thesis on gender based violence

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Research Thesis on Effects Of Gender Based Violence Among Students In Masinde Muliro University, Kakamega, Kenya

2014, EFFECTS OF GENDER BASED VIOLENCE AMONG STUDENTS N MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY, KAKAMEGA, KENYA

Background: A recent global review of 50 population-based studies carried out in 36 countries indicates that between 10 and 60% of women who have ever been married or partnered have experienced at least one incident of physical violence from a current or former intimate partner (Heise.L, 2009). Kenya‟s Demographic and Health Survey in 2003 found that 44 percent of married, divorced or separated women aged 15–49 report they had been physically or sexually violated at least once by their husbands or partners. Purpose of the study: This research however not only focused on the general overview of GBV but specifically arrowed on the effects of GBV amongst campus students in Masinde Muliro University. No such research had been conducted in Masinde Muliro Univeristy and any other public university in Kenya but there was evidence in written articles of the existence of GBV victims amongst the students courtesy of reports from I Choose Life Africa –Masinde Muliro chapter. Methodology: A cross sectional quantitative explorative study design was employed which combined both quantitative and qualitative enquiries. The study was conducted in Masinde Muliro University main campus as the study site with the target population of this study being both the male and female students of Masinde Muliro University. Results: From the results, it was quiet evident that the Females were the ones who faced Gender Based violence more at 96% as opposed to the male who only had 4% of the cases. Conclusion: From the findings and analysis of these results; this research came to the conclusion that GBV is present in MMUST majorly physical abuse of the students by their partners and psychological abuse from the university staff and their colleagues. It also established that There was a correlation between substance abuse and instances of GBV hence curbing substance abuse would help curb GBV.

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Wafula J. A.

Dr. Judith A D I K I N Y I Wafula

Studies reveal that Gender-Based Violence (GBV) is increasingly becoming a crisis. This is despite the development spirit entrenched in making the world a global village, Education for All plans and Vision 2030. This paper examines the challenges faced by universities in Kenya in the fight against GBV experienced by their students. It emanates from a study that involved 662 students; 144 lecturers; five deans of students and heads of student counselling; four student leaders and vice chancellors from six universities in Kenya which revealed that universities face challenges that require concerted efforts in tackling. Universities in Kenya have been growing at a rapid pace, from one national university to university colleges and fully fledged universities at varied counties. This expansion bears challenges and the fight against GBV is not exempt. The challenges run from the family structure as evidenced by domestic quarrels, fights and even murders that render it dysfunctional. The genesis of GBV resides in the underlying norm and value systems that make it necessary and legitimate subverting prevention and response efforts [1]. Consequently, GBV is exposed as a display of socio-cultural tendencies that influence the perceptions of gender and is sustained by a culture of silence and denial [2]. Further revelations from UNFPA show that biological factors have no bearing in the intense differences in the behaviours of men and women indicating that the differences are based on the socialization process. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates show that at least one in every three women experience GBV in their lifetime. Additionally, it was found that male survivors experience similar physical, social and psychological violations only that they are less likely to seek medical help due to stigma and prejudice regarding male sexuality or masculinity [3]. Therefore, the paper addresses the challenges and provides recommendations in dealing with the vice. Devolved governments are in a very strategic position of involvement in curbing the vice.

World Journal of Public Health

MICHAEL AVWERHOTA

BMC women's health

Ikeola Adeoye

In Nigeria, there is paucity of information on the IPV burden and experience among young women in courtship and dating relationships. This study assesses the prevalence and correlates of IPV in female undergraduate and postgraduate students in a tertiary institution. The study was a cross-sectional survey. A four-stage sampling technique was used to select 1,100 undergraduate and 255 postgraduate female students from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Data was collected using a 43-item self-administered structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and multivariate analyses were carried out at 0.05 level of significance. The life-time prevalence of IPV was 42.3% (postgraduate: 34.5%, undergraduate: 44.1%; P < 0.05). Lifetime experience of psychological, physical and sexual IPV were 41.8%, 7.9% and 6.6% respectively. Recent experience (within the previous 12 months) of violence was also more frequently reported by respondents who had a previous history of physical (62.5%) (OR =...

Melak Mengistab Gebresilassie

Gender based violence is one of the most frequent type of human rights violation against girls and women. Having this background, the major objectives of this research was investigating the types, cause and consequences of this gender based violence against female students in Bahir Dar University. A qualitative study has been used predominantly to have a deep in-sight about the experiences of female students with regard to gender based violence (GBV). A case study design has been used, whereby the researcher investigates the respondents’ perspectives on their experience of GBV. A focus group discussion has also been employed to give depth to the study through analyzing groups’ consensus. Furthermore, in-depth interviews with key informants have been conducted to gather data on the prevailing norms and practices of the University in relation to GBV. Finally, beside the above major techniques, questionnaires have been distributed to female and male students to supplement the qualitative data with quantitative results. The out come of the research confirmed that, different sorts of GBV are committed against female students in Bahir Dar University. Sexual harassment is the most frequent form of sexual violence perpetrated against female students. In addition, attempted rape and rape too were perpetrated against female students mainly outside of the University. Psychological and emotional violence are also inflicted against female students through insult, humiliation and embarrassment. Economic violence, denial of liberty and discrimination in the form of giving priority to male students, are the other types of GBV observed in Bahir Dar University. Female students are also victims of physical violence through slap, battering and kicking. The causes for such types of violence were identified as legal and structural constraints. The legal challenges associated with the University which failed to have a specific policy on the rights of girls and its failure in incorporating the rights of girls within the existing senate legislation. Furthermore, absence of any nationwide law that protects girls against campus based GBV is another challenge. The structural constraints include the discriminatory culture, and poverty which are related to the society. The physical environment, alcoholism and drugs abuses are the other challenges related to the University and the students, respectively. GBV has various consequences on female students’ physical, emotional and psychological health and educational achievements. The study showed that GBV is one the major cause for female students’ lower academic achievements. Finally, the study points out some recommendations.

Busola Odubela Ajibola

Gender-based violence (GBV) is globally recognized as a public health issue. The specific focus of this research is violence against women (VAW), as statistics continue to show that women are more likely to fall victims of violence by virtue of their gender. This study investigates the prevalence, pattern and causal factors for violence against female undergraduates in Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta, Nigeria. In addition, the study examines the causes and effects of this malaise on victims. Possible ways of reducing occurrence of VAW against female undergraduates are also proffered. The study is cross-sectional, analytical and descriptive, in nature. It made use of secondary data source like; academic papers, newspaper publications, online publications ands so on. Data were collected with a pilot tested, semi-structured questionnaire; self-administered by the respondents. Data were analyzed with the Epi. Info software. Respondents were selected using a 3-level multistage sampling technique. Results and conclusion are based on valid responses only.

Science Journal of Public Health

kassahun Gebeyehu

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences

Zarina Mohd Zain

https://www.ijhsr.org/IJHSR_Vol.7_Issue.11_Nov2017/IJHSR_Abstract.031.html

International Journal of Health Sciences and Research (IJHSR)

Background: Studies have shown that violence against women which is manifested in multiple forms is increasingly seen as a major public health concern. The findings from a study conducted in Kenya indicated that 46% of ever-married women have experienced any type of intimate partner violence. This is a problem affecting people from all walks of life, in Kenya, information on most aspects of gender based violence is inadequate and there is great need for research on all aspects gender based violence and therefore this research seeks to fill this gap by assessing the predisposing factors attending the Nairobi women's hospital, in Nairobi Kenya. Objective: Assessing the predisposing factors associated with Gender-based violence amongst married women attending Nairobi Women's Hospital. Methodology: The study was a hospital based cross-sectional study conducted at gender violence and recovery Centre of Nairobi Women's Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya, where 325 gender based violence victims visiting the facility were recruited to participate in the study. Data was collected using questionnaires and focus group discussions and the predisposing factors to be analyzed were age, marital status, economic status and education level. The data from the questionnaire forms were coded and entered in the Ms-Access, which was then analyzed using STATA version 13and the association was tested using chi-square at 5%confidence level. Data collected from Focus Group Discussions was sorted manually based on themes developed from issues arising from responses, transcribed translated and coded. Results: Age (P<0.0001), marital status (p=0.015), whether the victim was alone during the incidence (P<0.0001), drinking habit of the victim (P=0.011), and whether perpetrator was drunk during the incidence (P=0.026) individually showed statistically significant association with the forms of violence experienced while highest level of education (P=0.575) and occupation (P=0.101) individually showed no statistical association with the forms of violence. Conclusion: Women experience gender-based violence in a number of contexts and roles, and many have accepted their situation and therefore prevention strategies should be implemented to address the spectrum of GBV women victims. Recommendation: Active campaigns to sensitize the community against gender based violence

International Journal of Health Research

Dr. Endalew G E M E C H U Sendo

Background: Sexual harassment has posed a tremendous challenge to African women both in the workplace and educational setting, and this problem has impacted women's self-esteem as well as their academic, social, and psychological wellbeing. One in five college women are victims of acquaintance rape during their academic career and less than 5% of college women who are victims of sexual assault report their victimization. However, there is limited data on sexual violence in the context of higher education in Ethiopia particularly in the study setting. This study, therefore, determined the prevalence and its associated factors among female students of Hawassa University in Ethiopia. Methods: Institution-based cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted from April to June 2013. A multistage sampling technique was used. A total of 336 female students registered as 2nd year and above were involved in the study. Data was collected using anonymous self-administered structured questionnaire. Results: A total of 336 female students took part in the study. Majority of the study participants (N = 298; 88.7%) were in the age range of 20-34 years. The mean age and standard deviation of the respondents were 21.3 ± 1.7 years. Regarding the marital status of the respondents, 307 (91.4%) of them were single. We found that, while 14.3% reported having experienced completed rape since being admitted to the university, 3% had the experience in the past years. Conclusions: This study showed a high prevalence of sexual violence against female students of Hawassa University in Ethiopia. Interventions are, therefore, required by university authorities and other stakeholders, to create a safe learning environment for female students through primary prevention of sexual violence and rehabilitation programs for the victims.

