does a thesis have to be short

Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Developing a Thesis Statement

Many papers you write require developing a thesis statement. In this section you’ll learn what a thesis statement is and how to write one.

Keep in mind that not all papers require thesis statements . If in doubt, please consult your instructor for assistance.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement . . .

• Makes an argumentative assertion about a topic; it states the conclusions that you have reached about your topic.
• Makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose, and direction of your paper.
• Is focused and specific enough to be “proven” within the boundaries of your paper.
• Is generally located near the end of the introduction ; sometimes, in a long paper, the thesis will be expressed in several sentences or in an entire paragraph.
• Identifies the relationships between the pieces of evidence that you are using to support your argument.

Not all papers require thesis statements! Ask your instructor if you’re in doubt whether you need one.

Identify a topic

Your topic is the subject about which you will write. Your assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic; or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your paper.

Consider what your assignment asks you to do

Inform yourself about your topic, focus on one aspect of your topic, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts, generate a topic from an assignment.

Below are some possible topics based on sample assignments.

Sample assignment 1

Analyze Spain’s neutrality in World War II.

Identified topic

Franco’s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the Axis

This topic avoids generalities such as “Spain” and “World War II,” addressing instead on Franco’s role (a specific aspect of “Spain”) and the diplomatic relations between the Allies and Axis (a specific aspect of World War II).

Sample assignment 2

Analyze one of Homer’s epic similes in the Iliad.

The relationship between the portrayal of warfare and the epic simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64.

This topic focuses on a single simile and relates it to a single aspect of the Iliad ( warfare being a major theme in that work).

Developing a Thesis Statement–Additional information

Your assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic, or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your paper. You’ll want to read your assignment carefully, looking for key terms that you can use to focus your topic.

Sample assignment: Analyze Spain’s neutrality in World War II Key terms: analyze, Spain’s neutrality, World War II

After you’ve identified the key words in your topic, the next step is to read about them in several sources, or generate as much information as possible through an analysis of your topic. Obviously, the more material or knowledge you have, the more possibilities will be available for a strong argument. For the sample assignment above, you’ll want to look at books and articles on World War II in general, and Spain’s neutrality in particular.

As you consider your options, you must decide to focus on one aspect of your topic. This means that you cannot include everything you’ve learned about your topic, nor should you go off in several directions. If you end up covering too many different aspects of a topic, your paper will sprawl and be unconvincing in its argument, and it most likely will not fulfull the assignment requirements.

For the sample assignment above, both Spain’s neutrality and World War II are topics far too broad to explore in a paper. You may instead decide to focus on Franco’s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the Axis , which narrows down what aspects of Spain’s neutrality and World War II you want to discuss, as well as establishes a specific link between those two aspects.

Before you go too far, however, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts. Try to avoid topics that already have too much written about them (i.e., “eating disorders and body image among adolescent women”) or that simply are not important (i.e. “why I like ice cream”). These topics may lead to a thesis that is either dry fact or a weird claim that cannot be supported. A good thesis falls somewhere between the two extremes. To arrive at this point, ask yourself what is new, interesting, contestable, or controversial about your topic.

As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times . Sometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a different approach to your topic.

Derive a main point from topic

Once you have a topic, you will have to decide what the main point of your paper will be. This point, the “controlling idea,” becomes the core of your argument (thesis statement) and it is the unifying idea to which you will relate all your sub-theses. You can then turn this “controlling idea” into a purpose statement about what you intend to do in your paper.

Look for patterns in your evidence

Compose a purpose statement.

Consult the examples below for suggestions on how to look for patterns in your evidence and construct a purpose statement.

• Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis
• Franco turned to the Allies when he couldn’t get some concessions that he wanted from the Axis

Possible conclusion:

Spain’s neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely personal reason: Franco’s desire to preserve his own (and Spain’s) power.

Purpose statement

This paper will analyze Franco’s diplomacy during World War II to see how it contributed to Spain’s neutrality.

• The simile compares Simoisius to a tree, which is a peaceful, natural image.
• The tree in the simile is chopped down to make wheels for a chariot, which is an object used in warfare.

At first, the simile seems to take the reader away from the world of warfare, but we end up back in that world by the end.

This paper will analyze the way the simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64 moves in and out of the world of warfare.

Derive purpose statement from topic

To find out what your “controlling idea” is, you have to examine and evaluate your evidence . As you consider your evidence, you may notice patterns emerging, data repeated in more than one source, or facts that favor one view more than another. These patterns or data may then lead you to some conclusions about your topic and suggest that you can successfully argue for one idea better than another.

For instance, you might find out that Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis, but when he couldn’t get some concessions that he wanted from them, he turned to the Allies. As you read more about Franco’s decisions, you may conclude that Spain’s neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely personal reason: his desire to preserve his own (and Spain’s) power. Based on this conclusion, you can then write a trial thesis statement to help you decide what material belongs in your paper.

Sometimes you won’t be able to find a focus or identify your “spin” or specific argument immediately. Like some writers, you might begin with a purpose statement just to get yourself going. A purpose statement is one or more sentences that announce your topic and indicate the structure of the paper but do not state the conclusions you have drawn . Thus, you might begin with something like this:

• This paper will look at modern language to see if it reflects male dominance or female oppression.
• I plan to analyze anger and derision in offensive language to see if they represent a challenge of society’s authority.

At some point, you can turn a purpose statement into a thesis statement. As you think and write about your topic, you can restrict, clarify, and refine your argument, crafting your thesis statement to reflect your thinking.

As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Sometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a different approach to your topic.

Compose a draft thesis statement

If you are writing a paper that will have an argumentative thesis and are having trouble getting started, the techniques in the table below may help you develop a temporary or “working” thesis statement.

Begin with a purpose statement that you will later turn into a thesis statement.

Assignment: Discuss the history of the Reform Party and explain its influence on the 1990 presidential and Congressional election.

Purpose Statement: This paper briefly sketches the history of the grassroots, conservative, Perot-led Reform Party and analyzes how it influenced the economic and social ideologies of the two mainstream parties.

Question-to-Assertion

If your assignment asks a specific question(s), turn the question(s) into an assertion and give reasons why it is true or reasons for your opinion.

Assignment : What do Aylmer and Rappaccini have to be proud of? Why aren’t they satisfied with these things? How does pride, as demonstrated in “The Birthmark” and “Rappaccini’s Daughter,” lead to unexpected problems?

Beginning thesis statement: Alymer and Rappaccinni are proud of their great knowledge; however, they are also very greedy and are driven to use their knowledge to alter some aspect of nature as a test of their ability. Evil results when they try to “play God.”

Write a sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay you plan to write.

Main idea: The reason some toys succeed in the market is that they appeal to the consumers’ sense of the ridiculous and their basic desire to laugh at themselves.

Make a list of the ideas that you want to include; consider the ideas and try to group them.

• nature = peaceful
• war matériel = violent (competes with 1?)
• need for time and space to mourn the dead
• war is inescapable (competes with 3?)

Use a formula to arrive at a working thesis statement (you will revise this later).

• although most readers of _______ have argued that _______, closer examination shows that _______.
• _______ uses _______ and _____ to prove that ________.
• phenomenon x is a result of the combination of __________, __________, and _________.

What to keep in mind as you draft an initial thesis statement

Beginning statements obtained through the methods illustrated above can serve as a framework for planning or drafting your paper, but remember they’re not yet the specific, argumentative thesis you want for the final version of your paper. In fact, in its first stages, a thesis statement usually is ill-formed or rough and serves only as a planning tool.

As you write, you may discover evidence that does not fit your temporary or “working” thesis. Or you may reach deeper insights about your topic as you do more research, and you will find that your thesis statement has to be more complicated to match the evidence that you want to use.

You must be willing to reject or omit some evidence in order to keep your paper cohesive and your reader focused. Or you may have to revise your thesis to match the evidence and insights that you want to discuss. Read your draft carefully, noting the conclusions you have drawn and the major ideas which support or prove those conclusions. These will be the elements of your final thesis statement.

Sometimes you will not be able to identify these elements in your early drafts, but as you consider how your argument is developing and how your evidence supports your main idea, ask yourself, “ What is the main point that I want to prove/discuss? ” and “ How will I convince the reader that this is true? ” When you can answer these questions, then you can begin to refine the thesis statement.

Refine and polish the thesis statement

To get to your final thesis, you’ll need to refine your draft thesis so that it’s specific and arguable.

• Ask if your draft thesis addresses the assignment
• Question each part of your draft thesis
• Clarify vague phrases and assertions
• Investigate alternatives to your draft thesis

Consult the example below for suggestions on how to refine your draft thesis statement.

Sample Assignment

Choose an activity and define it as a symbol of American culture. Your essay should cause the reader to think critically about the society which produces and enjoys that activity.

• Ask The phenomenon of drive-in facilities is an interesting symbol of american culture, and these facilities demonstrate significant characteristics of our society.This statement does not fulfill the assignment because it does not require the reader to think critically about society.

Drive-ins are an interesting symbol of American culture because they represent Americans’ significant creativity and business ingenuity.

Among the types of drive-in facilities familiar during the twentieth century, drive-in movie theaters best represent American creativity, not merely because they were the forerunner of later drive-ins and drive-throughs, but because of their impact on our culture: they changed our relationship to the automobile, changed the way people experienced movies, and changed movie-going into a family activity.

While drive-in facilities such as those at fast-food establishments, banks, pharmacies, and dry cleaners symbolize America’s economic ingenuity, they also have affected our personal standards.

While drive-in facilities such as those at fast- food restaurants, banks, pharmacies, and dry cleaners symbolize (1) Americans’ business ingenuity, they also have contributed (2) to an increasing homogenization of our culture, (3) a willingness to depersonalize relationships with others, and (4) a tendency to sacrifice quality for convenience.

This statement is now specific and fulfills all parts of the assignment. This version, like any good thesis, is not self-evident; its points, 1-4, will have to be proven with evidence in the body of the paper. The numbers in this statement indicate the order in which the points will be presented. Depending on the length of the paper, there could be one paragraph for each numbered item or there could be blocks of paragraph for even pages for each one.

Complete the final thesis statement

The bottom line.

