verbal linguistic intelligence essay

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

A Comprehensive Guide to Verbal Linguistic Intelligence

Do you love reading, writing, and languages?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

andreswd / E+ / Getty

• Characteristics
• Developing Verbal Linguistic Skills
• Real-World Applications
• Enhancing These Skills in Kids

Verbal-linguistic intelligence involves the capacity to understand and reason with words and language. People with strong verbal-linguistic intelligence are skilled in reading, writing, listening , and communicating. They are adept at getting their messages across in words and often enjoy doing things like reading books, writing stories, or solving word problems.

"Verbal-linguistic intelligence is the ability to understand and effectively explain concepts through language or words," explains Courtney Morgan, LPCC, a licensed therapist and founder of Counseling Unconditionally . "A person with high levels of verbal-linguistic intelligence is able to comprehend and verbally explain things effectively."

This concept is part of Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences , which suggests that there are several different forms of intelligence based on specific strengths and abilities. Verbal-linguistic intelligence refers to the capacity to understand the nuances of written and spoken language. People with this capacity are great communicators and often excel in writing, editing, teaching, journalism, or law careers.

At a Glance

If you love reading and writing, are great at word games, and tend to pick up foreign languages easily, then you probably have a high level of verbal linguistic intelligence. People with this type of intelligence tend to do well in school and careers that rely on communication abilities. Keep reading to learn more about the key characteristics of this type of intelligence and how you can strengthen these skills in yourself and in your kids.

Characteristics of Verbal Linguistic Intelligence

Some of the traits and characteristics of people who are high in verbal-linguistic intelligence include the following:

Appreciate the Power of Words

The verbal linguistic type of intelligence is all about having a love for words. People who excel in this area love using, hearing, and expressing themselves through language. They live for their Libby app to download books from their public library, have a stack of journals on their desk, and love to have a good debate over the correct use of a specific word.

When it comes to psychotherapy, people with this type of intelligence may find bibliotherapy particularly helpful. This type of therapy utilizes literature to help people connect what they read in stories with what they are experiencing in their own lives.

Strong Vocabularies

They also have an extensive and diverse lexicon that allows them to effortlessly inject daily conversations with sometimes esoteric terms that might send others running to the nearest dictionary. Their vocabulary is rich and varied, and they are great at picking up the meaning of new terms based on context.

Love for Reading and Writing

People with high verbal linguistic intelligence are skilled at understanding and communicating with the written word. They are often described as bookworms and often prefer to express themselves through writing (which is why you might find them texting rather than returning phone calls).

Strong Memory for Words, Phrases, and Quotes

People with this type of intelligence are often good at pulling up a specific word, quote, or phrase. For some, this might mean recalling important details of what someone has said or something they read. In other cases, it might mean being able to recite their favorite Shakespearean soliloquy years after reading it.

Passion for Word Games

Their favorite type of games are often word games, puns, or other linguistic puzzles. Wordle, Scrabble, and Words with Friends are just a few that they probably play on a regular basis.

Strong Powers of Persuasion

Because they are so skilled with words, people with this type of intelligence are also skilled at crafting arguments. They are able to utilize their mastery of the written and spoken word to persuade others to see things from their point of view or even change their own perspective.

Examples of Verbal Linguistic Intelligence

Verbal linguistic intelligence isn't just something that people utilize in academic settings—it's an ability that suffuses every aspect of a person's life. For example:

In relationships...

Someone with this type of intelligence is able to communicate effectively. This helps strengthen their connection with other people by conveying information clearly, avoiding miscommunications, and minimizing conflicts.

In the workplace...

Verbal linguistic intelligence often gets a chance to shine. From writing reports to crafting emails to presenting during meetings, language skills often give these individuals an edge that helps them stand out.

In everyday life...

Strong verbal and linguistic abilities often translate to hobbies and activities that center on the written or spoken word. People with this type of intelligence might spend their leisure time reading the latest bestsellers and sharing their thoughts with BookTok (the TikTok community dedicated to reading), or even writing their own original articles, fiction books, non-fiction works, blog posts, or poetry.

Verbal linguistic skills are also important when it comes to picking up new languages. Having a high level of linguistic intelligence can be helpful when it comes to grasping the rules of grammar, acquiring new vocabulary, and picking up on pronunciation patterns.

Developing Verbal Linguistic Intelligence

According to Gardner, people often naturally have high levels of one or more of the nine types of intelligence he described. However, there are also plenty of things you can do to nurture and strengthen your verbal linguistic abilities.

"People can develop and strengthen verbal-linguistic intelligence by reading, writing, participating in speaking engagements, listening to podcasts, and playing word games," Morgan suggests.

She also recommends a few specific strategies that can help people sharpen their verbal linguistic proficiency.

Some specific examples of strategies to build verbal-linguistic intelligence include writing letters to loved ones, listening to interesting podcasts during your commutes or downtime, reading blogs, books, or magazines, and offering to give a presentation at work.

Set Some Reading Goals

One of the best ways to develop your verbal linguistic intelligence is to go back to the basics–read, read, read. Focus on reading widely and consume a diverse range of materials, whether it's books, online articles, poetry, non-fiction books, and essays.

Widening your horizon and exploring different formats, writing styles, and genres can increase your vocabulary and help you gain a greater appreciation for the written word.

Start Writing More

You don't need to become a novelist to be a great writer! Get more writing practice in each day by taking small steps. Start keeping a daily journal where you write down a few thoughts or respond to specific prompts. Consider starting a blog on a subject you enjoy talking about or are interested in learning more about.

Experiment with different types of writing, including using various perspectives to enhance your ability to communicate in different ways and to different audiences.

Build Your Vocabulary

Work on strengthening your knowledge and use of different words and their meanings. Sign up for a word-of-the-day course that delivers a new term to your inbox daily. You can also try vocabulary apps, flashcards, or desktop calendars that feature a new word each day.

Strike Up Conversations

You can also put your budding verbal-linguistic skills to good use in your daily conversations. Participate in conversations with your friends, family, co-workers, and others. It's a great way to practice putting your thoughts and ideas into words in a way that is clear, coherent, and meaningful.

Discussions also allow you to learn more about diverse perspectives and opinions, which can further broaden your skills and knowledge.

Join a Club, Workshop, or Class

There are various informal and formal opportunities to broaden your verbal and linguistic skills. Some ideas to consider include:

• Book clubs , which encourage both reading and discussions
• Writing workshops , where you can work on specific writing skills and get feedback from your peers
• Language and writing classes , where you can receive formal instruction on aspects of writing and language, including grammar, style, and structure

Using Verbal Linguistic Intelligence in the Real World

Whether you have a natural born inclination toward verbal linguistic intelligence or it’s a skill you’re still working to develop, it’s a talent you’re likely to utilize in many different real-world situations. Some professionals who rely heavily on these abilities include:

• Teachers : In academic settings, educators use verbal linguistic skills to communicate information and help students learn effectively. Teachers use these abilities to convey information and explain concepts to students.
• Journalists : Writers use verbal linguistic intelligence to create material for newspapers, websites, magazines, and other media outlets. These abilities allow them to craft compelling stories, essays, reports, and articles that help inform and entertain their readers.
• Customer service : Those who work in customer service roles rely on their verbal linguistic intelligence to help them listen and interact with customers, communicate the right message, and provide useful assistance.
• Attorneys : Legal professionals rely on their verbal linguistic skills during courtroom proceedings, while creating legal documents, and during client negotiations.
• Advertisers and marketers : Professionals who work in areas like copywriting, digital marketing, and advertising rely on their verbal linguistic abilities to create messaging that grabs consumers' attention and interest.
• Politics : Politicians and public officials need strong verbal linguistic talents to help articulate their stances, craft public policy, and engage in political dialogues.
• Mental health professionals : Verbal linguistic abilities are vital for therapists and counselors as they work with clients during sessions and assist their clients in learning to express their own thoughts and feelings effectively.

Enhancing Verbal Linguistic Intelligence in Children

Parents can also take steps to foster strong verbal linguistic skills in their children. Reading to them is one important way to help build this type of intelligence.

Regularly reading aloud to your kids, and letting them read to you, helps expose them to a diverse vocabulary and learn more about important aspects of language and grammar.

"Parents and teachers can promote verbal-linguistic intelligence in children by reading to them, encouraging them to participate in social clubs and activities, and engaging in conversations with them regularly," Morgan suggests.

Some specific strategies that can help kids strengthen these abilities include:

• Let kids explain how to do things : Morgan suggests asking kids to explain or teach something to you. It’s a great way to practice their verbal skills, express themselves, encourage critical thinking skills, and build effective communication skills .
• Have kids introduce themselves to peers : Morgan recommends encouraging kids to introduce themselves to other children. This is great practice and allows kids to practice skills like taking turns, listening actively , and responding appropriately.
• Writing thank you cards : After a birthday or other event, Morgan suggests helping your child write and send thank you cards. This gives kids a chance to express themselves in a thoughtful way and encourages them to work on things like vocabulary and sentence structure.
• Talk to them : Engage your kids in meaningful conversations. Listen to what they have to say and encourage them to listen to what you have to say.
• Try word games : Games like Scrabble and other word association games are a fun way to encourage your child's budding verbal-linguistic abilities.

It's important to remember that verbal linguistic intelligence is just one type of strength that you might have. If you are high in this ability, you probably excel in tasks that require verbal abilities, such as reading, writing, spelling, grammar, and language. 

Even if this isn't one of your main strengths, there are things you can do to exercise your verbal skills. Remember, however, that everyone has their own talents. There's no single way to be smart, so it's important to recognize your own abilities and strengths. Examples of other types of intelligence you might possess include naturalistic intelligence , intrapersonal intelligence , and visual spatial intelligence .

Shearer B. Multiple intelligences in teaching and education: Lessons learned from neuroscience . J Intell . 2018;6(3):38. doi:10.3390/jintelligence6030038

Al-Qatawneh SS, Alsalhi NR, Eltahir ME, Siddig OA. The representation of multiple intelligences in an intermediate Arabic-language textbook, and teachers' awareness of them in Jordanian schools . Heliyon . 2021;7(5):e07004. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07004

Şener S, Çokçalışkan A. An investigation between multiple intelligences and learning styles . JETS . 2018;6(2):125. doi:10.11114/jets.v6i2.2643

Scholastic. The different ways your child learns .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• Trying to Conceive
• Signs & Symptoms
• Pregnancy Tests
• Fertility Testing
• Fertility Treatment
• Weeks & Trimesters
• Staying Healthy
• Preparing for Baby
• Complications & Concerns
• Pregnancy Loss
• Breastfeeding
• School-Aged Kids
• Raising Kids
• Personal Stories
• Everyday Wellness
• Safety & First Aid
• Immunizations
• Food & Nutrition
• Active Play
• Pregnancy Products
• Nursery & Sleep Products
• Nursing & Feeding Products
• Clothing & Accessories
• Toys & Gifts
• Ovulation Calculator
• Pregnancy Due Date Calculator
• How to Talk About Postpartum Depression
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board

Understanding the Verbal Linguistic Learning Style

Verbal-linguistic learning style, or intelligence, is one of eight types of learning styles defined in Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner's theory, developed during the 1960s, helps teachers, trainers, and employers adjust their teaching styles to fit the needs of different learners.

Verbal-linguistic learning style refers to a person's ability to reason, solve problems, and learn using language. Because so much of the school curriculum is taught verbally, verbal-linguistic learners tend to do well in school. They may also excel in typical university settings. It is important to bear in mind, however, that verbal-linguistic ability is not a synonym for intelligence.

Characteristics

Verbal-linguistically talented people flourish in school activities such as reading and writing. They express themselves well and are usually good listeners with a well-developed memory for the material they've read and strong recall of spoken information.

Language fascinates people with verbal-linguistic learning styles, and they enjoy learning new words and exploring ways to creatively use language, as in poetry. They may enjoy learning new languages, memorizing tongue twisters, playing word games, and reading.  

Verbal-linguistic learners are often good at tests that build on the ability to quickly and accurately respond to spoken or written instructions. This makes it easier for such learners to excel on standardized exams, IQ tests, and quizzes. It's important to remember, however, that language-based tests measure only one form of intelligence.

How These Learners Learn Best

People with verbal-linguistic learning styles learn best when taught using spoken or written materials. They prefer activities that are based on language reasoning rather than abstract visual information. Math word problems are more appealing to verbal-linguistic learners than solving equations. They usually enjoy written projects, speech and drama classes, debate, language classes, and journalism.

Verbal-linguistic learners may have a harder time with hand-eye coordination or visual-spatial tasks. They may also find it difficult to interpret a visual presentation of information. For example, it may be harder for verbal-linguistic learners to read a chart, interpret a graph, or understand a mind-map.

Verbal lessons

Reading materials

Math story problems

Written projects

Presentation projects

Abstract visuals such as charts or graphs

Pure math problems

Hands-on projects with minimal verbal or written instructions

Projects relying on hand-eye coordination

Recognize Verbal-Linguistic Learners

Verbal-linguistic learners enjoy language and are thus likely to enjoy games that involve wordplay. They are often attracted to puns, language-based jokes, and games like Boggle or Scrabble. They tend to be voracious readers and, in many cases, prolific writers.

Some verbal-linguistic learners can become so intrigued by proper language use that they may correct others' grammatical mistakes or point out the misuse of words or language. Some verbal-linguistic learners find it easy to learn other languages, though they may not be able to fully explain grammatical rules.

Career Choices

Verbal-linguistic learning style students with high levels of verbal intelligence often seek careers such as teaching English, language arts, drama, and debate at k-12 or postsecondary institutions. They frequently choose careers such as professional writer, news correspondent, poet, creative writer, attorney, publicist, advertising agent, psychologist, speech pathologist, and editorial positions.

Sener S, Cokcaliskan A. An investigation between multiple intelligences and learning styles . J Educ Train Stud . 2018;6(2). doi:10.11114/jets.v6i2.2643

Scholastic. Adapting instruction to multiple intelligences .

Scholastic. Checklist: Learning activities that connect with multiple intelligences .

By Ann Logsdon Ann Logsdon is a school psychologist specializing in helping parents and teachers support students with a range of educational and developmental disabilities. 

Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Michele Marenus

Research Scientist

B.A., Psychology, Ed.M., Harvard Graduate School of Education

Michele Marenus is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Michigan with over seven years of experience in psychology research.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Howard Gardner first proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in his 1983 book “Frames of Mind”, where he broadens the definition of intelligence and outlines several distinct types of intellectual competencies.

Gardner developed a series of eight inclusion criteria while evaluating each “candidate” intelligence that was based on a variety of scientific disciplines.

He writes that we may all have these intelligences, but our profile of these intelligences may differ individually based on genetics or experience.

Gardner defines intelligence as a “biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture” (Gardner, 2000, p.28).

What is Multiple Intelligences Theory?

• Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have.
• This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of intelligence, sometimes known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities.
• To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types of intelligences consisting of: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist.
• Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical-mathematical modalities are most typed valued in school and society.
• Gardner also suggests that there may other “candidate” intelligences—such as spiritual intelligence, existential intelligence, and moral intelligence—but does not believe these meet his original inclusion criteria. (Gardner, 2011).

Linguistic Intelligence (word smart)

Linguistic Intelligence is a part of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory that deals with sensitivity to the spoken and written language, ability to learn languages, and capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals.

Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to use language masterfully to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. It includes the ability to manipulate syntax, structure, semantics, and phonology of language.

