argumentative essay on vegetarian diet

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Vegetarianism Essay

This is a model  vegetarianism essay .

As I always stress, you should  read the question very carefully  before you answer it to make sure you are writing about the right thing.

Take a look at the question:

Every one of us should become a vegetarian because eating meat can cause serious health problems.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

Staying on topic

If you rush to start writing and don't analyse the question and brainstorm some ideas you may include the wrong information.

There are religious or moral arguments for not eating meat, but if you discuss those you will be going off topic .

This question is specifically about the health problems connected to eating meat.

So you must discuss in your answer what some of these problems are and if you think there are real health risks or not.

Knowing about the topic

And don't get worried that you do not know much about diet and health.

As part of your IELTS study it will help if you know the basics of most topics such as some health vocabulary in this case, but you are not expected to be an expert on nutrition.

Remember, you are being judged on your English ability and your ability to construct an argument in a coherent way, not to be an expert in the subject matter. So relax and work with

Organisation

In this vegetarianism essay, the candidate disagrees with the statement, and is thus arguing that everyone does not need to be a vegetarian.

The essay has been organised in the following way:

Body 1: Health issues connected with eating meat (i.e. arguments in support of being a vegetarian Body 2: Advantages of eating meat

Now take a look at the model answer.

Model Essay

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own experience or knowledge.

Write at least 250 words.

IELTS Vegetarianism Essay - Sample Answer

Vegetarianism is becoming more and more popular for many people, particularly because of the harm that some people believe meat can cause to the body. However, I strongly believe that it is not necessary for everybody to be a vegetarian.

Vegetarians believe that meat is unhealthy because of the diseases it has been connected with. There has been much research to suggest that red meat is particularly bad, for example, and that consumption should be limited to eating it just a few times a week to avoid such things as cancer. Meats can also be high in saturated fats so they have been linked to health problems such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

However, there are strong arguments for eating meat. The first reason is that as humans we are designed to eat meat, which suggests it is not unhealthy, and we have been eating meat for thousands of years. For example, cavemen made hunting implements so that they could kill animals and eat their meat. Secondly, meat is a rich source of protein which helps to build muscles and bones. Vegetarians often have to take supplements to get all the essential vitamins and minerals. Finally, it may be the case that too much meat is harmful, but we can easily limit the amount we have without having to cut it out of our diet completely.

To sum up, I do not agree that everyone should turn to a vegetarian diet. Although the overconsumption of meat could possibly be unhealthy, a balanced diet of meat and vegetables should result in a healthy body.

(264 words)

You should begin by intoducing the topi c. The introduction in this vegetarianism essay begins by mentioning vegetarians and the possible harm of eating meat .

It then goes on to the thesis statement , which makes it clear what the candidate's opinion is.

The first body paragraph has a topic sentence which makes it clear that the paragraph is going to address the possible health issues of eating meat.

Some reasons and examples are then given to support this.

The second body paragraph then has a topic sentence which makes it clear that the main idea is now about the arguments for eating meat .

The conclusion in this vegetarianism essay then repeats the opinion and gives the candidates final thoughts.

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• Essay Database >
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• Essay on Diet

Argumentative Essay On Health and Ethical Reasons for Vegetarianism

Type of paper: Argumentative Essay

Topic: Diet , Human , Animals , Health , Vegetarianism , Nutrition , Food , Ethics

Words: 1600

Published: 01/06/2020

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Vegetarianism, in essence, is the voluntary abstinence of a person from eating meat products. Vegetarianism has been shown to have tremendous health benefits as a practice, and is often employed as a more ethical and sustainable diet than carnivorous diets. It is a preferable lifestyle compared to being carnivorous or omnivorous, as it also means taking a stand against animal slaughter.

There are many different facets of vegetarianism, but the activity itself has been found in many cultures throughout human history. In Western cultures, in particular, it is finding significant support, as more and more people in America and other countries choose to eat only vegetables (and optionally dairy products). There are many different kinds of vegetarianism; in essence, many people fall along a spectrum of vegetarianism that extends from semi-vegetarian (infrequent eating of meat) to pescetarian (eating only fish, seafood and vegetables) to full vegetarian. Other types of vegetarianism that exist are, ovo vegetarianism (eating eggs, but no dairy products, and vice versa to laco vegetarianism). Veganism is one particularly popular type of vegetarianism, in which milk, honey, eggs and all other animal products are strictly avoided. Raw veganism focuses strictly on uncooked fruits and vegetables. These types of vegetarianism, in particular, emphasize a prohibition on processed foods, other products that use animal ingredients. Figure 1 denotes the difference in servings one requires in order to get proper nutrition, based on these alternative types of vegetarianism:

(Dept. of Nutrition, 2008)

The practice of vegetarianism itself has many health benefits. For instance, due to the restriction of foods to vegetables and fruits, wiser and more selective food choices are made overall, thus increasing the nutrient intake. Fruits and vegetables add color to the plate, are rich in fiber and less expensive than meat. Vegetarianism has been shown to dramatically decrease rates of death from ischaemic heart disease by as much as 30 per cent (Key et al. 516). Those who participate in vegetarian diets also have lower saturated fat levels, as well as lower cholesterol, high blood pressure and more. Statistically, there are a significant number of conditions and diseases that are less likely to occur in vegetarians than in carnivores: heart disease, hypertension, renal disease, diabetes and more are found in fewer incidences among those who are vegetarian (White and Frank 465). Women who have become vegetarians have had significantly fewer incidences of gall stone development (Pixley et al. 12). Therefore a vegetarian diet brings with it good health and many benefits.

The particular makeup of a vegetarian diet leads to an intake of rich nutrients and minerals in those who follow it. Vegetarians, on the whole, consume fewer calories in food energy than omnivores, due to the smaller levels of fat and protein that are taken in their overall diet (White and Frank, 466). Vegetarians have been shown to have substantially adequate vitamin intake for most essential vitamins, including riboflavin, thiamine, and vitamins A, C and E (466). However, some potential deficits for vegetarian diets include levels of iron and zinc, which are typically provided through meat, but, these can also be acquired through some vegetarian food sources and supplements. So as far as nutrients are concerned, a vegetarian diet has a good rating.

Besides health reasons, there are those who become vegetarians for moral or ethical reasons also. Modern vegetarianism, as it is understood, is thought of as a means of achieving hypothesized nutritional superiority (Worsley and Skrzypiec 151). In essence, people believe that it is more ethical and nutritional to become a vegetarian. Animal cruelty is perpetuated by the prevalence of carnivorism in the human diet. In order to meet this demand, the food industry has started performing dubious practices including corralling of chickens, cows and pigs into inhumane environments and conditions. Many vegetarians feel that the means of production for meat is bad and unethical, and as a result do not engage in that part of the supply cycle in buying meat. Furthermore, many believe that this meat production is also bad for the environment, due to the changing of land to accommodate large populations of animals (Worsley and Skrzypiec 163). Animal slaughter causes environment pollution and waste, thus leading many to stick with their vegetarian diet.

