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Working Memory Model

Last updated 7 Nov 2023

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Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed the Working Memory Model (WMM), which focuses specifically on the workings of short-term memory (STM).

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of memory (MSM) was criticised for over-simplifying STM (as well as LTM) as a single storage system, so the WMM alternative proposed that STM is composed of three, limited capacity stores:

• Central Executive – this manages attention, and controls information from the two ‘slave stores’ [below]
• An articulatory rehearsal process (‘inner voice’) of language, including any language presented visually to convert to a phonological state, for storage in the:
• Phonological store (‘inner ear’), which holds auditory speech information and the order in which it was heard (or any visually-presented language converted by the articulatory process)
• Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad – this temporarily retains visual and spatial information

A later addition was the episodic buffer which facilitates communication between the central executive and long term memory.

The three-store STM stemmed from research using a ‘dual-task technique’ (or ‘interference tasks’), whereby performance is measured as participants perform two tasks simultaneously. The following observations provided evidence to suggest different, limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:

• If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when they are completed separately, due to the store’s limited capacity e.g. repeating “the the the” aloud and reading some text silently would use the articulatory-phonological loop for both tasks, slowing performance.
• If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing them simultaneously e.g. repeating “the the the” aloud whilst performing a reasoning task (requiring attention, i.e. the central executive), or whilst following a mobile stimulus with your eyes (using the visuo-spatial sketchpad).

Evaluation of the Working Memory Model

• The WMM provides an explanation for parallel processing (i.e. where processes involved in a cognitive task occur at once), unlike Atkinson and Shiffrin’s MSM.
• A Shallice and Warrington (1974) case study reported that brain-damaged patient KF could recall verbal but not visual information immediately after its presentation, which supports the WMM’s claim that separate short-term stores manage short-term phonological and visual memories.
• The model was developed based on evidence from laboratory experiments, so confounding variables could be carefully controlled to produce reliable results (that can be replicated).
• Despite providing more detail of STM than the multi-store model, the WMM has been criticized for being too simplistic and vague, e.g. it is unclear what the central executive is, or its exact role in attention.
• Results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity (i.e. may not relate to real life), as tasks such as repeating ‘the the the’ are arguably not representative of our everyday activities.
• Working memory model
• Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

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The KF Case Study supports the Working Memory

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Msm and case studies of people with brain injuries.

In your essay, it is important that you are able to link research evidence to specific theoretical claims. Case studies of people with acquired brain injuries have been particularly useful in providing support for one of MSM’s key claims, but the same studies have also highlighted some of the weaknesses of this model.

What is a case study?

Case studies allow us to gather in-depth information on areas where it may be impossible to carry out experiments. Clearly, from an ethical standpoint we cannot deliberately injure someone purely to see what behavioural and cognitive changes may result! Instead, scientists often make use of naturally occurring cases where someone has an acquired brain injury, meaning they were functioning perfectly well beforehand, i.e. they have been involved in an accident, had an illness that has affected their brain or undergone surgery for a tumour or to treat epilepsy, for example.

Case studies focuses on an individual or small group and use information from a variety of sources including medical and educational reports and records, interviews, standardised tests and observations, and so on to gather a wide range of detailed information. The use of multiple research methods is known as method triangulation.

Case studies generally lack control as the injury was naturally occurring, this said, they can inspire more scientific studies that are able to examine cause and effect.

As you may recall from the localisation topic, case studies focusing on people who have sustained brain damage allow researchers to explore the function of various brain regions through examining the impact of the damage on their behaviour and cognitive functioning.

Can you think of any scientific weaknesses of such studies?

Often there is no valid evidence of the person’s skill level prior to the brain injury, and therefore it is not possible to conclude with certainty that the brain injury has caused any issues the person appears to have, as these problems may have pre-dated the injury. This is clearly not always the case but worth bearing in mind 😉

The table below details three case studies conducted with people with brain injuries. Case studies like these indicate that there are different memory stores but perhaps it is too simple to think that there are only three stores, memory for different types of information seems to be situated in different areas. This is shown by HM and Clive Wearing’s unaffected procedural memories.

Use the worksheet above to find out more about these three case studies and think about how they could be used to support or refute the claims made by Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multistore model, i.e. that there are three separate memory stores through which information flows in a linear fashion, that short and long term memory are single (unitary) stores.

Clive Wearing

Find out more about the case of Clive Wearing using these clips from youtube:

HM – Henry Molaison

One interesting aspects of the HM case study is that although it is claimed HM was incapable of laying down new long term memories (anterograde amnesia) over time it was shown that he was able to learn a new skill; mirror drawing.