As you move through the process of crafting a thesis, you’ll need to remember four things:

• Context matters! Think about your course materials and lectures. Try to relate your thesis to the ideas your instructor is discussing.
• As you go through the process described in this section, always keep your assignment in mind . You will be more successful when your thesis (and paper) responds to the assignment than if it argues a semi-related idea.
• Your thesis statement should be precise, focused, and contestable ; it should predict the sub-theses or blocks of information that you will use to prove your argument.
• Make sure that you keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Change your thesis as your paper evolves, because you do not want your thesis to promise more than your paper actually delivers.

In the beginning, the thesis statement was a tool to help you sharpen your focus, limit material and establish the paper’s purpose. When your paper is finished, however, the thesis statement becomes a tool for your reader. It tells the reader what you have learned about your topic and what evidence led you to your conclusion. It keeps the reader on track–well able to understand and appreciate your argument.

Writing Process and Structure

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Getting Started with Your Paper

Interpreting Writing Assignments from Your Courses

Generating Ideas for

Creating an Argument

Thesis vs. Purpose Statements

Architecture of Arguments

Working with Sources

Quoting and Paraphrasing Sources

Using Literary Quotations

Citing Sources in Your Paper

Drafting Your Paper

Generating Ideas for Your Paper

Introductions

Paragraphing

Developing Strategic Transitions

Conclusions

Revising Your Paper

Peer Reviews

Reverse Outlines

Revising an Argumentative Paper

Revision Strategies for Longer Projects

Finishing Your Paper

Twelve Common Errors: An Editing Checklist

How to Proofread your Paper

Writing Collaboratively

Collaborative and Group Writing

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Writing Tutorial Services

How to write a thesis statement, what is a thesis statement.

Almost all of us—even if we don’t do it consciously—look early in an essay for a one- or two-sentence condensation of the argument or analysis that is to follow. We refer to that condensation as a thesis statement.

Why Should Your Essay Contain a Thesis Statement?

• to test your ideas by distilling them into a sentence or two
• to better organize and develop your argument
• to provide your reader with a “guide” to your argument

In general, your thesis statement will accomplish these goals if you think of the thesis as the answer to the question your paper explores.

How Can You Write a Good Thesis Statement?

Here are some helpful hints to get you started. You can either scroll down or select a link to a specific topic.

How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Assigned How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is not Assigned How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement from a Weak One

How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Assigned

Almost all assignments, no matter how complicated, can be reduced to a single question. Your first step, then, is to distill the assignment into a specific question. For example, if your assignment is, “Write a report to the local school board explaining the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class,” turn the request into a question like, “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class?” After you’ve chosen the question your essay will answer, compose one or two complete sentences answering that question.

Q: “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class?” A: “The potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class are . . .”

A: “Using computers in a fourth-grade class promises to improve . . .”

The answer to the question is the thesis statement for the essay.

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How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is not Assigned

Even if your assignment doesn’t ask a specific question, your thesis statement still needs to answer a question about the issue you’d like to explore. In this situation, your job is to figure out what question you’d like to write about.

A good thesis statement will usually include the following four attributes:

• take on a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree
• deal with a subject that can be adequately treated given the nature of the assignment
• express one main idea
• assert your conclusions about a subject

Let’s see how to generate a thesis statement for a social policy paper.

Brainstorm the topic . Let’s say that your class focuses upon the problems posed by changes in the dietary habits of Americans. You find that you are interested in the amount of sugar Americans consume.

You start out with a thesis statement like this:

Sugar consumption.

This fragment isn’t a thesis statement. Instead, it simply indicates a general subject. Furthermore, your reader doesn’t know what you want to say about sugar consumption.

Narrow the topic . Your readings about the topic, however, have led you to the conclusion that elementary school children are consuming far more sugar than is healthy.

You change your thesis to look like this:

Reducing sugar consumption by elementary school children.

This fragment not only announces your subject, but it focuses on one segment of the population: elementary school children. Furthermore, it raises a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree, because while most people might agree that children consume more sugar than they used to, not everyone would agree on what should be done or who should do it. You should note that this fragment is not a thesis statement because your reader doesn’t know your conclusions on the topic.

Take a position on the topic. After reflecting on the topic a little while longer, you decide that what you really want to say about this topic is that something should be done to reduce the amount of sugar these children consume.

You revise your thesis statement to look like this:

More attention should be paid to the food and beverage choices available to elementary school children.

This statement asserts your position, but the terms more attention and food and beverage choices are vague.

Use specific language . You decide to explain what you mean about food and beverage choices , so you write:

Experts estimate that half of elementary school children consume nine times the recommended daily allowance of sugar.

This statement is specific, but it isn’t a thesis. It merely reports a statistic instead of making an assertion.

Make an assertion based on clearly stated support. You finally revise your thesis statement one more time to look like this:

Because half of all American elementary school children consume nine times the recommended daily allowance of sugar, schools should be required to replace the beverages in soda machines with healthy alternatives.

Notice how the thesis answers the question, “What should be done to reduce sugar consumption by children, and who should do it?” When you started thinking about the paper, you may not have had a specific question in mind, but as you became more involved in the topic, your ideas became more specific. Your thesis changed to reflect your new insights.

How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement from a Weak One

1. a strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand..

Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:

There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.

This is a weak thesis statement. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase negative and positive aspects is vague.

Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.

This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand, and because it's specific.

2. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion.

Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:

My family is an extended family.

This is a weak thesis because it merely states an observation. Your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.

While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.

This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.

3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea.

Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis statement expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:

Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and Web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.

This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or Web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:

Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using Web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.

This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like because , since , so , although , unless , and however .

4. A strong thesis statement is specific.

A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you're writing a seven-to-ten page paper on hunger, you might say:

World hunger has many causes and effects.

This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, world hunger can’t be discussed thoroughly in seven to ten pages. Second, many causes and effects is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:

Hunger persists in Glandelinia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.

This is a strong thesis statement because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic, and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.

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Writing a Paper: Thesis Statements

Basics of thesis statements.

The thesis statement is the brief articulation of your paper's central argument and purpose. You might hear it referred to as simply a "thesis." Every scholarly paper should have a thesis statement, and strong thesis statements are concise, specific, and arguable. Concise means the thesis is short: perhaps one or two sentences for a shorter paper. Specific means the thesis deals with a narrow and focused topic, appropriate to the paper's length. Arguable means that a scholar in your field could disagree (or perhaps already has!).

Strong thesis statements address specific intellectual questions, have clear positions, and use a structure that reflects the overall structure of the paper. Read on to learn more about constructing a strong thesis statement.

Being Specific

This thesis statement has no specific argument:

Needs Improvement: In this essay, I will examine two scholarly articles to find similarities and differences.

This statement is concise, but it is neither specific nor arguable—a reader might wonder, "Which scholarly articles? What is the topic of this paper? What field is the author writing in?" Additionally, the purpose of the paper—to "examine…to find similarities and differences" is not of a scholarly level. Identifying similarities and differences is a good first step, but strong academic argument goes further, analyzing what those similarities and differences might mean or imply.

Better: In this essay, I will argue that Bowler's (2003) autocratic management style, when coupled with Smith's (2007) theory of social cognition, can reduce the expenses associated with employee turnover.

The new revision here is still concise, as well as specific and arguable.  We can see that it is specific because the writer is mentioning (a) concrete ideas and (b) exact authors.  We can also gather the field (business) and the topic (management and employee turnover). The statement is arguable because the student goes beyond merely comparing; he or she draws conclusions from that comparison ("can reduce the expenses associated with employee turnover").

Making a Unique Argument

This thesis draft repeats the language of the writing prompt without making a unique argument:

Needs Improvement: The purpose of this essay is to monitor, assess, and evaluate an educational program for its strengths and weaknesses. Then, I will provide suggestions for improvement.

You can see here that the student has simply stated the paper's assignment, without articulating specifically how he or she will address it. The student can correct this error simply by phrasing the thesis statement as a specific answer to the assignment prompt.

Better: Through a series of student interviews, I found that Kennedy High School's antibullying program was ineffective. In order to address issues of conflict between students, I argue that Kennedy High School should embrace policies outlined by the California Department of Education (2010).

Words like "ineffective" and "argue" show here that the student has clearly thought through the assignment and analyzed the material; he or she is putting forth a specific and debatable position. The concrete information ("student interviews," "antibullying") further prepares the reader for the body of the paper and demonstrates how the student has addressed the assignment prompt without just restating that language.

Creating a Debate

This thesis statement includes only obvious fact or plot summary instead of argument:

Needs Improvement: Leadership is an important quality in nurse educators.

A good strategy to determine if your thesis statement is too broad (and therefore, not arguable) is to ask yourself, "Would a scholar in my field disagree with this point?" Here, we can see easily that no scholar is likely to argue that leadership is an unimportant quality in nurse educators.  The student needs to come up with a more arguable claim, and probably a narrower one; remember that a short paper needs a more focused topic than a dissertation.

Better: Roderick's (2009) theory of participatory leadership  is particularly appropriate to nurse educators working within the emergency medicine field, where students benefit most from collegial and kinesthetic learning.

Here, the student has identified a particular type of leadership ("participatory leadership"), narrowing the topic, and has made an arguable claim (this type of leadership is "appropriate" to a specific type of nurse educator). Conceivably, a scholar in the nursing field might disagree with this approach. The student's paper can now proceed, providing specific pieces of evidence to support the arguable central claim.

Choosing the Right Words

This thesis statement uses large or scholarly-sounding words that have no real substance:

Needs Improvement: Scholars should work to seize metacognitive outcomes by harnessing discipline-based networks to empower collaborative infrastructures.

There are many words in this sentence that may be buzzwords in the student's field or key terms taken from other texts, but together they do not communicate a clear, specific meaning. Sometimes students think scholarly writing means constructing complex sentences using special language, but actually it's usually a stronger choice to write clear, simple sentences. When in doubt, remember that your ideas should be complex, not your sentence structure.

Better: Ecologists should work to educate the U.S. public on conservation methods by making use of local and national green organizations to create a widespread communication plan.

Notice in the revision that the field is now clear (ecology), and the language has been made much more field-specific ("conservation methods," "green organizations"), so the reader is able to see concretely the ideas the student is communicating.

Leaving Room for Discussion

This thesis statement is not capable of development or advancement in the paper:

Needs Improvement: There are always alternatives to illegal drug use.

