relations amid the parties. The compromising approach entails paying moderate attention to the interests of the concerned parties. Shearouse claims that the plan seeks to adopt a solution that results in minimum “pain’ for the parties involved in a conflict (42).

The dominating style entails not paying attention to the needs of other parties. An individual that uses this technique seeks to satisfy his/her interests at the expense of other parties. The approach may be effective in a situation that requires critical decision-making (Shearouse 44). However, it may result in resistance, thus not resolving the conflict effectively. The collaborating technique entails engaging other parties in making decisions. It ensures that both sides are happy with the arrived resolution, and is most suitable in resolving complex conflicts. The avoiding technique entails circumventing the conflict at all costs. It involves abandoning goals that might result in a conflict and is helpful in dealing with trivial issues.

The best style to resolve the impasse between Synergon and Beauchamp is the collaborating technique. For both companies to realize their goals, they require working together to come up with feasible solutions. Synergon may have financial resources, but it cannot succeed in the British market since it does not understand its dynamics. On the other hand, Beauchamp understands the market’s dynamics but lacks financial resources to grow. Thus, the two companies should collaborate and share their resources for them to succeed.

A major mistake that workers commit is making decisions to please their bosses. Such decisions are short-lived and cannot help to realize the long-term goals of a company. While it is imperative to consider the interests of the organizational leaders, one should ensure that they make decisions, which will benefit the entire organization even if they do not meet the interests of the managers. Nick should evaluate the situation and make a decision based on the challenges at hand. Meeting the conditions set by the CEO will only please Synergon’s leadership for a short period as it will result in the failure of the merger. Thus, Nick should sit down with the leadership and explain to them the importance of considering the views and interests of Beauchamp’s leaders such as Julian and other employees. He should make sure that Synergon’s leadership understands the current problem.

Nick’s bosses believe that Beauchamp’s managing director does not have an option but to give in to their demands. They do not appreciate the role that the managing director and other top leaders at Beauchamp have played in establishing a strong customer base in Britain. Nick should ensure that the bosses appreciate the dangers of imposing policies on Beauchamp’s leadership. They should realize that Synergon’s culture cannot apply in Britain, thus the need to have a good relationship with Beauchamp’s leaders and to allow them to continue with their management techniques. Nick should use hard facts like the employee complaints already being witnessed due to a change of policies to defend his argument.

Two years ago, doctors at Hope Medical Center downed their tools demanding salary increment and improvement of working conditions. They complained that the facility did not have adequate equipment and medical staff worked under deplorable conditions. Additionally, they complained that the hospital’s management was reluctant to raise their salaries in line with the country’s labor laws. The employees claimed that doctors in other facilities were well-remunerated and worked under the right conditions. Despite the doctors generating high revenues for the facility, the management did not appreciate their contribution. They vowed to paralyze operations in the hospital until the management pays attention to their demands. The strike lasted for two months. The hospital’s management relaxed its position and accepted to negotiate with the workers. It was agreed that the hospital would raise the doctors’ salaries by 27%. The administration also promised to enhance working conditions by recruiting more staff and procuring the necessary equipment. The parties signed an agreement that led to the doctors ending the strike.

The current conflict was functional as it affected the interests of both the workers and the organization. The employees’ concerns were to benefit both the hospital and the staff. The hospital could not enjoy high revenue without meeting the needs of the employees. The doctors were not concerned with their interests only but also those of the patients and the hospital at large. Improvement of the working conditions would enhance service delivery, thus leading to the hospital earning high revenues due to increased traffic. On the other hand, it would ease employees’ working conditions, therefore minimizing burnout. Burnout is one of the leading causes of employee turnover. Hence, addressing the issue would have saved Hope Medical Center the burden of recruiting workers occasionally to replace those that leave due to dissatisfaction.

The conflict arose due to task issues. Huan and Yazdanifard aver that task conflict arises due to differing behaviors, attitudes, or needs (147). The attitude of hospital management towards doctors contributed to the strike. The doctors had championed for enhancement of working conditions and salary increments for many years. However, the management did not consider their complaints. Instead, it issued threats against individuals who seemed to invite their colleagues. Even though the doctors had genuine reasons to go on strike, the management trivialized the matter and threatened to fire all those who could not report back to work. The needs of the doctors and the hospital’s management differed significantly. The management was out to make a profit at the expense of the patients and physicians. Increasing the salaries and enhancing the working conditions would have adversely affected the revenue. On the other hand, the doctors advocated salary increment and enhancement of working conditions to ensure that the facility delivers quality services. It would have benefited the hospital, employees as well as patients.

The management used the collaborating technique to resolve the doctors’ problem. It realized that ignoring the doctors’ concerns was harming the image of the hospital. Thus, the management called the doctors’ representatives and requested them to negotiate and come up with amicable solutions. Both parties presented their concerns and agreed to arrive at solutions that would not hurt either side. The management promised not to take disciplinary actions against the doctors. On the other hand, the doctors’ representatives promised not to demand a salary increment that is beyond the hospital’s financial ability. Eventually, they all arrived at agreed terms, which led to the termination of the strike and the facility resumed its operations.