The moral center of vegetarianism may stem from the utilitarian perspective; there is a huge connection between the two philosophies (Singer 325). According to the utilitarian philosophy, all actions must be taken to achieve the greatest level of happiness, emphasizing actions taken towards things of the greatest use, or utility. Animals are given moral standing through the principle of utilitarianism; "no being should have its interests disregarded or discounted merely because it is not human" (Singer 329). Even if one does not subscribe to the idea that animals should be treated with the same care and respect that is afforded to people, there is a practical reason for wanting to stop animal cruelty. Many vegetarians believe animals, as sentient beings, which do not deserve to be killed if there is a way to avoid it. The ethics surrounding eating meat, and of killing to acquire food for survival (bioethics), often inspire vegetarians, as they object either to the act itself, or how the meat industry produces meat in an inhumane way. Furthermore, they believe that not contributing to the meat market and meat industry, will help the environment, provide greater support for one's health, and make a political statement toward more human practices for animals (Worsley and Skrzypiec 163).

Of course, there are aesthetic reasons for taking up the vegetarian lifestyle as well. Many people believe that, due to the lower fat and protein intake that a vegetarian diet has, they will be able to lose weight and stay thin in a better way, thus improving their appearance (Worsley and Skrzypiec 166). This attitude, while not necessarily tied to any specific health or ethical concern, is still a chief guiding reason for adopting this lifestyle.

Counterarguments for the vegetarian lifestyle are many, and some of them carry valid points. For example, it can be quite dangerous to engage in a fully vegetarian diet without figuring out alternative means for acquiring proteins and vital nutrients which are not present in a vegetarian diet alone. Many human beings get their protein and fatty acids (needed nutrients for human health) from meats. Traditional concerns about the vegetarian diet include the possible inadequacy of the intake of protein and eight essential amino acids. However, according to research, vegetarians typically receive adequate protein through the eating of grains, nuts, legumes and other protein-rich vegetarian foods (White and Frank 466).

Furthermore, it is stated that it would be quite difficult for vegetarianism to make the mark on the meat industry that its community desires. Meat consumption in the United States, for example, is still extremely high, as Figure 2 below illustrates:

(Vegan Outreach, 2012).

However, given these figures, it is easy to see that the need for stricter and less meat-centric diets is strongly recommended. If for no other reason than at least to get meat consumption down to maintain sustainable numbers for land animals that are normally raised and slaughtered for food. Furthermore, since 2008 there have been 1.1 billion fewer land animals slaughtered for meat, due to the spread of vegetarianism and its increased awareness (Vegan Outreach, 2012). Towards that end, it is possible to foster better practices in meat production and consumption through the acquisition of a vegetarian lifestyle.

In conclusion, vegetarianism is a viable and extremely beneficial diet, both for human health and ethical reasons. Those who engage in vegetarian diets consume less fat and calories, while also having reduced saturated fat and cholesterol levels, accumulating to an overall better level of health than that experienced by omnivores. Furthermore, the actualization of a vegetarian lifestyle is seen as a greater moral imperative, keeping in mind the welfare of those animals that are slaughtered and mistreated to provide meat products to humans. Despite the concerns that vegetarians lack proper protein, vegetarians can still get all the proper nutrition they require, while still maintaining ethical practices in cultivating and selecting their food.

Works Cited

Appleby, P.; Thorogood, M.; Mann, J.; Key, T. "Low body mass index in non-meat eaters: the possible roles of animal fat, dietary fibre and alcohol". Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 22 (5): 454–460. 1998. Department of Nutrition. The Vegetarian Food Pyramid. Department of Nutrition, 2008. Fessler, Daniel M.T., Arguello, Alexander P., Mekdara, Jeanette M., and Ramon Macias. "Disgust sensitivity and meat consumption: a test of an emotivist account of moral vegetarianism." Appetite vol. 41, pp. 31-41. 2003. Key et al. "Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70 (3): 516S. Pixlet, Fiona, Wilson, David, McPherson, Klim and Jim Mann. "Effect of Vegetarianism on development of gall stones in women." British Medical Journal vol. 291, 1985. pp. 11- 12. Singer, Peter. "Utilitarianism and Vegetarianism." Philosophy and Public Affairs vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 325-337. 1980. Vegan Outreach. "1.1 Billion, and Counting" Vegan Outreach. January 18, 2012. <http://www.veganoutreach.org/enewsletter/20120118.html>. White, Randall, and Erica Frank. "Health Effects and Prevalence of Vegetarianism." West J Med vol. 160, pp. 465-471. 1994. Worsley, Anthony and Grace Skrzypiec. "Teenage Vegetarianism: Prevalence, Social and Cognitive Contexts." Appetite vol. 30, pp. 151-170. 1998.

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Arguments For and Against Veganism

For veganism.

• ANIMAL WELFARE: Eating meat requires the death of a living being. Eating dairy usually involves animals being separated from their children, causing distress to both mother and calf. Dairy cattle frequently develop bovine mastitis (a painful infection and inflammation of the udders), and factory farmed animals are kept in cramped conditions and pumped full of antibiotics and growth hormones in order to maximise profit. Unlike wild animals, humans do not require meat to survive (and definitely not dairy products from other animals). Eating meat is a choice and, as moral actors, the correct choice is surely to give up meat and dairy.
• ENVIRONMENT: When cows eat grass, microbes in their gut break down their meal and produce methane. This methane (a greenhouse gas) is released into the atmosphere via the magic of cow burps and farts, making livestock farming one of the biggest contributors to global warming. Factor in deforestation from land clearance, biodiversity loss, and air and water pollution, and animal agriculture is terrible for the environment.
• HEALTH: Vegan diets tend to be rich in foods that have proven health benefits: fresh fruit, vegetables, seeds, nuts, beans and pulses. A vegan diet is typically higher in fibre, and  lower  in cholesterol, protein, calcium and salt compared to a non-vegan diet. Research suggests that vegans may have a lower risk of heart disease than non-vegans. It is true that vegans need to supplement their diets with B12, but this is easy to do (e.g. via yeast extracts such as Marmite).

AGAINST Veganism

• NATURE: Humans (and our ancestors) have eaten meat for an estimated  2.6 million years . In fact, scientists argue that animal protein was vital for helping early hominids develop larger brains, meaning that humans likely wouldn’t even exist if it weren’t for eating meat. We evolved to have meat as part of our diets. Animals eat meat and it would be cruel to prevent them from doing so. Well, guess what? Humans are animals too, and meat is a natural part of our diets.
• CULTURE: Food is a central part of all human cultures. And, around the world, people celebrate their cultures by cooking meat dishes. If the world went vegan, we would lose iconic cultural traditions such as bolognese sauce, tandoori chicken, sashimi, currywurst, and Peking duck.
• HEALTH: A balanced diet is a healthy diet. Eating moderate amounts of fish, meat, and dairy alongside fruit, vegetables and pulses gives us all the vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, and other things we need to stay healthy. Research does suggest that vegans have a lower risk of heart disease, but that same research also indicates they have a higher risk of strokes (possibly due to B12 deficiency), and it’s unclear whether the supposed health benefits of veganism are anyway less about diet and more about broader lifestyle (e.g. vegans tend to exercise more, be non-smokers, not drink to excess, be more moderate in what they consume, etc.).