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Home > Student Scholarship > THESES > 814

Senior Theses and Projects

Gender-based violence: a global crisis that is handled ineffectually.

Marlén Miranda , Trinity College, Hartford Connecticut Follow

Date of Award

Spring 2020

Degree Name

Bachelor of Arts

Political Science (International Relations) and Human Rights (Gender Issues)

First Advisor

Benjamin Carbonetti

This research seeks to outline the current understandings of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) in academic literature and how it contrasts from the ways governmental and non-governmental bodies interpret and address GBV. A little more than a yearlong investigation in Chile, Nepal, Jordan, Spain, and the United States serves as the foundation of the research. The researcher uses the ethnographic method (Draper, 2015) and the interpretive approach (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2012) to interview individuals successfully and to comprehend better how GBV operates within each of the countries. The study focuses on answering the research question: How is GBV understood, and do current understandings capture the experiences of historically marginalized individuals? A thorough study of the data concludes that GBV is institutional violence: a comparison that is not yet grasped amongst many governmental and non-governmental bodies. This lack of a multifaceted understanding by formal institutions is limiting agencies’ ability to address the violence, generating hegemonic discourse, and excluding certain groups who should be receiving services. Social movements against GBV and acts of resistance amongst survivors demonstrate the need for a paradigmatic shift in how GBV is understood and conceptualized, specifically amongst women’s organizations, NGOs, courtrooms, and governmental institutions. Additionally, I argue that these new understandings of GBV must expand beyond the theory of “modern-day intersectional feminism” and that of current hegemonic discourse (Gordon, 2018).

Senior thesis completed at Trinity College, Hartford CT for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Political Science (International Relations) and Human Rights (Gender Issues).

Recommended Citation

Miranda, Marlén, "Gender-Based Violence: A Global Crisis that is Handled Ineffectually". Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 2020. Trinity College Digital Repository, https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/814

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• Original Article
• Open access
• Published: 03 October 2022

Gender-based violence (GBV) against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies: an analytical contribution to reconstruct the research field and its institutional development

• Claudia Di Matteo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6504-2082 1 &
• Roberto Scaramuzzino 1  

Comparative Migration Studies volume  10 , Article number:  40 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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The aim of this paper is to map the emergence and development of a research field around the topic of “gender-based violence (GBV) against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies”. We explore the academic knowledge production around this topic as a specific research field by using bibliometric data. We investigate the place occupied by scholars who publish in well-established journals, and their disciplines, in order to understand the relevance of different disciplines and groups of researchers in the knowledge production within the field. Our methodology includes analysis of co-authorship, cross-country collaboration, and co-citation. The search strategy is informed by discursive practices and knowledge production by influential international civil society actors (CSAs) involved in framing welfare responses to GBV against women with precarious legal status. Our results suggest that the knowledge produced in the field increased in terms of number of publications between 2010 and 2021, indicating a process of institutionalisation. Disciplines oriented towards certain groups of professionals such as clinical psychology, medicine, health, nursing, and social work, affiliated mainly to institutions in the US, Canada, and the EU, have a prominent role in knowledge production in this field. In our conclusions, we discuss the implications of these results in relation to gender studies and migration studies, along with some limitations of the use of bibliometrics software combined with an intersectionality approach.

Introduction

This study focuses on knowledge production in the field of gender-based violence (GBV) against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies. This choice allows us to focus on just one specific intersection of gender and migration studies: i.e. gender-based violence and women with precarious legal status. To approach our chosen field of research, we have looked to knowledge produced outside of academia as a point of departure. In this regard, as further explained in the Sect. 1.2, a propaedeutically qualitative exploration of grey literature was made to explore the ways in which some prominent civil society actors (CSAs) have internationally framed a) GBV as a public problem and b) public responses to it. In line with conceptualisations of GBV against women developed by internationally recognised CSAs, we use specific terminology to map academic authors and disciplines that contribute to knowledge production within this field.

The field of research explored in this paper has increasing relevance, given the large number of people living outside protection systems as a consequence of the exclusionary effect of institutionalised categories that restrict entitlements based on the legal status of migrants. The question of access to social protection systems for individuals with precarious legal status calls attention to the welfare-migration nexus (Ryndyk, Sutter, and Odden, 2021 ). In order to access social rights and entitlements (i.e., social protection systems), human beings need to be recognised as members of particular rights regimes (e.g., citizen regimes/citizenship; human rights regimes/humanitarian protection; migration regimes/residence) (Benhabib, 2004 ). In this regard, this study looks exclusively at knowledge production that refers to those with “precarious legal status”, operationalised as people who are subject to migration controls but have not been granted refugee status, and are thus denied access to refugee resettlement programmes. More specifically, by “women with precarious legal status” (see Table 1 ), we refer to asylum seekers and refused asylum requests; special visa categories, such as spousal and temporary workers (framed here as immigrant); and some human rights cases, such as migrants who have overstayed their visa (framed as displaced or stateless).

In the following section, we present the theoretical background to our research, with particular attention given to the debate around the conceptualisation of GBV against women and its links with feminist, intersectional, post-colonial, and post-national discourses and actors. Further, we briefly introduce membership regimes in respect to human/social rights and entitlements and their conceptualisation around categories used by non-state actors. This is propaedeutically to clarify the background literature that directly informs our study.

Conceptualisation of gender-based violence (GBV) against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies

Our theoretical framework draws on different bodies of literature and conceptualisations of GBV against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies.

Current discussion at the cutting edge of gender and migration

Firstly, we explore feminist migration scholars and the conceptualisation of gender in migration studies . Recent studies focusing on knowledge production in the field of migration research (Levy et al., 2020 ; Sirckeci et al., 2017 ), and with particular attention to feminist analysis within migration studies (Kelson & DeLaet, 1999 ; Kofman, 2020 ; Morokvasic, 1984 ; Nawyn, 2010 ), have suggested that gender should be understood as “more than an individual-level binary category ascribed at birth (…) It is, rather, a system of power relations that permeates every aspect of the migration experience” (Nawyn, 2010 , p.760). Despite the increased incorporation of gender analysis into migration research, it has also been highlighted that there remains a degree of gender blindness among migration scholars (Kofman, 2020 ; King et al., 2006 , p.249), and that “gender (and often women) continues to be largely ignored” (Nawyn, 2010 , p.758). In this regard, transnational feminist scholars (Mohanty, 1988 ; Mukhopadhyay, 2015 ) have highlighted that the marginalization of colonial past as well as of race, ethnicity, sexual identity, class, and cast markers corresponds to a political act by those academics and activists who are in a position of power when addressing women’s rights and struggles. For instance, Mohanty ( 1988 ) pointed out that the knowledge produced around the “third world women” is constructed as an inherently homogenous monolithic group where women are subjected to a singular a-historical notion of male domination. Furthermore, it has been suggested (Mukhopadhyay, 2015 ) that scholars using specific analytic categories of sisterhood and sameness while referring to gender equality meant framing the problem of GBV as having a one-size-fits-all solution, without considering historical and contextual differences in terms of poverty, discrimination, and neocolonial power relations.

In recent years the complexities in the composition of migratory flows have been increasingly taken into consideration by scholars, whose renovated attention has been addressed to diversity in populations’ composition such as women and gender/sexual marginalised groups (e.g. LGBTQ +) (Haas, Castles, and Miller, 2014 ). Consequently, female international migration is also categorised looking at both the women’s positions in the economic market of the receiving country (ies) and their positions within the family. As an example, gendered categories have made it possible to investigate the different positions and experiences of male and female domestic workers from Filipino communities in Italy and Canada (Banfi, 2008 ; Parreñas, 2015 ). The results of the latest showed that not only do migration paths differ between male and female domestic workers, but that the experience of racial segregation into domestic work is different for men and for women. Finally, in terms of GBV and precarious legal status, the same investigation on gendered Filipino communities (Ambrosini, 2020 ; Parreñas, 2015 ) pointed out how the state’s construction of domestic work can leave women at the mercy of employment agencies (Canada) or in the precarity of irregular migration (Italy) (Ambrosini, 2020 ; Banfi, 2008 ; Parreñas, 2015 ).

Following this stream of research, our study looks at GBV as different forms of discrimination (ILGA, 2022 ) related not only to a specific ethnicity, gender identity, sexual orientation, but also linked to “national regimes of citizenship, which are inherently exclusionary and produce separate legal codes and practices to differentiate groups of people within the same national space” (Bhuyan, 2012 , p.6).

The use of the term “women” does not directly exclude a variety of identity formations. Regarding the latter, the Brazilian philosopher Marcia Tiburi ( 2020 ) highlights that feminist discourses on “women, black women, black Brazilian women, black Brazilian trans-women, black Brazilian Trans Muslim Lesbian Women have both a political potential of affirmation and a risk of social fragmentation depending to different interests in time and space” (Tiburi, 2020 , p.96). In our study, the aim is to analyse in bibliometric terms a specific stream of literature that frame the problem and the solutions to GBV against women having a precarious legal status in the specific context of welfare advanced societies, with the aim to investigate the power relations in terms of knowledge production.

Secondly, our study draws on conceptualizations of gender-based violence (GBV) and membership regimes in advanced welfare societies. A recent study was carried out by Ozcurumez et al. ( 2021 ) as part of a larger international project called SEREDA, Footnote 1 which sought to investigate the conceptualisation of GBV in forced migration through a scoping review. Using search terms limited to only two simple queries – “Sexual and Gender-based Violence” and “Sexual and Gender-based violence and refugees” – Ozcurumez et al., ( 2021 , p.66) retrieved respectively 292 and 91 scholarly articles and policy reports published in English between 1993 and 2018. What they found was that GBV is conceptualised mostly in relation to women (Ozcurumez et al., 2021 , p. 69), limiting the analysis of violence occurring in specific contexts such as conflict zones, war, and refugee camps. The scoping review revealed that the literature focused mostly on geopolitical areas such as Sierra Leone, Syria, Afghanistan, Liberia, and Lebanon, confining violence in spatial territories without considering how gendered experiences of violence are embedded in the displacement journey, on the way towards resettlement contexts (Ozcurumez et al., 2021 , pp. 67–69). The confinement of GBV to specific geopolitical spaces with an emphasis on the “homeland” was also confirmed by the literature on sex trafficking (Davidson, 2001 ; Watts & Zimmerman, 2002 , in Nawyn, 2010 ; Palmary, 2021 ), which referred mainly to violence experienced by women in their country of origin.