The negotiation followed integrative bargaining. Caputo defines integrative bargaining as a situation where parties to conflict work together to come up with a solution that meets their interests (378). It entails developing agreements that are mutually valuable. The hospital’s management and doctors reached a consensus to implement resolutions that would not affect either party adversely. The negotiation process entailed four stages. They were problem identification, problem analysis, generation of potential solutions, and evaluation and selection of the most suitable resolution (Sims 254). The doctors’ representatives in liaison with the management sat down and defined the problems that affected the facility. They stated the issues as organizational goals to help determine the factors that might inhibit their realization. Then, they analyzed the problems to determine the interests of both parties. Each side presented its concerns and desires. The negotiating team used the identified concerns to generate possible solutions. They brainstormed and came up with numerous solutions. The team then evaluated the solutions based on their feasibility and settled on one that met considerable interests of both parties. The management agreed to raise the salaries of the employees and enhance working conditions. It also decided not to punish the employees for staging a strike. On the other hand, the doctors promised to offer quality services to ensure that the hospital’s revenue increases. Both parties were contented with the resolutions.

Caputo, Andrea. “A Literature Review of Cognitive Biases in Negotiation Processes.” International Journal of Conflict Management , vol. 24, no. 4, 2013, pp. 374-398.

Cliffe, Sarah. “Can This Merger Be Saved?” Harvard Business Review , vol. 77, no. 1, 1999, pp. 28-44.

Huan, Lim, and Rashad Yazdanifard. “The Difference of Conflict Management Styles and Conflict Resolution in Workplace.” Business & Entrepreneurship Journal , vol. 1, no. 1, 2012, pp. 141-155.

Limbare, Sameer. “Leadership Styles & Conflict Management Styles of Executives.” Indian Journal of Industrial Relations , vol. 48, no. 1, 2012, pp. 172-180.

Liu, Wu, et al. “Culture and Accountability in negotiation: Recognizing the Importance of In-Group Relations.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , vol. 117, no. 1, 2012, pp. 221-234.

Shearouse, Susan. Conflict 101: A Manager’s Guide to Resolving Problems So Everyone Can Get Back to Work (Chapter 5), New York, NY, AMACOM, 2011.

Sims, Ronald. Decision Making: Conflict and Negotiation at Work (Chapter 10), Westport, CT, Greenwoods Press, 2002.

Spaho, Kenan. “Organizational Communication and Conflict Management.” Journal of Contemporary Management Issues , vol. 18, no. 1, 2013, pp. 103-118.

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IvyPanda. (2020, November 15). Functional Conflict, Its Sources and Resolution Styles. https://ivypanda.com/essays/functional-conflict-its-sources-and-resolution-styles/

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Resolving Dysfunctional Conflict in the Workplace

There are many reasons for conflict in the workplace, but not all conflict is bad. Friction between employees because of differences of opinion or different perspectives is known as functional conflict and it can lead to innovation and fresh ideas.  By contrast, workers involved in dysfunctional conflict in the workplace have strong differences of opinion, and instead of working through their differences, they begin to experience a breakdown in communication and growing animosity while conflict intensifies.

Functional conflict encourages a healthy exchange of ideas. It motivates employees to find a solution that can lead to more creativity and improved productivity. Dysfunctional conflict has the opposite effect. Productivity and morale decline, and this can impact not just the people directly involved in the conflict but everyone around them. If this type of conflict isn’t resolved, it can lead to dissatisfaction, absenteeism and staff turnover. Coworkers begin treating each other with mistrust and suspicion rather than as members of the same team.

Free Consultation for Workplace Conflict

What Causes Dysfunctional Conflict in the Workplace?

When it’s apparent that workplace conflict is intensifying rather than being resolved, the first thing to do is determine the cause of the conflict. Some things that can lead to dysfunctional conflict include:

• Miscommunication
• Power struggles
• Incompatible goals
• Personality differences
• Cultural differences
• Unconscious bias

Conflict can intensify when resources are scarce, such as staffing, money and supplies. At times, the underlying cause of the conflict is obvious but at other times, finding out what’s at the heart of the conflict may take some digging. Those in conflict because of personality differences may not even know why they can’t get along with each other.

Addressing Dysfunctional Conflict

It can be tempting to try to ignore conflict in the workplace and hope that the conflicting parties will eventually work things out. That’s rarely the best approach. In dysfunctional conflict, other workers are being subjected to a tense or hostile work environment. They may feel uneasy or unable to concentrate. Work quality is often affected.

Rather than ignoring the issue, leaders have to address the problem , which means confronting the workers involved in dysfunctional conflict and working toward finding a solution. Each should be allowed to tell their side of what is causing the problem, and they should refrain from interrupting each other. The leader takes on the role of mediator to help workers sort out their differences and aim toward finding a common ground.  This involves brainstorming solutions and encouraging both parties to state what they’re hoping to see happen. Work together to find a win-win solution in which each party gets some of what they want.

Continued Conflict

When efforts to resolve dysfunctional conflict in the workplace are unsuccessful, managers may have to have difficult conversations with staff members about behavior that’s unacceptable and won’t be tolerated. In some situations, conflicting individuals may have to be assigned to different projects where collaboration with each other isn’t necessary. Managers may also have to involve the HR department in mediation efforts or in disciplinary action.