This sample thesis statement makes a claim, but it is not a claim that will sustain extended discussion. This claim is the type of claim that might be appropriate for the conclusion of a paper, but in the beginning of the paper, the student is left with nowhere to go. What further points can be made? If there are "always alternatives" to the problem the student is identifying, then why bother developing a paper around that claim? Ideally, a thesis statement should be complex enough to explore over the length of the entire paper.

Better: The most effective treatment plan for methamphetamine addiction may be a combination of pharmacological and cognitive therapy, as argued by Baker (2008), Smith (2009), and Xavier (2011).

In the revised thesis, you can see the student make a specific, debatable claim that has the potential to generate several pages' worth of discussion. When drafting a thesis statement, think about the questions your thesis statement will generate: What follow-up inquiries might a reader have? In the first example, there are almost no additional questions implied, but the revised example allows for a good deal more exploration.

Thesis Mad Libs

If you are having trouble getting started, try using the models below to generate a rough model of a thesis statement! These models are intended for drafting purposes only and should not appear in your final work.

• In this essay, I argue ____, using ______ to assert _____.
• While scholars have often argued ______, I argue______, because_______.
• Through an analysis of ______, I argue ______, which is important because_______.

Words to Avoid and to Embrace

When drafting your thesis statement, avoid words like explore, investigate, learn, compile, summarize , and explain to describe the main purpose of your paper. These words imply a paper that summarizes or "reports," rather than synthesizing and analyzing.

Instead of the terms above, try words like argue, critique, question , and interrogate . These more analytical words may help you begin strongly, by articulating a specific, critical, scholarly position.

Read Kayla's blog post for tips on taking a stand in a well-crafted thesis statement.

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Home / Guides / Writing Guides / Parts of a Paper / How to Write a Strong Thesis Statement

How to Write a Strong Thesis Statement

A thesis can be found in many places—a debate speech, a lawyer’s closing argument, even an advertisement. But the most common place for a thesis statement (and probably why you’re reading this article) is in an essay.

Whether you’re writing an argumentative paper, an informative essay, or a compare/contrast statement, you need a thesis. Without a thesis, your argument falls flat and your information is unfocused. Since a thesis is so important, it’s probably a good idea to look at some tips on how to put together a strong one.

Guide Overview

What is a “thesis statement” anyway.

• 2 categories of thesis statements: informative and persuasive
• 2 styles of thesis statements
• Formula for a strong argumentative thesis
• The qualities of a solid thesis statement (video)

You may have heard of something called a “thesis.” It’s what seniors commonly refer to as their final paper before graduation. That’s not what we’re talking about here. That type of thesis is a long, well-written paper that takes years to piece together.

Instead, we’re talking about a single sentence that ties together the main idea of any argument . In the context of student essays, it’s a statement that summarizes your topic and declares your position on it. This sentence can tell a reader whether your essay is something they want to read.

2 Categories of Thesis Statements: Informative and Persuasive

Just as there are different types of essays, there are different types of thesis statements. The thesis should match the essay.

For example, with an informative essay, you should compose an informative thesis (rather than argumentative). You want to declare your intentions in this essay and guide the reader to the conclusion that you reach.

To make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, you must procure the ingredients, find a knife, and spread the condiments.

This thesis showed the reader the topic (a type of sandwich) and the direction the essay will take (describing how the sandwich is made).

Most other types of essays, whether compare/contrast, argumentative, or narrative, have thesis statements that take a position and argue it. In other words, unless your purpose is simply to inform, your thesis is considered persuasive. A persuasive thesis usually contains an opinion and the reason why your opinion is true.

Peanut butter and jelly sandwiches are the best type of sandwich because they are versatile, easy to make, and taste good.

In this persuasive thesis statement, you see that I state my opinion (the best type of sandwich), which means I have chosen a stance. Next, I explain that my opinion is correct with several key reasons. This persuasive type of thesis can be used in any essay that contains the writer’s opinion, including, as I mentioned above, compare/contrast essays, narrative essays, and so on.

2 Styles of Thesis Statements

Just as there are two different types of thesis statements (informative and persuasive), there are two basic styles you can use.

The first style uses a list of two or more points . This style of thesis is perfect for a brief essay that contains only two or three body paragraphs. This basic five-paragraph essay is typical of middle and high school assignments.

C.S. Lewis’s Chronicles of Narnia series is one of the richest works of the 20th century because it offers an escape from reality, teaches readers to have faith even when they don’t understand, and contains a host of vibrant characters.

In the above persuasive thesis, you can see my opinion about Narnia followed by three clear reasons. This thesis is perfect for setting up a tidy five-paragraph essay.

In college, five paragraph essays become few and far between as essay length gets longer. Can you imagine having only five paragraphs in a six-page paper? For a longer essay, you need a thesis statement that is more versatile. Instead of listing two or three distinct points, a thesis can list one overarching point that all body paragraphs tie into.

Good vs. evil is the main theme of Lewis’s Narnia series, as is made clear through the struggles the main characters face in each book.

In this thesis, I have made a claim about the theme in Narnia followed by my reasoning. The broader scope of this thesis allows me to write about each of the series’ seven novels. I am no longer limited in how many body paragraphs I can logically use.

Formula for a Strong Argumentative Thesis

One thing I find that is helpful for students is having a clear template. While students rarely end up with a thesis that follows this exact wording, the following template creates a good starting point:

___________ is true because of ___________, ___________, and ___________.

Conversely, the formula for a thesis with only one point might follow this template:

___________________ is true because of _____________________.

Students usually end up using different terminology than simply “because,” but having a template is always helpful to get the creative juices flowing.

The Qualities of a Solid Thesis Statement

When composing a thesis, you must consider not only the format, but other qualities like length, position in the essay, and how strong the argument is.

Length: A thesis statement can be short or long, depending on how many points it mentions. Typically, however, it is only one concise sentence. It does contain at least two clauses, usually an independent clause (the opinion) and a dependent clause (the reasons). You probably should aim for a single sentence that is at least two lines, or about 30 to 40 words long.

Position: A thesis statement always belongs at the beginning of an essay. This is because it is a sentence that tells the reader what the writer is going to discuss. Teachers will have different preferences for the precise location of the thesis, but a good rule of thumb is in the introduction paragraph, within the last two or three sentences.

Strength: Finally, for a persuasive thesis to be strong, it needs to be arguable. This means that the statement is not obvious, and it is not something that everyone agrees is true.

Example of weak thesis:

Peanut butter and jelly sandwiches are easy to make because it just takes three ingredients.

Most people would agree that PB&J is one of the easiest sandwiches in the American lunch repertoire.

Example of a stronger thesis:

Peanut butter and jelly sandwiches are fun to eat because they always slide around.

This is more arguable because there are plenty of folks who might think a PB&J is messy or slimy rather than fun.

Composing a thesis statement does take a bit more thought than many other parts of an essay. However, because a thesis statement can contain an entire argument in just a few words, it is worth taking the extra time to compose this sentence. It can direct your research and your argument so that your essay is tight, focused, and makes readers think.

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How long are thesis statements? [with examples]

What is the proper length of a thesis statement?

Examples of thesis statements, frequently asked questions about the length of thesis statements, related articles.

If you find yourself in the process of writing a thesis statement but you don't know how long it should be, you've come to right place. In the next paragraphs you will learn about the most efficient way to write a thesis statement and how long it should be.

A thesis statement is a concise description of your work’s aim.

The short answer is: one or two sentences. The more i n-depth answer: as your writing evolves, and as you write longer papers, your thesis statement will typically be at least two, and often more, sentences. The thesis of a scholarly article may have three or four long sentences.

The point is to write a well-formed statement that clearly sets out the argument and aim of your research. A one sentence thesis is fine for shorter papers, but make sure it's a full, concrete statement. Longer thesis statements should follow the same rule; be sure that your statement includes essential information and resist too much exposition.

Here are some basic rules for thesis statement lengths based on the number of pages:

• 5 pages : 1 sentence
• 5-8 pages : 1 or 2 sentences
• 8-13 pages : 2 or 3 sentences
• 13-23 pages : 3 or 4 sentences
• Over 23 pages : a few sentences or a paragraph

Joe Haley, a former writing instructor at Johns Hopkins University exemplified in this forum post the different sizes a thesis statement can take. For a paper on Jane Austen's  Pride and Prejudice,  someone could come up with these two theses:

In Jane Austen's  Pride and Prejudice , gossip is an important but morally ambiguous tool for shaping characters' opinions of each other.

As the aforementioned critics have noted, the prevalence of gossip in Jane Austen's  oeuvre  does indeed reflect the growing prominence of an explicitly-delineated private sphere in nineteenth-century British society. However, in contrast with these critics' general conclusions about Austen and class, which tend to identify her authorial voice directly with the bourgeois mores shaping her appropriation of the  bildungsroman,  the ambiguity of this communicative mode in  Pride and Prejudice  suggests that when writing at the height of her authorial powers, at least, Austen is capable of skepticism and even self-critique. For what is the narrator of her most celebrated novel if not its arch-gossip  par excellence ?

Both statements are equally sound, but the second example clearly belongs in a longer paper. In the end, the length of your thesis statement will depend on the scope of your work.

There is no exact word count for a thesis statement, since the length depends on your level of knowledge and expertise. A two sentence thesis statement would be between 20-50 words.

The length of the work will determine how long your thesis statement is. A concise thesis is typically between 20-50 words. A paragraph is also acceptable for a thesis statement; however, anything over one paragraph is probably too long.

Here is a list of Thesis Statement Examples that will help you understand better how long they can be.

As a high school student, you are not expected to have an elaborate thesis statement. A couple of clear sentences indicating the aim of your essay will be more than enough.

Here is a YouTube tutorial that will help you write a thesis statement: How To Write An Essay: Thesis Statements by Ariel Bisset.

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Developing a Thesis

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Once you've read the story or novel closely, look back over your notes for patterns of questions or ideas that interest you. Have most of your questions been about the characters, how they develop or change?

For example: If you are reading Conrad's The Secret Agent , do you seem to be most interested in what the author has to say about society? Choose a pattern of ideas and express it in the form of a question and an answer such as the following: Question: What does Conrad seem to be suggesting about early twentieth-century London society in his novel The Secret Agent ? Answer: Conrad suggests that all classes of society are corrupt. Pitfalls: Choosing too many ideas. Choosing an idea without any support.

Once you have some general points to focus on, write your possible ideas and answer the questions that they suggest.

For example: Question: How does Conrad develop the idea that all classes of society are corrupt? Answer: He uses images of beasts and cannibalism whether he's describing socialites, policemen or secret agents.