Concerning the conceptualisation of GBV exclusively in contexts of forced migration, post-colonial feminist scholars (Abu-Lughod, 2011 , 2013 ; Fassin & Barnett, 2016 ; Martinsson and Griffin, 2016 ; Ozcurumez et al., 2021 ; Spivak, 1988 , 2012 ) have pointed out how the use of the concepts of “violence” and “women” contribute to reinforcing the positive image of male white saviours in humanitarian contexts who rescue black women from wild and uncivilised societies. While Nawyn ( 2010 ) has pointed out that the field of migration studies has not incorporated much of the findings related to GBV into mainstream research (Nawyn, 2010 , p.758), Ozcurumez et al. ( 2021 ) advocate for including both resettlement contexts and intersectional approaches in the study of GBV in the context of migration, looking not only to GBV migration experiences across time and space, but also to social protection responses involving a plurality of state and non-state actors.

Post-national approaches to migrants´ access to welfare regimes

Shifting our attention from humanitarian settings to resettlements contexts in welfare advanced society, a key issue discussed among post-national migration scholars (Abji, 2016 ; Pinelli, 2020 , 2021 ; Scheibelhofer, 2022 ) is that governments in resettlement contexts are reluctant to find permanent political solutions (Abji, 2016 ) to GBV experienced by migrants with precarious legal status. Consequently, responsibility for access to social protection systems in the context of resettlement is displaced from the state to civil society as key actors involved in the enforcement of human rights (e.g., in the form of advocacy, political action, and/or service provision). With reference to GBV interventions accessed by migrant women with precarious legal status in Western liberal democracies, attention has been drawn to the role of professionals working within the social protection systems and in organisational settings like CSAs in advocating for anti-deportation policies and in addressing violence against such women within debordering practices (Abji, 2017 ).

Furthermore, although human rights in resettlement contexts are formally recognised within membership regimes (e.g., citizenship, residency, humanitarian protection) (Benhabib, 2004 ), access to these fundamental rights still requires the intervention of a state authority which must formally recognise them (Abji, 2016 ). In this sense, the membership regimes fall short to acknowledge the variability and precarity of the legal and administrative real-life conditions of migrants in resettlement contexts (e.g., migrant populations displaced for longer periods of time, who might relocate to different states, regions, and cities depending on family structures, generational evolution, social networks, mixed marriages, and other circumstances linked to geopolitical processes), which in turn has real consequences for access to institutionalised social protection systems (Ryndyk et al., 2021 ).

The reality of increasing numbers of people living outside protection systems, such as women victims of GBV with precarious legal status, underlines the relevance of this research area. In our methodology, we use terminology that allows us to map studies and literature involving production of knowledge on GBV that takes into consideration both the resettlement context and access to social protection systems in advanced welfare societies (Høgsbro and Shaw, 2018 ). Thirdly, we draw on the influence of CSAs on the conceptualisation of GBV in the international and national policy arena. In democratic welfare states, civil society is seen as key actors involved in the enforcement of human rights through advocacy, political action, and/or service provision (Hodgkinson & Foley, 2003 ; Trägårdh, 2007 ; Arvidson, Johansson, Scaramuzzino, 2018 ). As a consequence, in resettlement contexts, the conceptualisation of GBV is historical linked to the fight against violence (Johansson & Hvinden, 2007 ) as part of “the achievement of women´s rights” (Rosche, 2016 ) and strongly related to feminist movements and CSAs (e.g., INGOs, NGOs, advocacy groups). In her work, Rosche ( 2016 ) points out the great influence over the process of inclusion of gender equality in the Agenda 2030 held by UN offices (i.e., UN Women) with their headquarters based in New York, as well as the primary involvement of INGOs based in EU countries, such as Oxfam (The Netherlands), GADN (UK), and Care International (Switzerland), alongside other women's rights and international organisations (i.e., Action Aid, International Planned Parenthood Federation). The goal of ending violence against women declared by international CSAs (Rosche, 2016 ) was rapidly extended to other international policy domains, such as migration, within a process of negotiations among UN member states that concluded in 2018 with the adoption of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration (GC) (IOM, ). In this context, the International Organisation for Migration, IOM (headquartered in Germany) played a major role in negotiating the adoption of the GC at the UN General Assembly, drawing a clear connection between the GC and the Agenda 2030 gender equality goal (IOM, ).

In sum, gender mainstreaming and gender/migration policy discourses are tied to conceptualisation of GBV produced by both UN offices (i.e., UN Women) and CSAs headquartered mainly in Western countries. The latter organisations are not only prominent voices in framing the problem of GBV in the international policy arena, but also provide support and resources for the implementation of social protection activities in advanced welfare societies.

Methods and tools

Adapting the process of systematic literature review to the intersectionality-informed analysis.

In the previous paragraphs, we presented GBV against women as a category of analysis, invoked by feminist migration scholars to help conceptualise how structures of power and inequalities operate across time and space. We further highlighted the feminist critique of migration studies that points to GBV as being confined exclusively to conflict and refugee contexts. Finally, we discussed the importance of the discursive production of both the public problem of GBV and its public solution (e.g., social protection) by CSAs in democratic welfare states. Drawing on these debates, this study analyses the position of scholars involved in knowledge production on GBV against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies.

The choice of methodology is made following the assumption that a common terminology used both within and outside academia reinforces a specific conceptualisation of GBV in specific resettlement contexts. In this regard, before operationalising our aim into research questions and developing a mapping strategy, we gave analytical attention to grey literature, limited to the following: a report titled “The Situation of Women Specialist Support Services in Europe” (WAVE, 2019 ) and documents and material produced by recent (2016–2020) EU-funded projects such as the “Co-creating Counselling Method for Refugee Women GBV Victims” (Inka et al., 2019 ), the “SWIM- Safe Women in Migration” project (Fondazione L’Albero della Vita, 2020 ), and “PROVIDE – Proximity on Violence: Defence and Equity” (ISMU, 2020 ). These projects were selected because they all involve INGOs, or international networks of NGOs involved in policy making in the field of GBV and migration. All these projects address specific forms of violence in migration contexts across time and space; and all are focused on specific forms of interventions in resettlement contexts and are not limited to refugee resettlement programmes. All the reports inform the key debate on the division of responsibilities concerning welfare responses to GBV experienced by migrant women with precarious legal status. Finally, all projects were selected partly because they have strong links to CSAs operating under the EU’s geopolitical influence, which have a significant impact on the international conceptualisation of GBV in the context of migration. Nevertheless, the criteria used to select the grey literature bring certain limitations; these are discussed in paragraph 5.

The method of bibliometric analysis and its application in this study

Building on a bibliometrics analysis of the literature, this study investigates whether and how GBV as a category of analysis takes a prominent position in academic journals, exploring the place occupied by scholars who publish in well-established journals, and their disciplines, in order to understand the relevance of GBV within the scientific academic landscape. Given the existing limitations of bibliometric analysis (Kofman, 2020 ; Levy et al., 2020 ), our methodology included analysis of co-authorship, cross-country collaborations, and co-citation.

The theoretical framework of this study draws on intersectionality as a concept (Hoffart, 2021 ; Moradi and Grzanka, 2017 ; Nash, 2014 ; Kofman, 2020 ) that captures the advantages and disadvantages experienced by all people within a structural system of power (CIJ, 2020). For the scope of this study, we used the Intersectionality-Based Policy Analysis Framework (IBPA) (Hankivisky, 2012 ) Footnote 2 as a guiding tool to develop the research questions. The analytical point of departure was to identify “the problem” and apply the following question and related sub-question to our aim: How have representations of “the problem” come about? Who was involved in defining the problem in this way? What types of evidence were used? (Hankivisky, 2012 , p. 39) . In accordance with our aim, the first research question (RQ1) of our study can be formulated as follows: Who produces the knowledge related to the problem of GBV against women with precarious legal status? How does the research community come about over time (i.e., historically) and in space (i.e., geographically and institutionally)?

In the second stage, the authors used the equity principle of the IBPA framework Footnote 3 in combination with the question: What are the current policy responses to the problem? (Hankivisky, 2012 , p. 39) . In this sense, the aim was to identify the research (and researchers) involved in the production of knowledge that concerns both the representation of the problem “GBV against women with precarious legal status” and its political outcome, represented by policy responses. Consequently, the second research question (RQ2) was: Does the community of researchers produce knowledge related to welfare responses or the absence of responses to GBV against women with precarious legal status?

The next step was to combine the format of the IBPA with the process of systematic literature review (Cochrane, 2019 ) for the identification of relevant documents. For the identification of the literature, the authors created a search strategy (Cochrane, 2019 ), using a complex query Footnote 4 which was tested in different databases. In the process of systematic literature review, the complex query is composed of multiple interrelated terms (Cochrane, 2019 ). The use of each term can be connected to truncation (e.g., asterisks) and proximity elements (e.g., AND, OR, W2, W5) in order to refine the search results (see footnote). However, adding or removing terms or punctuation in a query might disproportionally affect the results, depending on the databases used. Table 1 displays the final version of the complex query. Initially, we ran six official trials including various terms under each column in the table (Public Problem, Target Group, and Public Responses) but the results were imbalanced (e.g., 0 documents retrieved in some databases). Furthermore, terminology related to refugees is avoided in the query because, as explained above, our aim was to focus on the knowledge produced concerning migrant women with precarious legal status. Limitations associated with this decision are discussed in Sect. 5.

The terminology composing the complex query was derived from the research questions (see Table 1 ) stated above. We again emphasise that the terminology used here in relation to the identified problem, such as “GBV against women with precarious legal status” and “public responses and interventions”, is influenced by the grey literature produced by relevant international CSAs and limited to the scope of the study, which is to identify conceptual elements inside academia (i.e., in publications) which are shared and commonly used outside the academic field of knowledge production (i.e., among CSAs).