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Everyone should become vegetarian – IELTS Writing Task 2

Updated On Feb 28, 2024

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Effective IELTS Essay Connectors for Writing Task 2 & Task 1

The Essay Writing section of the IELTS Writing Module can be a difficult task for many IELTS Aspirants. Thus, it is vital that you polish your essay writing skills before attempting the IELTS.

Below is a sample IELTS Essay for the IELTS Essay topic:

Everyone should become vegetarian because they do not need to eat meat to have a healthy diet. Do you agree or disagree?

Opinion essay (Agree/disagree)

Introduction

• Paraphrase the topic of the essay and give an insight into it.
• State your side of the argument and mention what can be anticipated from the essay.
• Paragraph 1- Non-vegetarian diets are considerably higher in the total intake of protein, which is highly beneficial for the body. As scientists show, protein can not only improve overall health and fitness but also can contribute to reinforcing the immune system.
• Paragraph 2- Meat is also a fertile source of many nutrients, such as iron or zinc. It is already recognized that while iron helps in producing tissues inside the body, zinc is indispensable in helping to transport oxygen to different parts of the body, thus allowing the proper functioning of all body organs.

Reemphasize your opinion in conclusion and give a summarized argument for that.

Sample Essay

In the last few decades, vegetarianism has entered the mainstream of many societies, most notably in western countries. It is suggested by those who side with vegetarians that meat is not a necessary element in a healthy diet and that going vegan is the way to go in modern times. Personally, I reckon that this view has flaws.

In the first place, non-vegetarian diets are considerably higher in the total intake of protein, which is highly beneficial for the body. As scientists show, protein can not only improve overall health and fitness but also can contribute to reinforcing the immune system. As vegetarian diets hardly meet daily protein requirements, those who follow are generally more vulnerable to fatigue even when doing physically undemanding tasks, or they can be more susceptible to common diseases such as flu or cold.

In the second place, meat is also a fertile source of many nutrients, such as iron or zinc. It is already recognized that while iron helps in producing tissues inside the body, zinc is indispensable in helping to transport oxygen to different parts of the body, thus allowing the proper functioning of all body organs. Besides, when consuming meat, the body will also be absorbing numerous kinds of vitamins, which strengthen bones and promote the health of the teeth or the eyes.

Although, going entirely vegetarian or vegan is a matter of choice of lifestyle and could placate the need for nutrition to a decent extent, however, when it comes to a wholesome dietary sufficiency, going for a typical vegetarian diet couldn’t serve the purpose for the entirety.

To conclude, the above-mentioned points have manifestly shown that the benefits derived from following a wholesome diet overshadow those from vegetable-only ones. Thus, it is not advisable to become vegetarians.

• To enter the mainstream of…: become popular
• This view has flaws: This view can be argued against.
• To reinforce the immune system: make the immune system stronger.
• They can be more susceptible to common diseases: they are more likely to get sick.
• Indispensable (adj.): very important.
• To be more vulnerable to fatigue: to be more likely to get sick
• Be a fertile source of many nutrients: be very nutritious
• To strengthen bone structures: make the bones stronger.
• Manifestly (adv.): obviously.

Band 9 Sample Essay

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There has been a considerable surge in the inclination towards a vegetarian diet and eradicating meat from everyday meals. Some people hold the view that going stringently vegetarian could serve the purpose of their dietary requirements. However, I find myself standing in disagreement with this and think that meat should be included in the diet for nutritional needs. In the forthcoming sections, this essay will discuss the reasons for this opinion.

The most eminent reason for the inclusion of meat in a diet is nutrition adequacy. Drawing a comparison between an entirely vegetarian diet and a combination of veggies and meats have shown by the researches that vegetables alone couldn’t satiate the requirement that our physiologies need up to the mark. Predominantly, the protein requirement which is suggested by the nutritionists to be one gram proportional to the kilos we weigh is not sufficed by the vegetarian meal alone. Various macro and micronutrients which are abundantly found in the meat content bolsters our body and enhances our diet.

Moreover, the people who are specifically indulged in strenuous and vigorous exercises and physical activities should ineluctably incorporate meat in their daily food platter as in this case, the dietary and metabolic needs are only met when a nutritional regime has a confluence of vegetables and meat. The people in a toilsome profession that includes labour and intense work schedule should reportedly not miss on their nonvegetarian food source as they couldn’t efficiently perform otherwise. 

Though veganism and vegetarianism owing to the efflux and rise in the trend have been gaining grounds and have been able to find various dietary substitutes especially, for their dietary protein enrichment, the replacement of meat and the essential constituent of it is irrefutable and couldn’t be replaced, let alone its complete displacement.  

In conclusion, therefore, it could be conspicuously stated that going vegetarian could be a trend and the latest bandwagon, the wholesome virtues of an integrated diet couldn’t be supplanted.

Bonus topic:

Everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet because eating meat can cause serious health problems. To what extent do you agree or disagree?

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Ielts exam preparation for a higher band score., ielts essay: everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet.

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet because eating meat can cause serious health problems.

Do you agree or disagree?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own experience or knowledge.

Write at least 250 words.

Model Answer 1:

People should consume more vegetables and fruits and as little meat as possible because intake high amount of meat can cause serious health issues. In my opinion, the consumption of a vegetarian diet is a better way to live a healthy life and I agree with the notion.

Firstly, vegetarian diets are cheaper and more healthy. If the majority of people become vegetarians, a nation needs to struggle less to become self-sufficient on food production. Moreover, such diets are easily accessible both for the poor and rich citizens. Most importantly, plant-based food provides necessary vitamins and food values, especially fibre, which protect us from many dangerous diseases. Not to mention, producing vegetarian food is more ecologically sustainable, and it reduces damage to the environment.

On the contrary, a certain portion of meat is necessary for a balanced diet because it contains protein, calcium and other vitamins. Nevertheless, these can be also gained from alternative sources like beans, mushrooms and nuts. Most meats are cholesterol-rich, which is detrimental to the human body and cause diseases. On top of that, deadly illnesses like cardiovascular diseases, obesity and brain haemorrhage are increasing gradually all around the world due to a high intake of red meat in different countries and I believe a vegetarian diet is a perfect solution to all these problems.

In conclusion, a healthy diet determines our wellbeing and life expectancy. Since a vegetarian diet is far beneficial than meats, we should choose wisely and decrease our meat intake as little as possible.

[By – Amraiz Ali Shahzad ]

Model Answer 2:

When it is perfectly possible to lead a healthy life by eating plant-based food, I see no justification for killing birds or animals for our food. Therefore, I completely agree with the argument that everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet.

There are several benefits to following a vegetarian diet. To start with, plant-based food is rich in vitamins, minerals, anti-oxidants and other nutrients required for good health. What’s more, most fruits and vegetables contain little or no cholesterol or calories. Research has shown that vegetarians are less likely to develop health-related problems like obesity, cancer or heart diseases. Health benefits are not the only reason to follow a vegetarian diet. When we obtain our food from plants, we can also stop cruelty to animals.