To write your thesis statement, all you have to do is turn the question and answer around. You've already given the answer, now just put it in a sentence (or a couple of sentences) so that the thesis of your paper is clear.

For example: In his novel, The Secret Agent , Conrad uses beast and cannibal imagery to describe the characters and their relationships to each other. This pattern of images suggests that Conrad saw corruption in every level of early twentieth-century London society.

Now that you're familiar with the story or novel and have developed a thesis statement, you're ready to choose the evidence you'll use to support your thesis. There are a lot of good ways to do this, but all of them depend on a strong thesis for their direction.

For example: Here's a student's thesis about Joseph Conrad's The Secret Agent . In his novel, The Secret Agent , Conrad uses beast and cannibal imagery to describe the characters and their relationships to each other. This pattern of images suggests that Conrad saw corruption in every level of early twentieth-century London society. This thesis focuses on the idea of social corruption and the device of imagery. To support this thesis, you would need to find images of beasts and cannibalism within the text.

Master’s Thesis Length: How Long Should A Master’s Thesis Be?

Writing a thesis is one of the requirements for obtaining a master’s degree. If you are currently running a postgraduate program, you may be wondering what the actual length of a master’s thesis is.

A thesis is a comprehensive exploration of a topic or area of ​​interest. The idea is to chart your learning journey and conclude by discussing what you have learned and what others might learn from it, including opportunities for further research.

It can be as long as it takes to discuss your topic in detail. This is anything around 50 to 300 pages, including a bibliography. However, different institutions have standards for content, format, and length expectations.

This article discusses the length and structure of a master’s thesis in detail.

What is a master’s thesis?

A master’s thesis is a research project written by students in a master’s degree program to demonstrate their interest and expertise in a specific topic within their field of study. It is the final requirement for a master’s degree.

The thesis is a culmination of existing research and data that master’s students marshal and combine to make up a hypothesis that challenges an existing argument in the field or develops new arguments for academic debate.

Students are usually assigned an advisor who provides guidance and supervises their work. Once the thesis is complete, students must defend their work to a panel of two or more departmental faculty members.

How long is a master’s thesis?

A master’s thesis has no mandatory length. It can be anywhere from 50 to 300 pages depending on factors such as departmental requirements, university guidelines, topic, and research methodology.

However, what is most important is that your thesis contains all the necessary information about the topic clearly and concisely. Your argument must also be well structured with relevant references, figures, and tables to support your claim.

In fact, the quality of your work should be prioritized above the length of your work.

Ultimately, the aim is to demonstrate your mastery in the field by demonstrating the academic expertise and research skills you have developed throughout the master’s program.

Master thesis structure

Given the differences in the degree requirements between universities, Master’s theses do not follow the same structure. However, a typical master’s thesis follows these format:

•   Title page
•   Acknowledgment
•   Table of contents
•   Chapter 1: Introduction
•   Chapter 2: Literature review
•   Chapter 3: Data collection
•   Chapter 4: Analysis
•   Chapter 5: Conclusion
•   Reference list
•   Statement of independent work
•   Appendix (optional)

1. Title page

This is basically a page to tell your name, university, essay topic, and supervisor’s name.

2. Acknowledgment

This is the part where you appreciate those who contributed to the preparation of your thesis. If you probably received a fellowship or obtained data from an institution, then you should recognize and thank them here.

You should also thank your advisor, friends, and family who supported you during the course of your work.

3. Abstract

The abstract is a crucial part of your thesis. It is a one-page summary covering the questions you intend to answer, the data used, the methodology employed, and your findings.

The aim of an abstract is to give the thesis committee a brief but concise insight into what your research work entails.

4. Table of contents

It is a list of all the chapters and subsections contained in your work alongside the page number where each chapter begins.

Additionally, you need to provide a list of figures and tables with the page number to find them in the thesis.

5. Introduction

The introduction is the first chapter of a thesis. It provides context for the rest of the paper, telling readers what the scope of your work is and what you aim to achieve.

It doesn’t have to be technical rather it should communicate why your topic is relevant. The introduction should also highlight other chapters of your work and touch down on at least one research question.

6. Literature review

The literature review is the part of your thesis where you establish your arguments using various pre-existing scholarly publications and demonstrating your knowledge about your topic.

It is aimed to give a scientific overview of how your work contributes to existing knowledge on the subject matter. In other words, it shows readers the literature gap you hope to fill. For instance, your thesis may be based on new sets of data, methods, or applications.

7. Research methods

This chapter details the data used in your research and the method of gathering or collecting them. This could be qualitative data such as open-ended surveys, case studies, and more.

However, not all theses require a section covering research methods. Arts and humanities students for instance do not undertake research that involves fixed methodologies.

Instead, they outline their theoretical perspectives and methods in their introductions without explaining their data collection and analysis methods in detail.

8. Data analysis and findings

Data analysis and finding involve experimenting with the gathered data and presenting your result in a graphical, tabular, or chart form. The result could also be a written description of the research and findings.

9. Discussion

This is the largest part of a thesis containing a series of chapters. The chapters should flow logically and build your arguments from one chapter to the next.

The length of the discussion is based on the total length of the thesis. So, for a thesis of about 20,000 words, the discussion section may be 15,000 words.

10. Conclusion

A thesis conclusion is where you tie up your arguments and evidence and summarize your discussions stating key points.

It should also include explaining whether your research questions are confirmed or rejected based on your research and comparing your findings with existing publications.

Not only that, the conclusion should state parts of your topic that you couldn’t touch. This helps buttress what your research has achieved and parts others can explore for future studies.

11. List of reference

This is simply a list of all the sources you cited in your work.

12. Statement of Independent work

It is a declaration to confirm that your thesis was done independently by you. The declaration takes the format:

“I hereby confirm that this paper was written independently by me and did not use any sources other than citations and that all passages and ideas taken from other sources are cited accordingly”.

13. Appendix (or appendices)

The appendix is usually optional in a thesis. It is material that complements your argument. This could be a questionnaire or a case study.

If the content is too large to go into the body of your paper or could distract readers, then your research could use an appendix.

How to write a master’s thesis

There is a lot that goes into writing a master’s thesis. Aside from the fact that this is a large project that cannot be rushed, there are some requirements that you must adhere to.

That said, the first thing you should consider is approaching your advisor for guidance on your work. Second, look at past publications to see their structure and study their content.

Additionally, when choosing a topic, it’s best to find a subject that interests you, then create an outline to direct your flow, and make sure to keep a list of references used in your work.

A master’s thesis is longer than an undergraduate thesis, so, it would help if you start working on time to avoid rushing or late submission.

How fast can you write a master’s thesis?

Generally, students have two semesters to write their master’s thesis (usually the last two semesters of their degree program).

Can you finish your thesis in 3 weeks?

Let’s say you write at least 1000 words daily in three weeks that would be around 20,000 words. But it will be really difficult to achieve. Plus, it would be hard to do quality work in 3 weeks.

Can a master’s thesis be written in 20 pages?

20 pages may be too little to capture your arguments comprehensively in a master’s thesis. A typical master’s thesis has a length of about 50 pages and above.

A master’s thesis can be any length depending on how long it takes to thoroughly discuss your topic. Basically, you should follow the guideline given by your institution and advisor.

Your work must also demonstrate great quality, so you want to give it your best shot. Perhaps you have a short time to complete your thesis, don’t fret. Simply think about how many words you need to write every day to meet up and develop plans to achieve your goal.

In all of this, you want to avoid plagiarism in your work, as this can have serious consequences. Read this article to know if paraphrasing is plagiarism.

I hope this article helped. Thanks for reading.

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• How Long Is a PhD Thesis?
• Doing a PhD

It’s no secret that one of the most challenging aspects of a PhD degree is the volume of work that goes into writing your thesis . So this raises the question, exactly how long is a thesis?

Unfortunately, there’s no one size fits all answer to this question. However, from the analysis of over 100 PhD theses, the average thesis length is between 80,000 and 100,000 words. A further analysis of 1000 PhD thesis shows the average number of pages to be 204 . In reality, the actual word count for each PhD thesis will depend on the specific subject and the university it is being hosted by. This is because universities set their own word length requirements, with most found to be opting for around 100,000.

To find out more about how these word limits differ between universities, how the average word count from STEM thesis differ from non-STEM thesis and a more detailed breakdown from the analysis of over 1000 PhDs, carry on reading the below.

Word Count Differences Between Universities

For any PhD student writing a thesis, they will find that their document will be subject to a word limit set by their university. In nearly all cases, the limit only concerns the maximum number of words and doesn’t place any restrictions on the minimum word limit. The reason for this is that the student will be expected to write their thesis with the aim of clearly explaining their research, and so it is up to the student to determine what he deems appropriate.

Saying this, it is well accepted amongst PhD students and supervisors that the absence of a lower limit doesn’t suggest that a thesis can be ‘light’. Your thesis will focus on several years worth of original research and explore new ideas, theories or concepts. Besides this, your thesis will need to cover a wide range of topics such as your literature review, research methodology, results and conclusion. Therefore, your examiners will expect the length of your thesis to be proportional to convey all this information to a sufficient level.

Selecting a handful of universities at random, they state the following thesis word limits on their website:

• University of Edinburgh: 100,000
• University of Exeter: 100,000
• University of Leister: 80,000
• University of Bath: 80,000
• University of Warwick: 70,000

The above universities set upper word limits that apply across the board, however, some universities, such as the University of Birmingham and the University of Sheffield, set different word limits for different departments. For example, the University of Sheffield adopts these limits:

• Arts & Humanities: 75,000
• Medicine, Dentistry & Health: 75,000
• Science: 80,000
• Social Sciences: 75,000-100,000

Although there’s a range of limit, it’s safe to say that the majority fall within the 80,000 to 100,000 bracket.

Word Count Based on Data from past Theses

A poll of 149 postdocs.

In mid-2019, Dr Eva Lantsoght, a published author, academic blogger and Structural Engineering Professor, conducted a poll which asked postgraduate doctoral students to share the length of their final thesis. 149 PostDoc students responded to the survey, with the majority reporting a length falling within the ‘80,000 – 120,000 words’ bracket as seen below.