People with linguistic intelligence, such as William Shakespeare and Oprah Winfrey, have the ability to analyze information and create products involving oral and written language, such as speeches, books, and memos.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your linguistic intelligence:

Lawyer Speaker / Host Author Journalist Curator

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (number/reasoning smart)

Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.

Logical-mathematical intelligence involves the ability to use logic, abstractions, reasoning, and critical thinking to solve problems. It includes the capacity to understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal system.

People with logical-mathematical intelligence, such as Albert Einstein and Bill Gates, have an ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations, and solve abstract problems.

Careers you could dominate with your logical-mathematical intelligence:

Mathematician Accountant Statistician Scientist Computer Analyst

Spatial Intelligence (picture smart)

Spatial intelligence involves the ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately. It includes the ability to transform, modify, or manipulate visual information. People with high spatial intelligence are good at visualization, drawing, sense of direction, puzzle building, and reading maps.

Spatial intelligence features the potential to recognize and manipulate the patterns of wide space (those used, for instance, by navigators and pilots) as well as the patterns of more confined areas, such as those of importance to sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or architects.

People with spatial intelligence, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Amelia Earhart, have the ability to recognize and manipulate large-scale and fine-grained spatial images.

Careers you could dominate with your spatial intelligence:

Pilot Surgeon Architect Graphic Artist Interior Decorator

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (body smart)

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body (like the hand or the mouth) to solve problems or to fashion products.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves using the body with finesse, grace, and skill. It includes physical coordination, balance, dexterity, strength, and flexibility. People with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are good at sports, dance, acting, and physical crafts.

People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such as Michael Jordan and Simone Biles, can use one’s own body to create products, perform skills, or solve problems through mind–body union.

Careers you could dominate with your bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:

Dancer Athlete Surgeon Mechanic Carpenter Physical Therapist

Musical Intelligence (music smart)

Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.

Musical intelligence involves the ability to perceive, discriminate, create, and express musical forms. It includes sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, melody, and tone color. People with high musical intelligence are good at singing, playing instruments, and composing music.

People with musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed Sheeran, have the ability to recognize and create musical pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone.

Careers you could dominate with your musical intelligence:

Singer Composer DJ Musician

Interpersonal Intelligence (people smart)

Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and, consequently, to work effectively with others.

Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to understand and interact effectively with others. It includes sensitivity to other people’s moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires. People with high interpersonal intelligence communicate well and can build rapport.

People with interpersonal intelligence, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa, have the ability to recognize and understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.

Careers you could dominate with your interpersonal intelligence:

Teacher Psychologist Manager Salespeople Public Relations

Intrapersonal Intelligence (self-smart)

Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself, to have an effective working model of oneself, including one’s desires, fears, and capacities—and to use such information effectively in regulating one’s own life.

It includes self-awareness, personal cognizance, and the ability to refine, analyze, and articulate one’s emotional life.

People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle and Maya Angelou, have the ability to recognize and understand his or her own moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.

This type of intelligence can help a person understand which life goals are important and how to achieve them.

Careers you could dominate with your intrapersonal intelligence:

Therapist Psychologist Counselor Entrepreneur Clergy

Naturalist intelligence (nature smart)

Naturalist intelligence involves the ability to recognize, categorize, and draw upon patterns in the natural environment. It includes sensitivity to the flora, fauna, and phenomena in nature. People with high naturalist intelligence are good at classifying natural forms.

Naturalistic intelligence involves expertise in recognizing and classifying the numerous species—the flora and fauna—of his or her environment.

People with naturalistic intelligence, such as Charles Darwin and Jane Goddall, have the ability to identify and distinguish among different types of plants, animals, and weather formations that are found in the natural world.

Careers you could dominate with your naturalist intelligence:

Botanist Biologist Astronomer Meteorologist Geologist

Critical Evaluation

Most resistance to multiple intelligences theory has come from cognitive psychologists and psychometricians. Cognitive psychologists such as Waterhouse (2006) claimed that there is no empirical evidence to the validity of the theory of multiple intelligences.

Psychometricians, or psychologists involved in testing, argue that intelligence tests support the concept for a single general intelligence, “g”, rather than the eight distinct competencies (Gottfredson, 2004). Other researchers argue that Gardner’s intelligences comes second or third to the “g” factor (Visser, Ashton, & Vernon, 2006).

Some responses to this criticism include that the multiple intelligences theory doesn’t dispute the existence of the “g” factor; it proposes that it is equal along with the other intelligences. Many critics overlook the inclusion criteria Gardner set forth.

These criteria are strongly supported by empirical evidence in psychology, biology, neuroscience, among others. Gardner admits that traditional psychologists were valid in criticizing the lack of operational definitions for the intelligences, that is, to figure out how to measure and test the various competencies (Davis et al., 2011).

Gardner was surprised to find that Multiple Intelligences theory has been used most widely in educational contexts. He developed this theory to challenge academic psychologists, and therefore, he did not present many educational suggestions. For this reason, teachers and educators were able to take the theory and apply it as they saw fit.

As it gained popularity in this field, Gardner has maintained that practitioners should determine the theory’s best use in classrooms. He has often declined opportunities to aid in curriculum development that uses multiple intelligences theory, opting to only provide feedback at most (Gardner, 2011).

Most of the criticism has come from those removed from the classroom, such as journalists and academics. Educators are not typically tied to the same standard of evidence and are less concerned with abstract inconsistencies, which has given them the freedom to apply it with their students and let the results speak for itself (Armstrong, 2019).

Shearer (2020) provides extensive empirical evidence from neuroscience research supporting MI theory.

Shearer reviewed evidence from over 500 functional neuroimaging studies that associate patterns of brain activation with the cognitive components of each intelligence.

The visual network was associated with the visual-spatial intelligence, somatomotor networks with kinesthetic intelligence, fronto-parietal networks with logical and general intelligence, auditory networks with musical intelligence, and default mode networks with intra- and interpersonal intelligences. The coherence and distinctiveness of these networks provides robust support for the neural validity of MI theory

He concludes that human intelligence is best characterized as being multiple rather than singular, with each person possessing unique neural potentials aligned with specific intelligences.

Implications for Learning

The most important educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences can be summed up through individuation and pluralization. Individuation posits that because each person differs from other another there is no logical reason to teach and assess students identically.

Individualized education has typically been reserved for the wealthy and others who could afford to hire tutors to address individual student’s needs.

Technology has now made it possible for more people to access a variety of teachings and assessments depending on their needs. Pluralization, the idea that topics and skills should be taught in more than one way, activates an individual’s multiple intelligences.

Presenting a variety of activities and approaches to learning helps reach all students and encourages them to be able to think about the subjects from various perspectives, deepening their knowledge of that topic (Gardner, 2011b).

A common misconception about the theory of multiple intelligences is that it is synonymous with learning styles. Gardner states that learning styles refer to the way an individual is most comfortable approaching a range of tasks and materials.

Multiple intelligences theory states that everyone has all eight intelligences at varying degrees of proficiency and an individual’s learning style is unrelated to the areas in which they are the most intelligent.

For example, someone with linguistic intelligence may not necessarily learn best through writing and reading. Classifying students by their learning styles or intelligences alone may limit their potential for learning.

Research shows that students are more engaged and learn best when they are given various ways to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, which also helps teachers more accurately assess student learning (Darling-Hammond, 2010).

Therapeutic Benefits of Incorporating Multiple Intelligences Within Therapy

Pearson et al. (2015) investigated the experiences of 8 counselors who introduced multiple intelligences (MI) theory and activities into therapy sessions with adult clients. The counselors participated in a 1-day MI training intervention and were interviewed 3 months later about their experiences using MI in practice.

The major themes that emerged from qualitative analysis of the interviews were:

• MI helped enhance therapeutic alliances. Counselors felt incorporating MI strengthened their connections with clients, increased counselor and client comfort, and reduced client suspicion/resistance.
• MI led to more effective professional work. Counselors felt MI provided more tools and flexibility in responding to clients. This matches findings from education research on the benefits of MI.
• Clients responded positively to identifying strengths through MI. The MI survey helped clients recognize talents/abilities, which counselors saw as identity-building. This aligns with the literature on strength-based approaches.
• Clients appreciated the MI preference survey. It provided conversation starters, increased self-reflection, and was sometimes a catalyst for using music therapeutically.
• Counselors felt comfortable with MI. They experienced increased confidence and professional comfort. Counselor confidence contributes to alliance building (Ackerman & Hilsenroth, 2003).
• Music use stood out as impactful. In-session and extratherapeutic music use improved client well-being after identifying musicality through the MI survey. This matches the established benefits of music therapy (Koelsch, 2009).
• MI training opened up therapeutic possibilities. Counselors valued the experiential MI training. MI appeared to expand their skills and activities.

The authors conclude that MI may enhance alliances, effectiveness, and counselor confidence. They recommend further research on long-term impacts and optimal training approaches. Counselor education could teach MI theory, assessment, and tailored interventions.

Frequently Asked Questions

How can understanding the theory of multiple intelligences contribute to self-awareness and personal growth.

Understanding the theory of multiple intelligences can contribute to self-awareness and personal growth by providing a framework for recognizing and valuing different strengths and abilities.

By identifying their own unique mix of intelligences, individuals can gain a greater understanding of their own strengths and limitations and develop a more well-rounded sense of self.

Additionally, recognizing and valuing the diverse strengths and abilities of others can promote empathy , respect, and cooperation in personal and professional relationships.

Why is multiple intelligence theory important?

Understanding multiple intelligences is important because it helps individuals recognize that intelligence is not just about academic achievement or IQ scores, but also includes a range of different abilities and strengths.

By identifying their own unique mix of intelligences, individuals can develop a greater sense of self-awareness and self-esteem, as well as pursue career paths that align with their strengths and interests.

Additionally, understanding multiple intelligences can promote more inclusive and personalized approaches to education and learning that recognize and value the diverse strengths and abilities of all students.

Are certain types of intelligence more valued or prioritized in society than others?

Yes, certain types of intelligence, such as linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence, are often prioritized in traditional education and assessment methods.

However, the theory of multiple intelligences challenges this narrow definition of intelligence and recognizes the value of a diverse range of strengths and abilities.

By promoting a more inclusive and personalized approach to education and learning, the theory of multiple intelligences can help individuals recognize and develop their unique mix of intelligences, regardless of whether they align with traditional societal expectations.

What is the difference between multiple intelligences and learning styles?

The theory of multiple intelligences proposes that individuals possess a range of different types of intelligence. In contrast, learning styles refer to an individual’s preferred way of processing information, such as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic.

While both theories emphasize the importance of recognizing and valuing individual differences in learning and development, multiple intelligence theory proposes a broader and more diverse range of intelligences beyond traditional academic abilities, while learning styles are focused on preferences for processing information.

Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple intelligences in the classroom . Ascd.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Performance Counts: Assessment Systems That Support High-Quality Learning . Council of Chief State School Officers .

Davis, K., Christodoulou, J., Seider, S., & Gardner, H. E. (2011). The theory of multiple intelligences.  Davis, K., Christodoulou, J., Seider, S., & Gardner, H.(2011). The theory of multiple intelligences . In RJ Sternberg & SB Kaufman (Eds.), Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence , 485-503.

Edutopia. (2013, March 8). Multiple Intelligences: What Does the Research Say? https://www.edutopia.org/multiple-intelligences-research

Gardner, H. E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . Hachette UK.

Gardner, H. (2011a). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences . Hachette Uk.

Gardner, H. (2011b). The theory of multiple intelligences: As psychology, as education, as social science. Address delivered at José Cela University on October, 29, 2011.

Gottfredson, L. S. (2004). Schools and the g factor . The Wilson Quarterly (1976-), 28 (3), 35-45.

Pearson, M., O’Brien, P., & Bulsara, C. (2015). A multiple intelligences approach to counseling: Enhancing alliances with a focus on strengths.  Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 25 (2), 128–142

Shearer, C. B. (2020). A resting state functional connectivity analysis of human intelligence: Broad theoretical and practical implications for multiple intelligences theory.  Psychology & Neuroscience, 13 (2), 127–148.

Visser, B. A., Ashton, M. C., & Vernon, P. A. (2006). Beyond g: Putting multiple intelligences theory to the test . Intelligence, 34 (5), 487-502.

Waterhouse, L. (2006). Inadequate evidence for multiple intelligences, Mozart effect, and emotional intelligence theories . Educational Psychologist, 41 (4), 247-255.

Further Information

• Multiple Intelligences Criticisms
• The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
• Multiple Intelligences FAQ
• “In a Nutshell,” the first chapter of Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons
• Multiple Intelligences After Twenty Years”
• Intelligence: Definition, Theories and Testing
• Fluid vs Crystallized Intelligence

Related Articles

Soft Determinism In Psychology

Branches of Psychology

Social Action Theory (Weber): Definition & Examples

Adult Attachment , Personality , Psychology , Relationships

Attachment Styles and How They Affect Adult Relationships

Learning Theories , Psychology

Behaviorism In Psychology

Personality , Psychology

Big Five Personality Traits: The 5-Factor Model of Personality

Multiple Intelligences Theory—Howard Gardner

• First Online: 09 September 2020

Cite this chapter

• Bulent Cavas 3 &
• Pinar Cavas 4  

Part of the book series: Springer Texts in Education ((SPTE))

20k Accesses

8 Citations

Multiple intelligences theory (MI) developed by Howard Gardner, an American psychologist, in late 1970s and early 1980s, asserts that each individual has different learning areas. In his book, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences published in 1983, Gardner argued that individuals have eight different intelligence areas and added one more intelligence area in the later years. Howard Gardner named these nine intelligence areas as “musical–rhythmic”, “visual–spatial”, “verbal–linguistic”, “logical–mathematical”, “bodily–kinesthetic”, “interpersonal”, “intrapersonal”, “naturalistic”, and “existential intelligence. Gardner indicates that these intelligences are constructed through the participation of individuals in culturally valued activities, and these activities help individuals to develop unique patterns in their mind. Multiple intelligences theory states that there are many ways to be intelligent not only just two ways measured by IQ tests. Appearance of multiple intelligences theory has provided significant practices and studies particularly in the field of education to be carried out and has changed educators’ views toward the concepts of learning and intelligence. This chapter discusses the historical and theoretical dimensions of multiple intelligences as well as the research conducted on the theory. We have also provided the advantages and disadvantages of MI implementation in science education.

An intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings. Howard Gardner — Frames of Mind ( 1983 ).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abdi, A., Laei, S., & Ahmadyan, H. (2013). The effect of teaching strategy based on multiple intelligences on students’ academic achievement in science course. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 1 (4), 281–284.

Google Scholar  

Blumenfield-Jones, D. (2009). Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence and dance education: Critique, revision, and potentials for the democratic idea. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 43 (1), 59–76.

Article   Google Scholar  

Campbell, L., & Campbell, B. (1999). Multiple intelligences and student achievement: Success stories from six schools . Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/Y7Cz3w .

Crowther, G. J., Williamson, J. L., Buckland, H. T., & Cunningham, S. L. (2013). Making material more memorable with music. American Biology Teacher, 75, 713–714. https://doi.org/10.1525/abt.2013.75.9.16 .

Davis, K., Christodoulou, J. A., Seider, S., & Gardner, H. (2011). The theory of multiple intelligences. In R. J. Sternberg & S. B. Kaufman (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 485–503). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences . New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice . New York, NY: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1999a). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . New York, NY: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1999b). The disciplined mind: What all students should understand . New York: Simon & Schuster.

Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligences: New horizon . New York, NY: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (2011). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach . United Kingdom: Hachette.