By contrast, non-vegetarian foods such as fish and meat are high in cholesterol, fat and calories. Regular consumption of red meat is known to increase a person’s risk of cancer and heart disease. In addition, unlike fruits or vegetables, fish and meat cannot be eaten raw. The slaughtered animal may have some illness. If half-cooked meat is eaten, it can cause deadly infections in human beings. In fact, many cases of food poisoning are caused by the consumption of contaminated meat.

The quality of non-vegetarian food has also deteriorated over the years. Seafood has become contaminated due to the pollution in ocean water. It is a well-known fact that farm animals are given steroids to grow rapidly. When we eat their meat, the steroid also enters into our body. This leads to several problems like precocious puberty in children.

To conclude, vegetarian diets are healthy and do not constitute cruelty to animals. Therefore, I believe that everyone should adopt vegetarianism.

[Written by – Manoj ]

3 thoughts on “ IELTS Essay: Everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet ”

Excellent examples to prove to be vegetarian in IELTS essay. I need help in IELTS reading & listening in table chart completion.

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The effects of plant-based diets on the body and the brain: a systematic review

Evelyn medawar.

1 Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany

2 Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

3 Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Sebastian Huhn

4 Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany

Arno Villringer

A. veronica witte, associated data.

Western societies notice an increasing interest in plant-based eating patterns such as vegetarian and vegan, yet potential effects on the body and brain are a matter of debate. Therefore, we systematically reviewed existing human interventional studies on putative effects of a plant-based diet on the metabolism and cognition, and what is known about the underlying mechanisms. Using the search terms “plant-based OR vegan OR vegetarian AND diet AND intervention” in PubMed filtered for clinical trials in humans retrieved 205 studies out of which 27, plus an additional search extending the selection to another five studies, were eligible for inclusion based on three independent ratings. We found robust evidence for short- to moderate-term beneficial effects of plant-based diets versus conventional diets (duration ≤ 24 months) on weight status, energy metabolism and systemic inflammation in healthy participants, obese and type-2 diabetes patients. Initial experimental studies proposed novel microbiome-related pathways, by which plant-based diets modulate the gut microbiome towards a favorable diversity of bacteria species, yet a functional “bottom up” signaling of plant-based diet-induced microbial changes remains highly speculative. In addition, little is known, based on interventional studies about cognitive effects linked to plant-based diets. Thus, a causal impact of plant-based diets on cognitive functions, mental and neurological health and respective underlying mechanisms has yet to be demonstrated. In sum, the increasing interest for plant-based diets raises the opportunity for developing novel preventive and therapeutic strategies against obesity, eating disorders and related comorbidities. Still, putative effects of plant-based diets on brain health and cognitive functions as well as the underlying mechanisms remain largely unexplored and new studies need to address these questions.

Introduction

Western societies notice an increasing interest in plant-based eating patterns such as avoiding meat or fish or fully excluding animal products (vegetarian or vegan, see Fig.  1 ). In 2015, around 0.4−3.4% US adults, 1−2% British adults, and 5−10% of German adults were reported to eat largely plant-based diets 1 – 4 , due to various reasons (reviewed in ref. 5 ). Likewise, the number of scientific publications on PubMed (Fig.  2 ) and the public popularity as depicted by Google Trends (Fig.  3 ) underscore the increased interest in plant-based diets. This increasing awareness calls for a better scientific understanding of how plant-based diets affect human health, in particular with regard to potentially relevant effects on mental health and cognitive functions.

From left to right: including all food items (omnivore), including all except for meat (pesco-vegetarian) or meat and fish (ovo-lacto-vegetarian) to including only plant-based items (vegan)

Frequency of publications on PubMed including the search terms “vegan” (in light green), vegetarian (in orange) and plant-based (dark green)—accessed on 19 April 2019

Note indicates technical improvements implemented by Google Trends. Data source: Google Trends . Search performed on 18 April 2019

A potential effect of plant-based diets on mortality rate remains controversial: large epidemiological studies like the Adventist studies ( n  = 22,000−96,000) show a link between plant-based diets, lower all-cause mortality and cardiovascular diseases 6 , 7 , while other studies like the EPIC-Oxford study and the “45 and Up Study” ( n  = 64,000−267,000) show none 8 , 9 . Yet, many, but not all, epidemiological and interventional human studies in the last decades have suggested that plant-based diets exert beneficial health effects with regard to obesity-related metabolic dysfunction, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and chronic low-grade inflammation (e.g. refs. 6 , 7 , 10 , 11 , for reviews, see refs. 12 – 18 ). However, while a putative link between such metabolic alterations and brain health through pathways which might include diet-related neurotransmitter precursors, inflammatory pathways and the gut microbiome 19 becomes increasingly recognized, the notion that plant-based diets exert influence on mental health and cognitive functions appears less documented and controversial 20 – 24 . We therefore systematically reviewed the current evidence based on available controlled interventional trials, regarded as the gold standard to assess causality, on potential effects of plant-based diets on (a) metabolic factors including the microbiome and (b) neurological or psychiatric health and brain functions. In addition, we aimed to evaluate potential underlying mechanisms and related implications for cognition.

We performed a systematic PubMed search with the following search terms “plant-based OR vegan OR vegetarian AND diet AND intervention” with the filter “clinical trial” and “humans”, preregistered at PROSPERO (CRD42018111856; https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=111856 ) (Suppl. Fig.  1 ). PubMed was used as search engine because it was esteemed to yield the majority of relevant human clinical trials from a medical perspective. Exclusion criteria were insufficient design quality (such as lack of a control group), interventions without a plant-based or vegetarian or vegan diet condition, intervention with multiple factors (such as exercise and diet), and the exclusive report of main outcomes of no interest, such as dietary compliance, nutrient intake (such as vitamins or fiber intake), or nonmetabolic (i.e., not concerning glucose metabolism, lipid profile, gastrointestinal hormones or inflammatory markers) or non-neurological/psychiatric disease outcomes (e.g. cancer, caries).

Studies were independently rated for eligibility into the systematic review by three authors based on reading the abstract and, if needed, methods or other parts of the publication. If opinions differed, a consensus was reached through discussion of the individual study. This yielded 27 eligible out of 205 publications; see Table  1 for details. To increase the search radius for studies dealing with microbial and neurological/psychiatric outcomes, we deleted the search term “intervention”, which increased the number of studies by around one third, and checked for studies with “microbiome/microbiota”, “mental”, “cognitive/cognition” or “psychological/psychology” in the resulting records. Through this, we retrieved another five studies included in Table  1 . Further related studies were reviewed based on additional nonsystematic literature search.

Intervention studies on the effect of plant-based diets

Section I: Effects of plant-based diets on body and brain outcomes

Results based on interventional studies on metabolism, microbiota and brain function.

Overall, the vast majority of studies included in this systematic review reported a short-term beneficial effect of plant-based dietary interventions (study duration 3−24 months) on weight status, glucose, insulin and/or plasma lipids and inflammatory markers, whereas studies investigating whether plant-based diets affect microbial or neurological/psychiatric disease status and other brain functions were scarce and rather inconclusive (Table  1 ).

