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Chapter 1 - Introduction to Personality Development

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In an increasingly fast-changing, complex and diverse world, social and emotional skills are becoming ever more important. In this paper we present an overview of literature on social and emotional skills, describing the nature and structure of these skills, their development, malleability and factors that influence them, their cross-cultural comparability and their relevance for a wide range of educational, economic and life outcomes. The paper also represents a conceptual framework for the OECD’s new Study on Social and Emotional Skills, an international survey that assesses 10- and 15-year-old students in a number of cities and countries around the world. We focus on the underlying skills within and outside of the widely researched Big Five model that are found to be more predictive and policy relevant. We examine the relationships of these skills with a variety of indicators of individual and societal wellbeing such as education, employment and income, health, and personal well-being. The paper discusses the structure of child’s social and emotional skills and the developmental trajectories of these skills across a lifetime. It presents the evidence of malleability of these skills as well as their relevance across a wide range of cultural contexts.

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The objective of the present research was to study the handedness, footedness and familial sinistrality among normal individuals. 700 subjects were selected randomly from the normal population. The mean age of the respondents was 33.98 years with S.D. of being 18.70 years. Steenhuis and Bryden (1989)’s five point scale handedness questionnaire was used to collect the data. Some items were also included like the arm crossing, leg crossing, leg used to kick a ball and eye used to see a far distance object. Each subject was tested individually. Chi-square and Correlation analysis were used to test the different hypothesis. Results showed that out of 700 subjects, only 32 subjects were left handed. There were 668 right hander, out of which 18.3% (122) have either one (16.8%), two (1.2%) or three left handed (0.3%) member in their family, while out of 32 left hander, there were only 6.3% (2) left handers who have one left hander in their family. There was a significant correlation (r = 0.817) between handedness and footedness. There was a significant difference (χ2 = 491.365) between handedness and footedness. On the basis of the results and discussion it can be concluded that there are 4.6% left hander in normal Indian population which is very low in comparison to world left hander's percentage i.e. 8-10%. Handedness is also significantly correlated with other asymmetries like footedness. Left hander uses their left leg to kick a ball and same case is with the right hander. There is no relationship between Handedness and familial sinistrality. Key Words: Handedness; Footedness; Familial Sinistrality (FS)

Personality characteristics shape human behaviour and influence a wide range of life events and outcomes. They do so not only through their direct effects on life outcomes, but also through their indirect effects on other important personal factors and intermediate life events, such as the development of cognitive capacities, the attainment of educational qualifications and the formation of a family. As such, personality characteristics have a demonstrable relevance for a wide range of policy issues and represent an important, although often neglected, subject of policy interest. This paper reviews the scientific literature covering a wide range of personality characteristics, discussing their conceptualizations and main features, their relevance for important outcomes in life and work, and the chief ways they are measured. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of various attributes of personality from the perspective of their potential importance for the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), taking into account their analytical potential and policy relevance. The paper also outlines and evaluates the most important measurement instruments for each personality characteristic, with a focus on short self-report scales as the most appropriate form for inclusion in large-scale international surveys. Finally, it presents some considerations related to the evaluation and promotion of personality characteristics and introduces the substantive and measurement criteria that could be used to select the personality attributes, and related measurement scales, to include in large-scale surveys.

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Personality: Definitions, Approaches and Theories

• First Online: 04 November 2020

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• Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6690-231X 3  

Part of the book series: Second Language Learning and Teaching ((SLLT))

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The main objective of this chapter is to describe the concept of personality and approaches to researching it. For this reason, first a view on outlining the field of personality psychology in its present form, then the key term—personality—is discussed. The next section contains a synopsis of the main approaches to the study of personality, including psychoanalytic, learning and humanistic perspectives. The objective of the second part is to present the main theoretical directions in personality studies, which are divided into two basic trends. The first one is represented by type theories that focus on qualitative differences and discrete categories. The other direction is composed of trait theories that aim to formulate the latent structure of personality on the basis of statistical procedures, this has led to the development of the trait model adopted as the groundwork of this volume—the Big Five. The last section of this chapter is devoted to a general description of the most important theories exploring the development of personality across a lifespan (psychosexual, psychosocial, cognitive, and social cognitive).

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Piechurska-Kuciel, E. (2020). Personality: Definitions, Approaches and Theories. In: The Big Five in SLA. Second Language Learning and Teaching. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59324-7_1

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The Psychology of Personality Development

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

• Key Theories
• Development Tips

Personality development refers to the process of developing, enhancing, and changing one's personality over time. Such development occurs naturally over the course of life, but it can also be modified through intentional efforts.

When we meet new people, it is often their personality that grabs our attention. According to the American Psychological Association, personality refers to the enduring behaviors, traits, emotional patterns, and abilities that make up a person's response to the events of their life.

“Personality is a blend of behavioral and thought patterns that are relatively stable over time, characterizing an individual's traits and attitudes," says Ludovica Colella , a CBT therapist and author of "The Feel Good Journal."