Gardner, H., & Walters, J. (1993). Questions and answers about multiple intelligences theory. Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice (pp. 35–48). New York: Basic Books.

Goodnough, K. (2001). Multiple intelligences theory: A framework for personalizing science curricula. School Science and Mathematics., 101 (4), 180–193.

Hoerr, R. T. (2000). Becoming a multiple intelligences school. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100006.aspx .

Hom, E. (2014). What is STEM education? Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/43296-what-is-stem-education.html .

Junchun, W. (2015). To explore the relationship of temporal spatial reasoning between music and mathematics by an inventory based on the multiple intelligence theory. Education and Psychological Research, 38 (3). https://doi.org/10.3966/102498852015093803002 .

Klein, P. (1997). Multiplying the problems of intelligence by eight: A critique of Gardner’s theory. Canadian Journal of Education, 22, 377–394.

Lai, H. Y., & Yap, S. L. (2016). Application of multiple intelligence theory in the assessment for learning. In S. Tang & L. Logonnathan (Eds.), Assessment for learning within and beyond the classroom (pp. 427–436). Singapore: Springer.

Martin, M. R., Bishop, J., Ciotto, C., & Gagnon, A. (2014). Teaching the whole child: Using the multiple intelligence theory and interdisciplinary teaching in physical education. In The chronicle of kinesiology in higher education ( Special Edition , pp. 25–29).

Martín, J. S., Gragera, G. J. A., Dávila-Acedo, M., & Mellado, V. (2017). What do K-12 students feel when dealing with technology and engineering issues? Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory implications in technology lessons for motivating engineering vocations at Spanish secondary school. European Journal of Engineering Education, 42 (6), 1330–1343.

Martin, M., & McKenzie, M. (2013). Sport education and multiple intelligences: A path to student success. Strategies, 26 (4), 31–34.

Morgan, H. (1996). An analysis of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence. Roeper Review, 18, 263–269.

Ozdermir, P., Güneysu, S., & Tekkaya, C. (2006). Enhancing learning through multiple intelligences. Journal of Biological Education, 40 (2), 74–78.

Richards, D. (2016). The integration of the multiple intelligence theory into the early childhood curriculum. American Journal of Educational Research, 4 (15), 1096–1099. Retrieved from http://pubs.sciepub.com/education/4/15/7 .

Schulkind, M. D. (2009). Is memory for music special? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1169, 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04546.x .

Schwert, A. (2004). Using the theory of multiple intelligences to enhance science education . Unpublished Master’s Thesis. The University of Toledo, USA. Retrieved from http://utdr.utoledo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1487&context=graduate-projects .

Suprapto, N., Liu, W. Y., & Ku, C. K. (2017). The implementation of multiple intelligence in (science) classroom: From empirical into critical. Pedagogika, 126 (2), 214–227.

Viadero, D. (2003). Staying power. Education Week, 22 (39), 24.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Buca Faculty of Education, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey

Bulent Cavas

Faculty of Education, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey

Pinar Cavas

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bulent Cavas .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria

University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX, USA

Teresa J. Kennedy

Recommended Resources

Gardner, H. (1999a). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (2004). Frequently asked questions—Multiple intelligences and related educational topics. Retrieved March 9, 2018, from http://multipleintelligencesoasis.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/faq.pdf .

Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligences: New Horizon . New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (2011). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach . UK: Hachette.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Cavas, B., Cavas, P. (2020). Multiple Intelligences Theory—Howard Gardner. In: Akpan, B., Kennedy, T.J. (eds) Science Education in Theory and Practice. Springer Texts in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43620-9_27

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43620-9_27

Published : 09 September 2020

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-43619-3

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-43620-9

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Linguistic Intelligence

The Ability to Understand and Use Spoken and Written Language

Riou/Digital Vision/Getty Images

• Learning Styles & Skills
• Homework Tips
• Study Methods
• Time Management
• Private School
• College Admissions
• College Life
• Graduate School
• Business School
• Distance Learning
• M.Ed., Curriculum and Instruction, University of Florida
• B.A., History, University of Florida

Linguistic intelligence, one of Howard Gardner's eight multiple intelligences , involves the ability to understand and use spoken and written language. This can include expressing yourself effectively through speech or the written word as well as showing a facility for learning foreign tongues. Writers, poets, lawyers, and speakers are among those that Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.

Gardner, a professor in the Harvard University Education Department, uses T.S. Eliot as an example of someone with high linguistic intelligence. "At the age of ten, T.S. Eliot created a magazine called 'Fireside,' of which he was the sole contributor," Gardner writes in his 2006 book, "Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice." "In a three-day period during his winter vacation, he created eight complete issues. Each one included poems, adventure stories, a gossip column, and humor."

Much More Than What Can Be Measured on a Test

It's interesting that Gardner listed linguistic intelligence as the very first intelligence in his original book on the subject, "Frames of Mind: The Theory of MultipleIntelligences," published in 1983. This is one of the two intelligences -- the other being  logical-mathematical intelligence  -- that most closely resemble the skills measured by standard IQ tests. But Gardner argues that linguistic intelligence is much more than what can be measured on a test.

Famous People With High Linguistic Intelligence

• William Shakespeare : Arguably history's greatest playwright, Shakespeare wrote plays that have enthralled audiences for more than four centuries. He coined or popularized many of the words and phrases we still use today. 
• Robert Frost : A poet laureate of Vermont, Frost read his well-known poem "The Gift Outright" at the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy on Jan. 20, 1961, according to Wikipedia. Frost wrote classic poems, such as " The Road Not Taken ," which are still widely read and admired today.
• J.K. Rowling : This contemporary English author used the power of language and imagination to create a mythical, magical world of Harry Potter, which has captivated millions of readers and moviegoers over the years.

Ways to Enhance and Encourage It

Teachers can help their students enhance and strengthen their linguistic intelligence by:

• writing in a journal
• writing a group story
• learning a few new words each week
• creating a magazine or website devoted to something that interests them
• writing letters to family, friends or penpals
• playing word games like crosswords or parts-of-speech bingo
• reading books, magazines, newspapers and even jokes

Gardner gives some advice in this area. He talks, in "Frames of Mind," about Jean-Paul Sartre, a famous French philosopher, and novelist who was "extremely precocious" as a young child but "so skilled at mimicking adults, including their style and register of talk, that by age five he could enchant audiences with his linguistic fluency." By age 9, Sartre was writing and expressing himself -- developing his linguistic intelligence. In the same way, as a teacher, you can enhance your students' linguistic intelligence by giving them opportunities to express themselves creatively both verbally and through the written word.

• Questions for Each Level of Bloom's Taxonomy
• Spatial Intelligence
• Teaching Students With Existential Intelligence
• How to Use Multiple Intelligences to Study for a Test
• Teaching Students Who Have a Naturalist Intelligence
• Teaching Students Who Have Musical Intelligence
• Understanding the Meaning of Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
• The Best Examples of Intrapersonal Intelligence
• How to Analyze Problems Using Logical Mathematical Intelligence
• Teaching Students Identified with Interpersonal Intelligence
• Understanding Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence
• Multiple Intelligence Activities
• What's Your Learning Language?
• Smart Study Strategies for Different Intelligence Types
• Multiple Intelligences in the ESL Classroom
• Why Is Writing More Difficult Than Speaking?

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence and Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: A study on Multiple Intelligences

Related Papers

Ebrahim Khodadady

This study explored the relationship between logical-mathematical intelligence and English language proficiency. To this end, out of the eight sections comprising the Multiple Intelligences Developmental Assessment Scales designed by Shearer (1994), its Persian logical-mathematical scale (LMS) was administered to two hundred and five participants who took the Test of English as a Foreign Language held and called MSRT by the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology in Iran. When the data on the LMS were subjected to Principal Axis Factoring and the extracted factors were rotated via Varimax with Kaiser Normalization, sixteen out of seventeen indicators comprising the scale loaded on six latent variables (LVs) having the initial eigenvalues of one and higher, i.e., Math Skill, Problem Solving, Natural Curiosity, Number Memory, Math Application, and System Invention. When the LMS and its LVs were correlated with the listening, structure, and reading subtests of the MSRT, the scale and its Math Application LV correlated significantly but negatively with the reading subtest. The results are discussed and suggestions are made for future research.

Aan Subhan Pamungkas

The process of solving problems carried out by students in stages, namely understanding problems, planning solutions, carrying out solutions and checking again. Solving student problems varies according to the basic characteristics of students' interests, talents and potential. Learning will be more optimal if it is adjusted to the intelligence possessed by students. The goal is that teachers can facilitate learning according to the intelligence possessed by students, so the teacher must know the intelligence possessed by students. This research is a qualitative study using two subjects, namely the subject of linguistics and the subject of mathematical logic. The results showed that at the problem-understanding stage, SLM completed using formulas, completed according to plan and checked by recalculating. SL uses more trial-and-error reasoning, understanding information by reading sentences quickly as well as checking again.

Mohsen Shahrokhi

Wajiha kanwal

The present study was correctional in nature and based on quantitative research approach. It was designed to determine Interrelation of Multiple Intelligences and their correlation with linguistic intelligence as perceived by college students. The population of the study was comprised of all the students of intermediate level studying in Islamabad Model Colleges. The simple random sampling technique was employed to select a representative sample for the study. The sample consisted of 1000 students, Questionnaire was developed on the basis of Howard Gardner's Multiple intelligences Model. The validity of the questionnaire was ensured through expert opinions, whereas, its‘ reliability was measured through pilot testing on 100 students. Researcher used SPSS advanced version to analyze the quantitative data. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Pearson Coefficient Correlation were used to analyze the data. The results of the study showed that moderate inter-correlation exists between verba...

Journal of Educational and Social Research

rommel alali

This study discussed the level of logical mathematical intelligence of pre-service female mathematics teachers. The problem arises in adopting traditional curricula for teaching mathematics, which leads to low student achievement. The study objectives to measure the students' level of logical mathematical intelligence, and find out the level of students’ achievement, and measuring the level of intelligence impact on the academic achievement. The study adopted the descriptive-analytical approach. The study population consisted of (45) pre-service female math teachers. A comprehensive sample was chosen. A questionnaire was used according to the (Likert) five-point scale, taking advantage of the MIDAS scale of multiple intelligences, which consisted of (17) statements, then the researchers developed the questionnaire up to (25) statements. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were confirmed. The findings revealed that: The general average of the logical-mathematical in...

ENGLISH FRANCA : Academic Journal of English Language and Education

kurnia saputri

The Identification of Multiple Intelligence in relation to English Achievement of the sixth graders of SD N 32 Palembang. Based on the data analysis, there were five major findings: First, linguistic, logical, spatial, musical, and interpersonal intelligences were types of intelligence of the sixth graders. Second, most of the students dominantly have interpersonal intelligence. Third, based on the calculation of z scores (standard scores), Logical-Ma thematical intelligence was the type of intelligence that had better English achievement because this type had the positive scores higher than the negative scores. Fourth, the variance of population was homogeneous. Fifth, the mean value of population was homogeneous and correlated each other.

SMART M O V E S J O U R N A L IJELLH

Abstract The theory of Multiple Intelligence (MI) suggests that learners have different strengths, learning styles and even learning potential contrary to the belief that only students with strong linguistic, mathematical and spacial abilities are accepted and recognized in the society. Once the teachers recognize the different intelligences possessed by their students, they can design different exercises to enhance the language skills of the students. This article focuses on ways of enhancing the English Language skills among the students, using Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory. For the purpose of the study, Gardner’s MI questionnaire was administered to 150 school students. A pre-test, intervention programme, and a post - test were conducted to make the study more authentic. Key words: Multiple intelligence, questionnaire, pre-test, intervention programme, post-test

Proceedings of the 3rd Borobudur International Symposium on Humanities and Social Science 2021 (BIS-HSS 2021)

galih istiningsih

International Journal of Asian Social Science

Fatemeh Hemmati

RELATED PAPERS

Századok 157 (2023) 115–154.

Gulyás László Szabolcs

PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases

Biochemical Education

Juan C Benech

Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer

Cristina Yubero

Journal of Clinical Neuroscience

Robert White

哪里卖俄亥俄大学毕业证 ohio毕业证学历证书学费单原版一模一样

Κλίβανος, θεωρητικό φιλολογικό όργανο της Υπερρεαλιστικής Ομάδας Θεσσαλονίκης, τόμος ΙΙ

Ιοanna Lioutsia

买西悉尼大学毕业证书成绩单 办理澳洲UWS文凭学位证书

Journal of the Optical Society of America

Jakob Stamnes

Saule Chalbasova

Journal of Equine Veterinary Science

Emmanuelly Santos

Lynn Jackson

Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter

Jorge O. Tocho

Loreta Gustainienė

ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces

David Pepyne

AJHSSR Journal

Genomics, Proteomics & Bioinformatics

Zhang Zhang

Molecular Ecology Resources

ann stocker

Physical Review B

Nagendran Ramasamy

Patrícia L M Pederiva

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Tips for Online Students , Tips for Students

What is the Multiple Intelligences Theory?

Updated: November 24, 2022

Published: February 24, 2020

Did you know that each person has unique intelligence and that we thrive in certain learning environments while struggling in others? There are eight different types of intelligence, as put forth by Howard Gardner. People can have varying levels of intelligence, and they can change over time. Teachers can use multiple intelligences in the classroom for the benefit of their students by customizing lessons, classroom layouts, and assignments for these multiple intelligences.

Keep reading to find out about all eight bits of intelligence, how to implement multiple intelligences in the classroom, and how to benefit from them.

The Multiple Intelligences Theory throws away the idea that intelligence is one sort of general ability and argues that there are actually eight types of intelligence. One is not more important than the other, but some may help people succeed at different things.

For example, a person with high musical intelligence and low visual-spatial intelligence may succeed in music class but may struggle in art class.

Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Howard Gardner of Harvard University first came up with the theory of multiple intelligences in 1983. Gardner argues that there are eight types of intelligence, far more than the standard I.Q. test can account for.

He goes on to say that these multiple intelligences “challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to test student learning.”

Gardner argues that schools and teachers should teach in a way that supports all types of intelligence, not just the traditional ones such as linguistic and logical intelligence.

The Eight bits of Intelligence

1. Linguistic Intelligence (“word smart”)

2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)

3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence (“picture smart”)

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (“body smart”)

5. Musical Intelligence (“music smart”)

6. Interpersonal Intelligence (“people smart”)

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self smart”)

8. Naturalist Intelligence (“nature smart”)

Linguistic Intelligence

Photo by  patrick tomasso  on  unsplash.

Linguistic intelligence, also called verbal-linguistic intelligence, is about knowledge of language use, production, and possibilities.

Those with this type of intelligence have the ability to use language to express themselves and assign meaning by way of poetry, humor, stories, and metaphors. It is common for comedians, public speakers, and writers to be high in linguistic intelligence.

Teaching for Linguistic Intelligence:

Use the following activities and techniques for students and groups with high linguistic intelligence:

• Use creative writing activities such as poetry or scriptwriting
• Set up class debates
• Allow for formal speaking opportunities
• Use humor, such as joke writing or telling
• Make sure there are plenty of reading opportunities

Learning with Linguistic Intelligence:

Learn your best by writing, practicing speeches, creating jokes, journaling, and reading.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Photo by  yancy min  on  unsplash.

Logical-mathematical intelligence is commonly thought of as “scientific thinking,” or the ability to reason, work with abstract symbols, recognize patterns, and see connections between separate pieces of information. It makes it possible to go through the scientific process of calculating, quantifying, hypothesizing, and concluding.