More specifically, 19 out of 32 studies dealing with T2DM and/or obese subjects and seven out of 32 dealing with healthy subjects observed a more pronounced weight loss and metabolic improvements, such as lowering of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c)—a long-term marker for glucose levels—decreased serum levels of low-density (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and total cholesterol (TC), after a plant-based diet compared to an omnivore diet. This is largely in line with recent meta-analyses indicating beneficial metabolic changes after a plant-based diet 25 – 27 .

For example, Lee et al. found a significantly larger reduction of HbA1c and lower waist circumference after vegan compared to conventional dieting 28 . Jenkins et al. found a disease-attenuating effect in hyperlipidemic patients after 6 months adopting a low-carbohydrate plant-based diet compared to a high-carbohydrate lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet 29 , 30 . However, lower energy intake in the vegan dieters might have contributed to these effects. Yet, while a plant-based diet per se might lead to lower caloric intake, other studies observed nonsignificant trends toward higher effect sizes on metabolic parameters after a vegan diet, even when caloric intake was comparable: two studies in T2DM patients 31 , 32 compared calorie-unrestricted vegan or vegetarian to calorie-restricted conventional diets over periods of 6 months and 1.5 years, respectively, in moderate sample sizes ( n  ~ 75−99) with similar caloric intake achieved in both diet groups. Both studies indicated stronger effects of plant-based diets on disease status, such as reduced medication, improved weight status and increased glucose/insulin sensitivity, proposing a diabetes-preventive potential of plant-based diets. Further, a five-arm study comparing four types of plant-based diets (vegan, vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian, semi-vegetarian) to an omnivore diet (total n  = 63) in obese participants found the most pronounced effect on weight loss for a vegan diet (−7.5 ± 4.5% of total body weight) 33 . Here, inflammation markers conceptualized as the dietary inflammatory index were also found to be lower in vegan, vegetarian and pesco-vegetarian compared to semi-vegetarian overweight to obese dieters 33 .

Intriguingly, these results 28 – 33 cohesively suggest that although caloric intake was similar across groups, participants who had followed a vegan diet showed higher weight loss and improved metabolic status.

As a limitation, all of the reviewed intervention studies were carried out in moderate sample sizes and over a period of less than 2 years, disregarding that long-term success of dietary interventions stabilizes after 2−5 years only 34 . Future studies with larger sample sizes and tight control of dietary intake need to confirm these results.

Through our systematic review we retrieved only one study that added the gut microbiome as novel outcome for clinical trials investigating the effects of animal-based diets compared to plant-based diets. While the sample size was relatively low ( n  = 10, cross-over within subject design), it showed that changing animal- to plant based diet changed gut microbial activity towards a trade-off between carbohydrate and protein fermentation processes within only 5 days 35 . This is in line with another controlled-feeding study where microbial composition changes already occurred 24 h after changing diet (not exclusively plant-based) 36 . However, future studies incorporating larger sample sizes and a uniform analysis approach of microbial features need to further confirm the hypothesis that a plant-based diet ameliorates microbial diversity and health-related bacteria species.

Considering neurological or psychiatric diseases and brain functions, the systematic review yielded in six clinical trials of diverse clinical groups, i.e. migraine, multiple sclerosis, fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis. Here, mild to moderate improvement, e.g. measured by antibody levels, symptom improvement or pain frequency, was reported in five out of six studies, sometimes accompanied by weight loss 37 – 40 (Table  1 ). However, given the pilot character of these studies, indicated by small sample sizes ( n  = 32−66), lack of randomization 37 , or that the plant-based diet was additionally free of gluten 40 , the evidence is largely anecdotal. One study in moderately obese women showed no effects on psychological outcomes 41 , two studies with obese and nonobese healthy adults indicated improvements in anxiety, stress and depressive symptom scores 23 , 24 . Taken together, the current evidence based on interventional trials regarding improvements of cognitive and emotional markers and in disease treatment for central nervous system disorders such as multiple sclerosis or fibromyalgia remains considerably fragmentary for plant-based diets.

Among observational studies, a recent large cross-sectional study showed a higher occurrence of depressive symptoms for vegetarian dieters compared to nonvegetarians 20 . Conversely, another observational study with a sample of about 80% women found a beneficial association between a vegan diet and mood disturbance 24 .

Overall, the relationship between mental health (i.e. depression) and restrictive eating patterns has been the focus of recent research 20 – 22 , 24 , 42 ; however, causal relationships remain uninvestigated due to the observational design.

Underlying mechanisms linking macronutrient intake to metabolic processes

On the one hand, nutrient sources as well as their intake ratios considerably differ between plant-based and omnivore diets (Suppl. Table  1 ), and on the other hand, dietary micro- and macromolecules as well as their metabolic substrates affect a diversity of physiological functions, pointing to complex interdependencies. Thus, it seems difficult to nail down the proposed beneficial effects of a plant-based diet on metabolic status to one specific component or characteristic, and it seems unlikely that the usually low amount of calories in plant-based diets could explain all observed effects. Rather, plant-based diets might act through multiple pathways, including better glycemic control 43 , lower inflammatory activity 44 and altered neurotransmitter metabolism via dietary intake 45 or intestinal activity 46 (Fig.  4 ).

BMI body-mass-index, HbA1c hemoglobin A1c, LDL-cholesterol low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, Trp tryptophan, Tyr tyrosine. Images from commons.wikimedia.org , “Brain human sagittal section” by Lynch 2006 and “Complete GI tract” by Häggström 2008, “Anatomy Figure Vector Clipart” by http://moziru.com

On the macronutrient level, plant-based diets feature different types of fatty acids (mono- and poly-unsaturated versus saturated and trans) and sugars (complex and unrefined versus simple and refined), which might both be important players for mediating beneficial health effects 18 . On the micronutrient level, the EPIC-Oxford study provided the largest sample of vegan dieters worldwide ( n (vegan) = 2396, n (total) = 65,429) and showed on the one hand lower intake of saturated fatty acids (SFA), retinol, vitamin B12 and D, calcium, zinc and protein, and on the other hand higher intake of fiber, magnesium, iron, folic acid, vitamin B1, C and E in vegan compared to omnivore dieters 47 . Other studies confirmed the variance of nutrient intake across dietary groups, i.e. omnivores, vegetarians and vegans, showing the occurrence of critical nutrients for each group 48 , 49 . Not only the amount of SFA but also its source and profile might be important factors regulating metabolic control (reviewed in ref. 14 ), for example through contributing to systemic hyperlipidemia and subsequent cardiovascular risk. Recently, it has been shown in a 4-week intervention trial that short-term dietary changes favoring a diet high in animal-based protein may lead to an increased risk for cardiovascular derangements mediated by higher levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), which is a metabolite of gut bacteria-driven metabolic pathways 50 .