Learn more about HM with this podcast form the BBC: https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00t6zqv

Practice drawing stars like HM: Click below and scroll down to “ Milner Research Replication” .

https://opl.apa.org/src/index.html#/Demonstrations

Practice what you know about the HM case study and how it relates to MSM using this quizizz: https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5f74661a1bb349001ba0a3a5

The Case of KF

To learn more about the case of KF why not check out one of the original papers about this patient here :

Case study of KF Original Paper: warrington1969 

A clip of Warrington talking about KF

The following worksheet demonstrates how the case study of KF exemplifies all the key features of the case study as a research method in psychology, but is also useful for adding to your detailed knowledge of the aim, procedure, findings and conclusions of the study itself.

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Multi-Store Memory Model: Atkinson and Shiffrin

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

What is the Multi-Store Model?

• The multi-store model is an explanation of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory stores, and that information is transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.
• The three main stores are the sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
• Each of the memory stores differs in the way information is processed (encoding), how much information can be stored (capacity), and for how long (duration).
• Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been described as an information processing model (like a computer) with an input, process and output.
• Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory , which stores a fleeting impression of sensory stimuli. If attended to this information enters the STM and if the information is given meaning (elaborative rehearsal) it is passed on to the LTM

The multi-store model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

The Memory Stores

Each store is a unitary structure and has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and duration.

Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory. There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):

1. visual (picture),

2. acoustic (sound),

3. semantic (meaning).

Capacity concerns how much information can be stored.

Duration refers to the period of time information can last in the memory stores.

Sensory Memory

• Duration: ¼ to ½ second

• Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity)

• Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense)

The sensory stores are constantly receiving information but most of this receives no attention and remains in the sensory register for a very brief period.

In the sensory memory store , information arrives from the 5 senses such as sight (visual information), sounds and touch. The sensory memory store has a large capacity but a very brief duration, it can encode information from any of the senses and most of the information is lost through decay.

Attention is the first step in remembering something, if a person’s attention is focused on one of the sensory stores then the data is transferred to STM.

Short Term Memory

• Duration: 0-18 seconds

• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items

• Encoding: mainly auditory

The short-term memory store has a duration of up to 30 seconds, has a capacity of 7+/-2 chunks and mainly encodes information acoustically. Information is lost through displacement or decay.

Maintenance rehearsal is the process of verbally or mentally repeating information, which allows the duration of short-term memory to be extended beyond 30 seconds. An example of maintenance rehearsal would be remembering a phone number only long enough to make the phone call.

This type of rehearsal usually involves repeating information without thinking about its meaning or connecting it to other information.

Continual rehearsal “regenerates” or “renews” the information in the memory trace, thus making it a stronger memory when transferred to the Long Term store.

If maintenance rehearsal (repetition) does not occur, then information is forgotten, and lost from short term memory through the processes of displacement or decay.

Long Term Memory

• Duration: Unlimited

• Capacity: Unlimited

• Encoding: Mainly Semantic (but can be visual and auditory)

Long-term memory store has unlimited capacity and duration and encodes information semantically. Information can be recalled from LTM back into the STM when it is needed.

If the information is given meaning (elaborative rehearsal) it is passed on to the LTM.

Elaborative rehearsal involves the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in long-term memory. For example,

you could learn the lines in a play by relating the dialogue and behavior of your character to similar personal experiences you remember.

Elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal for remembering new information as it helps to ensure that information is encoded well. It is a deeper level of information-processing.

Key Studies

Glanzer and Cunitz showed that when participants are presented with a list of words, they tend to remember the first few and last few words and are more likely to forget those in the middle of the list, i.e. the serial position effect.

This supports the existence of separate LTM and STM stores because they observed a primacy and recency effect.

Words early on in the list were put into long term memory (primacy effect) because the person has time to rehearse the word, and words from the end went into short term memory (recency effect).

Other compelling evidence to support this distinction between STM and LTM is the case of KF (Shallice & Warrington, 1977) who had been in a motorcycle crash where he had sustained brain damage.

His LTM seemed to be unaffected but he was only able to recall the last bit of information he had heard in his STM.

Critical Evaluation

One strength of the multistore model is that is gives us a good understanding of the structure and process of the STM. This is good because this allows researchers to expand on this model.

This means researchers can do experiments to improve on this model and make it more valid and they can prove what the stores actually do. Therefore, the model is influential as it has generated a lot of research into memory.

Many memory studies provide evidence to support the distinction between STM and LTM (in terms of encoding, duration and capacity). The model can account for primacy & recency effects .