Following the evidence-based protocols of systematic reviews (see Fig.  1 below), metadata were collected from 10 databases, covering multiple sources of knowledge. A filter was added which meant that only documents published after the year 2010 were included. This decision was made because very few records could be found for the previous years, as well as because 2010 marked the political threshold for the Istanbul Convention (2011), the first legally binding policy tool in the field of violence against (migrant) women. 3,176 records were identified, and after duplicates were removed in Zotero, 2,790 records remained. After additional software removal in Ryaan, the number of records remaining was 2,734 (Fig.  1 ). Given the relatively high number of records identified, VOSviewer software (van Eck & Waltman, 2020 ) was used to perform bibliometric analyses. When using software with bibliographic data from different sources, data cleaning must be performed to produce a structured file in which all the data imported display the same comparable variables.

Identification and selection of relevant literature

In the process of data cleaning, two limitations were encountered. First, it was impossible to access and format the same information in all the databases, leading to the decision to include only data retrieved from Scopus. This decision was based on the fact that 68.4% of records included in the Zotero library before duplicate removal were gathered using Scopus. Furthermore, the database provides comprehensive data, such as citation information (i.e., author, document title, sources, EID, year), bibliographic information (i.e., affiliation, correspondence address, editor), abstract information (i.e., complete abstract, author keywords, index keywords), funding details, and additional information such as the list of references used in every document extracted. The second limitation at this stage of the systematic literature review is related to the impossibility of including research published in languages other than English, which in turn automatically excludes experiences from particular settings.

Analysis of the institutional field

In the following sections, the field of “GBV against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies” is explored in bibliometric terms. The number of documents published between 2010 and 2021 (Fig.  2 ) shows consistent growth. The decline seen in 2021 probably refers to the fact that the analysis is based only on publications released during a five-month period from January to May of 2021.

Documents published per year

Internationally, GBV as policy issue and related debates entered the political space in 2011, leading to the Council of Europe’s approval of the Istanbul Convention. The Convention has been strongly advocated for by feminist movements and represents the first legally binding treaty created to tackle violence against women. Articles 60 and 61 refer explicitly to violence against women in the context of migration (e.g., asylum claims and non-refoulement principles). The Convention has since been adopted by EU member states and non-member states such as the US, Canada, and Japan.

The intensified growth in publications reached its peak in 2020, with 304 publications registered in Scopus, along with 204 documents published from January to May 2021 (a relatively high number for a five-month period) and can be understood as a token of the recent but continuous institutional development of the field. If we look at the total number of documents published by source (Fig.  3 ), we see that the journals most active in the last decade are the Journal of Interpersonal Violence , which is oriented towards the field of clinical and applied psychology; Violence Against Women , which is specialised in subject areas such as law, gender studies, and political science; and the Journal of Family Violence , which publishes research in law, political science, and clinical psychology.

Total number of published documents by source—years 2010/2021

In our dataset, the first source related directly to the field of migration is the Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health , which, along with Health Care for Women International , publishes in the field of international health, medicine, and epidemiology. Finally, lower in the ranking we found Women’s Studies International Forum , which represents the field of development studies, education, sociology, and political science; Journal of Refugee Studies , which relates to the area of development, international relations, and political science; and the Journal of Immigrant and Refugees’ Studies , publishing in the field of geography, demography, development, and health.

Furthermore, we analysed the annual total number of publications by the journals included in our dataset. In particular, we examined the years between 2010 and 2015, as we were interested in the foundational knowledge on which our subject matter rests.

Table 2 displays the journals that published the most per year (in bold); selected journals in migration studies (in bold) that published at least three items; and, finally, selected journals in migration studies (in bold) that published in 2010, and therefore initiated the production of knowledge at the cutting edge of GBV and migration, but eventually did not pursue the topic (fewer later publications after 2010).

Overall, despite consistent growth in the number of publications over the first five years, we can observe (Table 2 ) that, in 2010, the leading journals were, again, Violence Against Women , Journal of Family Violence , Journal of Interpersonal Violence , and Issues in Mental Health Nursing . This indicates that the aspects of migration, ethnicity, and race are mainly absorbed by the disciplines of law, health, and medicine when it comes to the study of gender-based violence within families or interpersonal relations. Still looking at 2010, Social Politics along with two publications from Princeton University and the State University of New York respectively, Refugee Survey Quarterly , The Journal of Refugee Studies , and The Review of International Political Economy were all active in the field. These findings indicate an initial and tentative interest in considering gender, sexuality, and migration not as separate clusters, but rather interlocking systems of power with political relevance. Nevertheless, this promising emerging body of knowledge did not last over time, as confirmed by an analysis of the publications from 2011 to 2015. Indeed, the literature developed mostly around the category of GBV described in terms of “women’s issues”, “family issues”, and “health issues”. Therefore, categories of race and ethnicity are assimilated into investigations of the physical, mental, and legal practical consequences of violence, with little attention paid to the political and transformative perspectives of women in international migration processes. Finally, we highlight that knowledge specifically addressing themes related to culture and sexuality, as well as to the social aspects of violence, such as that produced by journals like Sexuality Research and Social Policy , the British Journal of Social Work , and Affilia—the Journal of Women and Social Work , increased between 2012 and 2015.

Based on this overview of the leading journals in the field, we can conclude that, with some exceptions, the epistemic community of migration studies tends to disappear when the focus is on GBV in resettlement contexts. Further, as explained previously, this study aims to identify studies focused on representing GBV while also framing public responses and interventions. In other words, such knowledge has a political influence in legitimising the categories of “migrants” entitled to specific forms of social protection. In this sense, the prepositions related to “gender” and “violence” do not have the power of affirmation in the field of migration studies, nor do prepositions related to “migration” have the power of affirmation in gender-related disciplines, as evinced by the relatively low number of publications by gender-related journals. The result is a double exclusion when the grammatic of gender intersects that of migration reproducing established disciplinary hierarchies in academia. Thus, when Levy et al. ( 2020 ) describe the institutionalisation of migration studies as a research field, the authors point to the evolutionary development of discursive regimes related to race, ethnicity, culture, refugees, transnationalism, and social development, alongside the traditional discursive practices related to labour market/economy, demography, and psychology, missing out the gender studies, development studies, and social work studies present in our dataset.

Reconstruction of structural and relational components of the field

Citation networks.

A citation analysis of the 2,174 documents was conducted using VOSviewer. When working with citation links in VOSviewer (van Eck & Waltman, 2020 ), the citation attributes indicate the number of citations of a document (Table 3 ) or the total number of citations of all documents published by an author (Table 4 ). The weight indicates the importance of an item (in our case, items are authors and documents). The more important the item, the greater its weight (Van Eck & Waltman, 2020 ). In addition, we analysed citations while looking at the disciplines and research fields to which the authors belong (Tables 3 and 4 ). Disciplines and research fields have been coded mostly based on the institutions to which the authors were affiliated. It is interesting to note that the largest research field in this selection, by number of citations, is medicine (n.7). If we also include psychiatry and psychology, we see that most of the works are within the broader field of “health” (n.11). Other relevant fields are sociology/social work (n.5) and, finally, international affairs/relations (n.4). It is not surprising that some of the documents most cited are written by authors focused on migration or women’s studies.

Further, authors connected to English-speaking institutions dominate this selection of publications, with half of publications from the US, five from the UK, three from Canada, and two from Australia.

When we turn to the 20 most cited authors within the database, and some of the attributes that characterise them (Table 4 ), the dominance of medicine/health is confirmed by the higher-weight citation of 12 authors in this field.

Within the very broad field of medicine/health, we find a variety of subfields. It is not surprising to find three researchers with profiles related to GBV and health. Other themes include sexual health (n. 3), nursing (n. 2), health care (n. 2), and clinical psychology (n.1). The remaining eight authors can be linked to the social sciences, specifically the disciplines of social work (n. 5), social psychology (n.2), and sociology (n.1). Also, the dominance of the English-speaking world is clear, with a few exceptions: i.e., Spain (n.3) and Israel (n.1).

It is also interesting to note that respective analyses of the most cited publications and authors produce similar results, but with certain salient differences. This is also confirmed by the fact that only six of the 20 most cited authors have written at least one of the 20 most cited publications, all of which are within the field of medical/health research.

On the one hand, this result might be due to differing practices of co-authorship between disciplines, where publications within the field of medicine/health often have several co-authors (e.g., 20 +), creating a cumulative effect on citations of authors. On the other hand, the recognition of GBV as a ground of social protection of migrant women also came with the medical, psychological, and social conceptualisation of violence as a “traumatic experience” of vulnerable women groups or women victims (Fassin & Barnett, 2016 ). In this sense, the knowledge created by scholars in health- and social work-related disciplines confirms a prevalent humanitarian mission to identify mechanisms of protection and treatment of the symptoms of traumatic experiences of violence (Fassin & Rechtman, 2009 ).

Co-authorship network

A co-authorship analysis was conducted in VOSviewer to frame the structure and the intensity of collaborations among researchers from different countries and disciplines. In this sense, we can describe the power relations in the field in terms of number of collaborations (co-authorship by authors, Fig.  4 ) and networking (co-authorship by countries, Fig.  5 ). Of the 5,418 authors in the dataset, 303 authored at least three documents between 2010 and 2021. For each of these 303 authors, we calculated the total strength of the co-authorship (i.e., the total strength of the co-authorship links between a given researcher and other researchers).

Visualisation map of co-authorship links

Visualisation map of co-authorships links by countries

The co-authorship filter (authors with at least three documents in co-authorship) was used to identify scholars who are more active in terms of collaborations and publications (single-authored documents are not included in this selection). The map below seems to indicate that authors from cluster 4 (yellow) and cluster 6 (light blue) work more closely, creating an interdisciplinary field between social work and nursing. It is interesting to note that some of the authors included in those two clusters (i.e., Messing, Campbell, and Glass) are the most cited authors in our dataset (Table 4 ), confirming the prominence of US “clinical” or “practice-oriented” scholars.