Working Toward Healthier Relationships

Remaining calm and not allowing out-of-control emotions can help to prevent disagreements from becoming more intense. It can also be beneficial to project a positive attitude and try to lighten the mood to reduce tension.

The longer conflict goes on without being addressed, the more difficult it may be to resolve differences. Resolving dysfunctional conflict in the workplace may require intervention from outside experts in the field of conflict resolution. Involving an impartial third party can eliminate any thoughts that the manager appears to choose sides or favor one over the other. Professional conflict resolution can reduce current problems and help to prevent future conflicts.

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Functional and Dysfunctional Conflicts in Institutional Change

Introduction.

Organizational conflict is inevitable because workers have different interests, perceptions, values, needs, and understanding about the way work should be done. Conflict is a natural part of working places and takes many forms with varying impacts on individuals as well as the firm’s productivity. Notably, institutional conflict can be classified into functional and dysfunctional. While the former perspective is constructive, the latter is destructive since it threatens the company’s structure and stability. Therefore, effective organizational conflict management strategies are vital in ensuring smooth and healthy operations. Assessing the cause of skirmishes within companies and the role of functional and dysfunctional conflicts is instrumental in recommending appropriate resolutions.

Cause of Conflicts within Organizations and Contribution of Individual Perception and Differences

Some of the reasons why conflict occurs in workplaces include poor communication, different personalities, unclear job expectations and roles, bullying and harassment, poor work habits, and resistance to change. Ineffective communication is the major contributor to conflicts among employees (Windon & Stollar, 2020). The issue can arise from different styles used by individuals to convey messages or failure to communicate. For instance, a supervisor can reassign the job to another worker and fail to communicate the employee’s changes, which can transpire animosity between the two members of staff. Also, poor communication facilitates incorrect assumptions among the employees and decreases their morale and productivity.

Employees’ backgrounds and experiences have a significant role in shaping their personalities. Therefore, failure to understand or accept the other worker’s character can cause problems in workplaces. For instance, employees with straightforward personalities may be offensive to co-workers without such a trait because they speak what is in their minds, making them perceived as rude. Workers are only given an overview of responsibilities in most organizations (Windon & Stollar, 2020). They are not aware of what the managers expect of them and end up trying to guess what their supervisors’ anticipations are. Thus, they may lose confidence and become defensive when they are unsure how they need to perform.

Some employees can inappropriately utilize their position in an institution to intimidate and harass others. Harassments such as verbal provocation, unwelcomed sexual advances, and physical conduct are also reasons for organizational conflicts (Windon & Stollar, 2020). Skirmishes in workplaces are inevitable when certain employees are chronically late, fail to complete their tasks, express anger and negativity about others, and are disorganized. Equally, changes in working schedules and positions within a company may be unwelcome to individuals unflavored by the alterations.

Personal differences and perceptions can contribute to institutional conflict in varying ways. Dissimilar values and personality among workers can cause misunderstanding and adversely affect their relationships. Notably, values comprise people’s stable life goals that reflect what is most important to them. McShane (2020) indicates that individuals’ values influence decisions, their behaviors, and the way they perceive their environment. Equally, thoughts, feelings, and behavioral patterns determine choices made by people. Therefore, a high possibility is that conflict occurs between workers with different values. Diverse perception causes conflict in organizations because of varied detection and interpretation of environmental stimuli. Accommodating one another’s differences can significantly prevent conflict in workplaces.

Role of Dysfunctional Conflict in Institutional Change

Dysfunction conflicts in organizations occur when few or more employees have competing ambitions. The conflict is unhealthy because it hurts individuals as well as the company’s productivity. Such factors characterize it as increased tension and dissatisfaction, distrust, high employee turnover, and distraction from organizational goals (Windon & Stollar, 2020). Notably, tension can lead to hostility, uncertainty, frustrations, and anxiety among a team of workers. Some employees may opt to leave an organization if an implemented resolution is not in their favor, while others avoid interaction with those they believe benefited. Companies may suffer great losses in such an environment unless they design and implement policies for preventing and resolving dysfunctional conflicts. The strategies may lead to institutional changes such as culture, creating new teams, and altering roles and responsibilities. Indeed, the organizational changes associated with dysfunctional conflict focus on managing the adverse impacts of the latter.

Role of Functional Conflict in Institutional Change

Functional conflict in organizations is productive since it allows employees to learn, develop, and enhance their creativity and problem-solving skills. The clash among team members is associated with the discussion of alternative decisions and analytical thinking. Remarkably, companies adopt workgroups to get varying ideas and perspectives that are crucial for decision-making. Tension may arise as the members share experiences and opinions and debate the relative advantages and disadvantages of different options (Windon & Stollar, 2020). Nevertheless, they remain impersonal ad eventually agree upon an optimal choice. Functional conflict also promotes healthy competition among workers, leading to creativity and innovation because fresh ideas are generated as members become aware of their roles and discuss another course of action. Therefore, the conflict leads to strategic transformational changes such as the introduction of inventive technology training on new skills. It can also lead to remedial changes, including developing and implementing policies dealing with the loss of talent, providing more training for new employees, and addressing customer communication issues. Thus, well-managed functional conflict can enhance an institution’s productivity and growth.