Analysis of 1000 PhD Theses

Over a three-year time period, Dr Ian Brailsford, a then Postgraduate Learning Adviser at the University of Auckland, analysed 1000 doctoral thesis submitted to his university’s library. The PhD theses which formed the basis of his analysis were produced between 2008 to 2017 and showed:

• Average number of pages = 204
• Median number of pages = 198
• Average number of chapters = 7.6

We should note that the above metrics only cover the content falling within the main body of the thesis. This includes the introduction, literature review, methods section, results chapter, discussions and conclusions. All other sections, such as the title page, abstract, table of contents, acknowledgements, bibliography and appendices were omitted from the count.

Although it’s impossible to draw the exact word count from the number of pages alone, by using the universities recommended format of 12pt Times New Roman and 1.5 lines spacing, and assuming 10% of the main body are figures and footnotes, this equates to an average main body of 52,000 words.

STEM vs Non-STEM

As part of Dr Ian Brailsford’s analysis, he also compared the length of STEM doctorate theses to non-STEM theses. He found that STEM theses tended to be shorter. In fact, he found STEM theses to have a medium page length of 159 whilst non-STEM theses had a medium of around 223 pages. This is a 40% increase in average length!

Can You Exceed the Word Count?

Whilst most universities will allow you to go over the word count if you need to, it comes with the caveat that you must have a very strong reason for needing to do so. Besides this, your supervisor will also need to support your request. This is to acknowledge that they have reviewed your situation and agree that exceeding the word limit will be absolutely necessary to avoid detriment unnecessary detriment to your work.

This means that whilst it is possible to submit a thesis over 100,000 words or more, it’s unlikely that your research project will need to.

How Does This Compare to a Masters Dissertation?

The average Masters dissertation length is approximately 20,000 words whilst a thesis is 4 to 5 times this length at approximately 80,000 – 100,000.

The key reason for this difference is because of the level of knowledge they convey. A Master’s dissertation focuses on concluding from existing knowledge whilst a PhD thesis focuses on drawing a conclusion from new knowledge. As a result, the thesis is significantly longer as the new knowledge needs to be well documented so it can be verified, disseminated and used to shape future research.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

Related Reading

Unfortunately, the completion of your thesis doesn’t mark the end of your degree just yet. Once you submit your thesis, it’s time to start preparing for your viva – the all-to-fun thesis defence interview! To help you prepare for this, we’ve produced a helpful guide which you can read here: The Complete Guide to PhD Vivas.

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When You Write

Do Short Stories Have A Thesis? The Answer May Surprise You

Did you know that short stories can have a thesis? It’s true! Many people assume that only longer works like novels and academic papers have central ideas, but short stories can pack a powerful punch with a clear message as well.

In fact, the brevity of a short story can make its thesis even more impactful. So, whether you’re a writer or a reader, it’s important to understand the potential for meaning and depth in short fiction.

As you dive into the world of short stories, you’ll discover that they come in many different forms and styles. Some are plot-driven, while others are character-driven. Some are lighthearted and humorous, while others are dark and brooding.

But no matter the genre or tone, a well-crafted short story will often have a central idea or theme that ties everything together. This might be a moral lesson, a commentary on society, or a personal reflection on the human experience.

So, get ready to explore the power of short stories and uncover the surprising world of thesis in bite-sized literature.

Key Takeaways

• Short stories have a central idea or theme that acts as a thesis for the story.
• The structure of a short story follows a simple pattern with an introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and conclusion.
• Short stories are different from longer works in their conciseness, focused themes, and reliance on reader interpretation.
• Short stories can be incredibly powerful and impactful, conveying deep meaning and leaving a lasting impression on readers.

Understanding the Structure of Short Stories

You might be wondering how short stories are structured, but don’t worry, it’s not as complicated as you may think!

Understanding the structure of a short story can help you better appreciate the narrative elements that make it a compelling read.

At its core, a short story typically follows a simple structure that includes an introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and conclusion.

The introduction sets the scene and introduces the characters, while the rising action builds tension and conflict.

The climax is the turning point of the story, where the conflict reaches its peak.

The falling action follows the climax and leads to the conclusion, where the conflict is resolved, and the story ends.

By understanding this structure, you can better appreciate the narrative elements of the story, such as the characters, setting, conflict, and resolution.

Examples of Short Stories with Central Ideas

So, you wanna explore some examples of short stories with central ideas? Well, let’s dive into Edgar Allan Poe’s haunting tale ‘The Tell-Tale Heart’. The narrator’s guilt over a murder drives him to confess.

Or perhaps you’re interested in Kate Chopin’s ‘The Story of an Hour’. It explores the complex emotions of a woman who learns of her husband’s death.

And let’s not forget Ernest Hemingway’s ‘Hills Like White Elephants’. It’s a powerful story about a couple’s struggle with a difficult decision.

These stories all have central ideas that drive the plot and leave a lasting impact on the reader.

Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Tell-Tale Heart”

Contrary to popular belief, Edgar Allan Poe’s short story ‘The Tell-Tale Heart’ does indeed have a clear and thought-provoking thesis statement. The story is not just a random collection of events, but a carefully crafted piece of literature that explores the psychological tension within the main character and the symbolism surrounding the old man’s eye.

To understand the thesis of ‘The Tell-Tale Heart’, it is essential to analyze the symbolism and characterization in the story. The narrator’s obsession with the old man’s vulture-like eye represents his own inner turmoil and guilt. The eye is a metaphor for the narrator’s conscience, which he ultimately destroys by murdering the old man.

Additionally, the characterization of the narrator as an unreliable and mentally unstable individual highlights the destructive power of guilt and obsession. These elements work together to convey Poe’s thesis that guilt and obsession can lead to madness and self-destruction.

Kate Chopin’s “The Story of an Hour”

If you’re looking for a compelling short story that delves into the complexities of human emotion, Kate Chopin’s ‘The Story of an Hour’ is a must-read, even if you may initially dismiss it as just another piece of feminist literature.

The story, written in 1894, follows the life of Mrs. Mallard, a woman who just received the news of her husband’s death. However, as the plot unfolds, we see that Mrs. Mallard’s reaction to her husband’s death is not what we would expect. Instead of being consumed by grief, she experiences a sense of liberation, freedom, and joy.

Chopin’s use of symbolism is evident throughout the story. For instance, the open window in Mrs. Mallard’s room represents the possibility of new beginnings and the chance to escape from the social constraints that were imposed on women during that time. Also, the heart disease that Mrs. Mallard suffers from is a metaphor for the emotional and psychological burden that society imposed on her.

The story provides a feminist perspective, as it highlights the limitations that were imposed on women in the 19th century and the possibility of freedom that they could experience when their husbands were no longer around.

Ernest Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants”

You’ll feel like you’re eavesdropping on a couple’s conversation as you read Ernest Hemingway’s ‘Hills Like White Elephants’, set in a train station in Spain. The story revolves around a man and a woman who are discussing whether or not to undergo an abortion.

The author doesn’t explicitly state the topic of their conversation but rather uses symbolism to convey the message. The hills, the white elephant, and the train tracks all have a deeper meaning that adds to the complexity of the story.

A symbolism analysis reveals that the hills represent the woman’s pregnancy, the white elephant symbolizes the unwanted burden of having a child, and the train tracks symbolize the irreversible decision they are about to make.

As you read, you’ll notice that the woman’s motivation for wanting to keep the child stems from her desire to have a meaningful relationship with the man. However, the man’s motivation for wanting her to have an abortion is rooted in his fear of losing his freedom and his desire to continue living a carefree life.

The story ends abruptly, leaving the reader to draw their own conclusion about what decision the couple ultimately made. Hemingway’s use of symbolism and character motivation examination makes ‘Hills Like White Elephants’ a thought-provoking and memorable short story.

How Short Stories Differ from Longer Works

As you dive into a short story, you’ll find that it’s like a small gemstone, with all the facets of a larger work condensed and shining brilliantly in a compact space. Unlike longer works, short stories have to be concise in their storytelling techniques. They have to grab your attention quickly and keep it throughout the entire story.

Here are three ways that short stories differ from longer works:

• Short stories have a limited amount of time and space to convey their themes. This means that every sentence, every word, has to count. The author has to choose their words carefully to make sure that the story has impact.
• Short stories often have a more focused theme than longer works. While a novel may have multiple themes, a short story will usually have one central idea that it’s exploring. This means that the author can delve deep into that theme and explore it thoroughly.
• Short stories often leave more up to the reader’s interpretation than longer works. Because there isn’t as much room for exposition, the author has to rely on the reader to fill in some of the gaps. This can make the story more engaging, as the reader becomes an active participant in the story.

Overall, short stories are a unique and challenging form of storytelling. They require precision and focus, but when done well, they can be incredibly powerful. As you read more short stories, keep these differences in mind and see if you can spot them in action.

The Potential for Power and Impact in Short Stories

Short stories possess a unique potential for wielding powerful and impactful storytelling that can leave a lasting impression on readers. The power of brevity is a key aspect of short stories that allows authors to explore themes in a concise and effective manner.

Through carefully crafted characters, settings, and plotlines, short stories can pack a punch and leave readers with a sense of fulfillment that longer works may not achieve.

In addition, short stories allow for experimentation and innovation in storytelling. Authors can take risks and push boundaries, using their limited word count to their advantage. This leaves readers with a sense of excitement and anticipation as they never know what to expect from a short story.

Overall, the potential for power and impact in short stories should not be underestimated, as they have the ability to convey deep meaning and leave a lasting impression on their readers in a way that longer works may not.

Tips for Writing Short Stories with a Central Idea

If you want to craft a short story with a powerful central idea, consider using symbolism and imagery to allude to deeper meaning throughout your narrative. This can create tension and intrigue for your readers as they try to decipher the underlying message of your story.

For example, you could use a recurring object or color throughout the story that represents a certain theme or idea.

In addition to using symbolism, developing strong and dynamic characters is essential for a short story with a central idea. Your characters should be complex and multi-dimensional, with flaws and motivations that drive the plot forward.

By creating characters that readers can relate to, you can further emphasize the central idea of your story and make it more impactful. So, when crafting your short story, be intentional about the symbols and characters you use to convey your central idea.

You may have been skeptical at first, but hopefully you now understand how even the shortest of stories can pack a powerful punch with a clear message or theme.

With careful crafting and attention to detail, a writer can use the limited space of a short story to convey a complex idea or emotion. Imagine each word as a brushstroke on a canvas, creating a vivid image in the reader’s mind.