Clusters 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, and 12 confirm again the production of knowledge within collaborations between the fields of health, nursing, psychology, and social work. Worth mentioning are clusters 10 (pink) and 9 (pale violet), in which disciplines such as health, medicine, and nursing are more oriented towards ethnic minority groups (e.g., African Americans, internally displaced women) and gender/sex minority groups (LGBTQA + , queer communities). Cluster 9 also includes scholars in the field of critical studies, using qualitative approaches such as participatory methods. Finally, cluster 11 (light green) stands somewhat apart, with scholars working in the field of psychology/social work, specialising in child welfare, violence, and trauma.

Looking at country networking (co-authorship analysis based on authors’ affiliations) (Fig.  5 ), at the centre of the map below, the US shows the largest overall output in terms of co-authorship links. Nevertheless, the US stands on its own (isolated at the centre of the map), reflecting its overall lower weight of international co-authorships compared to the total number of documents published. US scholars collaborate most closely with Canada, followed by the UK, Australia, and South Asian and South American countries. On the contrary, European countries conform to the international trend, and particularly strong links exist between the UK and Nordic countries. Spain, Italy, Germany, and France display a slightly different international trend, oriented bidirectionally: international collaborations have developed between EU countries and with non-EU countries. This two-dimensional internationalisation process might be explained by linguistic factors (e.g., France collaborates with Canada; Spain with Mexico and Colombia).

In Oceania and Asia as well, the development of international collaborations is comparatively lower and unevenly distributed. Finally, within African countries, South Africa displays a significant international trend, with a high proportion of links with Australia, the EU, Canada, and the US.

Discussions and conclusions

As shown in the results, the growth of publications between 2010 and 2021 testifies to a process of institutionalisation of GBV against women in resettlement contexts, which has developed around disciplines such as clinical psychology, medicine, health, nursing, and social work.

Our results indicate that the predominance of documents published in English by scholars collaborating within professional practice-oriented disciplines developed mainly in the US, Canada, and the EU. This might indicate that those scholars and their institutional affiliations occupy a position of relative power in the production of knowledge within their respective disciplines. Furthermore, the documents analysed in our dataset belong to specific disciplines such as medicine, health, psychiatry, psychology, and nursing, followed by social work and sociology. It is interesting to notice that migration studies have a less prominent position in our database, especially if we look at the 25 journals where the 25 most-cited migration studies articles where published (according to a recent bibliometrics analysis by Sirkeci et al., 2017 ) none of which were present in our database.

As reported by Fassin and Barnett ( 2016 , pp. 89–90), under pressure from feminist and gay rights movements, the Geneva Convention was updated to include recognition of persecution based on gender and sexual orientation. Its inclusion was legitimised based on the humanitarian aim of protecting women and liberating them from patriarchal domination (Fassin & Barnett, 2016 ). In the knowledge produced by scholars in fields connected to health and social work, we also see evidence of this humanitarian mission to identify mechanisms of protection for migrant women, facing the risk to shift attention away from structural forms of power and inequalities to focus instead on questions such as what the symptoms of traumatic experience are, and who is responsible and must therefore pay for social interventions and treatment (Fassin & Barnett, 2016 ). The community of practice-oriented scholars poses the question: “What can we do to help women who experience violence in the context of migration?”. To a certain extent, they also try to propose feasible short- and medium-term policy solutions and interventions (Hankivisky, 2012 ). At the same time, the transformative sides of the question —including what inequalities actually exist in relation to the problem; the identification, assurance, and implementation of possible long-term transformative solutions; and the measurement of outcomes to ensure that inequities are reduced — seem less relevant (Hankivisky, 2012 , pp. 41–42).

Finally, the US and Canada seem to represent self-referential actors (Fig.  5 ) while the UK and EU member states displayed a higher degree of international collaboration (the absolute number of international authorships based on the overall number of documents published by each country). This might be connected with the choice of terms used in our search and with the scope of our study, which was to identify documents published within the field of GBV against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies. Indeed, instrumental for international CSAs outside of academia is the conceptualisation of GBV in terms of both public problems to be tackled and public solutions to be identified. In the same way, within the academic field claim makers whose work is oriented towards both scientific and specific policy/practices are nurses, social workers, psychologists, physiatrists, and doctors, i.e., street-level bureaucrats with the public mission of rescuing, protecting, and rehabilitating by deploying specific values, work ethics, and beliefs that are communicated in the form of administrative practices, categories, classifications, variables, and definitions (Yanow, 2003 , pp. 8–9). In this sense, the production of knowledge responds to a practical logic, what Bourdieu called la raison pratique (Bourdieu, 1994 ), which serves to reflect, represent, describe, and give meaning to the everyday encounters of practitioners working not only in public agencies but also in civil society organisations (NGOs, INGOs, associations), and facing the double pressure of treating the symptoms of the violence on the one hand, and on the other, navigating social protection systems which restrict the possibilities for migrant women with precarious legal status to access their social rights in resettlement contexts.

The result showing an increasing academic knowledge production oriented towards the professional groups that are supposed to meet the needs of migrant women exposed to GBV rhymes well with the relevance of the issue and might be crucial to further develop and improve services that are based on scientific data and knowledge.

Limitations

Choice of the grey literature and terminology.

The grey literature is limited to international collaborations within EU countries, and it is not exhaustive. Further research could explore international collaborations in resettlement countries encompassing the EU states and CSAs. In this way, the complex query could be enriched with key terms that were not included in this exploratory bibliometric study. Suggested terms to be included are “survivors”, “psycho-social support”, “irregular migrant”, “host country”, and “LGBTQA + ”. Further research might also expand the bibliometrics analysis to include knowledge production looking at different membership regimes not exclusively focused on precarious legal status, which means including terms such as “refugee”, “refugee camps”, and “exile”.

Choice of bibliometrics analysis and literature review

Last, but not least, the authors must address the limitations of evidence-based methods and tools. The process of a systematic literature review and a bibliometric analysis of metadata, alongside the IBPA interpretative approach, helped in reconstructing the institutionalisation of the research field. The digital tools and the indexed databases assume the shape of a Trojan horse in the field of knowledge, using numerical measures to circulate high-quality peer-reviewed documents registered and made available by influential publishers who do not consider non-English and non-indexed, less-well institutionalised journals (Kofman, 2020 ). In addition, several research institutions, including universities, are developing technical tools for bibliometric analysis whose algorithms are heavily oriented towards commercial sources. Therefore, the results and rankings within our dataset have significant limitations in terms of the methods and tools used for the analysis. The systematic literature review and the bibliometric software have created, on the one hand, a transparent and reliable research framework. But on the other hand, the output of these sophisticated digital systems reproduces the structure of power, which strongly supports the English-speaking world and its commercial interests. Thus, this type of classification comes with a high risk of excluding influential researchers and voices outside traditional academic fields, who are nonetheless involved in important critical debates.

Availability of data and materials

The bibliographic metadata are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

The SEREDA Project is a major new research initiative that is being undertaken across the United Kingdom, Australia, Sweden and Turkey by a multi-country research team from the University of Birmingham, University of Melbourne, Uppsala University and Bilkent University. It is funded by German, Swedish, and EU donors, and carried out by academics and NGO actors in the UK, Australia, Turkey, and Sweden. (Retrieved from https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/superdiversity-institute/sereda/index.aspx ).

The IBPA (Hankivisky, 2012 ) is an analytical tool developed by the Institute for Intersectionality Research and Policy, Canada, for the analysis of public policies. It is composed of eight guiding principles (intersecting categories, multi-level analysis, power, reflexivity, time and space, diverse knowledge, social justice, and equity) and 12 questions (divided into five descriptive questions and seven transformative questions) with related sub-questions. The framework is flexible and can be used in combination with other methods and adapted to all areas of policy and interventions.

The equity principle extends the analysis of social inequalities to the concept of fairness by promoting analysis that considers ways of equalising health outcomes between more and less disadvantaged groups and communities (e.g., policies, interventions). The concept of inequality is used to measure differences in outcomes created by the social structure, while equity targets the root causes of inequalities created by the social structure and thus has a transformative intention.

("Violence against women" OR trafficking OR prostitution OR "sexual abuse" OR "interpersonal violence*” OR rape* OR "sexual violence*" OR "honour based violence" OR "sexual assault" OR "forced marriage*" OR stalk* OR "domestic violence*" OR "intimate partner* violence" OR "sex work*" OR victimisation OR violence* OR "institutional violence*") AND (helpline OR shelter* OR "social protection" OR "social work*" OR "social support" OR "welfare service*" OR rehabilitation OR "social policy*" OR "welfare policy*") AND (( women OR woman OR fem*) W/5 (migrant* OR "asylum seeker*" OR immigrant* OR displace* OR stateless)).

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CDM wrote paragraphs Introduction, Conceptualisation of gender-based violence (GBV) against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies, Current discussion at the cutting edge of Gender and Migration, Methods and tools, Analysis of the institutional field, Co-authorship network and Discussions and Conclusions, and the References. RS wrote Citation networks, cross-checked and edited the manuscript, and discussed with CDM key concepts and use of data and material. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Di Matteo, C., Scaramuzzino, R. Gender-based violence (GBV) against women with precarious legal status and their access to social protection in advanced welfare societies: an analytical contribution to reconstruct the research field and its institutional development. CMS 10 , 40 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-022-00314-z

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• Gender-based violence
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Calling domestic and family violence ‘gender-based’ invokes a decades-long set of debates and must be contextualised against the contested position of feminism more broadly. This chapter seeks theoretical clarity on what we mean when we call violence gender-based. Drawing on feminist scholarship and the example of intimate partner violence, it considers how violence is shaped by gender at three interrelated levels: gender identities and norms; gendered doings and interactions; and gendered structures and structural inequalities (Anderson in Violence Against Women 15:1444–1457, 2009). It outlines the most salient and defining features of gender-based violence, and how the concept can help us to understand domestic and family violence not only against women but against children as well. It proposes clarifying what we mean when we talk about gender-based violence, vital for persuasively articulating the utility of a gender lens.