Possible Conflict Resolution Strategy Organizational Leadership Could Use With Dysfunctional Conflict

Arbitration is the possible resolution strategy that institutional leadership can adopt with dysfunctional conflict. Pfajfar et al. (2019) indicate that irrational personality clashes can lead to unnecessary delays in crucial projects if they are unresolved. However, managers can impose a solution in such skirmishes after listening to the conflicting parties (Windon & Stollar, 2020). The main objective of the approach is to have the organization win rather than deciding who wins. Therefore, managers should pick a solution that allows all parties to feel that they have not been disadvantaged.

Possible Conflict Resolution Strategy That Organizational Leadership Could Use With Functional Conflict

Creating an environment of trust that ensures all workers are conformable in addressing concerns with the management and with themselves is a resolution that organizational leadership can use with functional conflict. Notably, leaders’ approach determines whether a functional conflict leads to fruitless or peaceful and productive resolution. Workplace settings can also influence employees’ perceptions and behaviors as they discuss different alternatives to an issue. Organizational leadership should ensure effective communication among team members and across departments (Windon & Stollar, 2020). Additionally, they should set policies that discourage negative criticism of one’s thoughts and ideas about an issue. As a result, they would not fear communicating their perspectives, promoting personal growth, innovation, and creativity.

Conflicts in organizations are unavoidable because of personal and institutional factors. Functional and dysfunctional conflicts in companies are caused by poor communication and working habits, unclear job expectations and roles, bullying and harassment, and different personalities. While strategies to resolve dysfunctional conflict lead to institutional changes such as culture, creation of new teams, and alteration of roles and responsibilities, functional conflict causes transformational and remedial organizational change.

McShane, S. (2020). Organizational behavior (9 th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Pfajfar, G., Shoham, A., Makovec Brenčič, M., Koufopoulos, D., Katsikeas, C., & Mitręga, M. (2019). Power source drivers and performance outcomes of functional and dysfunctional conflict in exporter–importer relationships. Industrial Marketing Management , 78 , 213-226. Web.

Windon, S., & Stollar, M. (2020). Conflict styles, outcomes, and handling strategies . Penn State Extension. Web.

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Conflict Management: Difficult Conversations with Difficult People

Amy r. overton.

1 Division of Health Policy and Management, Department of Health Administration, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Ann C. Lowry

2 Division of Colon and Rectal Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota

Conflict occurs frequently in any workplace; health care is not an exception. The negative consequences include dysfunctional team work, decreased patient satisfaction, and increased employee turnover. Research demonstrates that training in conflict resolution skills can result in improved teamwork, productivity, and patient and employee satisfaction. Strategies to address a disruptive physician, a particularly difficult conflict situation in healthcare, are addressed.

Objectives: Upon completion of the article, the reader will: (1) Understand the importance of conflict resolution and management. (2) Recognize skill sets applicable to conflict management. (3) Summarize the steps necessary involved in a successful confrontational conversation.

Conflicts of various magnitudes occur frequently. You share a workspace with a colleague who consistently leaves the space disorganized and messy, which seems unprofessional to you since patients are seen in that office. Or a senior colleague insists being the first author on a research paper when you did all the work. In the preoperative area, the anesthesiologist disagrees with your surgical plan in the presence of the patient. A more extreme example would be a disruptive physician who yells or throws charts or instruments.

The frequency of conflict has been measured in several settings. In an observational study of operating rooms, conflicts were described as “high tension events”; in all surgical cases observed there was at least one and up to four high tension events. 1 Another study found on average four conflicts per operation emerged among operating room team members. 2 In a survey of 5,000 full time employees in nine different countries, 85% of employees dealt with conflict at work to some degree and 29% dealt with conflict frequently or always. 3 Another viewpoint focuses upon “toxic personalities” defined as “anyone who demonstrates a pattern of counterproductive work behaviors that debilitate individuals, teams, and even organizations over the long term.” 4 Conflict occurs frequently when working with such people. In a survey, 64% of respondents experienced a toxic personality in their current work environment and 94% had worked with someone like that during their career. 4 In another study, 91% of nurses reported experiencing verbal abuse. 5 The impact of these interactions on mood is significant. In a real-time study, employees recorded interactions with a coworker or superior at four random intervals daily; the employees rated the interactions as positive or negative and recorded their mood. The negative interactions affected the employee's mood five times more strongly than positive encounters. 6

Some would argue that conflict may be beneficial in certain situations, but in others it has negative consequences. 7 The proposed benefits of conflict include improved understanding of the task, team development, and quality of group decision making. The other line of thought suggests that conflict distracts from the immediate tasks and wastes resources on conflict resolution. Whether or not it is occasionally helpful, it is clear that many instances of conflict are harmful.

Conflict is associated with significant cost to organizations. In the study of employees from nine countries, the average number of hours spent per week on workplace conflict varied from 0.9 to 3.3 hours. In the United States, the average was 2.8 hours. 3 The calculated expense based on average hourly earnings in 2008 was $359 billion in lost time. High rates of employee turnover and absenteeism are associated with environments where conflict is poorly managed.