This type of intelligence is high in scientists, mathematicians, computer programmers, lawyers, and accountants.

Teaching for Logical-Mathematical Intelligence:

Use the following activities and techniques for students and groups with high logical-mathematical intelligence:

• Provide opportunities for problem-solving
• Involve calculations
• Create activities that involve deciphering a code
• Use pattern or logic games
• Organize new information in an outline format

Learning with Logical-Mathematical Intelligence:

Learn your best by creating information outlines with points, and making patterns of the information.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

Photo by  matthieu comoy  on  unsplash.

Visual-spatial intelligence is all about the visual arts, graphics, and architecture. This type of intelligence allows people to visualize objects from different perspectives and in different ways, use objects within space, form mental images, and think in three-dimensions.

People high in visual-spatial intelligence include painters, architects, graphic designers, pilots, and sailors.

Teaching for Visual-Spatial Intelligence:

Use the following activities and techniques for students and groups with high visual-spatial intelligence:

• Use mind mapping techniques
• Use guided visualizations or verbal imagery
• Provide opportunities for artistic expression using a variety of mediums (paint, clay, etc.)
• Allow for make-believe or fantasy
• Create collages for visual representations

Learning with Visual-Spatial Intelligence:

Learn your best by creating something visual using space such as a collage, art piece, or written map of the information.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Photo by  drew graham  on  unsplash.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use the body to express emotion, play games, or create new products. It is commonly referred to as “learning by doing.” This type of intelligence enables people to manipulate objects and the body.

High bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is common in dancers, athletes, surgeons and artisans.

Teaching for Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence:

Use the following activities and techniques for students and groups with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:

• Use body sculpture
• Use of role-playing, miming, or charade games
• Allow for physical exercise, dance, or martial arts
• Create opportunities for dramatic arts such as skits
• Use human graphs

Learning with Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence:

To learn at your best, try creating a movement routine or role-play to learn a concept or remember information.

Musical Intelligence

Photo by  michael maasen  on  unsplash.

Musical intelligence is all about music. Individuals with high musical intelligence have a greater knowledge of and sensitivity to tone, rhythm, pitch, and melody. But this type of intelligence isn’t just about music — it’s also about sensitivity to the human voice, audio patterns, and sounds in the environment.

Composers, musicians, conductors, and sound directors all have high musical intelligence.

Teaching for Musical Intelligence:

Use the following activities and techniques for students and groups with high musical intelligence:

• Use instruments and instrument sounds
• Use environmental sounds to illustrate a concept
• Allow for musical composition and performance
• Allow students to create songs about a topic

Learning with Musical Intelligence:

To learn best with your musical intelligence, try making a song with content you need to know.

Interpersonal Intelligence

Photo by  perry grone  on  unsplash.

Interpersonal intelligence is all about working with others and communicating effectively with others both verbally and nonverbally. It involves the ability to notice distinctions in others’ moods, temperaments, intentions, and motivations.

High interpersonal intelligence is often found in teachers, counselors, politicians, and religious leaders.

Teaching for Interpersonal Intelligence:

Use the following activities and techniques for students and groups with high interpersonal intelligence:

• Teach collaborative skills
• Provide plenty of group work opportunities
• Use person-person communication
• Use empathy

Learning with Interpersonal Intelligence:

To learn best with high interpersonal intelligence, try doing most of your work in a group or with another person. Try to put yourself in the shoes of people or situations you are learning about.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Photo by  doug robichaud  on  unsplash.

Intrapersonal intelligence involves knowledge of the self in ways such as feelings, a range of emotional responses, and intuition about spirituality. This type of intelligence allows people to be conscious of the unconscious and to discern higher patterns of connection between things in our world.

Psychologists, philosophers , and theologists have high intrapersonal intelligence.

Teaching for Intrapersonal Intelligence:

Use the following activities and techniques for students and groups with high intrapersonal intelligence:

• Practice meditation
• Allow for plenty of self-reflection
• Use mindfulness
• Practice reaching altered states of consciousness

Learning with Intrapersonal Intelligence:

To learn best with intrapersonal intelligence, try using mindful walks, meditation, and metacognition.

Naturalist Intelligence

Photo by  sarah brown  on  unsplash.

Naturalist intelligence is about discerning, comprehending, and appreciating plants, animals, the atmosphere, and the earth. It involves knowing how to care for animals, live off the land, classify species, and understand systems in nature.

High naturalist intelligence is seen in farmers, zookeepers, botanists, nature guides, veterinarians, cooks, and landscapers/gardeners.

Teaching for Naturalist Intelligence:

Use the following activities and techniques for students and groups with high naturalist intelligence:

• Practice conservation
• Have a classroom plant or animals to care of
• Observe nature, go on nature walks
• Use species classification
• Provide hands-on labs of natural materials

Learning with Naturalist Intelligence:

To learn at your best, do your learning outdoors. Work with natural materials or animals as much as possible to work through concepts.

Educational Benefits of Applying Multiple Intelligences Theory

The benefits of this theory are many, and they can be applied across all ages and in all subjects. Students who are given ways to learn and perform at their best are more likely to enjoy school and are more likely to succeed academically.

Planning With Intelligence:

Variation Approach : When students are first made aware of the types of intelligence, they must complete activities of all types to better select their intelligence types.

Choice Approach : Students can be given the option to complete some activities of a long list of activities suited for different types of intelligence.

Bridge Approach : If most or all of the students in a classroom or group are high in the same type of intelligence, activity or classroom layout can be focused on that one type.

What Multiple Intelligences Theory Can Teach Us:

Additional research may be needed in order to understand the best possible methods to assess and support a range of intelligence in the classroom. For now, the theory has already taught students, teachers, parents, and administrators to broaden their definition of intelligence and to include all types in the equation.

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom:

There are many ways to use the theory of multiple intelligences in the classroom.

How can Multiple Intelligences be Implemented in the Classroom?

Classroom Layout

The best way to layout a classroom to support multiple intelligences is to have places in the room that works for each type of intelligence.

For linguistic intelligence, there should be a quiet area for reading, writing, and practicing speeches.

For logical-mathematical intelligence, there should be an area where students can conduct scientific experiments.

For visual-spatial intelligence, include an open area for object manipulation or art creation.

For bodily-kinesthetic intelligences, an open area for body movement could be provided.

For musical intelligence, including a separate area for music listening and creating, perhaps with soundproofing or headphones.

For naturalistic intelligence, outdoor space or indoor aquarium or terrarium could be provided.

For interpersonal intelligence, there should be an area with large tables for group work, while for intrapersonal intelligence there should be areas for individual activities.

How to Identify the Intelligence in Your Classroom

It can be hard to identify which intelligences are in the classroom. Observation and working together with the students to understand what is working for them is key. University of the People offers a Master’s in Education , where you are taught to identify the types of intelligence and how to implement them.

Expand Upon Traditional Activities:

Traditional activities in the classroom tend to focus on linguistic and logical-mathematical types of intelligence. These should be expanded to include other types of intelligence as well. For example, teachers can use debate to teach logic or use clay manipulatives for math learning.

Results of This Program:

When multiple intelligences theory is implemented properly in the classroom, it can have very positive results . Students develop an increased sense of responsibility, self-direction, and independence, discipline problems are reduced, students develop and apply new skills, cooperative learning skills increase, and overall academic achievement increases.

The Teacher’s Role:

Photo by  rio lecatompessy  on  unsplash.

The teacher’s role is extremely important in making sure students get the most out of multiple intelligences theory in the classroom. Teachers should work with the students, rather than for the students, to develop the best activities, projects, and layouts. Teachers should continuously observe students’ interests and successes in different areas and continually change the classroom layout and plan accordingly.

Teaching in the Way the Child Learns:

Teaching using the multiple intelligence theory is essentially teaching in the way the child learns. It involves giving up long-held traditional beliefs about how to teach and instead puts the child first at the center of the planning.

Factors In Educational Reform

According to Gardner, there are four factors in educational reform: assessment, curriculum, teacher education, and community participation.

Gardner argues that in addition to using multiple intelligences, educational reform should occur within the following:

• Assessment : Children should be assessed according to their learning styles and intelligence, and traditional forms of assessment should not be used to drive instruction.
• Curriculum : Curriculum has traditionally been unchanged, and no one seems to know why. Curriculums should shift to focus on skill development and knowledge formation.
• Teacher Education : There must be a way to attract more talented teachers into the profession, keep them there, and incentivize them to use research-backed methods.
• Community Participation : Children and adolescents don’t stop learning at 3:00 pm. The entire community must be committed and involved in the education of young society members.

Challenges of Multiple Intelligences Theory

Accommodating so many different bits of intelligence within the classroom is difficult, and some intelligence may not lend themselves well to group learning situations.

Teachers should still try to incorporate as many as possible and give students the opportunity to use their intelligence types at least some of the time if all the time is not feasible.

The Difference Between Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles

Multiple intelligences and learning styles are commonly confused with one another, but they are not the same.

Multiple intelligences represent different intellectual abilities and strengths, whereas learning styles are about how an individual may approach a task. Learning styles are fluid, and may not correlate completely to the intelligence type.

As a teacher, it is important to use multiple intelligences in the classroom, but first, you must understand the multiple intelligence theory and know which intelligences your students have to be able to teach them in the best way possible.

As a student, it is important to know which intelligences you have so you know the most effective way to learn.

Hopefully, you now have a better understanding of what the multiple intelligences are and how you can use them to your benefit to help both yourself and others learn better and faster than ever before.

Related Articles

10 Linguistic Intelligence Examples (Plus Pros & Cons)

Linguistic intelligence (LI) is one of eight types of intelligence in multiple intelligences theory . It refers to the ability to use words.

This type of intelligence involves expressing points of view or explaining different concepts to others, either verbally or through written text.

In his own words, Gardner states that:

“linguistic intelligence is the sensitivity to the meaning of words, their order, sounds, rhythms, inflections, different functions of language, phonology, syntax and pragmatics .”

Generally speaking, a person with linguistic intelligence are good storytellers, love to debate or give speeches, and are able to explain things well.

There are many professions that people with linguistic intelligence can excel at, such as being a poet, speech writer, or teacher. Because each of those occupations utilizes verbal skills to convey certain meanings, linguistic intelligence is a much-needed attribute.

Examples of Linguistic Intelligence

1. public speaking.

If you ask 100 people what are their biggest fears in life, a huge majority of them are going to say public speaking. Standing in front of an audience of strangers and giving a speech for 10-minutes, or more, can be nerve-racking.

Most people would rather be hit by a bus than have to endure the scrutiny of an unfamiliar crowd. People can be brutally critical.

But for a person with linguistic intelligence, 10-minutes is a breeze. Heck, it might not be long enough for them to say everything they want. Words come easy to the linguistically talented and they enjoy talking. The words just flow straight from the brain to the vocal cords.

They feel confident when speaking as well and can easily capture an audience’s attention by using colorful language and vocal intonations that convey the emotional dynamics of a compelling message.

2. Doing Crossword Puzzles

If you don’t have a high level of linguistic intelligence, then don’t even try doing a crossword puzzle. Not only are the clues tricky, but the answer can be an archaic word that people simply don’t use in this century.

The people that design crossword puzzles are incredibly well-read. They also enjoy being tricky by using a play on words that most linguistic mortals will struggle to grasp.

If there ever was an example of linguistic intelligence, then being able to complete a challenging crossword puzzle would be at the top of the list.

3. Journal Keeping

If you enjoy keeping a daily journal then you might be someone with a high level of linguistic intelligence.

Writing one’s thoughts down on paper is a great way to rehash the day’s events, to resolve conflicts in a safe environment (where you are the winner), and put a nice summary on an eventful day.

It has therapeutic value all its own. But is also just a pleasant thing to do if you enjoy writing. Playing with sentence structure and the subtleties of grammar and meaning is like a hobby for one’s personality. For a person with linguistic intelligence, keeping a journal is a natural way for them to exercise their proclivity for words.

4. Debate Skills

People with a high level of linguistic intelligence are very good debaters. They can listen and process every syllable their opponent utters and easily spot every mistake in logic or overextension of facts. Nothing is going to get past them.

When it is their turn to speak, watch out. The words will flow effortlessly from their lips as they point-out every error in the other person’s argument. After completely demolishing their opponent’s perspective, they will present a series of counter-arguments that are convincing and conclusive.

Even if the foundation of their opinion is a little shaky, their tone and demeanor will exude confidence and self-assuredness that can be more persuasive than the logic itself. Bottom line: if you have to get into a debate with someone, ask them to take a multiple intelligences test first.

Examples of Good Jobs for People with Linguistic Intelligence

5. sports coach.

Being a coach is a lot harder than it looks, and it requires much sharper intellectual skills than most people would ascribe to the job.

For example, a coach needs to have great communication skills and interpersonal skills . They must explain to different players what they need to do to get better at their position. A good coach will know exactly how to adjust their explanation to match the personality of each specific player.

In addition, coaches need to be able to inspire and motivate. They need to know what words to use, how to pace those words, and what kind of emotional tone to use that will touch the hearts of their team and put a fire in their soul.

How many times have you heard about a team that was down by a ton of points going into halftime, but then come out and completely change the game because their coach gave an amazing speech? It happens a lot. Being a great coach means having great linguistic intelligence.

6. Novelist 

Maybe the most obvious occupation for a person with incredible linguistic intelligence is novelist.

Imagining a great story is one thing, but being able to put words on paper in a way that brings it to life is quite another. Very few people can do it.

The complexity of sentences must vary, the choice of words to create impact has to be precise, and the flow of reading has to be smooth and easy to process.

Examples of great novelists include J.K Rowling, T.S. Elliot, and Shakespeare. Each of these great writers were so verbally gifted that they created a piece of fiction that struck a chord with people all over the world.

The job of an editor is to polish and refine a story or article written by someone else.

On a basic level, they can perform many functions, such as checking facts, spelling, grammar and punctuation. These responsibilities are fairly straightforward and do not require a great deal of special talent.

However, there are other roles that an editor plays that are much more significant. For example, some editors will get involved with the content of the piece, making suggestions about the storyline of a novel, character development, or cutting content that doesn’t fit. They might also make edits to the piece to help enhance impact or improve coherence .

These responsibilities are more advanced and require someone that has a very high level of linguistic intelligence.  

Being good at debate is one of the primary skills of being a lawyer. A lawyer must be able to read a legal document, analyze the merits of the arguments, find flaws, and then write counter-arguments that are sound and persuasive.

Only a person with tremendous linguistic intelligence is going to be able to perform those tasks successfully.

Although most lawyers spend 90% of their time in their office and in meetings, they do occasionally get to handle a case in front of a jury. In those circumstances, they will need to utilize other aspects of their linguistic abilities that involve speaking in a confident and fluid manner. They must be able to hold the attention of a jury, question witnesses, and present evidence in a way that is persuasive; all attributes of linguistic intelligence.

9. Translator

At first glance, you might think that a translator’s job is pretty simple; they listen to a person speak in one language and then repeat it in a another language.

Sounds easy.

In reality however, a translator’s job can get incredibly complicated.

For example, when it comes to translating documents, they often have to consult with various specialist dictionaries, thesauruses, and reference books to ensure their understanding of the original content is correct.

Depending on the particular project, they might need to research legal documents or check technical and scientific phraseology to find the correct translation. Afterwards, there may be meetings with clients to discuss the translation and clear-up any ambiguities.

Although people with a high level of linguistic intelligence are naturally good at learning languages, the job of a translator can be incredibly difficult, and stressful. The correctness of the translated work may play a key role in an international business deal or political negotiations.