Understanding how personality develops can provide insight into who someone is and their background while also increasing our understanding of what's behind our personality traits and characteristics.

At a Glance

Personality development involves all of the factors that influence how our personalities form and change over time. This can include our genetic background and the environment where we are raised. While personality tends to be pretty stable, it can change over time, especially as people get older.

This article discusses how personality is defined, different theories on how personality forms, and what you can do if you are interested in changing certain aspects of your own personality.

What Is Personality Development?

Personality development refers to the process by which the organized thought and behavior patterns that make up a person's unique personality emerge over time. Many factors influence personality, including genetics and environment , how we were parented , and societal variables.

While personality is relatively stable, Colella notes that it isn't entirely fixed. "People can undergo changes in their attitudes, behaviors, and thought patterns in response to new experiences or personal growth,” she explains.

Perhaps most importantly, the ongoing interaction of all these influences continues to shape personality. Personality involves both inborn traits and the development of cognitive and behavioral patterns that influence how we think and act.

Temperament is a key part of personality that is determined by inherited traits. Character is an aspect of personality influenced by experience and social learning that continues to grow and change throughout life.

Personality development has been a major topic of interest for some of the most prominent thinkers in psychology. Since the inception of psychology as a separate science, researchers have proposed a variety of ideas to explain how and why personality develops.

Theories of Personality Development

Our personalities make us unique, but how does personality develop? What factors play the most important role in the formation of personality? Can personality change?

To answer these questions, many prominent thinkers have developed theories to describe the various steps and stages that occur during the development of personality. The following theories focus on several aspects of personality formation—including those that involve cognitive, social, and moral development.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

In his well-known stage theory of psychosexual development , Sigmund Freud suggested that personality develops in stages that are related to specific erogenous zones. These stages are:

• Stage 1 : Oral stage (birth to 1 year)
• Stage 2 : Anal stage (1 to 3 years)
• Stage 3 : Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)
• Stage 4 : Latent period (age 6 to puberty)
• Stage 5 : Genital stage (puberty to death)

Freud also believed that failure to complete these stages would lead to personality problems in adulthood.

In addition to being one of the best-known thinkers in personality development, Sigmund Freud remains one of the most controversial. While he made significant contributions to the field of psychology, some of his more disputed and unproven theories, such as his theory of psychosexual development, have been rejected by modern scientists.

Freud's Structural Model of Personality

Freud not only theorized about how personality developed over the course of childhood, but he also developed a framework for how overall personality is structured.

According to Freud, the basic driving force of personality and behavior is known as the libido . This libidinal energy fuels the three components that make up personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.

• The id is the aspect of personality present at birth. It is the most primal part of the personality and drives people to fulfill their most basic needs and urges.
• The ego is the aspect of personality charged with controlling the urges of the id and forcing it to behave in realistic ways.
• The superego is the final aspect of personality to develop and contains all of the ideals, morals, and values imbued by our parents and culture.

According to Freud, these three elements of personality work together to create complex human behaviors. The superego attempts to make the ego behave according to these ideals. The ego must then moderate between the primal needs of the id, the idealistic standards of the superego, and reality.

Freud's concept of the id, ego, and superego has gained prominence in popular culture, despite a lack of support and considerable skepticism from many researchers.

While Freudian theory is less relevant today than it once was, it can be helpful to learn more about these theories in order to better understand the history of research on personality development.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson’s eight-stage theory of human development is another well-known theory in psychology. While it builds on Freud’s stages of psychosexual development, Erikson chose to focus on how social relationships impact personality development.

The theory also extends beyond childhood to look at development across the entire lifespan.

Erikson's eight stages are:

• Stage 1 : Trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year)
• Stage 2 : Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 to 2 years)
• Stage 3 : Initiative versus guilt (3 to 5 years)
• Stage 4 : Industry versus inferiority (6 to 11 years)
• Stage 5 : Identity versus role confusion (12 to 18 years)
• Stage 6 : Intimacy versus isolation (19 to 40 years)
• Stage 7 : Generativity versus stagnation (41 to 64 years)
• Stage 8 : Integrity versus despair (65 years to death)

At each stage, people face a crisis in which a task must be mastered. Those who successfully complete that stage emerge with a sense of mastery and well-being.

However, Erikson believed that those who do not resolve the crisis at a particular stage may struggle with those skills for the remainder of their lives.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s  theory of cognitive development  remains one of the most frequently cited in psychology.

While many aspects of Piaget's theory have not stood the test of time, the central idea remains important today: Children think differently than adults .

According to Piaget, children progress through a series of four stages that are marked by distinctive changes in how they think. And how children think about themselves, others, and the world around them plays an essential role in personality development. 