The case of HM also supports the MSM as he was unable to encode new long-term memories after surgery during which his hippocampus was removed but his STM was unaffected.

He has remembered little of personal (death of mother and father) or public events (Watergate, Vietnam War) that have occurred over the last 45 years. However his short-term memory remains intact.This supports the view that the LTM and the STM are two separate stores.

The model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion.  We now know is this not the case.

It has now become apparent that both short-term and long-term memory are more complicated that previously thought.  For example, the Working Model of Memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) showed that short term memory is more than just one simple unitary store and comprises different components (e.g. central executive, Visuospatial etc.).

In the case of long-term memory, it is unlikely that different kinds of knowledge, such as remembering how to play a computer game, the rules of subtraction and remembering what we did yesterday are all stored within a single, long-term memory store.

Indeed different types of long-term memory have been identified, namely episodic (memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to do things) and semantic (general knowledge).

Rehearsal is considered a too simple explanation to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM. For instance, the model ignores factors such as motivation, effect and strategy (e.g. mnemonics) which underpin learning.

Also, rehearsal is not essential to transfer information into LTM. For example, why are we able to recall information which we did not rehearse (e.g. swimming) yet unable to recall information which we have rehearsed (e.g. reading your notes while revising).

Therefore, the role of rehearsal as a means of transferring from STM to LTM is much less important than Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) claimed in their model.

The models main emphasis was on structure and tends to neglect the process elements of memory (e.g. it only focuses on attention and maintenance rehearsal). For example, elaboration rehearsal leads to recall of information than just maintenance rehearsal.

Elaboration rehearsal involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge. These limitations are dealt with by the levels of processing model (Craik, & Lockhart, 1972).

Note: although rehearsal was initially described by Atkinson and Shiffrin as maintenance rehearsal (repetition of information), Shiffrin later suggested that rehearsal could be elaborative (Raaijmakers, & Shiffrin, 2003).

The multi store model has been criticized for being a passive/one way/linear model.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Chapter: Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In Spence, K. W., & Spence, J. T. The psychology of learning and motivation (Volume 2). New York: Academic Press. pp. 89–195.

Baddeley, A .D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press.

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal behavior, 11, 671-684.

Raaijmakers, J.G.W. & Shiffrin, R.M. (2003). Models versus descriptions: Real differences and langiage differences . behavioral and Brain Sciences , 26, 753.

Shallice, T., & Warrington, E. K. (1977). Auditory-verbal short-term memory impairment and conduction aphasia. Brain and Language, 4(4) , 479-491.

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• A patient described by Shallice & Warrington (1969 ; 1970) who suffered from short-term memory impairment (reduced digit span, no recency effect) with preserved long-term memory after a traumatic brain injury.

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• Published: 23 May 2024

Investigating racial/ethnic differences in procedure experience in obstetrics & gynecology trainees at a single academic institution: a retrospective cohort study

• Patricia GiglioAyers 1 , 2 ,
• Christine E. Foley 1 , 2 ,
• Beth Cronin 1 , 2 &
• Dayna Burrell 1 , 2  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  561 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

138 Accesses

Metrics details

Discrimination is common in medical education. Resident physicians of races and ethnicities underrepresented in medicine experience daily discrimination which has been proven to negatively impact training. There is limited data on the impact of resident race/ethnicity on OB/GYN surgical training. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of race/ethnicity on procedural experience in OB/GYN training.

A retrospective analysis of graduated OB/GYN resident case logs from 2009 to 2019 was performed at a single urban academic institution. Self-reported race/ethnicity data was collected. Association between URM and non-URM were analyzed using t-tests. Trainees were categorized by self-reported race/ethnicity into underrepresented in medicine (URM) (Black, Hispanic, Native American) and non-URM (White, Asian).

The cohort consisted of 84 residents: 19% URM ( N  = 16) and 79% non-URM ( n  = 66). Difference between URM and non-URM status and average case volume was analyzed using t-tests. There was no difference between non-URM and URM trainees and reported mean number of Total GYN (349 vs. 334, p  = 0.31) and Total OB (624 vs. 597, P  = 0.11) case logs. However, compared with non-URM, on average URM performed fewer Total procedures (1562 vs. 1469, P  = 0.04). Analyzing individual procedures showed a difference in average number of abortions performed between URM and non-URM (76 vs. 53, P  = 0.02). There were no other statistically significant differences between the two groups.