Secondly, high fiber intake from legumes, grains, vegetables and fruits is a prominent feature of plant-based diets (Table  1 ), which could induce beneficial metabolic processes like upregulated carbohydrate fermentation and downregulated protein fermentation 35 , improved gut hormonal-driven appetite regulation 51 – 55 , and might prevent chronic diseases such as obesity and T2DM by slowing down digestion and improving lipid control 56 . A comprehensive review including evidence from 185 prospective studies and 58 clinical trials concluded that risk reduction for a myriad of diseases (incl. CVD, T2DM, stroke incidence) was greatest for daily fiber intake between 25 and 29 g 57 . Precise evidence for underlying mechanisms is missing; however, more recently it has been suggested that high fiber intake induces changes on the microbial level leading to lower long-term weight gain 58 , a mechanism discussed below.

The reason for lower systemic inflammation in plant-based dieters could be due to the abundance of antiinflammatory molecule intake and/or avoidance of proinflammatory animal-derived molecules. Assessing systemic inflammation is particularly relevant for medical conditions such as obesity, where it has been proposed to increase the risk for cardiovascular disease 59 , 60 . In addition, higher C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels have been linked with measures of brain microstructure, such as microstructural integrity and white matter lesions 61 – 63 and higher risk of dementia 64 , and recent studies point out that a diet-related low inflammatory index might also directly affect healthy brain ageing 65 , 66 .

Interventional studies that focus on plant- versus meat-based proteins or micronutrients and potential effects on the body and brain are lacking. A meta-analysis including seven RCTs and one cross-sectional studies on physical performance and dietary habits concluded that a vegetarian diet did not adversely influence physical performance compared to an omnivore diet 67 . An epidemiological study by Song et al. 11 estimated that statistically replacing 3% of animal protein, especially from red meat or eggs, with plant protein would significantly improve mortality rates. This beneficial effect might however not be explained by the protein source itself, but possibly by detrimental components found in meat (e.g. heme-iron or nitrosamines, antibiotics, see below).

Some studies further hypothesized that health benefits observed in a plant-based diet stem from higher levels of fruits and vegetables providing phytochemicals or vitamin C that might boost immune function and eventually prevent certain types of cancer 68 – 70 . A meta-analysis on the effect of phytochemical intake concluded a beneficial effect on CVD, cancer, overweight, body composition, glucose tolerance, digestion and mental health 71 . Looking further on the impact of micronutrients and single dietary compounds, there is room for speculation that molecules, that are commonly avoided in plant-based diets, might affect metabolic status and overall health, such as opioid-peptides derived from casein 72 , pre- and probiotics 73 , 74 , carry-over antibiotics found in animal products 75 , 76 or food-related carcinogenic toxins, such as dioxin found in eggs or nitrosamines found in red and processed meat 77 , 78 . Although conclusive evidence is missing, these findings propose indirect beneficial effects on health deriving from plant-based compared to animal-based foods, with a potential role for nonprotein substances in mediating those effects 18 . While data regarding chemical contaminant levels (such as crop pesticides, herbicides or heavy metals) in different food items are fragmentary only, certain potentially harmful compounds may be more (or less) frequently consumed in plant-based diets compared to more animal-based diets 79 . Whether these differences lead to systematic health effects need to be explored.

Taken together, the reviewed studies indicating effects of plant-based diets through macro- and micronutrient intake reveal both the potential of single ingredients or food groups (low SFA, high fiber) and the immense complexity of diet-related mechanisms for metabolic health. As proposed by several authors, benefits on health related to diet can probably not be viewed in isolation for the intake (or nonintake) of specific foods, but rather by additive or even synergistic effects between them (reviewed in refs. 12 , 80 ). Even if it remains a challenging task to design long-term RCTs that control macro- and micronutrient levels across dietary intervention groups, technological advancements such as more fine-tuned diagnostic measurements and automated self-monitoring tools, e.g. automatic food recognition systems 81 and urine-related measures of dietary intake 82 , could help to push the field forward.

Nutrients of particular interest in plant-based diets

As described above, plant-based diets have been shown to convey nutritional benefits 48 , 49 , in particular increased fiber, beta carotene, vitamin K and C, folate, magnesium, and potassium intake and an improved dietary health index 83 . However, a major criticism of plant-based diets is the risk of nutrient deficiencies for specific micronutrients, especially vitamin B12, a mainly animal-derived nutrient, which is missing entirely in vegan diets unless supplemented or provided in B12-fortified products, and which seems detrimental for neurological and cognitive health when intake is low. In the EPIC-Oxford study about 50% of the vegan dieters showed serum levels indicating vitamin B12 deficiency 84 . Along other risk factors such as age 85 , diet, and plant-based diets in particular, seem to be the main risk factor for vitamin B12 deficiency (reviewed in ref. 86 ), and therefore supplementing vitamin B12 for these risk groups is highly recommended 87 . Vitamin B12 is a crucial component involved in early brain development, in maintaining normal central nervous system function 88 and suggested to be neuroprotective, particularly for memory performance and hippocampal microstructure 89 . One hypothesis is that high levels of homocysteine, that is associated with vitamin B12 deficiency, might be harmful to the body. Vitamin B12 is the essential cofactor required for the conversion of homocysteine into nonharmful components and serves as a cofactor in different enzymatic reactions. A person suffering from vitamin B12 insufficiency accumulates homocysteine, lastly promoting the formation of plaques in arteries and thereby increasing atherothrombotic risk 90 , possibly facilitating symptoms in patients of Alzheimer’s disease 91 . A meta-analysis found that vitamin B12 deficiency was associated with stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, Parkinson’s disease and in even lower concentrations with cognitive impairment 92 , supporting the claim of its high potential for disease prevention when avoided or treated 93 . Further investigations and longitudinal studies are needed, possibly measuring holotranscobalamin (the active form of vitamin B12) as a more specific and sensitive marker for vitamin B12 status 94 , to examine in how far nonsupplementing vegan dieters could be at risk for cardiovascular and cognitive impairment.

Similar health dangers can stem from iron deficiency, another commonly assumed risk for plant-based dieters and other risk groups such as young women. A meta-analysis on 24 studies proposes that although serum ferritin levels were lower in vegetarians on average, it is recommended to sustain an optimal ferritin level (neither too low nor too high), calling for well-monitored supplementation strategies 95 . Iron deficiency is not only dependent on iron intake as such but also on complimentary dietary factors influencing its bioavailability (discussed in ref. 95 ). The picture remains complex: on the one hand iron deficiency may lead to detrimental health effects, such as impairments in early brain development and cognitive functions in adults and in children carried by iron-deficient mothers 96 and a possible role for iron overload in the brain on cognitive impairment on the other hand 97 . One study showed that attention, memory and learning were impaired in iron-deficient compared to iron-sufficient women, which could be restored after a 4-month oral iron supplementation ( n  = 118) 98 . Iron deficiency-related impairments could be attributed to anemia as an underlying cause, possibly leading to fatigue, or an undersupply of blood to the brain or alterations in neurobiological and neuronal systems 99 provoking impaired cognitive functioning.

This leads to the general recommendation to monitor health status by frequent blood tests, to consult a dietician to live healthily on a plant-based diet and to consider supplements to avoid nutrient deficiencies or nutrient-overdose-related toxicity. All in all, organizations such as the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 100 and the German Nutrition Society do not judge iron as a major risk factor for plant-based dieters 101 .