10. School Teacher

Being a teacher might be one of the most important jobs in the world. A country’s economic strength depends on having a solid education system, with teachers.

If the population is ignorant, then they may choose the wrong leaders or not provide the kind of technological innovation that modern economies need to prosper.

While every subject is different, most teachers share a set of necessary skills. For example, they have to be good at explaining things to a wide range of students. Some students will be naturally gifted in a particular subject domain, while others may struggle with the same material. For this reason, a teacher needs to make adjustments to how they teach, each and every minute of a class.

The more linguistic intelligence a teacher possesses, the better for the students, economy, and nation.

Pros of Linguistic Intelligence

1. you have great communication skills.

The biggest asset of linguistic intelligence is having great communication skills . People with LI are exceptional at talking to others in a convincing and persuasive manner. They know the right words to use when trying to make a point or explain a rather difficult concept.

Furthermore, they can take into account the characteristics of the people they are speaking to and adjust the level of verbal complexity they use.

If they are speaking to children, then they will instinctively use simpler vocabulary and a sentence structure that is more direct and straightforward. If speaking with others that are well-educated, then they will choose an level of vocabulary and complex sentence structure that is suitable.

2. You’re Good at Learning Foreign Languages 

Those with high levels of LI are able to pick-up foreign languages quite easily. They have a natural ability to hear the nuances of various sounds of a language and discern the use of proper syntax and grammar.

Matching unfamiliar words and phrases with objects and actions in the environment happens almost automatically. For example, when walking through an outdoor food market in a foreign country some people might feel overwhelmed and confused.

However, a person with strong linguistic skills will become tuned-in to what people are saying and be able to learn the names of various items for sale. They will quickly learn how to ask basic questions and commands in that language. After a few visits to the market, they will be able to use that knowledge to converse with the vendors with remarkable ease.  

Cons of Linguistic Intelligence

1. you might not be good at reading charts .

Linguistic intelligence is all about words, but numbers can be a challenge for people with a high level of verbal skills. For this reason, when looking at a chart or graph, it may take them a little bit longer to identify the key information on display.

Looking at a graph and understanding its meaning is a visual-spatial skill, and sometimes people with linguistic intelligence will have difficulty performing well in this domain of intelligence.

Now, if someone were to hand them a written paragraph that conveys the same information, then they would have no problem at all understanding the content; whereas someone with great visual-spatial skills might have to read that same paragraph several times before truly understanding it.

2. You Have Poor Statistical Analysis Skills 

Learning how to conduct statistical analyses involves going through complex equations step-by-step. There’s a lot of numbers and symbols that represent various numerical operations. It’s a language all of its own, but it’s not a text-based language.

Unfortunately, this is not the way that people with high linguistic intelligence learn. They struggle when mathematical operations are presented in a strictly computational format. They learn how to do math much better when the operations are presented verbally, which is very difficult to do when dealing with statistical analyses.

For this reason, being linguistically talented is actually a disadvantage when studying statistics.

Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple intelligences in the classroom (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Butler, Y. G. (2012). What level of English proficiency do elementary school teachers need to attain to teach EFL? Case studies from Korea, Taiwan and Japan. TESOL Quarterly, 38 (2), 245-278. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588380

Gardner, H. (1983).  Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences.  New York: Basic Books.

Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. and McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the power of emotional intelligence. Harvard Business School Press, Boston.

Parsa, M., Jahandar, S., & Khodabandehlou, M. (2013). The effect of verbal intelligence on knowledge of lexicon. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature , 2 (2), 114-121.

Sener S, & Cokcaliskan A. (2018). An investigation between multiple intelligences and learning styles. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 6 (2), 125-132. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v6i2.2643

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ Vicarious Punishment: Definition, Examples, Pros and Cons
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 10 Sublimation Examples (in Psychology)
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 10 Fixed Ratio Schedule Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 10 Sensorimotor Stage Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Examples and Definition
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link Vicarious Punishment: Definition, Examples, Pros and Cons
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 10 Sublimation Examples (in Psychology)
• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link Social Penetration Theory: Examples, Phases, Criticism

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List

Language and Intelligence: A Relationship Supporting the Embodied Cognition Hypothesis

Attà negri.

1 Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Bergamo, 24129 Bergamo, Italy; [email protected]

Marco Castiglioni

2 Department of Human Sciences for Education, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy; [email protected] (M.C.); [email protected] (C.L.C.)

Cristina Liviana Caldiroli

Arianna barazzetti, associated data.

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Cognitive science has gathered robust evidence supporting the hypothesis that cognitive processes do not occur in an amodal format but take shape through the activation of the sensorimotor systems of the agent body, which works as simulation system upon which concepts, words, and thought are based. However, studies that have investigated the relationship between language and cognitive processes, as both embedded processes, are very rare. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis that intelligence is associated with referential competence, conceived as the ability to find words to refer to our subjective and perceptual experience, and to evoke understanding of this experience in the listener. We administered the WAIS-IV test to 32 nonclinical subjects and collected autobiographical narratives from them through the Relationship Anecdotes Paradigm Interview. The narratives were analyzed linguistically by applying computerized measures of referential competence. Intelligence scores were found to correlate with the use in narratives of words related to somatic and sensory sensations, while they were not associated with other measures of referential competence related to more abstract domains of experience or based on vivid or reflective dimensions of language style. The results support the hypothesis that sensorimotor schemas have an intrinsic role in language and cognition.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, a growing number of neuroscientists, cognitive scientists, psychologists, linguists, and philosophers of mind have supported the embodied cognition hypothesis. The “embodiment” perspective rejects the metaphors used by classical cognitive science to represent the mind: the sandwich and computer models. The first model views perception, cognition, and action as three events and processes that follow one another temporally in a linear fashion without the possibility of feedback; in other words, the sandwich model views perception and action as separate processes located at opposite poles and representing the input and output of the cognitive system ( Gallistel 1980 ; Hurley 2001 ; MacKay 1987 ); the body is a mere tool of detection and execution in the service of cognition. In the computer model, the mind is seen as a computer-like computational system that transforms inputs into abstract, amodal symbols representing the external world and performs various computations on them to produce outputs; the computer’s operations are taken to be the underlying operations of human cognition ( Pfeifer and Scheier 2001 ); the body is simply the receiver of input information, the brain is the processor hardware, and the mental representations with their rules of connection and computation are the software; the activity of the mind, thus, is different and disconnected from both the body and the external world, and cognitive processes are inaccessible to personal awareness and consciousness ( Thompson 2007 ). Furthermore, based on the multiple realizability assumption ( Bickle 2020 ), due to the abstract nature of cognition, it is irrelevant which kind of physical support realizes a certain cognitive function: it might be a human brain, a computer, a robot, or anything else.

According to several authors, these models present many limitations. For example, the serialized process of the sandwich model (perception-cognition-action) would not be dynamic enough to cope with the urgency of taking an action in the complex scenarios of everyday life. In the time it takes to build a representation and plan an action, integrating the necessary information, the context might have changed ( Burr 2017 ; Hurley 1998 ). Moreover, the growing body of neurophysiological data is difficult to reconcile with the assumption that sensorimotor processes are separate from other processing steps and localized in well-demarcated regions ( Cisek 2007 ; Cisek and Kalaska 2010 ; Levy and Glimcher 2012 ; Padoa-Schioppa 2011 ). On the other hand, the computer model does not consider the crucial importance of the hardware of cognition. The scientific evidence is incompatible with the idea that cognition takes shape almost independently of both bodily/sensory processes and the surrounding environment. Humans are not observers who engage in understanding the environment and others from a disembodied, third-person position ( Thompson 2007 ).

In the early 1990s, several researchers proposed an alternative theory: the embodied cognition model which asserts the close relationship between acting and thinking. Cognition is a form of embodied action. Embodied means that not only the brain but also the whole body is important. Action because the ability to act in the world—agency—is central. Cognition is an expression of our bodily agency. We inhabit a meaningful world because we enact meaning. To be human, the individual needs shared bodily practices and to inhabit the world of culture. For the embodied cognition model, the brain is a necessary condition for mind and meaning. Enculturation is a necessary enabling condition for the brain ( Thompson 2007 ). Higher cognitive processes (i.e., how we think, make decisions, or simply live in a society) are highly dependent and based on sensory and motor processes as well as how the agent interacts with the environment around them. In other words, between perceptual, cognitive, and motor processes, there is no hierarchical relationship or temporal sequence, as in the sandwich model, but rather circularity and overlapping such that action influences both perception and abstract thought and vice versa (e.g., Nöe 2004 ). Moreover, rejecting the computer metaphor, embodied cognition replaces the concept of amodal computation with that of embodied simulation: cognition does not take shape thanks to the processing of abstract and amodal propositions, but through the reactivation of sensorimotor schemes that are exploited to make sense of what happens in fields and levels of experience different from those in which these schemes have been developed (e.g., Barsalou 1999 ; Borghi and Binkofski 2014 ; Brooks 1991 ).

1.1. Relationship between Mind, Body, and Environment

Contrasting the two main classical representational view of cognition, embodied cognition approach is based on sensorimotor coupling of living beings and environment. Organisms always perceive the objects as opportunities for interaction with their body. They do not perceive the realty in passive manner, but through their ongoing bodily activity ( Galbusera and Fuchs 2013 ). Embodied cognition points out that there is no mind separate from the mind–body–environment system. According to Gregory Bateson, mind includes “the pathways of all unconscious mentation—both automatic and repressed, neural and hormonal. Mind is not bounded by skin but includes all external pathways along which information can travel” ( Bateson 1972, p. 325 ). To describe this connection, Bateson used the iconic example of a blind man using his stick to take in information about the environment ( Bateson 1972, p. 324 ): where does his self begins and ends in the process of understanding the world? Where are the boundaries between man’s body and his brain? And between the stick and these surrounding? Or is mind present in the entire interaction between his body, stick and environment?

In Bateson’s perspective, not only our bodies, but also our subjective experience of the world plays a fundamental role in defining and constituting the dynamics of cognition, action, and perception. According to Thompson, subjective experience, and embodiment are interconnected aspects, both central to cognition (2007). Varela et al. ( 1991 ) called this approach enactivism. The enactive approach views humans as self-organizing dynamic systems, capable of preserving their identity by adjusting their behavior in relation to perturbations in the environment. This property is called adaptability or the ability of an organism to regulate itself with respect to the boundaries of its viability ( Di Paolo 2005 ). Thus, the world meaning is constituted by the recursive and dynamic interaction between adaptive systems and environment. From this perspective, cognitive processes emerge from recurrent sensorimotor interactions involving the environment, the body, and the brain ( Clark 1998 , 2008 ; Fuchs 2011 ; Fuchs and De Jaegher 2009 ); movements and action play a central role in high-function processes of human beings and in development of meaning in experience ( Nöe 2004 ). In general, the enactive approach emphasizes the person’s point of view as an autonomous agent who interacts with the world in terms of affordances ( Chemero 2009 ). In this sense, the mind is enactive and for this is intrinsically embodied.

1.2. Embodiement of Concepts, Language, and Self

Many lines of research are guided by embodied cognition, enaction, and adaptability. Of particular interest are the studies that address one of the most complex and sophisticated capacities of humans, the ability to form and use concepts. Concepts are the basic units of our knowledge and the building blocks of our thinking. The use of concepts is the basis of intelligent behavior. We need concepts to organize our surroundings, to know how to react to others, how to use objects, how to orient ourselves in space and time.

According to George Herbert Mead ( 1934 ), concepts are not representations of objects, but something more akin to the ability to interact with them and thus aimed at action. For example, the concept of “dog” is not a representation of the animal, but rather corresponds to an intricate set of practical knowledge about the dog, including ways of interacting with it. According to the embodied and grounded approach, concepts can be defined as the reactivation of the neural activation pattern that occurs when objects and entities from the external world are experienced. This view is supported by numerous empirical studies. For example, using brain imaging techniques, many researchers have shown that during the processing of linguistic material that includes concepts related to various actions, the effector areas of premotor and motor areas are activated to some extent (e.g., Gallese and Lakoff 2005 ; Glenberg 2007 ; Hauk et al. 2004 ; Tettamanti et al. 2005 ). In other words, if seeing a couch activates the perceptual system, prepares us for the action of sitting and anticipates a mental state of rest. Thus, our concept of a couch, and the word “couch,” reactivate the same systems to adequately prepare us for interaction with any couch we might be dealing with. In this view, concepts are multimodal and not amodal or unimodal. The information contained in concepts corresponds to the activation of a distributed network of different modalities: tactile, olfactory, visual, etc.; thus, concepts are not abstract, but perceptual symbols (e.g., Barsalou 1999 ; Lakoff and Johnson 1980 ).

The embodied nature of concepts and language is based on the hypothesis of simulation through our bodies ( Barsalou 1999 ; Lakoff and Johnson 1980 ; Rizzolatti et al. 1996 ). More specifically, Glenberg and Gallese ( 2012 ) proposed the action-based language theory that has been supported by a large amount of empirical evidence. In this theory concepts are conceived as possible models of action so that when we understand language, we make predictions about the effects that may follow from our action. In this sense, there is a strong link between concepts, words, and action: when we use concepts, we recall the sensorimotor experience of specific objects or events to which they refer, and it is always through the embodied simulation that we understand the meaning of the words; when we read the word “walk”, we activate the neural circuit related to feet and legs because we simulate the action. In this sense, the simulation enabled by words and concepts helps us to think more than vice versa (e.g., Vygotsky 1962 ) or using Bucci and Freedman’s words ( 1978 ), “we do not know what we are talking about until after we have put it into words”.

García and Ibáñez ( 2018 ) report extensive evidence to support the hypothesis of a close relationship between movement skills and language. In their systematic review, they found that “damage to critical hubs, such as motor cortex and basal ganglia, can distinctly impair functionally germane linguistic subdomains” (p. 1). In other words, movement disorders normally lead to specific language deficits.

While sensorimotor encoding is particularly evident and proven in the case of concrete words and concepts, for several authors ( Barsalou and Wiemer-Hastings 2005 ; Caruana and Borghi 2016 ; Chartrand and Bargh 1999 ; Gallese 2008 ; Lakoff and Johnson 1980 ), it is also central for the abstract concepts and words, in which sensorimotor encoding provides metaphorical material used by decontextualized thinking; in addition, abstract words and concepts are based on multimodal representations that combine encodings of sensorimotor experiences with those derived from other domains of experience such as emotional, social, and linguistic.

Finally, following the embodied theories also our narrations are therefore also structured by the sequence of experiences embodied inasmuch our perceptions and actions are all precedent to the narrative sense of the Self ( Menary 2008 ). Mark Slors has shown that “individual sense perceptions acquire their full sense only as part of a sequence of perceptions portraying a body’s movements through space, individual feelings acquire their full sense only in connection with what evoked them and what they produce” ( Slors 1998 ). The self-narrative stems from a sequence of perceptive, bodily, and action experiences.

1.3. Embodied Intelligence

In scientific literature, there have been several attempts to provide a definition of intelligence. Sternberg ( 2000 ) published an extensive review of these attempts, showing that some of the definitions given are complementary and some mutually exclusive. The lack of unanimous consensus around the definition of intelligence stems from the unobservable nature of intelligence, which can only be inferred from behaviors. This is also the reason why many assessment theories and techniques have developed over time. Within this plurality and multiplicity of theoretical models, we can distinguish two polarities: on the one hand, theories that consider intelligence primarily as a global, unitary, hierarchically superordinate, abstract, rational, and amodal capacity; on the other hand, theories that conceive intelligence as a set of multiple specific and modular abilities that tend to be modality-specific, practical, concrete, embodied, and grounded.