Health care is a complex system that requires effective teamwork and cooperation to function well. Patient safety research reveals that patient outcomes are negatively impacted when conflict mismanagement and other dysfunctions occur. 8 9 10 Another consequence of poorly managed conflict is disruption of care. In a national survey of physicians, almost two-thirds of respondents reported seeing other physicians disrupt patient care at least once a month. 11 More than 10% of the respondents reported witnessing that behavior daily.

Frequent causes of conflict include lack of clarity with expectations or guidelines, poor communication, lack of clear jurisdiction, personality differences, conflicts of interest, and changes within the organization. 12 Behavior that results in conflict could include bullying, limited communication or not sharing important information, and verbal or physical violence. 13 Employees cite personality clashes, stress, heavy workloads, poor leadership at the senior and managerial levels, lack of honesty and openness, and lack of role clarity as the most frequent causes of conflict. 3

Although conflict cannot be avoided, it can be managed. Since conflict will always be present on an individual and organizational level, it is important to develop the skills to appropriately manage a difficult conversation or interaction. Experts agree that the skills necessary can be acquired; they believe that conflict competence can be defined and learned. One definition of conflict competence is “the ability to develop and use cognitive, emotional, and behavioral skills that enhance productive outcomes of conflict while reducing the likelihood of escalation or harm.” 14 The goal is to be competent in having difficult conversations. One model uses the terminology “crucial conversations and “crucial confrontations.” A “crucial conversation” is defined as “a discussion between two or more people where (1) the stakes are high, (2) opinions vary, and (3) emotions run strong.” 15 Confrontations are those face-to-face conversations in which someone is held accountable. 16

Real life examples prove their statements and the benefits of improved conflict management. One group demonstrated that teaching the necessary communication skills resulted in 10% improvement in their habits of confronting difficult issues. 16 With that change, customer and employee satisfaction, productivity, and quality also improved. An information technology (IT) group found that improved communication practices resulted in 30% improvement in quality, almost 40% increase in productivity, and near 50% decrease in costs. 16 CPP Global report “Workplace Conflict and How Business Can Harness it to Thrive” study found “training does not reduce the occurrence of conflict, but it clearly has an impact on how conflict is perceived and can mitigate the negative outcomes associated with conflict.” 3

Various models of successful conflict management have been proposed. 14 16 The models typically include discussions of common responses to conflict and ways to effectively address conflict. These models will be combined and summarized in this article.

The common underlying principles of all the models are that

• Conflict is inevitable and that both positive and negative consequences may occur depending on how the conflict is managed.
• The results are likely to be better with active engagement rather than avoidance.
• People must be motivated to address conflict.
• Behavioral, cognitive, and emotional skills can be acquired.
• Emotional skills require self-awareness.
• The environment must be neutral and feel safe.

Response to Conflict

To begin this process, it is important to cultivate self-awareness in regards to one's physical and emotional reaction to situations involving conflict. The most common responses on approaching conflict include: avoiding, accommodating, competing, compromising, and collaborating. 17 Avoidance (or silence) refers to an individual recognizing conflict in a situation and actively deciding to not engage or deal with the problem. Avoidance may be prudent when the issue is minor in nature, as a temporary response when emotions are high or when others can resolve an issue more efficiently. This approach would be the opposite of someone whose response is to compete, which is categorized as being forcing, uncooperative, and assertive in the situation. Competition might be appropriate in emergent situations or actions known to be unpopular need to be taken on an important issue. People whose response is to accommodate others generally do not have their own needs met. Accommodation may be necessary when one is wrong, if the issue is more critical to others or if the value of harmony in the situation outweighs the benefit of a conflict. When accommodation is used, the conflict is resolved but if the pattern repeats itself frequently residual resentment may affect the relationship. Accommodation is also referred to as yielding. 18 Compromise and collaboration are both a balance of assertiveness and cooperativeness. The difference between the two is that compromise is often a negotiation between two parties with equivalent power, whereas collaboration is focused on finding a solution where all parties involved have their needs met. Compromise is focused on fixing a problem with a set amount of resources and collaboration allows for a broader view on problem solving. A combination of compromise and collaboration has also been defined as a problem-solving response. 18 Although there is not a correct response, responses characterized by open-mindedness to the ideas and perspectives of others promote positive outcomes. 17

Conflict Management Skills

When a conflict exists, the first step is to decide whether to address it. That decision involves balancing the reward against price of addressing the issue; that balance is unique to each circumstance. Some general rules are that if the issue is troublesome enough that it is affecting your behavior or weighing on your conscience, it should be addressed. It is important not to confuse the perceived difficulty of the conversation with determination of whether it will be beneficial and appropriate to proceed. Perceived differences in power often impact a decision to address a conflict; however, lessons from aviation and other industries illustrate the benefits of open communication and the risks of silence even in situations of different levels of authority or power. 19 20

Once it is been decided to address the conflict, there are several steps involved in preparation for the conversation. One step is to determine the exact nature of the conflict. When considering the exact nature of the conflict, some authors offer the following guidance. 16 If the issue occurs once, it is appropriate to discuss the content of the issue; if it has occurred repeatedly, one should focus on the pattern of events. If the problem impacts your relationship with the other person or team members, then the topic should be your relationship. One pitfall of conflict management is allowing task or pattern type conflict to deteriorate to relationship conflict by overpersonalizing the issue. Another system appropriate for team conflict divides conflict into task, process, and relationship conflicts. Task conflict is similar to content conflict, while process conflict refers disagreement over team processes. 21