Piaget's four stages are:

• Stage 1 : Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
• Stage 2 : Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
• Stage 3 : Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
• Stage 4 : Formal operational stage (12 years and up)

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of personality development that focused on the growth of moral thought. Building on a two-stage process proposed by Piaget, Kohlberg expanded the theory to include six different stages:

• Stage 1 : Obedience and punishment
• Stage 2 : Individualism and exchange
• Stage 3 : Developing good interpersonal relationships
• Stage 4 : Maintaining social order
• Stage 5 : Social contract and individual rights
• Stage 6 : Universal principles

These stages are separated by levels. Level one is the pre-conventional level, it includes stages one and two, and takes place from birth to 9 years. Level two is the conventional level, it includes stages three and four, and takes place from age 10 to adolescence. Level three is the post-conventional level, it includes stages five and six, and takes place in adulthood.

Although this theory includes six stages, Kohlberg felt that it was rare for people to progress beyond stage four, stressing that these moral development stages are not correlated with the maturation process.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been criticized for several different reasons. One primary criticism is that it does not accommodate different genders and cultures equally. Yet, the theory remains important in our understanding of how personality develops.

Why Personality Theories Matter

While these theories suggest different numbers and types of stages, and different ages for progressing from one stage to the next, they have all influenced what we know today about personality development.

5 Basic Personality Traits

The goal of personality development theories is to explain how we each develop our own unique characteristics and traits. While the list of options could be almost endless, most of these personality traits fall into five basic categories :

• Openness : Level of creativeness and responsiveness to change
• Conscientiousness : Level of organization and attention to detail
• Extraversion : Level of socialness and emotional expressiveness
• Agreeableness : Level of interest in others and cooperativeness
• Neuroticism : Level of emotional stability and moodiness

The "Big 5" is one of the most recognized models of personality and also the most widely used, though some suggest that it isn't comprehensive enough to cover the huge variety of personality traits that one can grow and develop.

Personality Development Tips

Theorists such as Freud believed that personality was largely set in stone fairly early in life. However, we now recognize that personality can change over time.

Research suggests that a person's broad traits are quite stable, but changes do happen, particularly as people age.

On a global level, people spend a lot of money on personal development, with this market bringing in more than $38 billion annually (and expected to grow). If you're interested in making positive changes to your personality, these tips can help:

Identify Your Current Traits

Colella notes that self-awareness and reflection are an essential part of personal growth. She suggests that you can start by learning more about your traits, strengths, and weaknesses.

Reflect on your behaviors and how they impact your life and relationships. This self-awareness lays the foundation for personal growth.

You won't know where to place your efforts if you don't identify the personality traits you need to work on. A personality test can provide an assessment of your current traits. Pick one or two traits to work on that you feel would help you grow as a person and focus on them. You can try our fast and free personality test as a good starting point:

Identify Your Values

Colella also suggests that it is important to identify your core values. You can do this by thinking about the values that are the most important to you. After you do this, you can prioritize your goals and better reflect on how your behaviors and actions align with your goals and values.

Set a Daily Personal Development Goal

Commit to doing at least one thing every day to help develop your personality. This doesn't have to be a big action either. Even baby steps will move you in the right direction.

Keep a Positive Mindset

It is also important to work on forging a growth mindset , Colella explains. This allows you to recognize that personality is not set it stone and can instead evolve over time. "Embrace challenges, learn from failures, and see setbacks as opportunities for growth," Colella says.

Changing yourself can be difficult, especially if you're working on a part of your personality you've had for a long time. Staying positive along the way helps you pay more attention to the pros versus the cons. It also makes the journey more enjoyable for you and everyone around you.

Be Confident

When you have something about yourself that you'd like to change, it can be easy to let your perceived imperfection reduce your confidence. Yet, you can be confident and continue to develop your personality in meaningful ways at the same time, giving you the best of both worlds while pursuing personality development.

Stepping outside your comfort zone can be challenging, Colella notes, but slowly expanding your horizons can lead to gradual growth. "Expanding your comfort zone involves taking small, manageable steps, gradually pushing your limits at a pace that feels comfortable for you," she explains.

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Kupfersmid J. Freud's clinical theories then and now . Psychodynam Psychiat . 2019;47(1). doi:10.1521/pdps.2019.47.1.81

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DeTienne KB, Ellertson CF, Ingerson MC, Dudley WR. Moral development in business ethics: An examination and critique . J Bus Ethics . 2021;170:429-448. doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04351-0

Power RA, Pluess M.  Heritability estimates of the Big Five personality traits based on common genetic variants .  Translation Psychiatry . 2015;5:e604. doi:10.1038/tp.2015.96

Feher A, Vernon P. Looking beyond the Big Five: A selective review of alternatives to the Big Five model of personality . Personal Indiv Diff . 2021;169:110002. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.11.0002

Damian RI, Spengler M, Sutu A, Roberts BW. Sixteen going on sixty-six: A longitudinal study of personality stability and change across 50 years . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 2019;117(3):674-695. doi:10.1037/pspp0000210

Grand View Research. Personal development market size, share & trade analysis report by instrument (books, e-platforms, personal coaching/training, workshops), by focus area, by region, and segment forecasts, 2020 - 2027 .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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