In most of the past century prevailed the first polarity where the intelligence was operationalized as global and abstract factor (e.g., Spearman 1927 ; Sternberg 1987 ; Thurstone 1938 ). For example, Wechsler ( 1944, p. 3 ) defined intelligence as a “global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment”, Bayley ( 1970, p. 1171 ) as “the processes through which the human organism develops from concrete to increasingly abstract mental functions” and Terman ( 1925, p. 254 ) as “the ability to engage in abstract thinking”. Similarly, Bruner’s ( 1966 ) symbolic representational mode and Piaget’s ( 1950 ) formal operational stage—the highest levels of intellectual functioning—involved the ability to deal with logical relations at the symbolic level, regardless of the specific concrete content.

Over the past fifty years, the study of intelligence has shifted primarily to the idea of intelligence as based on a distributed, grounded, and embodied system. Some authors (e.g., Brooks 1991 ; Guilford 1967 ; Schneider and McGrew 2012 ; Sternberg 1996 ) maintained that it is necessary to investigate relatively independent and specific cognitive abilities that combined may contribute to the general intelligence needed to deal with problems in the environment. For example, Sternberg ( 2003 ) thought that the easiest way to measure intelligence was to analyze the degree of adaptation of people into their social context, instead of using tests. He says, “I prefer to refer to it as ‘successful intelligence.’ And the reason is that the emphasis is on the use of your intelligence to achieve success in your life. So, I define it as your skill in achieving whatever it is you want to attain in your life within your sociocultural context”. This implies that intelligence is not a constant component, but that it is dynamic and constantly adapting, and this adaptation depends on the reality and importance that people give it, as well as their motivations and intentionality.

More specifically, in the embodied cognition approach intelligence cannot develop without an embodiment or interaction with the environment. Through embodiment, intelligent agents carry out actions and affect the environment. The response of the environment is registered through bodily sensors. At the same time, the body is a part of the environment that can be perceived, shaped, and learned by intelligence. Intelligent behavior is always considered the outcome of the coupling between the constraints of the agent’s body (the perceptual and motor system, and their brain) and the environment. Thus, movement and bodily interactions constitute the basic elements of sense-making processes with multiple and circular feedbacks between the perceptual, emotional, and cognitive levels ( Koch et al. 2007 ; Niedenthal et al. 2005 ; Ritter and Graff Low 1996 ).

Unfortunately, the intelligence tests that have been developed over time have only been partially updated to measure this new embodied understanding of intelligent behavior. In particular, the fourth edition of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV; Wechsler 2008 ) has only partially addressed this gap by introducing and modifying some subtests to expand the number of modality-specific cognitive skills measured that in previous versions were not fully measured, and calculating four partial sub-indices (Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, Processing Speed) considered more reliable measures than IQ, especially in profiles with large discrepancies. However, we consider that Bucci and Freedman’s ( 1978 ) evaluation of this test is also applicable to the current version of the scale: The authors believe the WAIS focuses mainly on abstract verbal ability (like in the Vocabulary and Information subtests), associations between words (as in the Similarities subtest), abstract visuo-perceptive reasoning (as in Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Visual Puzzles, Figure Weights, Picture Completion), decontextualized memory and computation processes (Digit Span, Arithmetic, Letter–Number Sequencing), and recognition of simple and abstract visual patterns (like in Symbol Search, Coding, and Cancellation); in other words, the cognitive skills measured are mainly abstract, decontextualized, and in many cases, far from the sensorimotor coding on which the cognitive skills are based according to the embodied approach. Only the Comprehension subtests requires that responders address themselves to specific situations which they may not have confronted before, but even in this case, the focus is the rational reasoning ability and not the situated and embodied people’s problem solving. It is based on these characteristics that some studies have found some partial limitations in this test in terms of predictive, ecological, and external validity with respect to real everyday cognitive abilities ( Groth-Marnat and Baker 2003 ; Loring and Bauer 2010 ; Watt et al. 2016 ).

1.4. Referential Competence and Embodied Intelligence

One of the innovative ways to investigate the embodiment of human mentation is proposed by Bucci and colleagues ( Bucci 1984 , 1997 , 2021a , 2021b , 2021c ; Bucci et al. 2016 ; Christian et al. 2021 ; Mariani et al. 2013 ; Negri and Ongis 2021 ; Negri et al. 2019 , 2020 ) and consists of analyzing the content and stylistic characteristics of spoken language. Indeed, the words we choose when we speak and the way we use them reflect both the degree of internal connection between the abstract symbolic levels and the more concrete, embodied levels of our subjective experience, and the degree of interpersonal connection with others, since the quality of the words we use allows us to convey and make others live our experience in a more or less effective way. Bucci and Freedman ( 1978 ) refer to this quality of language as referential competence defined as the “degree of integration of symbolic and iconic representation systems, i.e., the strength of the symbol-referent links in semantic memory” (p. 594) or in other words, “the ability to find words for objects, feelings, relationships, etc., i.e., the strength of the word-referent link” (p. 595). People vary greatly in their ability to find the right words to express their meaning, words which will evoke understanding of this meaning in the listener. The commonly used verbal intelligence tests do not tap this ability to use words to refer to object, while they provide measure for the abstract verbal competence related to the ability to handle semantic and syntactic relations between verbal symbols, the degree of abstractness of the verbal systems, and the efficiency of retrieval processes.

The referential competence is a measure of the embodiment of the mentation in general, and specifically of the intelligence. Indeed, the words used are the more effective the more they are connected to bodily, sensory, and motor processes related to the experience we have of the objects to which they refer. The more our speech is specific, clear, concrete, and evocative of visual and sensory images, the more we will be able to convey to the listener the experience we are having. Bucci ( 1984 , 1997 , 2021a , 2021b , 2021c ) investigating the relationship between mentation and language developed the multiple code theory of human processing and called “referential process” the process of connecting nonverbal experiences, words, and objects. The referential competence is the measure of the outcome of this process and, thus, can be considered an index of embedded intelligence, in that it allows us to deal adaptively and efficiently with problems posed by the physical and social environment in which we are embedded.

In 1978, Bucci and Freedman conducted a study to investigate the relationship between referential competence, language style, intelligence, and hand movements. The referential competence measured using deviation of color naming from word-reading times on the Stroop Color-Word test was shown to be unrelated to verbal abstract intelligence as measured by Vocabulary, Comprehension and Similarity subtests of the 1995 version of WAIS and to the verbal fluency as measured at Stroop test in term of mean word-reading times. Instead, participants with high verbal competence during their five-minute monologue about interesting or dramatic personal experiences produced approximately three times more object-focused hand movements and their narration was specific, vivid, and objective in contrast to the subjective and general verbal material in the low referential group. The lack of association between intelligence and referential competence was explained by the authors by highlighting the abstract verbal nature of the cognitive abilities measured by the WAIS test.

1.5. Purposes of the Study

Since Bucci’s pioneering studies ( Bucci and Freedman 1978 ; Bucci 1984 ), no further research has been conducted on the relationship between intelligence and referential competence. In the meantime, new more sophisticated measures of both constructs have been developed.

The WAIS is now in its fourth edition ( Wechsler 2008 ) and has been modified, albeit only partially, to measure more specifically some of the major situated and perceptually based abilities that shape intelligent behavior. For example, by adopting the CHC model of intelligence ( McGrew 2005 ), the WAIS-IV measures five broad abilities (visual processing, short-term memory, processing speed, crystallized intelligence, and fluid intelligence) and ten narrow abilities (Visualization, Closure Speed, Working Memory, Memory Span, Perceptual Speed, Test Pacing, Lexical Knowledge, General Information, Induction, Quantitative Reasoning). Despite these changes, many situated, and modality-specific skills are not measured (for example, Auditory processing; Domain-Specific Knowledge; Reaction and Decision Speed; Psychomotor Speed; Kinesthetic, Olfactory, Tactile, Psychomotor Abilities) and the current subtests, especially verbal ones, measure abstract and rational rather than situated and embedded skills.

With respect to referential competence, over the past forty years the international research group on referential process, led by Wilma Bucci, has developed several manual, self-report, and computerized instruments to measure this construct in various language ( Bucci 2021b ; Mariani et al. 2013 ; Maskit 2021 ; Maskit and Murphy 2011 ; Maskit et al. 2012 ; Negri et al. 2019 , 2020 ; see also the method section). In particular, several computerized linguistic measures have been developed to detect the referential competence in various domains and by various linguistic aspects. The dictionary of the referential activity (WRAD) and the Reflection and Reorganization Function (WRRL) measure the referential competence more in terms of the linguistic style, that is, how the speaker uses words to convey a certain meaning; the dictionaries of affects (AFFD), refection words (RefD), bodily and somatic sensations (SenSD) measure referential competence more in term of verbal content, that is, the type of words most used by the speaker (see the method section for the operational definition).

The aim of the present work was to replicate Bucci and Freedman’s ( 1978 ) study using the updated tools for measuring intelligence (WAIS-IV) and referential competence (the computerized linguistic measures of referential process). Based on many studies on embodied cognition that provided robust empirical evidence about the fact that cognition development is based on sensory and motor interactions with the world ( Barsalou 1999 ; Borghi and Binkofski 2014 ), we hypothesized that subjects with greater referential competence would show higher levels of intelligence. To test the hypothesis, we administered the WAIS-IV ( Wechsler 2008 ) to obtain a measure of participants’ intelligence, and the Relationship Anecdotes Paradigm (RAP) interview ( Luborsky and Crits-Christoph 1990 ) to collect autobiographical narratives about relational episodes that participants considered significant and interesting to tell about themselves.

Our prediction was that the sensorimotor self ( Clark 2008 ; Glenberg and Gallese 2012 ; Yu and Smith 2012 ) emerging in self-narratives and observed in language style would correlate with Intelligence Quotient and its sub-indexes more related to performance and perception in space. More specifically, we expected that referential competence about sensory and somatic states and sensations, as measured by calculating the proportion of sensory and somatic words (SenSD) in self-narratives, would correlate with IQ, or at least with PRI, WMI, PSI, the indices most related to performance and perception in space. As for the other indices of referential competence, both content indices (dictionaries of affect and reflection: AffD and RefD) and language style (dictionaries of referential activity and reflection/reorganization function: WRAD and WRRL) indices, we expected that they would be neither positively, nor negatively associated with intelligence indices. In fact, as Bucci and Freedman ( 1978 ) found, referential competence that passes through language style, i.e., through the situated, concrete, and contextualized use of words (WRAD), should not be correlated with abstract, decontextualized cognitive competence–be it verbal, perceptual, mental, or performance—as measured by the WAIS. Similarly, we expected that words related to abstract reflection (as measured by the Dictionary of Reflection, RefD), emotional sensations (as measured by the Dictionary of Affect, AffD), and reorganization and reflection style (as measured by the Dictionary of Reflection and Reorganization, WRRL) would not be associated with intelligence indices because they do not directly express sensorimotor sensations.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. procedures and participants.

After reading a brief presentation of the study, the potential participants were invited to a quiet room of the university campus where they expressed their written informed consent to participate in the study. The exclusion criteria were two: (a) being an undergraduate student in psychology or being a psychologist, (b) having a score above the clinical cut offs on the Symptom Check List-90-R (SCL-90_R; Derogatis 1992 ), which was the first self-report test that was required to be completed.

In total, 32 Italian nonclinical participants (17 females) were recruited via community outreach (e.g., referrals, snowball sampling); their age ranged from 21 to 67 years ( M = 33.8, SD = 14.32), their education was middle-high (year of education: M = 15.1, SD = 3.1; degree = 14, high school diploma = 16, junior high school diploma = 2), as well as the socioeconomic status measured according to the Hollingshead’s classification ( Hollingshead 1975 ; SES index of: M = 28.4, SD = 15.0).

Immediately after the SCL-90_R compilation, the participants were administered, in sequence, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV; Wechsler 2008 ) to measure the Intelligence Quotient, and the Relationship Anecdotes Paradigm interview (RAP; Luborsky and Crits-Christoph 1990 ) to collect autobiographical accounts on which applying the linguistic measures of referential competence. During test administration, there was a break of 10 min in the middle or at the end of the WAIS-IV test. The RAP interview was audiotaped with the participants’ consent so that it could then be analyzed linguistically. The administrators were two licensed psychologists trained in the administration of the WAIS-IV and the RAP interview.

2.2. Instruments

• Symptom Check List Revised (SCL-90-R; Derogatis 1992 ). SCL-90_R is a widely used tool to screen psychological symptoms measured on nine dimensions: somatization, obsessivity-compulsivity, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychoticism. Based on the scores in these dimensions, three global indices can be calculated: Global Severity Index (GSI), Positive Symptom Total (PST), and Positive Symptom Distress Index (PSDI). SCL-90-R is a self-report questionnaire consisting of 90 items that refer to symptoms of psychological distress experienced in the last week. We used the Italian version of SCL-90-R that has showed good reliability and validity ( Preti et al. 2019 ).
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale — Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV; Wechsler 2008 ). WAIS-IV is the most widely used test for comprehensive assessment of the cognitive abilities of adolescents and adults between the ages of 16 and 90. It is composed by a general intellectual ability scale, the Full Scale of Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ), and by four composite scores: the Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI), including three core subtests (Similarities, Vocabulary, Information) and one supplemental (Comprehension); the Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI), including three core subtests (Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Visual Puzzles) and two supplemental (Picture Completion, Figure Weights); the Working Memory Index (WMI), including two core subtests (Digit Span, Arithmetic) and one supplemental (Letter–Number Sequencing); and the Processing Speed Index (PSI), including two core subtests (Symbol Search, Coding) and one supplemental (Cancellation). The administration manual indicates to administer the ten core subtests with the option to replace them with the supplemental subtests, if necessary to compensate for invalid subtest administration or for specific reasons guiding the assessment. In our study, we replaced for VCI the Information subtest with the Comprehension subtest, for WMI the Arithmetic subtest with Letter–Number Sequencing subtest, and for PRI, we added the Picture Completion. These substitutions and addition were made to administer the subtests that most closely connected sensations from multiple sensory domains, in accord with the focus of the study. The WAIS-IV test has been extensively tested in terms of validity and reliability in various cultural contexts, including Italy ( Orsini and Pezzuti 2013 , 2015 ; Wechsler 2008 ).
• Relationship Anecdotes Paradigm interview (RAP; Luborsky and Crits-Christoph 1990 ). The RAP interview was developed to collect, even outside of psychotherapy sessions, accounts of relational episodes from which to infer people’s central transferential themes, applying the Core Conflictual Relationship Theme coding method. Interviewees are asked to recount ten significant episodes of their lives that involve an interaction between themselves and others. For each episode, they are invited to specify when it occurred, with whom it occurred, something about what the other person said or did, and what happened in the end. For the purposes of the present study, RAP was administered to collect from participants meaningful autobiographical narratives on which to apply the linguistic measures related to variables under investigation. Evidence for validity of the RAP potential to evoke significant personal accounts was provided by Barber et al. ( 1995 ).

2.3. Linguistic Measures

Autobiographical narratives collected through the RAP Interview were analyzed linguistically by the Discourse Attributes Analysis Program (DAAP; Maskit and Murphy 2011 ; Maskit et al. 2012 ; Maskit 2021 ). DAAP is designed to compare any type of text to word lists or dictionaries. They can be unweighted, and the output of their application is the proportion of words covered by dictionaries in the texts; other dictionaries can be weighted, i.e., the listed words that relate more strongly to a specific construct will have greater “weights” than the words that are less strongly related to it. In this case, the output is the average weight of the words present in the texts i.e., the degree of intensity of the presence of a certain construct in the texts.