So, whether you’re a writer looking to hone your craft or a reader seeking thought-provoking stories, don’t overlook the potential of short fiction.

Within those few pages, you may just find a world of ideas waiting to be explored.

Recommended Reading...

Why short stories are important for readers and writers alike, why do authors use short stories the advantages of this genre, why are short stories so hard to write understanding the challenges, what is a novelette exploring the short story genre.

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Could darkness cut short a rain-delayed Indy 500? Why IMS doesn't have lights

Update: Josef Newgarden won the 108th running of the Indianapolis 500 on Sunday, well before the race would have been impacted by darkness.

INDIANAPOLIS — With thunderstorms delaying the 108th running of the Indianapolis 500 into Sunday afternoon, an additional threat to the race's completion has arisen: darkness.

Indianapolis Motor Speedway does not have lights to support night racing, which means that Sunday's race, if delayed significantly, could run out of light before it ends. Sundown in Indianapolis is at 9:02 p.m., and continued cloudy conditions could create dark conditions on the track before then. Race officials are expected to end the 2024 race by 8:15 p.m. if it's still running by then to mitigate potentially unsafe racing conditions due to darkness.

The Indy 500 has always been a daytime race, but the possibility of adding lights to the track has been discussed previously. IndyStar sports reporter Dana Hunsinger Benbow wrote this story of an ill-fated effort to bring lights to IMS, originally published in 2019:

From 2019: Why there won't be lights at Indianapolis Motor Speedway for the Brickyard 400

The sparks fly at Charlotte, Kentucky and Texas, just as they do at Richmond, Kansas and Bristol. Fiery orange and yellow flames spit from the backs of race cars as they blow around these speedways' tracks, the stars twinkling above, night settled in.

A car with a full load of fuel bottoms out...

"And it's this incredible spark show, this fire show," said Eddie Gossage, president of Texas Motor Speedway in Fort Worth. "It's unbelievable."

Get the latest: What IMS President Doug Boles says about Indy 500 weather, start time, safety

That's the beauty of a night race — the cars look surreal. But there are plenty of other positives to taking to the track when evening falls. Tires grip better when the track is cooler. Having lighted speedways means day races disrupted by bad weather can be moved to night. Fans don't have to endure sweltering conditions during summer afternoons.

And for fans and drivers, it's nostalgic, hearkening back to the first race most of them experienced: a night race on a short track.

IndyCar and NASCAR have raced at night for decades. And as the struggling Brickyard 400 descends on Indianapolis this weekend, the question has been asked: Would a Saturday night race bring back the Brickyard's glory ? Would adding lights to Indianapolis Motor Speedway even make sense?

"As far as the Indianapolis Motor Speedway is concerned, my question would be, 'Why?'" said Bob Jenkins, a former television and radio announcer for ESPN, ABC and NBC, who did the television broadcast for the first Brickyard 400. "Why would you ever want to put lights up?" 

Lights at Indianapolis Motor Speedway: It almost happened

Few people know it, but talk of night racing at IMS was getting serious in 2013.

The track was making plans for a $90 million renovation, dubbed Project 100, timed for the 100th running of the Indianapolis 500 in 2016.

"We did a massive inventory of the facility and said, 'If we had all the money in the world what would we want?'" said IMS president Doug Boles. The wish list included $200 million worth of projects and lighting the speedway was near the top, he said.

The fun blog: Live Indy 500 fun report: Fans asked to leave stands, Snake Pit as storm looms

"We did look at it more from the perspective of, could we move the Brickyard to a Saturday night race," Boles said. "And, at some level, that was an interesting proposition."

But as speedway officials started breaking down costs and researching what a massive project it would be, they had to cut lighting from the wish list.

"By the time you light the race track, get all the power to the infrastructure, lighting restrooms, concession stands, parking lots,"' Boles said, "you're in that $20 million (range)."

Other projects were more critical. The return on investment for adding lights to IMS wasn't high enough.

That was, in part, because the Indianapolis 500 would never move to the evening.

"That’s just the way that race has been run, so if you had lights, it wouldn't be changing the start time of the Indy 500," Boles said. Though, he said, it would allow the race to be moved to night if needed due to weather, rather than moving it to Memorial Day.  

Pulling in other races seemed unlikely — and only gets more unlikely as years pass, he said. 

"At that point in time even five, six years ago, there were more NASCAR races under the lights," he said. "Today, some of those race tracks that used to run under the lights have gone back to (day races)."

Before IMS would seriously consider a night Brickyard race, officials would first have to have a conversation with NASCAR and NBC, which has television rights.   

"At this point in time," Boles said, "we aren’t going to see lights at Indianapolis Motor Speedway."

Jenkins doesn't think a lighted track is the answer to the Brickyard's woes.

"The Indianapolis Motor Speedway is the greatest race track in the world, period. It's a shrine for me. But it's not the best track for stock cars. And that's why Brickyard attendance has dropped off significantly from when it started here," said Jenkins. "I don't think it would make any difference if the track was lighted."

Lighting at IMS a long shot

Charlotte Motor Speedway was the first NASCAR track to install lights in 1992, nearly 30 years ago. Texas Motor Speedway opened with lights in 1997 and was the first track to do a night time IndyCar race. It has ever since, holding the Texas Grand Prix two Saturdays after Memorial Day weekend.

Lighting such a massive area presents challenges, said Gossage. IndyStar reached out to Musco, which lights almost all the sports arenas and stadiums in the United States, but didn't get a response.

"You have the challenge of being able to light a race track that is so much bigger than a football stadium," he said. Gossage worked at Charlotte when it was built. Musco had just finished the Rose Bowl and told him it took 10 times the lighting and wiring to light up that 1.5 mile track and its surroundings.

There is also the type of lighting. It's different than what's needed in a basketball arena or football stadium.

"You have to light a track so the driver can see even the smallest detail, a piece of metal, a nut, a bolt," Gossage said.  

In his experience, for the tracks he's been part of, Gossage said lighting has been well worth it. The stands are packed with fans who love how fast the cars look, the beams bouncing off their colorful coats and those sparks that fly.

Yet, for IMS?

"It would seem to be a long shot for Indy, the tradition of the Indy 500," he said. "And the Brickyard? I can't see it."

110 years of magic

Logistically speaking, IndyCar radio announcer Jake Query wonders how a night race at IMS would even work. The speedway is plopped in the middle of commercial businesses and butts up against neighborhoods.

It's one thing to have 250,000 fans -- what IMS seats -- pour in and out of the speedway from morning until late afternoon.

"Depositing 200,000 people onto the streets at 11 p.m. or midnight becomes a logistical challenge," he said.  

Tradition comes into play, too. IMS is 110 years old. The Indy 500 has run 103 times. Query recalls the uproar when Wrigley Field had its first night game in 1988.

"It was blasphemy, it was a break of tradition," he said. "Lights were going to make Wrigley like everyone else."

Everything, of course, turned out just fine and the novelty of the night games at Wrigley wore off. Still, Query doesn't predict IMS will take that route.

"Will there ever be lights? I guess you can never say never," he said. "But it would surprise me if there were any immediacy to it. There have been 103 installments of the Indianapolis 500 and it's as fantastic an event as it was from the third, so why change it? There are certain things that don't need to be changed."

Jenkins agrees wholeheartedly.

"I hope it never happens," he said. "I don't think it ever will."  

Follow IndyStar sports reporter Dana Benbow on Twitter: @DanaBenbow. Reach her via e-mail: [email protected].

Trump guilty, now what? Why the verdict isn't the most shocking part of the trial

The most shocking thing about the first-ever criminal trial of a former U.S. president may not be the guilty verdict that a New York jury delivered Thursday afternoon.

It's this: It is possible, even probable, that one of the most momentous trials in American history won't end up affecting American history − at least not in time to reshape the presidential campaign in which Donald Trump is all−but-guaranteed to be the Republican nominee.

"Unprecedented" − admittedly an overworked word since Trump announced his first presidential campaign nine years ago − undeniably applies. The 45th president of the United States is now a convicted felon.

In a hushed courtroom, the jury foreperson read their unanimous conclusion.

Count 1: Guilty.

Prep for the polls: See who is running for president and compare where they stand on key issues in our Voter Guide

Count 2: Guilty.

Count 3: Guilty.

Count 4: Guilty.

Count 5: Guilty.

And so, it went through all 34 counts: Guilty. Guilty. Guilty. Convicted of falsifying business records to cover up hush money payments to a porn star, part of an effort to affect the outcome of the 2016 election. The jury of seven men and five women dismissed the protestations of innocence from a defendant who once lived in the White House and has a realistic possibility of moving back in.

Judge Juan Merchan set sentencing for July 11, four days before the Republican National Convention begins in Milwaukee. None of the other three criminal cases against Trump is likely to go to trial before the November election.

"The FIX was always in..." Trump's campaign manager, Chris LaCivita, posted instantly on the social-media platform known as X, formerly called Twitter. Florida Sen. Marco Rubio, on the list of Trump's potential running mates, declared, "The verdict in New York is a complete travesty that makes a mockery of our system of justice," calling it "a political show trial."

A seething Trump, his face flushed, used the word "rigged" five times when he briefly addressed reporters outside the courtroom.

"This is far from over," he declared looking ahead to Election Day, now less than six months away. Calling it a "rigged, disgraceful trial," Trump said "the real verdict is going to be Nov. 5 by the people who know what happened here."

He blamed, without evidence, that President Biden had orchestrated a politically motivated prosecution.

Trump announced his determination to appeal, a process that will have to unfold before he could conceivably be sent to jail or be fined.

Even so, the unanimous verdict by 12 citizens, a decision that took them less than 12 hours of deliberation to reach, surely carried a certain force. For Trump, the conviction immediately became his leading grievance. "I'm a political prisoner!" he declared on Truth Social, asking for campaign contributions.

For Biden, it just as quickly became a rallying cry.

"There's only one way to keep Donald Trump out of the Oval Office: At the ballot box," the president, who generally shied from commenting on the trial while it was going on, posted on X.

Biden coupled it with an appeal for campaign contributions, too.

I visited my son in college for the first time and noticed he'd changed. College was helping him become his true self.

• When I visited my son in college for the first time, his voice sounded different — higher.
• I realized my son had been lowering his voice to fit in with the conservative South.
• My openly gay son was finally able to become his true self in college.