Conclusions

This single institution study highlights potential differences in trainee experience by race/ethnicity. Larger national studies are warranted to further explore these differences to identify bias and discrimination, and to ensure equitable experience for all trainees.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Discrimination is common in medical education, with nearly 60% of medical trainees experiencing at least one form of harassment or discrimination during their training [ 1 ]. Race/ethnicity has been proven to negatively impact medical student experiences and evaluations [ 2 , 3 ]. Although data remains limited, a rising number of studies explore the impact of race/ethnicity on residency training.

Resident physicians of races & ethnicities underrepresented in medicine endure daily microaggressions and biases [ 4 ]. In general surgery, up to 24% of residents report experiencing discrimination based on race/ethnicity or religion, with highest rates (70%) reported among Black residents [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Black surgical residents are 4.2 times more likely to experience high levels of perceived daily discrimination [ 7 ]. Discriminatory acts include being mistaken for another person of the same race, mistaken for nonphysicians, and experiencing different standards of evaluation [ 5 ]. Compared with their White counterparts, non-White residents experience increase feelings of isolation and judgement [ 8 ]. Surgical residents who experience discrimination also reported higher rates of burnout, thoughts of attrition, and suicidal thoughts [ 5 , 6 ]. A recent study investigating the relationship between gender, race/ethnicity and general surgery resident case volume cites a correlation between racial/ethnic categories underrepresented in medicine (URM) (identified as Black, Hispanic or Native American) and lower operative volumes at graduation [ 9 ].

Data regarding the impact of race/ethnicity on training in Obstetrics and Gynecology (OB/GYN) is limited. OB/GYN is reported to have the highest percentage of trainees from racial and ethnic backgrounds underrepresented in medicine at 19% among the surgical subspecialties [ 10 ]. However, recent data from 2022 demonstrated there is a greater proportion of White physicians at the fellowship level compared to residency level [ 11 ]. This trend persists in academic medicine, with a higher proportion of white physicians in leadership positions and with higher academic ranks [ 12 ]. Despite multiple initiatives by national organizations within OB/GYN to address racial and ethnic disparities [ 13 , 14 ], studies exploring racial disparities and discrimination are sparse in OB/GYN literature. To the authors knowledge, there is no published data on the impact of race/ethnicity on resident surgical training in OB/GYN. Specifically, there is no data on the impact of race on the fundamental metric of surgical volume during gynecology residency training. The aim of this study was to begin by exploring the impact of race/ethnicity on OB/GYN procedural experience in residency training at a single institution.

A retrospective analysis of graduated OB/GYN resident procedural case logs per the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) from 2009 to 2019 at a single institution was performed. The research was deemed exempt by the IRB and was determined to be non-human subjects research. Self-reported race/ethnicity as limited by ERAS check boxes was collected. Trainees were categorized into URM (Black, Hispanic, Native American) and non-URM (White, Asian). The institution instructs residents to log a procedure if active participation as the primary surgeon is > 50% of the procedure. The primary outcome was total number of surgical procedures logged by a graduating resident. Secondary outcomes included procedure logs for the following ACGME categories: Normal spontaneous vaginal delivery (NSVD), Cesarean section (CS), Operative delivery (ODEL), Abdominal hysterectomy (AHYST), Vaginal hysterectomy (VHYST), Laparoscopic hysterectomy (LHYST), Minimally Invasive Hysterectomy (MIH), Total Hysterectomy (THYST), Incontinence and pelvic floor (ISPF), Laparoscopy (LAPS), Operative Hysteroscopy (OHYST), Abortion (ABORT), Transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS), Surgery for invasive cancer (SIC). Total numbers of cases, total obstetric (Total OB: CS, NSVD, ODEL), and total gynecologic (Total GYN: THYST, LAPS, OHYST) cases were collected. Residents in OB/GYN who completed the four-year residency training program were included in the analysis. Trainees who transferred training programs during residency or did not complete residency were excluded. Procedures were reported as mean number of procedures per ACGME category per group (URM vs. non-URM). Differences between URM and non-URM status and mean case volumes were analyzed using t-tests.

The cohort consisted of 84 residents. Residents who self-selected the ACGME category of “none of the above” ( n  = 2) were excluded from the URM vs. non-URM analyses. There was a total of 82 residents included in the final analysis: 66 non-URM (78.57%). (Table  1 ) There were no differences between non-URM and URM trainees and reported mean number of Total GYN (349 vs. 334, p  = 0.31) and Total OB (624 vs. 597, P  = 0.11) case logs. However, URM trainees had significantly fewer Total procedures (1469 vs. 1562, P  = 0.04) than their non-URM counterparts (Table  2 ). Analyzing specific procedures showed when comparing mean number of abortions, URM trainees experienced significantly less abortions (76 vs. 53, P  = 0.02) than non-URM trainees. No differences were found between non-URM and URM trainees in all other specific individual procedure categories (Table  2 ).