Within the multiple code theory perspective, Bucci and colleagues ( Bucci 2021a ; Bucci and Maskit 2006 ; Bucci et al. 2004 ; Maskit 2021 ; Zhou et al. 2021 ) have developed and validated several dictionaries that are computerized linguistic measures of different aspects of the referential process, detectable trough the language characteristics of conversations, whether they arise in psychotherapy sessions or in other interpersonal contexts. For the purposes of this study, we applied five dictionaries among those developed and validated for the Italian language ( Bonfanti et al. 2008 ; Di Trani et al. 2018 ; Mariani et al. 2013 ; Negri and Ongis 2021 ; Negri et al. 2018 , 2020 ):

• Italian Weighted Referential Activity Dictionary (IWRAD). IWRAD contains a list of 9596 frequently used Italian words, each assigned a weight between 0 (low) and 1 (high), with 0.5 as the neutral value. A high score represents a high level of referential activity, which corresponds to a high level of concreteness, specificity, clarity, and imagery in the speech sample. The referential activity can be defined as the degree to which the speaker or writer is able to translate their emotional, visceral, and relational experience into words, so as to evoke corresponding experiences in the listener or in the reader ( Bucci 2000 ; Bucci et al. 2004 ). It is a measure of emotional involvement and the connection between words and the emotional experience. Most of the IWRAD score depends on stylistic rather than content aspects, that is, on how words (and especially function words) are used rather than their content.
• Italian Weighted Reflection and Reorganization List (IWRRL). The IWRRL is a measure of the reflection and reorganizing language function that can be defined as the degree to which the speaker is trying to recognize and understand the emotional significance of an event or set of events in their own or someone else’s life, or in a dream or fantasy; it is not about abstract reflection, but rather a person’s reasoning related to an event that has been vividly experienced ( Bucci 2021b ; Maskit 2021 ; Negri et al. 2018 ; Zhou et al. 2021 ). IWRRL is an index of personal elaboration of emotional experiences and contains a list of 1633 frequently used Italian words, each assigned a weight between 0 (low) and 1 (high), with 0.5 as the neutral value. In the IWRRL, most of the score depends on stylistic rather than content aspects, that is, on how words are used rather than their content.
• Italian Sensory Somatic Dictionary (ISenSD). ISenSD is a list of 1926 Italian words related to the body and bodily activities, and to sensory processes or symptoms. The number of ISensD words in a speech sample is a measure of the arousal of bodily and emotional sensations and feelings. It is an unweighted dictionary, and the output is the proportion (ranging from 0 to 1) of words covered by the dictionary in the texts examined.
• Italian Reflection Dictionary (IRefD). IRefD is a measure of the abstract reflection present in speech. It consists of a list of 908 Italian words that refer to cognitive or logical functions, and to communication processes that imply the use of cognitive functions; if it is not associated with a narrative with high IWRAD, the IRefD is often indicative of an intellectualizing and defensive style of the speaker ( Bucci 2021b ; Mariani et al. 2013 ; Maskit 2021 ). IRefD is an unweighted dictionary, and the output is the proportion (ranging from 0 to 1) of words covered by the dictionary in the texts analyzed.
• Italian Affect Dictionary (IAffD). The IAffD consists of 1786 Italian words. It is a measure of the degree to which the speaker uses words to name and label feelings and emotions; it is a measure of emotional presence in the discourse, but also a defensive and distancing action toward the emotional engagement because the speaker uses abstract words to name affects, rather than describing the emotional experience in a vivid, specific, and concrete way ( Bucci 2021b ; Bucci et al. 2016 ; Mariani et al. 2013 ; Maskit 2021 ; Negri and Ongis 2021 ). IAffD are further subclassified as Italian Positive Affect Dictionary (IPAffD), Italian Negative Affect Dictionary (INAffD), and Italian Neutral Affect Dictionary (IZAffD). IAffD and its sub-dictionaries are unweighted dictionaries, and their output are the proportion (ranging from 0 to 1) of words covered by the dictionary in the texts analyzed.

2.4. Data Analyses

As preliminary analyses, we tested for possible effects of sociodemographic variables (gender, age, education, socio-economicus status) on the dependent and independent variables (WAIS Indices, IWRAD, IWRRL, ISenSD, IRefD, IAffD): we applied Student’s t-test on the scores of male and female participants, and we calculated Pearson’s correlation coefficients between age, SES, years of education and the variables under analysis.

To test the hypothesis, we first calculated Pearson’s correlation coefficients between linguistic measures of autobiographical narratives and the scores obtained on WAIS-IV scales; in this analysis, we entered as controls the sociodemographic variables found to be associated with dependent and independent variables. Second, based on the correlations found to be significant, a linear regression analysis was performed using the linguistic dimensions measured on the autobiographical narratives as predictors of the WAIS-IV scores. All analyses were conducted using Jamovi software ( 2021 ).

The participants obtained scores close to the average on the WAIS-IV ( M = 102), with an important variability ( SD = 13.1) as the minimum score obtained in the FSIQ was at the lower limit of the average (FSIQ = 70) and the maximum score reached was well above the average (PRI = 141) (see Table 1 ). Between males and females, there were no significant differences in any of the overall or composite scores, as well as in the individual subtests. Age, years of education, and socio-economic status did not correlate with WAIS-IV scores, except for the WMI and its Letter–Number Sequencing subtest, which correlated negatively with age, respectively, r = −.508, p = .006, and r = −.666, p < .001.

Descriptive statistics of WAIS-IV scores and language measures.

In the autobiographical narratives, participants showed levels of referential activity (IWRAD) close to the average ( M = .5050, SD = .0027) as well as for reflecting and reorganizing style scores ( M = .5440, SD = .0027). The application of the sensory and somatic (ISensD), refection (IRefD), and affect (IAffD) dictionaries yielded average proportions respectively of .0404, .0300, .0343, which means that, on average, 4.0%, 3.0%, and 3.4% of the words in the autobiographical stories belong to these dictionaries (see Table 1 ). No significant correlations were found between these linguistic measures, except between the two measures related to different aspects of reflection, namely, abstract reflection as measured by words referring to logical or cognitive functions (IRefD) and reflective and reorganizational language style (IWRRL), r = −.371, p = .036. Male participants told narrative with significantly higher levels of referential activity of narratives ( t (30) = 2.567, p = .015, d = 0.955; IWRAD: Male = .5064, Female = .5036) while no difference between males and females was found in the usage of all other dictionaries. Correlations between linguistic measures and age, years of education and socio-economic status were not found, except for IWRAD and year of education, r = −.516, p < .004.

Concerning the hypothesis of the study the WAIS-IV scores did not correlate with referential activity (IWRAD), reflection and reorganization function (IWRRL), abstract reflection (IRefD), and affect-related words (IAffD and relative sub-dictionaries), while the sensory somatic dictionary (ISenSD) positively correlated with the overall scores of intelligence (FSIQ: r = .558, p = .002), the working memory scores (WMI: r = .531, p = .003), and the subtests of Digit Span ( r = .487, p = .007) and Letter–Number Sequencing ( r = .429, p = .020). The computation of correlation coefficients was controlled for years of education and age.

Two linear regression analyses indicated that the participants’ usage of sensory somatic words (ISenSD) in their autobiographical narratives explained 17.6% of the variance of the FSIQ scores (R 2 = .176, F (1,30) = 6.40, p = .017) and 18.3% of the variance of the WMI scores (R 2 = .183, F (1,30) = 6.73, p = .015) (see Figure 1 and Figure 2 ). Specifically, the proportion of sensory and somatic words (ISenSD) predicted the overall levels of intelligence (FSIQ), β = 0.419, 95% CI [0.081–0.758], t = 2.53, p = .017, d = 1.062, and the working memory scores (WMI), β = 0.428, 95% CI [0.091–0.765], t = 2.59, p = .015, d = 1.089.

Scatter plot of ISenSD and FSIQ (WAIS-IV) scores.

Scatter plot of ISenSD and WMI (WAIS-IV) scores.

In sum, the hypothesis that language referring to bodily, sensory, and somatic functions (SenSD) is to some extent an indicator of intellectual abilities (IQ and WMI) as intrinsically embodied, is supported by the results. Instead, referential activity, i.e., the level of interconnection between the subsymbolic (perceptual and nonverbal) and symbolic (verbal) processing systems, which is revelated more by linguistic style than by the type of words used, was not associated with the level of intelligence. Similarly, the other indices of referential competence related to more abstract domains of experience (affect, abstract reflection, and reorganizing and reflecting linguistic style) did not correlated with intelligence measures.

4. Discussion

The measures of referential process that have been used concern various referential domains. Only the measure of the sensory and somatic sensations dictionary was found to correlate with intelligence quotient. The participants who used more words referring to bodily experiences and sensory processes while describing their own relations and emotions showed higher intelligence scores. On the contrary, words related to other more abstract domains (abstract reflection and abstract labels of emotional sensations) or the stylistic use of words in a reflecting way were not associated to participant’s intelligence. We believe that these results support the embodied cognition hypothesis ( Barsalou 1999 ; Clark 1998 , 2008 ; Gallese 2008 ; Lakoff and Johnson 1980 ; Nöe 2004 ; Thompson 2007 ). The sensorimotor sensations we experience during the movement of our body in the space are the basic elements of sense-making processes, including concepts and language. Several studies and theories ( Gallese 2008 ; Glenberg and Gallese 2012 ; Gallese and Lakoff 2005 ; Glenberg 2007 ; Hauk et al. 2004 ; Lakoff and Johnson 1980 ; Tettamanti et al. 2005 ) have highlighted how the language structure reveals motor concepts and similarities as foundations of every language. For example, Pinker ( 2007 ) maintained that almost every abstract word used is based on a practical metaphor, which are also derived from the perception of elements, such as the movement. He defines the human intelligence as a process of metaphoric abstraction that deprives the conceptual structures from their content, and that applies them to new abstract domains. In this sense, having words that can refer to one’s somatic and sensory states and using them to make sense of what is happening in our sensory space helps us to think better and implement more efficient and adaptive behavior, in other words, more intelligent.

Based on this evidence, we can hypothesize that sensorimotor vocabulary can thus be considered both an indirect measure of intelligence and an index of the degree of embodiment of higher cognitive processes, i.e., their connection with sensory and motor systems. If this is true, the dictionary of words related to sensory and somatic sensations (ISenSD; see Table 2 for examples of Italian words belonging to this dictionary; for the English version of the dictionary, see Bucci 2021b , 2021c ; Maskit 2021 ) may represent a tool to measure embodiment and partially fill the lack of tools available to measure this construct in the field of psychological and neuropsychological research. This dictionary can also be a tool to be tested in the educational field for screening children with difficulties in sensorimotor integration and cognitive development.

Examples of words belonging to ISenSD and IWRAD.

Another result worth discussing is that the weighted dictionary of referential activity (IWRAD) did not correlate with the IQ scores. The referential activity is operationalized as the degree to which the speaker or writer is able to translate their emotional, visceral, and relational experience into words, so as to evoke corresponding experiences in the listener or in the reader ( Bucci 2000 ; Bucci et al. 2004 ). Thus, the more specific, concrete, detailed, and vivid the speech is, the more it has high referential activity. In other words, the referential activity is the extent of connection between words and nonverbal experience. According to the embodied cognition hypothesis, we should expect this measure to correlate with intelligence but, as in Bucci and Freedman’s ( 1978 ) study from which we have drawn inspiration, intelligence and referential activity did not correlate. We agree with the authors that this happens because WAIS-IV remains focused on measuring cognitive ability in abstract, decontextualized terms and based on verbal ability; it is therefore more a measure of rational reasoning and logical connection between words. On the other hand, instead, the referential activity is a measure of the referential competence, i.e., of the ability to connects words to objects, events, relationships, etc. Moreover, most of the IWRAD score depends on stylistic rather than content aspects, that is, on how words (and especially function words) are used to evoke a situated and concrete experience rather than their content that tend to represent a simplification and abstraction of the experience (see Table 2 for examples of Italian words belonging to this dictionary; for the English version of the dictionary, see Bucci 2021b , 2021c ; Maskit 2021 ). For this reason, it would be interesting to investigate the relationship between referential activity and intelligence using more situated, specific, and nonverbal measures of the cognitive abilities.

Finally, it is intriguing that among the WIAS-IV indices, the only one that, in addition to IQ, correlated with sensory and somatic dictionary was working memory (WMI). It is a finding that suggests that working memory processes are strictly related to bodily processes such as keeping pace and repeating action in time and space (e.g., Kang et al. 2020 ; Smyth et al. 1998 ).

The results of the present study, however, should not be considered conclusive. They certainly need to be corroborated by other evidence by applying, for example, the research design to larger samples and to populations with differentiated levels of intelligence. The dictionaries of the referential competence should also be applied in conjunction with different measures of intelligence and embodiment to produce more robust conclusions. Despite the exploratory and pilot nature of the study, we think that the results presented here open a novel way to the study of embodied cognition that can be promising because the collection of people’s linguistic productions is relatively simple to implement and analyze. The results of the present study on the association between intelligence and somatic and sensory vocabulary are a proof of this viability and add to those already numerous in support of the hypothesis that sensorimotor schemas have an intrinsic role in language and cognition.

Acknowledgments

The authors address special thanks to Luca Belotti and Alice Caglioni who administered the tests to the participants in the present study.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.N. and M.C.; methodology, A.N. and A.B.; linguistic analysis, A.N.; data analysis, A.N. and C.L.C.; investigation, A.N.; data curation, A.N., A.B. and C.L.C.; data interpretation, A.N., A.B. and M.C.; writing—original draft preparation, A.B. and C.L.C.; writing—review and editing, A.N. and M.C.; supervision, A.N. and M.C.; project administration, A.N. and M.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, because at the time the study was conducted, an IRB was not yet active at the university in which the participants were tested. However, we conducted the study in compliance with the ethical principles established in the Declaration of Helsinki ( https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/ , accessed on 8 July 2022) and the Convention on human rights and biomedicine—Orviedo Convention ( https://rm.coe.int/168007cf98 , accessed on 8 July 2022).