Section II: Effects of diet on the gut microbiome

The link between diet and microbial diversity.

Another putative mechanistic pathway of how plant-based diets can affect health may involve the gut microbiome which has increasingly received scientific and popular interest, lastly not only through initiatives such as the Human Microbiome Project 102 . A common measure for characterizing the gut community is enterotyping, which is a way to stratify individuals according to their gut bacterial diversity, by calculating the ratio between bacterial genera, such as Prevotella and Bacteroides 103 . While interventional controlled trials are still scarce, this ratio has been shown to be conclusive for differentiating plant-based from animal-based microbial profiles 36 . Specifically, in a sample of 98 individuals, Wu et al. 36 found that a diet high in protein and animal fats was related to more Bacteroides, whereas a diet high in carbohydrates, representing a plant-based one, was associated with more Prevotella. Moreover, the authors showed that a change in diet to high-fat/low-fiber or to low-fat/high-fiber in ten individuals elicited a change in gut microbial enterotype with a time delay of 24 h only and remained stable over 10 days, however not being able to switch completely to another enterotype 36 . Another strictly controlled 30-day cross-over interventional study showed that a change in diet to either an exclusively animal-based or plant-based diet promoted gut microbiota diversity and genetic expression to change within 5 days 35 . Particularly, in response to adopting an animal-based diet, microbial diversity increased rapidly, even overshadowing individual microbial gene expression. Beyond large shifts in overall diet, already modest dietary modifications such as the daily consumption of 43 g of walnuts, were able to promote probiotic- and butyric acid-producing bacterial species in two RCTs, after 3 and 8 weeks respectively 104 , 105 , highlighting the high adaptability of the gut microbiome to dietary components. The Prevotella to Bacteroides ratio (P/B) has been shown to be involved in the success of dietary interventions targeting weight loss, with larger weight loss in high P/B compared to low P/B in a 6-month whole-grain diet compared to a conventional diet 106 . Only recently, other microbial communities, such as the salivary microbiome, have been shown to be different between omnivores and vegan dieters 107 , opening new avenues for research on adaptable mechanisms related to dietary intake.

A continuum in microbial diversity dependent on diet

Plant-based diets are supposed to be linked to a specific microbial profile, with a vegan profile being most different from an omnivore, but not always different from a vegetarian profile (reviewed in ref. 15 ). Some specifically vegan gut microbial characteristics have also been found in a small sample of six obese subjects after 1 month following a vegetarian diet, namely less pathobionts, more protective bacterial species improving lipid metabolism and a reduced level of intestinal inflammation 108 . Investigating long-term dietary patterns a study found a dose-dependent effect for altered gut microbiota in vegetarians and vegans compared to omnivores depending on the quantity of animal products 109 . The authors showed that gut microbial profiles of plant-based diets feature the same total number but lower counts of Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, E. coli and Enterobacteriaceae compared to omnivores, with the biggest difference to vegans. Still today it remains unclear, what this shift in bacterial composition means in functional terms, prompting the field to develop more functional analyses.

In a 30-day intervention study, David et al. found that fermentation processes linked to fat and carbohydrate decomposition were related to the abundance of certain microbial species 35 . They found a strong correlation between fiber intake and Prevotella abundance in the microbial gut. More recently, Prevotella has been associated with plant-based diets 110 that are comparable to low-fat/high-fiber diets 111 and might be linked to the increased synthesis of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) 112 . SCFAs are discussed as putative signaling molecules between the gut microbiome and the receptors, i.e. free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2) 51 , found in host cells across different tissues 113 and could therefore be one potential mechanism of microbiome−host communication.

The underlying mechanisms of nutrient decomposition by Prevotella and whether abundant Prevotella populations in the gut are beneficial for overall health remain unknown. Yet it seems possible that an increased fiber intake and therefore higher Prevotella abundance such as associated with plant-based diets is beneficial for regulating glycemic control and keeping inflammatory processes within normal levels, possibly due to reduced appetite and lower energy intake mediated by a higher fiber content 114 . Moreover, it has been brought forward that the microbiome might influence bodily homeostatic control, suggesting a role for the gut microbiota in whole-body control mechanisms on the systemic level. Novel strategies aim to develop gut-microbiota-based therapies to improve bodily states, e.g. glycemic control 115 , based on inducing microbial changes and thereby eliciting higher-level changes in homeostasis. While highly speculative, such strategies could in theory also exert changes on the brain level, which will be discussed next in the light of a bi-directional feedback between the gut and the brain.

Effects on cognition and behavior linking diet and cognition via the microbiome−gut−brain axis

While the number of interventional studies focusing on cognitive and mental health outcomes after adopting plant-based diets overall is very limited (see Section I above), one underlying mechanism of how plant-based diets may affect mood could involve signaling pathways on the microbiome−gut−brain axis 116 – 119 . A recent 4-week intervention RCT showed that probiotic administration compared to placebo and no intervention modulated brain activity during emotional decision-making and emotional recognition tasks 117 . In chronic depression it has been proposed that immunoglobulin A and M antibodies are synthesized by the host in response to gut commensals and are linked to depressive symptoms 120 . Whether the identified gram-negative bacteria might also play a role in plant-based diets remains to be explored. A meta-analysis on five studies concluded that probiotics may mediate an alleviating effect on depression symptomatic 121 —however, sample sizes remained rather small ( n  < 100) and no long-term effects were tested (up to 8 weeks).

Currently, several studies aim to identify microbial profiles in relation to disease and how microbial data can be used on a multimodal way to improve functional resolution, e.g. characterizing microbial profiles of individuals suffering from type-1 diabetes 122 . Yet, evidence for specific effects of diet on cognitive functions and behavior through changes in the microbiome remains scarce. A recent study indicated the possibility that our food choices determine the quantity and quality of neurotransmitter-precursor levels that we ingest, which in turn might influence behavior, as shown by lower fairness during a money-redistribution task, called the ultimatum game, after a high-carbohydrate/protein ratio breakfast than after a low-ratio breakfast 123 . Strang et al. found that precursor forms of serotonin and dopamine, measured in blood serum, predicted behavior in this task, and precursor concentrations were dependent on the nutrient profile of the consumed meal before the task. Also on a cross-sectional level tryptophan metabolites from fecal samples have been associated with amygdala-reward network functional connectivity 124 . On top of the dietary composition per se, the microbiota largely contributes to neurotransmitter precursor concentrations; thus, in addition to measuring neurotransmitter precursors in the serum, metabolomics on fecal samples would be helpful to further understand the functional role of the gut microbiota in neurotransmitter biosynthesis and regulation 125 .

Indicating the relevance of gut microbiota for cognition, a first human study assessing cognitive tests and brain imaging could distinguish obese from nonobese individuals using a microbial profile 126 . The authors found a specific microbiotic profile, particularly defined by Actinobacteria phylum abundance, that was associated with microstructural properties in the hypothalamus and in the caudate nucleus. Further, a preclinical study tested whether probiotics could enhance cognitive function in healthy subjects, showing small effects on improved memory performance and reduced stress levels 127 .