Resident trainees from races and ethnicities underrepresented in medicine experience daily discrimination, however there is limited data on the impact of racial/ethnic discrimination on training and postgraduate experience within OB/GYN. The importance of identifying and addressing racial and ethnic disparities within OB/GYN and medical education is widely accepted. In 2021, the ACGME launched ACGME Equity Matters, an initiative focused on learning and improvement in areas of diversity, equity and incision, and antiracism practices [ 13 ]. In 2020 ACOG, along with leading national and international women’s health organizations, released a joint statement, “Collective Action Addressing Racism.” [ 14 ] This statement specifically cites commitment to education, recognition, and scholarship as ways to eliminate inequalities in women’s health. Despite these initiatives, published research is limited.

This single institution study highlights potential differences in trainee experience by race/ethnicity and calls for further review at training programs across our specialty. This study showed a difference in total procedure experience between URM and non-URM OB/GYN residents during the 10-year time period examined. These differences may suggest discriminatory practices which are limiting procedural experience for URM residents. These findings are similar to recently published data that demonstrated a correlation between general surgery residents underrepresented in medicine or who identified as female, and lower operative volumes at graduation [ 9 ].

Additionally, this study observed a significant difference in the number of abortion procedures logged by URM versus non-URM trainees. In our institution, trainees have the choice to opt out of abortion procedures. This choice is not recorded as a part of the operative log but may confound this particular data point. We are unaware of any correlation between a trainee’s self-identified race and choice to perform abortion procedures. Additional work is needed to evaluate the demonstrated differences on a qualitative level to better identify the root cause(s) of the variation demonstrated, including possible sociocultural influences. Further work must be done to identify unconscious and overt biases and address discrimination to ensure all residents, regardless of race/ethnicity or gender, have an equitable training experience.

This small, single institution study calls for further review of racial and ethnic differences in procedural experience at training programs across our specialty. Although OB/GYN does have the highest percent of URM trainees among the surgical subspecialties, the lower proportion of URM physicians in fellowships and in higher academic rank positions suggests persistent institutional and structural racism. Procedural case logs are an objective and nationally utilized measure which could be further analyzed to identify and ultimately address training differences. If publicly available, these case logs could hold programs accountable for ensuring equitable procedural experience. Addressing any identified differences would not only improve resident experience and skill, but also contribute to the goal of creating a racially and ethnically diverse workforce to improve patient care in OB/GYN.

There are several limitations to this study, including variation in the accuracy and reporting practices of resident procedure logs which may impact data. Although criteria at this institution exist instructing residents to log only procedures which they performed > 50% of as the primary surgeon, residents are individually responsible for tracking and logging procedures. Furthermore, the small sample size of this study at a single institution, coupled with the variation in resident surgical experience and reporting practices between OB/GYN programs nationally, prevent this study from generalizability to all OB/GYN residency programs. This study analyzes total case logs at time of graduation, and therefore does not explore how race/ethnicity may impact procedural experience across the four years of residency and does not account for variation in logging during different times of residency. The authors also recognize that increased procedural numbers do not necessarily translate to procedural competency. Although differences may suggest training inequity among URM vs. non-URM residents, variation in procedural numbers may not reflect trainee competency at time of graduation.

Differences may exist in Obstetrics and Gynecology procedural experience by trainee race/ethnicity. Larger national studies are warranted to further explore these differences to identify bias and discrimination, and to ensure equitable experience for all trainees.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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PGA and DB were involved in the conception, design, interpretation of data, and manuscript writing. CF was involved in the design of this study, analysis, and editing of the manuscript. BC contributed to the conception, design, and editing of this work. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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The ethical approval for the study and informed consent are waived by the Women and Infants Institutional Review Board due to retrospective nature of the study. All methods carried out in the study were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

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The author(s) declare(s) that they have no competing interests. Dr. Dayna Burrell has acted as a BMC Education article review in the past upon request. This data was accepted for oral presentation at the 2023 CREOG and APGO Annual Meeting. The conference took place February 27-March 1, 2023 in National Harbor, Maryland.

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GiglioAyers, P., Foley, C.E., Cronin, B. et al. Investigating racial/ethnic differences in procedure experience in obstetrics & gynecology trainees at a single academic institution: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 561 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05363-9

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Received : 07 June 2023

Accepted : 28 March 2024

Published : 23 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05363-9

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• Race/Ethnicity
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