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The role of social media abuse in gender- based violence: the challenge of vituperative communication in the age of new technology

Online abuse communicated via social networking sites has increased considerably in recent years, with a significant amount of vituperative communication targeted at women. This mixed methods study investigates the gendered online abuse received by women serving in the occupations of academia, journalism, policing, and politics. Written in the shadow of the murder of two Parliamentarians, the research considers how abuse in the online space echoes other forms of gender-based violence, drawing upon evidence gathered from 50 interviews, the analysis of three Twitter ‘storms’, and the review of a wide interdisciplinary corpus. This study reveals that the online abuse of women in high-profile, public facing occupations consists of seven elements: defamation, emotional harm, harassment, threat, belittlement, silencing, and criticism of appearance; and that at least one of these elements is present in every abusive encounter evidenced here. This research further demonstrates that the online abuse directed at women is misogynistic, frequently includes violent threats, and dismisses women’s contributions to online discussions. The study also reveals that the abuse directed at women varies by occupation, with police officers most likely to receive abuse that denigrates their ability or appearance; politicians and journalists more likely to receive violent threats, and academics receiving abuse of all types. The expectation that women maintain an online presence frequently acts as a trigger for abuse, with other determinants an increased focus on topics that compel individuals to take a binary stance; and the malign nature of political debate. The study concludes by presenting a series of recommendations, operating at the personal, organisational, legislative, and structural level. Ultimately, this doctoral research demonstrates that online abuse is about gender and is the consequence of being a woman on the internet. This thesis contains content that readers may find obscene and / or distressing.

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Prevalence and determinants of gender-based violence among high school female students in Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia: an institutionally based cross-sectional study

• Temesgen Tantu 1 ,
• Sintayehu Wolka 2 ,
• Muluken Gunta 3 ,
• Million Teshome 4 ,
• Hangatu Mohammed 2 &
• Bereket Duko 5 , 6  

BMC Public Health volume  20 , Article number:  540 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Gender-based violence (GBV) often occurs in resource-limited settings such as Ethiopia. It could result in psychological and physical adverse outcomes such as stress, anxiety, depression, unsafe abortion, unwanted pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and factors associated with gender-based violence among female high school students in Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia.

An institutionally based-cross-sectional study was conducted in Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia. A total of 604 female high school students were recruited through multi-stage stratified sampling techniques. The gender-based-violence assessment tool, validated by the World Health Organization, was used to assess gender-based-violence and other determinants. The strength of statistical association was measured by adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Statistical significance was declared at p -value < 0.05.

The lifetime prevalence of GBV, sexual violence, and physical violence were found to be 63.2, 37.2, and 56.3%, respectively. The prevalence of sexual violence before and after joining the current school as well as in the current academic year were 30.5, 37.2, and 22% respectively. Having regular boy-friends (AOR = 2.02; 95% CI:1.07–3.79), being sexually active (AOR = 6.10; 95% CI: 2.49–14.92), having female or male friends who drink alcohol (AOR = 2.18; 95% CI:1.26–3.77), students witnessed their mothers being beaten by their partners or husband (AOR = 1.92; 95% CI:1.19–3.11) and joining public school (AOR = 1.74; 95% CI:1.11–2.76) were significantly associated with gender-based violence.

The prevalence of gender-based-violence was high. This needs a due concern from governmental, non-governmental and civic organizations as well as other responsible bodies to tackle factors associated with GBV in this study. Further large scale studies incorporating male students are warranted to elucidate the factors associated with GBV in Ethiopia.

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Gender-based violence (GBV) is not only referring to the use of one’s power deliberately towards individuals, groups or community thereby resulting in any type of injury but also includes violence against a person based on gender [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Globally, it has been incorporated into a different types of codes such as civil and criminal codes [ 3 ]. Gender-based violence is also defined as violence towards minority groups, individuals and/or communities solely based on their gender which can directly or indirectly result in psychological, physical and sexual traumas or injury as well as deprivation of their right as a human being [ 4 ].

The issue of gender-based violence has been existing for a long period and was detected in different socio-cultural and geographic areas [ 5 ]. The global conference on human rights that held in Vienna in 1993, delivered due concern to issues regarding female’s lives, psychological integrity, physical bodies and liberty [ 6 ]. Further, other similar conferences also recognized GBV as an obstacle to the achievement of equity, development, and peace [ 7 , 8 , 9 ].

The physical and psychological consequences secondary to sexual violence are not only limited to the victims but also result in negative impacts on the society and communities as well [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Furthermore, GBV also hinders the daily life activities of women. Considering its socio-cultural impact on many aspects of life, it has been stated that “neglecting the offense is as equal as violating the fundamental right of human” and which is not acceptable, regardless of its occurrence [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Finding from an epidemiological study also suggested that GBV could affect female students’ academic capabilities [ 10 ]. These could include poor or decreased attention to the class lectures, absent from the school and dropping out of their class. As a result, young girls are facing hindrances to continue their education as desired, affecting school enrolments, expected to yield and increased dropping outs from schools [ 10 , 11 ].

Previous studies conducted in Ethiopia are a few in number and reported inconsistent results. For example, in some studies, the prevalence of GBV ranges between 34 and 65% [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Further, some of the factors suggested to be associated with GBV are not explicitly adjusted in different previous studies. However, per our knowledge no study has been conducted in the study area. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence and identify factors associated with gender-based violence among female students in Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia.

Study setting and population

An Institutionally based-cross-sectional study was employed among high school female students in Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia. Wolaita Sodo is the administrative capital city of Wolaita zone in Southern Ethiopia, which is found at 329 KM of south of Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. Based on the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) of 2011, it has the estimated population number of 76,050. There are seven high schools in the town. The study was conducted between in May 2017 and June 2017.

Sampling size and determination

Single population proportion formula was used to calculate the required sample size using the lifetime prevalence of physical violence among high school female students (29%) from the prior study mentioned elsewhere [ 13 ] considering 95% CI and 5% margin of error which resulted in a total of 633 students. We used a multi-stage stratified sampling techniques. First, the schools were stratified to private and public schools and then, we randomly selected four out of seven high schools. Proportion to population size sampling was used to allocate the students to their respective school and class. Lastly, systematic sampling technique was used to select students using students’ roster (name list) as a sampling frame. The total students (age  >  15 years) in each grade were divided by the allocated sample size for each grade to find the interval (K) and the 1st female students in each class was selected randomly using the lottery method. Twenty-nine students (29) were excluded from the study due to serious illness during the data collection period. The details of the sampling methods mentioned in Fig.  1 .

Diagrammatic presentation of sampling procedure on prevalence, consequences and associated factors of GBV in adolescent female high school student in Sodo town, Wolayta Zone, June 2018

Data collection instruments

The data was collected by trained data collectors and supervised on daily basis. Gender-Based Violence assessment tool, validated by the World Health Organization and adapted to Ethiopian context, was used to assess gender-based violence and other determinants of GBV [ 14 ]. This assessment tool along with other questionnaires was developed in the English language and then translated to Amharic language and back to the English language to ensure convenient information was retrieved. The tool consisted of socio demographic/background characteristics, family history, history of substances use and sexual history. A pre-test study before the actual data collection was done at Bodit secondary high school students. Then, we modified the questionnaire based on the feedback. Over-all the data collection tool was highly reliable in our pre-test with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.94.

Data processing and analyses

Data were checked for completeness and entered into Epi Info version 7 and then exported to SPSS version 20 for further data cleaning and analysis. Frequency distributions were obtained to check for data entry error (missing/unrecognized values and codes). Descriptive statistics, tables, graphs, means, and frequency distribution was used to present the information. The presence of an association between the independent and outcome variable was checked by the Pearson chi-square test. Additionally, each independent variable was fitted separately into bivariate logistic analysis to evaluate for the degree of association with gender-based violence and to check any variability between private and public school students. Also, a further degree of association was assessed by multivariate logistic regression on variables with p -values less than 0.25. The significance level was obtained with 95% CI and p -value < 0.05 to evaluate the degree of association between factors and GBV.

Socio-economic and demographic characteristics

A total of 604 out of 633 students were participated in the study giving a response rate of 95.4%. The mean age ( + SD) of the study participants was 17.08 ± 1.5 years. Of 604 students included in the study, 471 (78%) were from public schools and 417 (69%) were from Wolayta Sodo town. Among the respondents; 436 (72.2%) were grown in an urban setting, 455 (75.3%) were living with their parents, 26 (4.3%) were married and 206 (34.1%) had a boyfriend (Table  1 ).

Family history

Among students included this study; 438 (70.8%) were whose mothers were attended formal education, 238 (39.4%) reported that they were from families/guardian with good-income and 149 (24.7%) witnessed parental violence as a child (i.e. their mothers were beaten by a husband or male partner when they were child) (Table  2 ).

Substance abuse and related behaviors

The lifetime history of chewing chat (khat, Catha edulis ), smoking cigarette/tobacco, drinking alcohol and use of “ganja” was reported by 66 (10.9%), 49 (8.1%), 77 (12.7%) and 32(5.3%) of the respondents respectively (Table  3 ).

Sexual experiences

Of the total 604 students, 232 (28.4%) had regular boyfriends and 115 (19%) reported that they practiced sexual intercourse at least once in their life. The rate of involving in unintentional sexual intercourse was reported by 95 (79.2%) of students that practiced sexual intercourse at least once in their life. The mean age ( + SD) for having the first sexual intercourse were found to be 15.8 ± 1.5 years and the mean age ( + SD) for with whom sexual intercourse did was 22.2 ± 4.6 years with an average of around 7 years above the participants (Table  4 ).

The magnitude of GBV

The lifetime prevalence of GBV, sexual violence, and physical violence were found to be 63.2, 37.2, and 56.3%, respectively. Prevalence of GBV before joining the school, after joining the school and during the current academic year are 355(58.8%), 288(47.7%) and 254 (42.1%) respectively. Prevalence of sexual violence before and after joining the current school and in the current academic year were 30.5, 37.2, and 22% respectively.

Physical violence and implications

Of all respondents, 341(56.3%) reported physical violence once in their lifetime. Among respondents 306(50.7%) reported that violence happened before joining the school, 248 (41.1%) after joining the school and 208 (34.4%) sustained during this academic year (Fig.  2 ).