One must also thoroughly understand one's own position. It is critical to gather all of the background information and any data necessary to discuss the conflict. Then one needs to achieve clarity about what is desired from the confrontation as well as what one is prepared to give up or compromise. Another key element is awareness of which outcomes one considers undesirable. Part of the preparation is consideration of one's own motivations and goals as well as the motivations and goals of the other party. This step seems obvious but is frequently not done or only superficially evaluated. Considering why a rational and ethical person would have behaved in the manner troubling you often opens an alternative view of the situation. The authors of Crucial Confrontations label this preparation as “mastering your story.” 16 In short, it is understanding from as many vantage points as possible how the problem situation might have developed.

The level of intensity of the conflict is another consideration in determining how best to approach the issue. One model divides the intensity of conflict into five levels. 14 Level 1 is differences. Those are situations in which two or more people have different perspectives on the situation; they understand the other person's viewpoint and are comfortable with the difference. This level of conflict can be an asset for a team or organization because it allows individuals to compare or analyze without an emotional overlay. Level 2 are misunderstandings in which two people understand the situation differently. Misunderstandings are common and can be minor, but can also escalate when stakes are high. If there are negative consequences such as missed events or obligations people tend fault and accuse one another which adds negative emotions to the situation. If the misunderstandings are frequent, it may indicate problems with communication. Level 3 is disagreements; these are times when people have different viewpoints of the situation, and despite understanding the other's position they are uncomfortable with the difference. This level can also easily escalate if ignored. Level 4 is discord. In those instances, conflict results in relationship issues between the people involved even after a specific conflict is resolved. There is often constant tension between those individuals. Level 5 is polarization, which describes situations with intense negative feelings and behavior in which there is little to no hope of resolution. For those conflicts, the mandatory first step is the agreement to communicate.

Another aspect of preparation is to recognize your emotional response and how it might affect your view of the situation. Addressing a difficult situation when one is angry or frustrated is more likely to be ineffective than when one is calm. Several famous quotes illustrate the point.

“Speak when you are angry and you will make the best speech you will ever regret.”

–Ambrose Bierce

It is therefore important to postpone the discussion until one is able to think more calmly and clearly. It is helpful to have an awareness of behaviors that “push your buttons.” One list of possibilities comes from an assessment instrument, “Conflict Dynamic Profile (Center for Conflict Dynamics Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, FL)” that includes the following behaviors: abrasive, aloof, hostile, micromanaging, over analytical, self-centered, unappreciative, unreliable, and untrustworthy. 22 A technique to reduce tension is cognitive reappraisal or reframing which refers to looking at alternative perspectives and outcomes of the situation to “reframe” it in a different, generally positive, light. Some other suggested techniques to manage one's emotions are consciously identifying and addressing one's fears about the outcome of the conflict or possible consequences. Centering techniques, which are based on martial arts, offer a way to calm oneself and focus on the positive aspects of the situation. 14

“The great remedy for anger is delay”

–Thomas Paine

All conflict management research confirms that setting a safe environment is a critical element in successful management of conflict. In a safe environment, all participants believe they will be respected and treated fairly. The authors of Trust and Betrayal in the Workplace present a model that includes three different types of necessary trust. 23 One is contractual trust or trust of character which is confidence in the intentions of others. The second is communication trust or trust of disclosures. In an environment with communication trust, everyone is comfortable that people will share information, be honest, and keep private information confidential. The final type is capability trust; when present, the participants have confidence in others' abilities to deliver on promises. That model recognizes that trust can be harmed by betrayal, but also rebuilt.

Another description of a safe environment is one with mutual respect and mutual purpose. 16 Mutual respect involves using a tone of voice and words and facial expressions that convey respect for others as human beings. Mutual purpose is having the common goal of problem solving. Although the first model may seem difficult to achieve in all situations, mutual respect and mutual purpose are basic required elements for an effective discussion of a conflict.

How does one establish a safe environment? The conversation must be held in a private, preferably neutral, setting with enough protected time for the discussion. Some experts suggest that a potentially neutral way to establish the goal of joint problem solving is to start the discussion by describing the gap between the expected and observed behavior. Other options include asking for permission to discuss a topic or beginning with the facts from your perspective or your observations. It sets the wrong tone to start the conversation with your conclusion, particularly if it is harsh. One should share all appropriate and relevant information and avoid being vague. 16 Other tips to maintain a safe environment include asking open-ended questions, focusing initially on points of agreement and using “I” statements. Some examples of “I” statements are “I feel frustrated” and “I am concerned.” One must be aware of one's body language as well as tone and volume of voice.

Common mistakes to avoid are trying to soften the message by mixing it with complimentary statements or using an overly familiar tone of voice initially before addressing the problem. Most people feel they are being manipulated or treated dishonestly when the messages are mixed. Inappropriate humor or comments disrupt the rapport needed for a safe environment. Another common error is using nonverbal hints or subtle comments with the belief they can successfully address a conflict. This technique is risky because one is never clear on the other person's interpretations of the hints or comments. It also does not work to blame someone else for a decision or request you are making. It ultimately undermines any respect or authority you may hold. Asking people to guess the reason for the meeting, essentially to read your mind, is irritating and ineffective at problem solving.