My son, Caleb, was thrilled when he was accepted into the musical-theater program at the University of Michigan in April 2020, but I wasn't sure it was the right place for him. Both the out-of-state tuition and the long winters seemed less than ideal for a boy who'd spent his whole life in Georgia.

He was adamant, though, that attending one of the top programs in the country would be life-changing . I'd never been to Ann Arbor, but once he committed, I was a mom on a mission to find winter gear that would keep him warm and safe. I bought him a huge insulated down parka and prayed he wouldn't freeze to death.

I tried to anticipate the challenges Caleb would face as he started college , but I wasn't expecting him to change.

I noticed a surprising change in Caleb when I first visited him at college

The first time I visited my son in Michigan, two months after he started classes , I offered to take some of his friends out for dinner. He'd recently been paired with a senior buddy named Jack to help guide him during his freshman year . Caleb texted Jack, and we met for dinner downtown at a local pub. It was cold, windy, and dark outside.

As we waited for our drinks, I asked Jack about himself, though I'd already mildly stalked him on Instagram. He was a smart and generous young man who knew a lot about the industry and the program. He was also more out than most gay men we knew in the South.

As they were discussing a new instructor in the music department, Caleb said, "She seems really lovely." I turned and stared at him. I didn't think I'd ever heard Caleb use the word "lovely." He said it so softly and without self-consciousness — I wasn't sure I'd heard him correctly.

Why did his voice sound weird? It wasn't his accent; I could still hear Georgia. I realized his voice sounded slightly higher than I remembered, but why would his voice change in college?

What I was hearing was my son's real voice

He'd been lowering his voice throughout high school, booming from the stage as John Proctor and with his friends as they debated college football.

Caleb came out when he was a sophomore in high school. I doubt he ever consciously thought, "If I lower my voice, I'll be less obviously gay. I'll be safer that way." But a deeper voice helped him blend in, kept him safe, and made it possible for him to pass as straight when necessary. A deeper voice gave him some cover.

I did my best to anticipate what he might need by enrolling him in a high school with a good fine-arts program, but it was still in the middle of cotton fields in rural Georgia.

Now that Caleb wasn't the only boy in dance classes or the only gay kid at church, the bass in his voice had faded. He'd shed it like a winter coat in spring. There was a new lightness to him.

It wasn't that Caleb's voice had suddenly changed — it was that I was hearing his real, unguarded voice for the first time. His "let's talk about Broadway shows all day long" voice. His "this is me" voice. His "I'm safe now" voice. His "I got out of the South" voice. His "I'm not going back there" voice.

I hadn't realized the ways he'd been shape-shifting to fit in where we lived.

Caleb found his people quickly in college

I was so happy for Caleb that he'd found his people. But they weren't us, his little family back in Georgia. His place wasn't where we lived.

There's so much to love about the South: the fireflies and the peaches and the brilliant night sky; the daily rhythm of family, festivals, and small-town living; the wide-open spaces and accents that sound like honey. None of that matters, though, if it isn't safe for you to be your full self at home.

Over the next few years at college, Caleb's confidence grew. His clothes got tighter, and his shorts got shorter. He participated in Pride parades and dated cute guys. His voice was the change that started it all.

I'm haunted still that I didn't hear my son's true voice until he left home.

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Jury Deliberations Have Started in Trump’s Trial. Here’s How They Work.

The 12 unidentified jurors have retreated behind closed doors and started to debate whether the first president to be criminally prosecuted has committed felony crimes.

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By Kate Christobek

• Published May 29, 2024 Updated May 31, 2024

For more than five weeks, the 12 unidentified jurors in Donald J. Trump’s Manhattan criminal trial have listened to opening statements, witness testimony, closing arguments and the judge’s final instructions .

Now their deliberations have begun. The jurors retreated behind closed doors of an unremarkable rectangular room on Wednesday and started to debate whether the first president to be criminally prosecuted has committed felony crimes.

Read the Jury Instructions

The first juror selected is the foreman and will likely lead the jury’s discussions during deliberations. His opinion and vote do not carry more importance than those of the others.

While the jury deliberates, it’s common to wait days, or even weeks, for a verdict. Prosecutors charged Mr. Trump with 34 felony charges of falsifying business records related to a $130,000 hush-money payment to the porn star Stormy Daniels on the eve of the 2016 election.

The jurors’ verdict on each count — guilty or not guilty — must be unanimous.

During their deliberations, the jury can send back notes, signed by the foreperson, to ask questions to the court or have a witness’s testimony read back to them. Jurors also have access to a laptop containing trial exhibits that they can refer to during their deliberations.

If one of the 12 jurors is unable to continue deliberating for any reason, an alternate will step in. The six alternates attended the trial and remain on site so they can join in if necessary.

Mr. Trump also must remain inside the courthouse while the jury is deliberating.

If the jury finds that he is guilty of even one of the counts, the judge will sentence Mr. Trump at a later date. But if they find that he is not guilty of all of the charges, Mr. Trump will be acquitted.

If the jurors cannot reach a verdict, they will inform the judge, who will urge them to continue their deliberations. If they remain deadlocked, the judge could declare a mistrial, and the prosecutors would then need to decide whether to bring the case again.

Kate Christobek is a reporter covering the civil and criminal cases against former president Donald J. Trump for The Times. More about Kate Christobek

Our Coverage of the Trump Hush-Money Trial

Guilty Verdict : Donald Trump was convicted on all 34 counts  of falsifying records to cover up a sex scandal that threatened his bid for the White House in 2016, making him the first American president to be declared a felon .

Next Steps: The judge in the case set Trump’s sentencing for July 11, and Trump already indicated that he plans to appeal. Here’s what else may happen .

Reactions: Trump’s conviction reverberated quickly across the country and over the world . Here’s what Trump , voters , New Yorkers , Republicans  and the White House  had to say.

The Presidential Race : The verdict will test America’s traditions, legal institutions and ability to hold an election under historic partisan tension , reshuffling a race that has been locked in stasis and defined by a polarizing former president.

Making the Case: Over six weeks and the testimony of 20 witnesses, the Manhattan district attorney’s office wove a sprawling story  of election interference and falsified business records.

Legal Luck Runs Out: The four criminal cases that threatened Trump’s freedom had been stumbling along, pleasing his advisers. Then his good fortune expired .

Connecting the Dots: As rumors circulated of Trump’s reported infidelity, two accounts of women  being paid to stay silent about their encounters became central to his indictment.

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Partial count in South Africa election puts ruling ANC below 50% as country senses momentous change

South Africans have voted in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years. It’s a vote that could put their young democracy into unknown territory. (AP video shot by Jackson Njehia, Annie Risemberg and Sebabatso Mosamo. Production by Nqobile Ntshangase.)

A woman casts her ballot at a polling station, during general elections in Eshowe, South Africa, Wednesday May 29, 2024. South Africans are voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy, the three-decade dominance of the African National Congress party being the target of a new generation of discontent in a country of 62 million people — half of whom are estimated to be living in poverty. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

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Electoral workers empties the ballot box during the counting at Itireleng informal settlement in Pretoria, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024, during the general elections. AP Photo/Themba Hadebe)

MK Party supporters celebrate in the middle of the street in Mahlbnathini village in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, on Thursday May 30, 2024. MK Party is currently leading in the provincial poll against the ANC, who’ve held the stronghold in the province for the last 20 years. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

Voters line up to cast their ballot for general election in Alexandra, near Johannesburg, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024. (AP Photo/Themba Hadebe)

MK Party supporters dance in the middle of the street in Mahlbnathini village in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, on Thursday May 30, 2024. MK Party is currently leading in the provincial poll against the ANC, who’ve held the stronghold in the province for the last 20 years. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

Ballot boxes wait to be opened for vote count at Craighall Park Elementary school in Johannesburg, South Africa, Wednesday May 29, 2024. (AP Photo/Jerome Delay)

Election volunteers count ballots at Craighall Park Elementary school in Johannesburg, South Africa, Wednesday May 29, 2024. (AP Photo/Jerome Delay)

Electoral workers prepare to open the voting station as voters line up to cast their ballot for general elections in Alexandra, near Johannesburg, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024. (AP Photo/Themba Hadebe)

Electoral workers check ballot papers during the counting at a polling station at Itireleng informal settlement in Pretoria, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024, during the general elections. South Africans voted Wednesday at schools, community centers, and in large white tents set up in open fields in an election seen as their country’s most important since apartheid ended 30 years ago. It could put the young democracy into unknown territory. (AP Photo/Themba Hadebe)

South African President Cyril Ramaphosa casts his ballot Wednesday May 29, 2024 for the general elections in Soweto, South Africa. South Africans are voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy, the three-decade dominance of the African National Congress party being the target of a new generation of discontent in a country of 62 million people — half of whom are estimated to be living in poverty. (AP Photo/Jerome Delay)

Democratic Alliance (DA) leader John Steenhuisen, holds his ballot at a polling station in Durban, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024. South Africans have begun voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put their young democracy in unknown territory. (AP Photo/Str)

Opposition Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) leader Julius Malema, casts his vote at a polling station in Polokwane, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024. South Africans have begun voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put their young democracy in unknown territory. (AP Photo)

Former president of the A.N.C. and South Africa, Jacob Zuma, waves to supporters after casting his ballot in Nkandla, Kwazulu Natal, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024 during the general elections. South Africans are voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy, the three-decade dominance of the African National Congress party being the target of a new generation of discontent in a country of 62 million people. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

People queue to cast their votes at a polling station in Cape Town, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024. South Africans have begun voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put their young democracy in unknown territory. (AP Photo/Nardus Engelbrecht)

Voters line up to cast their ballot for general elections in Alexandra, near Johannesburg, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024. South Africans began voting Wednesday in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put their young democracy in unknown territory. (AP Photo/Themba Hadebe)

Independent Electoral Commission Chief Electoral Officer Sy Mamabolo briefs reporters and political party delegates at the National Results Operations Center in Johannesburg, South Africa, Thursday, May 30, 2024, one day after South Africans voted in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy. (AP Photo/Jerome Delay)

Children sit by the side of the road next to a polling station, during general elections in Nkandla, Kwazulu Natal, South Africa, Wednesday May 29, 2024. South Africans are voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy, the three-decade dominance of the African National Congress party being the target of a new generation of discontent in a country of 62 million people — half of whom are estimated to be living in poverty. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