Victims of physical violence among high school female students, June 2018

Sexual violence

The lifetime prevalence of sexual violence among female students was found to be 37.2%, while sexual violence before joining the school, after joining the school and the current academic year was reported as 184 (30.5%), 147(24.3%) and 133(22%) respectively. The lifetime prevalence of complete rape was 112 (18.5%). Similarly, the report of complete rape; before joining and after joining the school and the current academic year were reported as 69(11.4%), 58(9.6%) and 32(5.3%) respectively (Table  5 ).

Perpetrators of gender-based violence

According to this study, the offenders of physical violence were family members /other relatives 177(50.2%), students 66(18.7%), teachers 45(12.7%), husbands/boyfriends/partner 45(12.7%) and strange 20(5.7%). However, in case of perpetrators of sexual violence, the boyfriend/husband takes the lead 57(28.9%), family members/ other relatives 42(21.2%), students 39(19. 8%), stranger 31 (15.7%) teachers 20(10.2%). Therefore, the report suggested that 80 and 94% of perpetrators were known by the victims during sexual and physical violence respectively.

Consequences of sexual violence

There was lots of reported health, psychological and other complications associated with sexual violence. Complications like: rejection from family 37(25.5%), rejection from friends/peers 34 (23.4%), poor academic achievement/ failure to continue the school 25(17.2%), withdrawal from schools 22(15.2%), alcohol dependency 9(6.2%), having multiple sexual partners 7(4.8%), sexual dependency/abuse 6(4.1%) and others 5 (3.4%) (Fig.  3 ).

Consequence of gender-based violence among high school female students, June 2018

Factors related to gender-based violence

Initially, bivariate logistic regression was conducted to identify variables found to be associated with GBV. Next, multivariate logistic regression analysis was employed to identify factors associated with GBV (Table  6 ). Multivariate analysis indicated that a female who had boyfriends (AOR = 2.022; 95% CI: 1.08–3.79) and who are sexually active (AOR = 6.10; 95% CI: 2.49–14.92) were two and six times more faced GBV as compared to those who didn’t have any sexual partner and start sexual intercourse respectively. Students who had female or male friends who drink alcohol were two times (AOR = 2.18; 95% CI: 1.26–3.77) more likely to experience GBV when compared to their counter parts. Similarly, female students who witnessed their mothers were being beaten by their partners were more likely to experience GBV as compared to those who didn’t witness any paternal violence (AOR = 1.92; 95% CI: 1.19–3.11). And also joining public school was found as a risk factor for GBV with AOR = 1.74 (95% CI: 1.10–2.76).

This study was conducted to investigate the prevalence and factors associated with gender-based-violence among female high school students in Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia. The lifetime prevalence of gender-based violence, sexual violence, and physical violence was 63.8, 37.2, and 56.2% respectively. The prevalence of GBV before joining the school, after joining the school and during the current academic year were 355 (58.8%), 288 (47.7%) and 254 (42.1%) respectively.

The lifetime prevalence of gender-based-violence among female students was in agreement with other previous studies conducted in Ethiopia and the pooled estimated prevalence of gender-based violence among adolescents attending higher educations in sub-Saharan African countries [ 12 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. For example, a cross-sectional study conducted to assess the prevalence and factors associated with gender-based-violence among high school students residing in rural areas of Hadiya zone in Ethiopia reported 62.2% [ 15 ]. Further, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis that investigated the prevalence of gender-based-violence among female students attending schools in sub-Saharan Africa also showed a much similar report [ 16 ]. However, the prevalence of GBV in this study was higher than the study conducted in Hawassa, Ethiopia that reported 24.4% [ 19 ] and a result of a meta-analysis conducted in 2018 [ 20 ]. The lifetime prevalence of sexual violence among female students in the current study (37.2%) was in-line with the findings from studies conducted in Ethiopia [ 16 , 21 , 22 ]. In contrast, an institutionally-based-cross-sectional study that included female students from schools in Addis Ababa and Western Shewa to investigate the prevalence of sexual violence reported 74.4% [ 23 ]. This is also supported by finding from a study conducted among female students at Ambo University in Ethiopia that indicated 76.4% of female students have at least one incident of sexual coercion [ 24 ]. The lifetime and current prevalence of physical violence was 56.3 and 34.4% respectively. These findings were in agreement with the result of another community-based study [ 25 ]. However, these findings were lower than the results from the institution-based cross-sectional studies conducted in Debre Markos [ 17 ] and Jimma University students [ 13 ], but much higher than a study finding from Mekelle in Ethiopia that reported 26.4% [ 18 ]. The variation in the prevalence of gender-based violence, sexual and physical violence may due to the difference in the study population (university students versus high-school students), socio-demographic characteristics, different definitions used for gender-based-violence, sexual and physical violence, sample size included in the study, data-collection methods used (self-administered versus interviewer-administered) and study design and setting (community-based versus institution-based).

Students who had regular boyfriends or partners were more likely to have gender-based violence when compared to their counterparts. This is also supported by a study conducted in Medawellabu University [ 26 ] and other studies mentioned elsewhere [ 25 ] which reported that a high prevalence of intimate partner violence. For example, a cross-sectional study conducted to investigate factors associated with sexual violence among female students reported a similar result [ 26 ]. This may be due to these students can spend time in private places where her boy-friend or partner forces them for unintentional sexual activity. This is also supported by studies that showed forced sexual activity is more likely to happen in the later stages of a dating relationship [ 27 ]. Additional studies also reported that the most frequently reported rapists to be a boyfriend or partner [ 28 , 29 ].

The odds of having gender-based-violence were six and two times higher in students who witnessed their mothers being beaten by their partners or husband and started sexual intercourse when compared to those who did not respectively. This is also complemented by other previous studies that reported a strong association between witnessing parental gender-based-violence during childhood period and gender-based-violence at their later adolescence ages [ 18 , 26 , 30 , 31 ]. A meta-analysis conducted to assess the association between child witnesses to domestic violence and child problems in the later age reported much similar result [ 32 ].

Students attending their classes at private schools were less likely to have physical violence when compared to their counterparts. This may be due to strictness of rules and obligations at private schools which is usually not the case in the public schools as well as poor management of students due to large number may be contributed to this variation.

The odds of having gender-based-violence were two times higher in students who had friends (male or female) drink alcohol when compared to students who did not have friends who drink either. This is consistent with findings from the studies in Mekele [ 18 ], Western Ethiopia and Addis Ababa University in which sexual violence was associated with having friends who drink alcohol [ 31 , 33 , 34 ]. Drinking alcohol could result in poor judgment and predispose female students to either physical violence or sexual violence.

This study also found that the social, physical and psychological consequences of gender-based-violence. Gender-based-violence resulted in several social problems (rejection from the school and sexual dependency) and, health-related problems such as unwanted pregnancy, abortions, vaginal discharge, and injury to genitals and psychological complications such as self-blame, anxiety to the extent of having suicidal attempt. Further, family members/relatives and boyfriends/husbands take the frontline perpetrators of gender-based-violence which is in line with another previous study that suggested intimate partners were leaders in violence [ 35 ]. Although almost all perpetrators were known by the victims, less than 38% were brought to the legal body which calls for further interventions by stakeholders.

Strength and limitation of the study

The nature of the study design i.e. cross-sectional study, it will not tell us time association between the factors and the outcome variables. The burden of the problem may be underestimated since there are dropouts and absentee from the victims.

The prevalence of gender-based violence was high in the study area. This study recruited large sample size and hence it can be generalizable to other similar cities in the country. Having regular boy-friends, being sexually active, having female or male friends who drink alcohol, witnessed while their mothers being beaten by their partners and joining public school were significantly associated with gender-based-violence. This needs a due concern from governmental, non-governmental and civic organizations as well as other responsible bodies to tackle factors that are being identified in the study area. Further large scale studies incorporating male students are warranted to elucidate the factors associated with GBV in Ethiopia.

Availability of data and materials

All relevant data are within the paper. Raw data can be accessible from the first and last author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

• Gender-based violence

Intimate partner violence against women

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Acknowledgements

The authors appreciate the College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Hawassa University, Ethiopia for funding the study. We would like to thank respective high school directors, teachers and other staffs for their genuine help during data collection.

The study data collection was funded by College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Hawassa University, Ethiopia. The funding body has no role in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript.

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School of medical sciences, Wolkite University, Wolkite, Ethiopia

Temesgen Tantu

Special Support Directorate, Federal Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Sintayehu Wolka & Hangatu Mohammed

Wolaita Zone Health Department, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

Muluken Gunta

Faculty of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia

Million Teshome

Faculty of Health Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia

Bereket Duko

School of Public Health, Curtin University, Perth, Australia

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TT, SW and MT were responsible for the formulation and designing of the research topic, acquisition of data and data analysis, interpretation of results and drafting of the manuscript. MG and HM supervised the data collection process and data analysis, writing as well as the review of the drafted manuscript. BD involved in the analysis, write-up and drafting the manuscript as well as editing the document for proof reading. All authors had full access to all the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of College of medicine and health sciences, Hawassa University, Ethiopia with ethical clearance letter no. RPGe/98/2017. The IRB has given ethical clearance for both oral and written informed consent. Both oral and written informed consent was obtained from students after they were introduced to the purpose of the study and informed about their rights to interrupt the interview at any time. In addition, written informed consent was obtained from a parent or guardian for students under 16 years old. Confidentiality was maintained by using an anonymous questionnaire and privacy was assured.

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Tantu, T., Wolka, S., Gunta, M. et al. Prevalence and determinants of gender-based violence among high school female students in Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia: an institutionally based cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 20 , 540 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08593-w

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The prevalence of sexual violence on college campuses has reached an alarming level. With some reports indicating that almost 20% of women experience attempted or completed rape after entering college, the call for intervention is at an all-time high (Krebs et al., 2009). One of the more recent and successful interventions has come in the form of bystander intervention, which calls upon the people around when the potential for a sexually violent situation develops and encourages them to step up and intervene (Banyard, Plante, Moynihan, 2005). This study looked into how college student athletes were different than their non-athlete peers on measures of willingness to intervene and actual intervention behaviors in situations of sexual violence. Intervention behavior was measured in terms of total opportunities to intervene, total intervention actions, total inactions, the proportion of actions per opportunity, and the proportion of inactions per opportunity. For any effect of athlete status on bystander intention or behavior, these potential mediators were investigated: drinking behavior, rape supportive attitudes, exposure to sexual violence education, and social connectedness. A two-way analysis of variance indicated gender and athlete status main effects and interactions. Several regression models explored the relationships of the potential mediating variables with these effects. Athletes were less willing to intervene but reported more frequent intervention behavior than non-athletes. Drinking behavior mediated the relationship between athlete status and willingness to intervene. These results indicate the field of bystander intervention should tailor intervention techniques to fit the student athlete population, and further to include in this intervention a discussion of how drinking behavior inhibits willingness to intervene in situations of sexual violence.