Informed Consent Statement

Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Barber Jacques P., Luborsky Lester, Crits-Christoph Paul, Diguer Louis. A comparison of core conflictual relationship themes before psychotherapy and during early sessions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1995; 63 :145–48. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.63.1.145. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Barsalou Lawrence W. Perceptions of perceptual symbols. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 1999; 22 :637–60. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X99532147. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Barsalou Lawrence W., Wiemer-Hastings Katja. Situating Abstract Concepts. In: Pecher Diane, Zwaan Rolf A., editors. Grounding Cognition: The Role of Perception and Action in Memory, Language, and Thinking. Cambridge University Press; New York: 2005. pp. 129–63. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bateson Gregory. Steps to an Ecology of Mind. Jason Aronson; Northvale: 1972. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bayley Nancy. Development of mental abilities. In: Mussen Paul H., editor. Manual of Child Psychology. Wiley; New York: 1970. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bickle John. Zalta Edward N., editor. Multiple Realizability. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2020 Edition) [(accessed on 8 July 2022)]. 2020. Available online: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/multiple-realizability/
• Bonfanti Anna, Campanelli Luca, Ciliberti Alessandra, Golia Giorgio, Papini Silvia. Speech disfluency in spoken language: The Italian computerized dictionary (I-DF) and its application on a single case; Paper presented at the SPR International Meeting; Barcelona, Spain. June 18–21; 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Borghi Anna M., Binkofski Ferdinand. Words as Social Tools: An Embodied View on Abstract Concepts. Springer; New York: 2014. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brooks Rodney. Intelligence without representation. Artificial Intelligence. 1991; 47 :139–59. doi: 10.1016/0004-3702(91)90053-M. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bruner Jerome S. On cognitive growth. In: Bruner Jerome S., Olver Rose R., Greenfield Patricia M., editors. Studies in Cognitive Growth. Wiley; New York: 1966. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma, Kabasakalian Rachel, the Referential Activity Research Group Instructions for Scoring Referential Activity (RA) in Transcripts of Spoken Narrative Texts. 2004. [(accessed on 8 July 2022)]. Available online: http://www.thereferentialprocess.org
• Bucci Wilma, Maskit Bernard. A Weighted Referential Activity Dictionary. In: Shanahan James G., Qu Yan, Wiebe Janyce., editors. Computing Attitude and Affect in Text: Theory and Applications. vol. 20. Springer; Dordrecht: 2006. (The Information Retrieval Series). [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma, Freedman Norbert. Language and hand: The dimension of referential competence. Journal of Personality. 1978; 46 :594–622. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1978.tb00188.x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma, Maskit Bernard, Murphy Sean. Connecting emotions and words: The referential process. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences. 2016; 15 :359–83. doi: 10.1007/s11097-015-9417-z. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma. Linking words and things: Basic processes and individual variation. Cognition. 1984; 17 :137–53. doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(84)90016-7. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma. Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Science. Guilford Press; New York: 1997. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma. The need for a “psychoanalytic psychology” in the cognitive science field. Psychoanalytic Psychology. 2000; 17 :203–24. doi: 10.1037/0736-9735.17.2.203. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma. Emotional Communication and Therapeutic Change: Understanding Psychotherapy Through Multiple Code Theory. Routledge; London: 2021a. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma. Development and validation of measures of referential activity. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2021b; 50 :17–27. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09760-9. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bucci Wilma. Overview of the referential process: The operation of language within and between people. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2021c; 50 :3–15. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09759-2. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Burr Christopher. Embodied decisions and the predictive brain. In: Wiese Wanja, Metzinger Thomas K., editors. Philosophy and Predictive Processing. MIND Group; Frankfurt: 2017. pp. 1–23. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Caruana Fausto, Borghi Anna M. Il cervello in Azione [The Brain in Action] Il Mulino; Bologna: 2016. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chartrand Tanya L., Bargh John A. The chameleon effect: The perception–behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999; 76 :893–910. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.76.6.893. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chemero Anthony. Radical Embodied Cognitive Science. MIT Press; Cambridge: 2009. [ Google Scholar ]
• Christian Christopher, Barzilai Eran, Nyman Jacob, Negri Attà. Assessing key linguistic dimensions of ruptures in the therapeutic alliance. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2021; 50 :143–53. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09768-1. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cisek Paul, Kalaska John F. Neural mechanisms for interacting with a world full of action choices. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 2010; 33 :269–98. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135409. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cisek Paul. Cortical mechanisms of action selection: The affordance competition hypothesis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 2007; 362 :1585–99. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2054. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Clark Andy. Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together again. MIT Press; Cambridge: 1998. [ Google Scholar ]
• Clark Andy. Supersizing the Mind: Embodiment, Action, and Cognitive Extension. Oxford University Press; New York: 2008. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Derogatis Leonard R. SCL-90-R: Administration, Scoring & Procedures Manual-II, for the R (Revised) Version and Other Instruments of the Psychopathology Rating Scale Series. Clinical Psychometric Research; Towson: 1992. [ Google Scholar ]
• Di Paolo Ezequiel. Autopoiesis, adaptivity, teleology, agency. Phenomenology and Cognitive Sciences. 2005; 4 :429–52. doi: 10.1007/s11097-005-9002-y. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Di Trani Michela, Mariani Rachele, Renzi Alessia, Greenman Paul S., Solano Luigi. Alexithymia according to Bucci’s multiple code theory: A preliminary investigation with healthy and hypertensive individuals. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. 2018; 91 :232–47. doi: 10.1111/papt.12158. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fuchs Thomas, De Jaegher Hanne. Enactive intersubjectivity: Participatory sense-making and mutual incorporation. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences. 2009; 8 :465–86. doi: 10.1007/s11097-009-9136-4. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fuchs Thomas. The Brain—A Mediating Organ. Journal of Consciousness Studies. 2011; 18 :196–221. [ Google Scholar ]
• Galbusera Laura, Fuchs Thomas. Embodied understanding: Discovering the body from cognitive science to psychotherapy. In-Mind Italia. 2013; 5 :1–6. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gallese Vittorio, Lakoff George. The brain’s concepts: The role of the sensory-motor system in conceptual knowledge. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 2005; 22 :455–79. doi: 10.1080/02643290442000310. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gallese Vittorio. Mirror neurons and the social nature of language: The neural exploitation hypothesis. Social Neurosciences. 2008; 3 :317–33. doi: 10.1080/17470910701563608. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gallistel Charles R. The Organization of Action: A New Synthesis. Erlbaum; Hillsdale: 1980. [ Google Scholar ]
• García Adolfo, Ibáñez Agustin. When embodiment breaks down: Language deficits as novel avenues into movement disorders. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior. 2018; 100 :1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2017.12.022. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Glenberg Arthur M., Gallese Vittorio. Action-based language: A theory of language acquisition, comprehension, and production. Cortex. 2012; 48 :905–22. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.010. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Glenberg Arthur M. Language and action: Creating sensible combinations of ideas. In: Gaskell M. Gareth., editor. Oxford Handbook of Psycholinguistics. 1st ed. Oxford University Press; Oxford: 2007. pp. 361–70. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Groth-Marnat Gary, Baker Sonya. Digit span as a measure of everyday attention: A study of ecological validity. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2003; 97 ((Suppl. 3)):1209–18. doi: 10.2466/pms.2003.97.3f.1209. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Guilford Joy P. The Nature of Human Intelligence. McGraw-Hill; New York: 1967. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hauk Olaf, Johnsrude Ingrid, Pulvermüller Friedemann. Somatotopic representation of action words in human motor and premotor cortex. Neuron. 2004; 41 :301–7. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00838-9. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hollingshead . Four-Factor Index of Social Status. Yale University; New Haven: 1975. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hurley Susan. Consciousness in Action. Harvard University Press; Cambridge: 1998. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hurley Susan. Perception and action: Alternative views. Synthese. 2001; 129 :3–40. doi: 10.1023/A:1012643006930. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kang Hojung, An Seung Chan, Kim Nah Ok, Sung Minkyu, Kang Yunjung, Lee Ul Soon, Yang Hyun-Jeong. Meditative movement affects working memory related to neural activity in adolescents: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology. 2020; 11 :931. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00931. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Koch Sabine C., Morlinghaus Katharina, Fuchs Thomas. The joy dance: Specific effects of a single dance intervention on psychiatric patients with depression. The Arts in Psychotherapy. 2007; 34 :340–49. doi: 10.1016/j.aip.2007.07.001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lakoff George, Johnson Mark. Metaphors We Live. University of Chicago Press; Chicago: 1980. [ Google Scholar ]
• Levy Dino J., Glimcher Paul W. The root of all value: A neural common currency for choice. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 2012; 22 :1027–38. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2012.06.001. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Loring David, Bauer Russel. Testing the limits: Cautions and concerns regarding the new Wechsler IQ and Memory scales. Neurology. 2010; 74 :685–90. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181d0cd12. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Luborsky Lester, Crits-Christoph Paul. Understanding Transference. The Core Conflictual Relationship Theme Method. Basic Books; New York: 1990. [ Google Scholar ]
• MacKay Donald G. The Organization of Perception and Action: A Theory for Language and Other Cognitive Skills. Springer; New York: 1987. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mariani Rachele, Maskit Bernard, Bucci Wilma, De Coro Alessandra. Linguistic measures of the referential process in psychodynamic treatment: The English and Italian versions. Psychotherapy Research. 2013; 23 :430–47. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2013.794399. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maskit Bernard, Murphy Sean. The Discourse Attributes Analysis Program. 2011. [(accessed on 8 July 2022)]. Available online: http://www.thereferentialprocess.org/the-discourse-attributes-analysis-program-daap
• Maskit Bernard, Bucci Wilma, Murphy Sean. Computerized Language Measures. 2012. [(accessed on 8 July 2022)]. Available online: https://sites.google.com/site/referentialprocess/dictionary-measures-and-computer-programs
• Maskit Bernard. Overview of computer measures of the referential process. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2021; 50 :29–49. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09761-8. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McGrew Kevin S. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities: Past, Present, and Future. In: Flanagan Dawn P., Genshaft Judy L., Harrison Patti L., editors. Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues. The Guilford Press; New York: 2005. pp. 136–81. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mead George H. Mind, Self and Society. University of Chicago Press; Chicago: 1934. [ Google Scholar ]
• Menary Richard. Embodied Narratives. Journal of Consciousness Studies. 2008; 15 :63–84. [ Google Scholar ]
• Negri Attà, Ongis Martino. Stimulus features of the object relations technique affecting the linguistic qualities of individuals’ narratives. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2021; 50 :65–83. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09764-5. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Negri Attà, Christian Christopher, Mariani Rachele, Belotti Luca, Andreoli Giovanbattista, Danskin Kerri. Linguistic features of the therapeutic alliance in the first session: A psychotherapy process study. Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome. 2019; 22 :71–82. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2019.374. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Negri Attà, Andreoli Giovanbattista, Mariani Rachele, De Bei Francesco, Rocco Diego, Greco Andrea, Bucci Wilma. First validation of the Referential Process Post-session Scale—Therapist version (RPPS-T) Clinical Neuropsychiatry. 2020; 17 :319–29. doi: 10.36131/cnfioritieditore20200601. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Negri Attà, Esposito Giovanna, Mariani Rachele, Savarese Livia, Belotti Luca, Squitieri Barbara, Bucci Wilma. The Italian weighted reflection and reorganization list (I-WRRL): A new linguistic measure detecting the third phase of the referential process. Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome. 2018; 21 :5–6. [ Google Scholar ]
• Niedenthal Paula M., Barsalou Lawrence W., Winkielman Priotr, Krauth-Gruberand Silvia, Ric François. Embodiment in attitudes, social perception, and emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2005; 9 :184–211. doi: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_1. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nöe Alva. Action in Perception. MIT Press; Cambridge: 2004. [ Google Scholar ]
• Orsini Arturo, Pezzuti Lina. WAIS-IV Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. 4th ed. Giunti; Firenze: 2013. [ Google Scholar ]
• Orsini Arturo, Pezzuti Lina. WAIS-IV: Contributo Alla Taratura Italiana (70–90 anni) Giunti; Firenze: 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
• Padoa-Schioppa Camillo. Neurobiology of economic choice: A good-based model. Annual Review of Neuroscience. 2011; 34 :333–59. doi: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113648. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pfeifer Rolf, Scheier Christian. Understanding Intelligence. The MIT Press; Cambridge: 2001. [ Google Scholar ]
• Piaget Jean. The Psychology of Intelligence. Routledge & Kegen Paul; London: 1950. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pinker Steven. The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature. Viking; New York: 2007. [ Google Scholar ]
• Preti Antonio, Carta Mauro, Petretto Donatella. Factor structure models of the SCL-90-R: Replicability across community samples of adolescents. Psychiatry Research. 2019; 272 :491–98. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.146. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ritter Meredith, Graff Low Kathryn. Effects of dance–movement therapy: A meta-analysis. The Arts in Psychotherapy. 1996; 23 :249–60. doi: 10.1016/0197-4556(96)00027-5. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rizzolatti Giacomo, Fadiga Luciano, Gallese Vittorio, Fogassi Leonardo. Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions. Cognitive Brain Research. 1996; 3 :131–41. doi: 10.1016/0926-6410(95)00038-0. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schneider W. Joel, McGrew Kevin S. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of intelligence. In: Flanagan Dawn P., Genshaft Judy L., Harrison Patti L., editors. Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues. The Guilford Press; New York: 2012. pp. 99–144. [ Google Scholar ]
• Slors Marc. Two conceptions of psychological continuity. Philosophical Explorations. 1998; 1 :59–78. doi: 10.1080/10001998018538690. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smyth Mary M., Pearson Norma A., Pendleton Lindsay R. Movement and Working Memory: Patterns and Positions in Space. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A. 1998; 40 :497–514. doi: 10.1080/02724988843000041. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Spearman Charles. The Abilities of Man: Their Nature and Measurement. MacMillan; New York: 1927. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sternberg Robert J. The triarchic theory of human intelligence. In: Richardson John T. E., Eysenck Michael W., Piper David Warren., editors. Student Learning: Research in Education and Cognitive Psychology. Open Press University; Milton Keynes: 1987. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sternberg Robert J. Myths, countermyths, and truths about human intelligence. Educational Researcher. 1996; 25 :11–16. doi: 10.3102/0013189X025002011. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sternberg Robert J. Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge University Press; New York: 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sternberg Robert J. Plucker Jonathan A., editor. An interview with Dr. Sternberg. Human Intelligence: Historical Influences, Current Controversies, Teaching Resources. 2003. [(accessed on 8 July 2022)]. Available online: https://www.intelltheory.com
• Terman Lewis M. Genetic Studies of Genius: Volume I. Mental and Physical Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children. Stanford University Press; Stanford: 1925. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tettamanti Marco, Buccino Giovanni, Saccuman Maria Cristina, Gallese Vittorio, Danna Massimo, Scifo Paola, Fazio Ferruccio, Rizzolatti Giacomo, Cappa Stefano, Perani Daniela. Listening to action-related sentences activates fronto-parietal motor circuits. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2005; 17 :273–81. doi: 10.1162/0898929053124965. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• The jamovi project Jamovi. (Version 1.6) [Computer Software] 2021. [(accessed on 8 July 2022)]. Available online: https://www.jamovi.org
• Thompson Evan. Mind in Life: Biology, Phenomenology, and the Sciences of Mind. Harvard University Press; Cambridge: 2007. [ Google Scholar ]
• Thurstone Louis L. Primary Mental Abilities. University of Chicago Press; Chicago: 1938. [ Google Scholar ]
• Varela Francisco J., Thompson Evan, Rosch Eleonor. The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience. MIT Press; Cambridge: 1991. [ Google Scholar ]
• Vygotsky Lev. Thought and Language. MIT Press; Cambridge: 1962. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Watt Stephanie, Gow Bonnie, Norton Kate, Crowe Simon. Investigating discrepancies between predicted and observed Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Version IV full-scale intelligence quotient scores in a non-clinical sample. Australian Psychologist. 2016; 51 :380–88. doi: 10.1111/ap.12239. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wechsler David. The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. 3rd ed. Williams & Wilkins; Baltimore: 1944. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wechsler David. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). Administration and Scoring Manual. Pearson; San Antonio: 2008. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yu Chen, Smith Linda B. Embodied attention and word learning by toddlers. Cognition. 2012; 125 :244–62. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.06.016. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhou You, Maskit Bernard, Bucci Wilma, Fishman Adam, Murphy Sean. Development of WRRL: A new computerized measure of the reflecting/reorganizing function. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. 2021; 50 :51–64. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09762-7. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]