A woman is marked on her hand after casting her ballot on Wednesday May 29, 2024 during general elections in Nkandla, Kwazulu Natal, South Africa. South Africans are voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy, the three-decade dominance of the African National Congress party being the target of a new generation of discontent in a country of 62 million people — half of whom are estimated to be living in poverty. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

People queue to cast their votes at a polling station during general elections, in Cape Town, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024. South Africans have begun voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put their young democracy in unknown territory. (AP Photo/Nardus Engelbrecht)

Voters wait outside a poling station on Wednesday May 29, 2024, during general elections in KwaMfana, South Africa. South Africans are voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy, the three-decade dominance of the African National Congress party being the target of a new generation of discontent in a country of 62 million people — half of whom are estimated to be living in poverty. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

People watch as former president of the A.N.C. and South Africa Jacob Zuma, casts his ballot on Wednesday May 29, 2024 during general elections in Nkandla, Kwazulu Natal, South Africa. South Africans are voting in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy, the three-decade dominance of the African National Congress party being the target of a new generation of discontent in a country of 62 million people — half of whom are estimated to be living in poverty. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

Independent Electoral Commission officials receive results at the National Results Operations Center in Johannesburg, South Africa, Thursday, May 30, 2024, one day after South Africans voted in an election seen as their country’s most important in 30 years, and one that could put them in unknown territory in the short history of their democracy. (AP Photo/Jerome Delay)

A young woman holds her ballot before casting it on Wednesday, May 29, 2024, during general elections in Nkandla, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Young South Africans, unlike the older generation, are determined to see their vote count and their dreams come to fruition in a country where youth poverty has become a signature of unfulfilled independence aspirations. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

JOHANNESBURG (AP) — Partial results in South Africa’s national election put the long-ruling African National Congress party at well below 50% of the vote as counting continued Thursday, and it could be on the brink of losing its majority for the first time since sweeping to power under Nelson Mandela at the end of apartheid in 1994.

That would be a momentous change for South Africa, where the ANC has been dominant for all 30 years of its young democracy and the only governing party many have known.

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• Keep track of the latest AP elections coverage from around the world here.

The ANC had the most votes and was well ahead in the early results, as expected. But if it fails to secure a majority, it may have to form a coalition to remain in the government — something that has never happened before in post-apartheid South Africa. Without a majority, the ANC would also need help from other parties to reelect President Cyril Ramaphosa for a second term.

“I think we are seeing a massive change in South African politics,” Susan Booysen, a political analyst and professor emeritus at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, said on national broadcaster SABC TV.

It was still only an early picture after Wednesday’s election. The final results were expected to take days, with the independent electoral commission saying they would be delivered by Sunday, although they could come earlier.

South Africans were waiting with baited breath to see if their country, Africa’s most advanced economy , was about to enter a new era. Some analysts said the incomplete results were already unprecedented with regards to how far the long dominant ANC was below the 50% mark at this stage in the counting. The partial results put the ANC at 43% of the vote.

The ANC’s worst performance in a national election is the 57.5% it won in the last one in 2019. A projection from a government agency and SABC, based on early vote returns, estimated that the ANC would end up with about 42% this time, a drop of more than 15%, which would be a stunning result in the context of South Africa.

The ANC would likely have to co-govern and find a coalition partner if the projections hold, taking South Africa into the unknown. The ANC said right up to Wednesday’s election that it was confident of retaining its majority and has given no indication over how it might form a coalition government.

While it was a defining moment, South Africa was “having to craft a new direction but without a clear indication of what direction that is likely to be,” said Terry Tselane, executive chairman of the Institute of Election Management Services in Africa, an electoral think tank.

South African President Cyril Ramaphosa casts his ballot Wednesday May 29, 2024 for the general elections in Soweto, South Africa. (AP Photo/Jerome Delay)

This election was seen as a direct referendum on the unbroken rule of the ANC , which freed South Africa from the oppressive, racist apartheid regime in the famous all-race vote of 1994 but has seen a steady decrease in its popularity over the last two decades.

ANC deputy secretary-general Nomvula Mokonyane said on SABC: “We remain optimistic.”

Nearly 28 million people out of South Africa’s population of 62 million were registered to vote.

South Africa may be the continent’s most advanced country, but it has struggled to solve a profuse inequality that has kept millions in poverty decades after the segregation of apartheid ended. That inequality and widespread poverty disproportionately affects the Black majority that make up more than 80% of the country’s population. South Africa has one of the worst unemployment rates in the world at 32%.

People queue after dark to cast their votes at a polling station in Cape Town, South Africa, Wednesday, May 29, 2024. (AP Photo/Nardus Engelbrecht)

A woman casts her ballot at a polling station, during general elections in Eshowe, South Africa, Wednesday May 29, 2024. (AP Photo/Emilio Morenatti)

Voters repeatedly referred to unemployment as well as other issues like ANC corruption scandals, problems with basic government services and high violent crime as their main grievances.

“The ANC has failed us for 30 years,” said Thandi Hlope, who lives in a rural town in the eastern KwaZulu-Natal province. “They failed to bring us real freedom.”

The ANC was faced with more opposition than ever in this vote. More than 50 political parties were registered to participate, the most in a national election, with many of them new. Much of the opposition vote was expected to be spread among an array of those other parties, though.

The early results put the main opposition Democratic Alliance at around 24% of the vote and the Economic Freedom Fighters party at around 9%. The partial results also reflected the immediate impact of the new MK Party of former President Jacob Zuma, who has turned against the ANC he once led. The MK Party was challenging the EFF for third in its first election and a significant factor in draining support from the ANC.

South Africans vote for parties and not directly for their president in national elections. Those parties then get seats in Parliament according to their share of the vote and lawmakers elect the president. The ANC has always had a clear parliamentary majority since 1994, so the president has always been from the ANC.

That process of electing a president wouldn’t be so simple if the ANC lost its majority.

The electoral commission predicted a high turnout and that was reflected in Wednesday’s scenes across the nation, as South Africans lined up into the night to make their choice. The long, snaking lines of voters in cities, towns and rural fields revived memories of the definitive election of 1994 that changed a country.

While polls officially closed at 9 p.m., voting continued for hours after that in many places as officials noted a late surge of ballots being cast in major cities like Johannesburg and Cape Town. The electoral commission said the last votes were cast at around 3 a.m. The rules say that anyone lining up at a voting station by the closing time must be allowed to vote.

The determination of South Africans standing out in the chilly winter weather into the middle of the night suggested millions had embraced how consequential this election might be.

Imray reported from Cape Town. AP writer Farai Mutsaka contributed from Mahlbnathini, South Africa.

AP Africa news: https://apnews.com/hub/africa

Can a felon run for president in Kentucky?

• Trump was convicted on all 34 counts in a criminal hush money trial in New York on Thursday.
• Trump can still run for president in Kentucky.
• Trump's sentencing hearing will be held on July 11.

Presidential candidate Donald Trump's conviction on all 34 counts in a criminal hush money trial Thursday in New York raises a number of questions about his campaign for the White House.

Will the now-convicted felon be able to run for office? Will he succeed in his effort to win back the presidency ? 

Here’s where Trump stands in Kentucky: 

In short, yes. That’s because the rules around running for president are governed by federal law.

The U.S. Constitution has only three requirements for the president . The president must: 

• Be a natural-born citizen of the United States 
• Be at least 35 years old 
• Have been a resident of the United States for at least 14 years

Since he meets those requirements, if Trump wins the presidency, he could still serve. In fact, he would not be the first presidential candidate with a felony record to make a bid.

For example, over a century ago, socialist candidate Eugene Debs ran for president from prison after conviction on a sedition charge.

Will Donald Trump have to campaign from prison?

It’s possible Trump could serve prison time, but not likely anytime soon. 

More: Kentucky politicians react to Donald Trump's guilty verdict

Trump’s  sentencing hearing will be held July 11 .

Each of the felonies for which he was convicted carries a sentence of up to four years. New York state has a 20-year cap on sentences for the types of felonies Trump was convicted of. 

However, it’s unlikely Trump would serve such a long sentence. It’s far more likely his sentence would be  under four years and possibly much shorter , some experts say. 

Others think Trump is  more likely to face probation than prison time . 

And even if sentenced to prison, Trump’s time there will likely be delayed by an  appeal of his conviction . 

Will Trump campaign in Kentucky?

It's not yet clear exactly what Trump's schedule will be in the aftermath of his conviction.

The six-week New York trial stymied but did not stop his campaign activities, which included a Kentucky jaunt.

Earlier this month, Trump flew into the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky airport to  attend a $50,000-a-plate fundraising lunch that featured Ohio Senator J.D. Vance, among others . 

He also attended a  fundraising dinner in Lexington . 

Trump went on to  handily win Kentucky's Republican presidential primary , earning about 85% of the vote. 

News of the verdict spurred Kentucky Republicans to rally around Trump. Many said that they are confident Trump will win the presidency in November. 

"It won't stop me and millions of Americans from acquitting the President of these politically motivated charges and sending him back to the White House in November," said U.S. Rep. Andy Barr, a Republican who represents the area around Lexington. 

Can a felon run for state office in Kentucky? 

Typically, felons cannot run for state office in Kentucky, said Michon Lindstrom, the director of communications for the Secretary of State’s office. That’s because to run for office in Kentucky, you  must be a registered voter . 

People who are incarcerated, whether for a felony or a misdemeanor, are not allowed to vote in Kentucky, according to the state’s Civil Rights Restoration website .

After completing a sentence, however, a convicted felon could qualify to vote again and therefore regain the ability to run for office. That's because back in 2019, Gov. Andy Beshear issued an executive order restoring voting rights to people convicted of many felonies who had completed their sentences.

Some felonies, like treason, strangulation, human trafficking and others, were excluded from the restoration of voting rights. And anyone who has been convicted since Beshear's executive order is also excluded, said Lindstorm.

People who have been convicted of felonies but who have been pardoned can also vote and run for office, Lindstrom said. 

The restoration rules do not apply to people convicted of felonies in federal or non-Kentucky courts. They typically cannot vote in Kentucky unless the successfully petition the governor for restoration of their voting rights, according to the state’s Civil Rights Restoration website . 

Reach Rebecca Grapevine at [email protected] or follow her on X, formerly known as Twitter, at @RebGrapevine.

The Key Points at the top of this article were created with the assistance of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and reviewed by a journalist before publication. No other parts of the article were generated using AI. Learn more .