Nyberg, Björn. "Sociological Perspectives on Gender and Sexual Violence in The Handmaid's Tale." Thesis, Umeå universitet, Institutionen för språkstudier, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-151322.

Nordquist, Angelica. "Sexual Violence in South Africa : Religious leaders as local norm entrepreneurs." Thesis, Linnéuniversitetet, Institutionen för samhällsstudier (SS), 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-105249.

Alexandersson, Hanna. "Indian male voices on gender equality and sexual violence : a qualitative study." Thesis, Ersta Sköndal högskola, Institutionen för socialvetenskap, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:esh:diva-2437.

Nyman, Mikaela. "‘It is just culture’ : Eight young people’s perception of the gender roles in Zambia." Thesis, Linköpings universitet, Institutionen för kultur och kommunikation, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-97614.

Lindsey, Rose. "Nationalism and gender : a study of war-related violence against women." Thesis, University of Southampton, 2000. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.326731.

Proulx, Geneviève. "Male Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Schools: Barriers to Community Action and Strategies for Change. The Case of Awaso, Ghana." Thèse, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/20569.

Burke, Megan. "Gender and Time." Thesis, University of Oregon, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/19262.

Holmström, Elin. "Dimensions of power and gender based violence in post-disaster societies : A case study on Haiti after the 2010 earthquake." Thesis, Linnéuniversitetet, Institutionen för samhällsstudier (SS), 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-76343.

Odabashian, Gavin M. "“To Live Confidently, Courageously, and Hopefully": Challenging Patriarchy and Sexual Violence at Scripps College." Scholarship @ Claremont, 2013. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/247.

Gilkes, Madeleine. "'There was no one who could escape this horrible situation' : gender-based violence in the American-Viet Nam war, 1954-1975." Thesis, University of York, 2000. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/14040/.

Carroll, Emma. ""Was It Good For You?"/Is It Good for Us?: Implications of Sexual Scripting for Pleasure and Violence." The Ohio State University, 2019. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1563287501358132.

Scheer, Jillian Ryan. "Trauma-Informed Care for Sexual and Gender Minority Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence." Thesis, Boston College, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/2345/bc-ir:107451.

Anthony, Elizabeth Ruth. "Normative Violence? The Impact of Gender-neutral Language on Self-reported Rates of Sexual Violence Victimization and Perpetration." Digital Archive @ GSU, 2008. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/psych_theses/52.

Souza, Cesário da Silva. "Caracterização da violência sexual em mulheres na cidade de Ribeirão Preto - SP." Universidade de São Paulo, 2012. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/17/17139/tde-11082015-131209/.

Cima, Samantha. "Expanding Posttraumatic Growth: An Examination of Male Survivors of Sexual Violence." Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/39549.

Svensson, Julia. "Responsibility to Represent : Representation of conflict related sexual and gender-based violence; a thematic analysis of World Bank and ICRC documents." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Teologiska institutionen, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-389700.

Hargis, Kathleen J. "Contextualizing Empowerment Discourse in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo: A Case Study of the Ushindi Project." Ohio University / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou1338573094.

Gammon, J. D. "Ravishment and ruin : the construction of stories of sexual violence in England, c.1640-1820." Thesis, University of Essex, 2000. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.326830.

Saxena, Anshul. "Theory of Gender and Power: Intimate Partner Violence, HIV Status and Sexual Risk Behaviors in Haitian Women." FIU Digital Commons, 2017. http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/3200.

Mazimhaka, Anne P. Inturire. "Much to be done: towards an effective transitional justice model for dealing with conflict-related crimes of sexual and gender-based violence." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/4719.

McGraw, Lora K. "Challenging masculinities: a program analysis of male-based university sexual violence prevention programs." Thesis, Kansas State University, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/2097/35389.

Liljeroos, Thea. "Caring for migrant women affected by sexual and gender-based violence: Experiences of healthcare providers in Europe and North America : A meta-synthesis." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Internationell mödra- och barnhälsovård (IMCH), 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-387825.

Walsh, Brian P. "The rape of Tokyo| Legends of mass sexual violence and exploitation during the occupation of Japan." Thesis, Princeton University, 2016. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10120354.

Much recent writing on the Occupation of Japan has challenged the traditional picture of a well-disciplined American army laying the groundwork for Japan’s transition to democracy by the example of its behavior. Instead it depicts the Occupation, especially its opening phase, as marred by the widespread rape of Japanese women by American servicemen. In addition, many writers claim the United States encouraged, requested or even ordered the Japanese government to establish brothels for its troops. Copious documentation of American behavior from both Japanese and American sources does not support such claims. Rather, it makes very clear that though there were a fair number of reported rapes of Japanese women by American and other Allied servicemen, stories of mass rape during any period of the Occupation, including its opening phase, are simply not credible. In addition the contemporary record suggests that American authorities regarded prostitution not as a benefit for their troops, but as an entrenched social problem which they tolerated reluctantly. This raises the question of how such stories became incorporated into the mainstream. Part of the reason for this was the psychic environment in which these stories were originally created. There is an innate and deep-seated association between rape and war in the human psyche. The Japanese understanding of war in the mid-twentieth century reinforced this association. Rape also served as a metaphor for the American conquest of Japan. GHQ robbed Japanese men of their control of women’s sexuality. Many women then used their sexual autonomy to consort with American soldiers. To many this seemed like a hypocritical seizure of Japanese women, a rape of sorts. Shortly after the Occupation ended a leftist anti-American propaganda campaign and a boom in exploitation literature coincided to produce a great number of works purporting to be true exposes of American cruelties. Though these books are wholly unreliable, and contradict contemporary evidence, many have been incorporated into mainstream history. This is an error. Stories of mass rape and organized sexual exploitation during the Occupation are better understood as metaphoric expressions of the humiliation of defeat, occupation and continuing diplomatic subordination, than as history.

Back, Madeleine. "Determinants of Intimate Partner SexualViolence against Women in India." Thesis, Mittuniversitetet, Institutionen för hälsovetenskap, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:miun:diva-41032.

Betyg i Ladok 201214.

Kumar, Megha. "Communal riots, sexual violence and Hindu nationalism in post-independence Gujarat (1969-2002)." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2009. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2b06b4e0-afac-4571-ab46-44968d36b17c.

Pia, Christina Kalus. "Redressing female victims of sexual violence: possibilities for gender-specific reparations at the International Criminal Court." Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2011. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_1824_1373278492.

This paper is about the reparations regime of the International Criminal Court and reparations possibilities for victims of sexual violence. It will contain a legal analysis of the reparations system of  the Court, including the Trust Fund for Victims of the International Criminal Court. In a second step, the needs of women who experienced conflict related violence will be examined. The central    question, which this paper will try to answer, is whether the ICC reparations regime has the ability to provide gender-sensitive reparations and thus make a contribution to the improvement of  women&rsquo s lives in post-conflict societies.

Gomes, Melissa Elisabete Silva Lopez. "Mulheres refugiadas na União Europeia : políticas, percursos e violência de género." Master's thesis, Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/10400.5/20942.

Källvik, Emma. "A Critical Discourse Analysis of Sexual Violence and Power : #metoo in Swedish media." Thesis, Linköpings universitet, Tema Genus, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-149794.

Mbesherubusa, Mittag Danielle. "Persistent, ‘Me Too’? Voices from the Past : An Analysis of Testimonials on Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in the Congo Free State (1885-1908)." Thesis, Malmö universitet, Institutionen för konst, kultur och kommunikation (K3), 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-45698.

Ozel, Gulen. "Sexual Violence Against Women In Civil Wars: An Analysis Of Yugoslavian Civil War." Master's thesis, METU, 2006. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12607244/index.pdf.

Engström, Sara. "The Narrative of Conflict Minerals : An Exploration of Sexual Gender-Based Violence and Socioeconomic Impacts of the Dodd-Frank Act in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Statsvetenskapliga institutionen, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-324548.

Hamel, Marie-Eve. "Mediated voices : nation/state-building, NGOs and survivors of sexual violence in postconflict Rwanda and Bosnia-Herzegovina." Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/23509.

Melake, Yordanos. "Women in Conflict: The Relationship between Female Participation in Non-State Armed Groups and Sexual Violence." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för freds- och konfliktforskning, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-385112.

Peltola, Larissa. "Rape and Sexual Violence Used as a Weapon of War and Genocide." Scholarship @ Claremont, 2018. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/1965.

Kline, Kathleen Elizabeth. "Collegiate dating violence: A quantitative analysis of attachment style and help -seeking behavior by gender and sexual orientation." ScholarWorks, 2009. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/726.

Krolnik, Campos Monica. "The Impact of Sexual Assault Training and Gender on Rape Attitudes." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2019. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/796.

Coleman, Anne M. "The clinician's experience of working in complex psychological trauma (CPT), gender based violence/childhood sexual abuse : an interpretative phenomenological analysis of the impact of CPT work." Thesis, Glasgow Caledonian University, 2015. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.743884.

Schmitz, Kelsey Catherine. "Shut Up and Play, or Get Out: A Pedagogy of Gendered Digital Identities in Video Gaming." Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/38053.

Andrade, Adathiane Farias de. "Rompendo o silêncio: uma análise sobre as histórias de meninas com vivências de abuso sexual atendidas pelo CREAS do município de João Pessoa." Universidade Federal da Paraí­ba, 2011. http://tede.biblioteca.ufpb.br:8080/handle/tede/7224.