Once a decision has been made and a neutral environment decided upon for the conversation, there are key elements to conducting the conversation. One organization (CMP Resolutions) terms this first phase as scoping. 24 It includes the time to understand what is happening, each person's perspective of the conflict, and what is important to them, as well as establishing ways the involved parties can work toward a solution. The first step in the conversation is to allow all parties to state their opinions and their perspectives on the conflict. Before beginning, the ground rules regarding confidentiality and decision making should be outlined. Listening, respectively, to each participant during this step is very important. Asking clarifying questions without imposing one's own view of the situation is a skill that often requires practice. One must be aware of the tone and volume of voice to ensure that the environment remains respectful. Expressions of empathy such as “that sounds really difficult” are helpful in setting the tone and encouragement of information sharing. One should avoid judgmental or blaming statements. Listening skills are one of the primary skills to be developed when working on one's ability to manage conflict. Utilizing “AMPP” helps to remember four main listening skills that are helpful when faced with a problem. 16 “A” stands for ask which starts the conversation and allows the other person to discuss their feelings about the situation. Mirroring (M) is a tool to encourage the speaker to continue or offer more information when they seem reluctant. The technique involves statements about what you are observing (e.g., you seem down today) in the other person and then asking a question. The third technique, paraphrasing (P), is the restating of their responses in your own words which shows active listening and makes clear whether you both have the same understanding. Finally, prime (P) refers to priming the pump. It is useful when someone is clearly emotional about the issue but reluctant to talk despite the use of the first three techniques. With this method, one makes a guess out loud about what the other person might be thinking or feeling. One must choose the words carefully and use a calm tone to avoid worsening the situation. The goal is to make the other person feel comfortable speaking. Other potentially helpful acronyms to use during conflict management are seen in Table 1 .

The next part of the conversation is defining the problem. A consensus on the definition of the problem is necessary for participants to be able to compare and discuss solutions. As noted earlier, the problem might be defined as the issue with one occurrence, a pattern of episodes or the working relationship. After creating a mutually agreed upon definition, the next step is to brainstorm possible solutions to the conflict. If possible, these solutions should address the needs of all parties involved.

After a list has been created of alternative solutions, each participant should discuss their preferred solution. There also needs to be a “reality check” with the decision makers. Perhaps the ideal solution is too expensive or not feasible because of existing regulation or organizational policies. The goal is finding commonality and acceptable compromises that allow for all participants to feel like their needs are met and the conflict is being addressed. Once this solution is chosen, an action plan that outlines the “who, what, and when” of fixing the problem needs to be devised. Making sure that everyone involved understands their role and tasks are an important step to accomplish the solution.

Many models suggest that reflection on ways to prevent or more effectively handle similar conflicts in the future at the end of the conversation is beneficial. A follow-up plan is critical. If a plan with timelines is not designed and implemented, the behavior will typically change for a period of time but then slip back into old patterns. Whether the plan is another meeting, completion of certain tasks, or a system of monitoring, it should be defined clearly.

A particularly complex issue in conflict management is the disruptive physician. Historically, that issue has been addressed reluctantly if at all. The physician is often a high revenue producer and organizational leaders fear the consequences of antagonizing the physician or there is concern about a potential conflict of interest. The term is defined in various ways. One definition of disruptive physician behavior is “a practice pattern of personality traits that interferes with the physicians' effective clinical performance.” 25 The Ontario College of Physicians and Surgeons defined it as “inappropriate conduct whether in words or action that interferes with or has the potential to interfere with, quality health care delivery.” 26 An occasional bad day or overreaction does not constitute disruptive behavior. Rather it is the pattern of repeated episodes of significant inappropriate behavior.

The typical behaviors are often divided into aggressive and passive aggressive categories. Aggressive behaviors include yelling, abusive language, intimidation, and physically aggressive actions. Passive-aggressive behaviors include intentional miscommunication, impatience with questions, racial, general or religious jokes, and implied threats. Despite estimates that only 3 to 6% of physicians qualify as disruptive physicians, 27 the negative impact on the health care system is significant. The behavior undermines morale and productivity as well as the quality of care and patient safety. For example, nurses are less likely to call physicians with a history of disruptive behavior even when they need to clarify an order or report a change in a patient's condition. According to the Joint Commission, these behaviors “can foster medical errors, contribute to poor patient satisfaction and to preventable adverse outcomes, increase the cost of care, and cause qualified clinicians, administrators, and managers to seek new positions in more professional environments.” 28 In an academic environment, this behavior is associated with poor role modeling for students and trainees. Because of the impact, both the Joint Commission and the Federation of State Medical Boards addressed the issue in their standards and policies. 28 29

If the pattern of behavior is recognized early, a conversation with a trusted colleague or physician leader using the techniques described above might be sufficient to change the pattern of behavior. One model of corrective feedback starts by preparing the physician for the meeting with advanced notice and provision of a private setting and respectful atmosphere. Often asking the physician to provide a self-assessment of their interactions with others is a good starting point that can be followed with the observations of specific disruptive behaviors. Strategies for change and improvement as well as set expectations and a monitoring program need to be discussed and articulated before concluding the meeting. 30

There is evidence that an organization that sets standards for behavior and uses the principles of “action learning” to address variances will have desirable outcomes with disruptive physicians. Briefly, the principles of action learning, which was developed by Reginald Revans, are that the best learning occurs through active questioning and reflection rather than instruction. 31 The people involved tackle a real-life problem by asking questions, discussing alternative solutions, reflecting on change, and monitoring progress. In an interview study of independent, single-specialty surgical practices representing 350 physicians, the investigator determined whether the use of action learning principles correlated with desirable outcomes with disruptive physicians. 32 Desirable outcomes include retention of the physician with a change in the troublesome behavior. In 20 practices, action learning resulted in successful management of the problem.

However, most disruptive physicians require more intensive intervention. Reynolds argues that “constructive change in disruptive physicians comes through requiring adherence to expected behaviors while providing educational and other supports to teach the physician new coping skills for achieving the desired behaviors.” 25 A comprehensive evaluation including medical, chemical, and psychiatric evaluation is the first step. It is important to identify an underlying treatable condition. A program of remediation including educational and psychological training to foster new coping skills is outlined. A critical part of the program is long-term follow-through and monitoring. For most disruptive physicians, it is the threat of imposed consequences rather than internal motivation to improve that guides their compliance with the program. 25 Several well-established programs offer resources for the training including the Physician Assessment and Clinical Education (PACE) program at the University of California School of Medicine, San Diego 33 and the Distressed Physician Program at Vanderbilt University School of Medicine in Nashville. 34 A composite case study of transformative learning to address disruptive physician behavior illustrates the process used. 35

Conflict occurs frequently and often results in significant disruption and cost for individuals and organizations. Although often avoided or poorly managed, evidence suggests the skills for effective management of conflict can be learned. Multiple studies confirm when conflict is successfully addressed, and multiple benefits accrue to the organization and individuals.

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Dysfunctional Conflict

• Business & Management

In his article titled “ Dysfunctional and Functional Conflicts in Buyer-Seller Relationships ” author Lionel Bobot talks about problematic employees in organizations and the concept of dysfunctional conflict. The premise in the article addresses the issue of the ‘problematic employee.’ The article conducts an in-depth analysis to determine who in an organization is a problematic employee and who is not and the exact reasons that would make an employee to be termed as being problematic (Bobot, 2014). Specifically, this article talks about the issue of inadequate performance by an employee as well as conflict in the workplace. It discusses the intertwined web of interactions and challenges that may be at the center of conflicts to the extent that it makes it hard for non-dedicated managers to resolve the problems. All through the article, the author talks about dysfunctional conflicts and discusses six significant causes of un-productivity in employees, gives real case examples of dysfunctional conflicts in organizations, and the potential resolutions to handling the issue of low productivity in employees.

In explaining the issue of problematic employees and dysfunctional conflicts in organizations, Bobot emphasizes that communication among people working in an organization and the management is essential in understanding these conflicts. He notes that the lack of proper communication channels contributes to even greater decreased productivity as this will result in numerous blames among team members. According to the author, for management to resolve low productivity caused by conflicting teams, they should put in place factors such as proper understanding of duties by all employees, understanding employee individual attitudes, employee competency levels, support systems for the existing organization, appropriate performance measurement mechanisms, and proper understanding of organizational goals by workers (Bobot, 2014).

The article emphasizes that proper evaluation of the mentioned factors is critical because they are useful in determining the root causes of the real challenges and identify means to resolve them. The author adds that when there is a constant blame game among team members without having effective communication strategies to help understand the root problems, then dysfunctional conflicts will continue to harm the organization.

The last section of the article outlines some methods as well as communication strategies that management can incorporate to identify the root causes that lead to poor job performance. By applying these mechanisms, Bobot asserts that management can effectively get rid of the low productivity caused by conflicting teams within the workplace. The article argues that effective communication is a process. The strategies put forward by the author are identifying the areas of work that are performing poorly, and the ones did well. Secondly, management needs to identify employee competencies that match their skills, conduct evaluation for the work environment, conduct managerial assessments, and implement the plan to deal with the dysfunctional conflicts.

The article finally gives various cases where management was facing challenges of low productivity and how they used effective communication skills to resolve the issue of dysfunctional employee conflicts which impacted negatively on the organizations. The article states that it is not proper for management to assume that employees will always work cohesively for the good of the organization and that sometimes conflicts are arising from management which should be resolved for the success of the organization.

In conclusion, author Frances Kennedy (2013) in his article “ Managing a team-based organization: A proposed strategic model ” says that the function of management is not to assign tasks to be completed and wait for the results. Kennedy contends that management is a big part of the organization and as such, the communication role of management is significant for creating cohesive groups which do not create dysfunctional conflicts.

Bobot, L. (2014). Dysfunctional and Functional Conflicts in Buyer-Seller Relationships. SSRN Electronic Journal . doi:10.2139/ssrn.1611892

Kennedy, F. (2013). Managing a team-based organization: A proposed strategic model. In Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams (pp. 91-111). Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams , 91-111. doi:10.1016/s1572-0977(02)09007-6

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