A recent study could show that microbial composition influences cerebral amyloidogenesis in a mouse model for Alzheimer’s disease 128 . Health status of the donor mouse seemingly mattered: fecal transplants from transgenic mice had a larger impact on amyloid beta proliferation in the brain compared to wild-type feces. Translational interpretations to humans should be done with caution if at all—yet the results remain elucidative for showing a link between the gut microbiome and brain metabolism.

The evidence for effects of strictly plant-based diets on cognition is very limited. For other plant-based diets such as the Mediterranean diet or DASH diet, there are more available studies that indicate protective effects on cardiovascular and brain health in the aging population (reviewed in refs. 129 , 130 ). Several attempts have been made to clarify potential underlying mechanisms, for example using supplementary plant polyphenols, fish/fish-oil consumption or whole dietary pattern change in RCTs 131 – 137 , yet results are not always equivocal and large-scale intervention studies have yet to be completed.

The overall findings of this paragraph add to the evidence that microbial diversity may be associated with brain health, although underlying mechanisms and candidate signaling molecules remain unknown.

Based on this systematic review of randomized clinical trials, there is an overall robust support for beneficial effects of a plant-based diet on metabolic measures in health and disease. However, the evidence for cognitive and mental effects of a plant-based diet is still inconclusive. Also, it is not clear whether putative effects are due to the diet per se, certain nutrients of the diet (or the avoidance of certain animal-based nutrients) or other factors associated with vegetarian/vegan diets. Evolving concepts argue that emotional distress and mental illnesses are linked to the role of microbiota in neurological function and can be potentially treated via microbial intervention strategies 19 . Moreover, it has been claimed that certain diseases, such as obesity, are caused by a specific microbial composition 138 , and that a balanced gut microbiome is related to healthy ageing 111 . In this light, it seems possible that a plant-based diet is able to influence brain function by still unclear underlying mechanisms of an altered microbial status and systemic metabolic alterations. However, to our knowledge there are no studies linking plant-based diets and cognitive abilities on a neural level, which are urgently needed, due to the hidden potential as a dietary therapeutic tool. Also, further studies are needed to disentangle motivational beliefs on a psychological level that lead to a change in diet from causal effects on the body and the brain mediated e.g., by metabolic alterations or a change in the gut microbiome.

Supplementary information

Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by a scholarship (E.M.) by the German Federal Environmental Foundation and by the grants of the German Research Foundation contract grant number CRC 1052 “Obesity mechanisms” Project A1 (AV) and WI 3342/3-1 (A.V.W.).

Authors’ contributions

E.M., A.V. and A.V.W. designed research; E.M. conducted research; E.M., S.H. and A.V.W. analyzed data; E.M. and A.V.W. wrote the paper; E.M., A.V. and A.V.W. had primary responsibility for final content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information accompanies this paper at (10.1038/s41398-019-0552-0).

Home — Essay Samples — Life — Vegetarianism — An Introduction to the Reasons for Vegetarianism

Vegetarianism: Introduction, Positive and Negative Sides

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Published: Aug 10, 2018

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Table of contents

What is vegetarianism (essay), benefits and drawbacks of vegetarian diets, works cited.

• Davis, B., & Melina, V. (2014). Becoming Vegetarian: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet. Book Publishing Company.
• Flynn, R. W. V. (2017). Vegetarianism in Western Europe: A Study of Vegetarianism in France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Sweden. Routledge.
• Fox, N., & Ward, K. (2008). Health, ethics and environment: A qualitative study of vegetarian motivations. Appetite, 50(2-3), 422-429. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.09.007
• Haddad, E. H., Sabaté, J., Whitten, C. G., & Tanzman, J. S. (2014). Vegetarian food guide pyramid: A conceptual framework. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(Supplement_1), 356S-361S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.071621
• Leitzmann, C. (2017). Vegetarian nutrition: Past, present, future. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(Supplement_1), 496S-502S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.071621
• Mangels, A. R., Messina, V., & Messina, M. (2011). The Dietitian's Guide to Vegetarian Diets: Issues and Applications. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
• Marsh, K., & Zeuschner, C. (2012). The vegan plate: A guide to healthy vegan nutrition. Akerman Publishing.
• Sabaté, J., & Wien, M. (2015). Vegetarian diets and childhood obesity prevention. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 101(1), 152S-157S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.071621
• Spencer, E. A., Appleby, P. N., Davey, G. K., & Key, T. J. (2003). Diet and body mass index in 38 000 EPIC-Oxford meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans. International Journal of Obesity, 27(6), 728-734. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802300
• Tuso, P. J., Ismail, M. H., Ha, B. P., & Bartolotto, C. (2013). Nutritional update for physicians: Plant-based diets. The Permanente Journal, 17(2), 61-66. doi:10.7812/TPP/12-085

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How to Become a Vegetarian (or Simply Eat More Plants)

Your health and cooking questions, answered.

Supported by

By Hetty Lui McKinnon and Alice Callahan

Hetty Lui McKinnon, a cookbook author and New York Times Cooking contributor, has been a vegetarian for 30 years. Alice Callahan, who has a Ph.D. in nutrition, is a Times reporter covering nutrition and health.

• May 22, 2024

Longtime vegetarians already know: To be a vegetarian is to eat really well. But if you’re looking to make the switch to vegetarianism or just a more plant-forward diet, you may have questions, even concerns.

What should I cook? How do I think about meals? How will I know if I’m getting enough protein? A vegetarian diet doesn’t have to be especially health-focused, though it can be, just as it can be comforting and flexible. It should never feel limiting or restrictive, but rather nourishing, even joyous.

Whether you’ve been slowly cutting meat from your diet or you’ve just started giving thought to vegetarianism, this guide — from Hetty Lui McKinnon, a cookbook author and vegetarian of 30 years, and Alice Callahan, a Times reporter who focuses on food and health and follows a plant-forward diet at home — is meant to aid in the transition.

Below, we’ll help you get started in the kitchen — and answer some of the most common health questions you may have, with nutrition experts as our guide.

Where do I even start?

Veg-ifying your favorite meals: We tend to cook and eat what we know, but giving up meat doesn’t mean leaving behind beloved flavors. If you love chicken Parm, opt for one made with mushroom or eggplant instead. If you enjoy the vibrant flavors of larb, make it with mushrooms or tofu , just as you can create an adobo with either eggplant or cauliflower , riff on Indian butter chicken by using chickpeas , and satisfy your schnitzel or breaded cutlet craving with halloumi or tofu . Change takes time, but it is much easier if you lean on familiar flavors and dishes.

Find all the vegetarian recipes you need to get started on NYT Cooking.

Shopping smarter: You may not start eating lots of vegetables the day you decide to become a vegetarian — and that’s OK. However, learning to love vegetables, and a range of them, will make your meals more interesting. Make sure your weekly shopping list includes three or four hearty vegetables, like broccoli, green beans, peppers, summer squash or cauliflower, along with a bunch or two of herbs, and some leafy greens, like baby spinach or arugula. And don’t forget about frozen vegetables: Peas, corn and spinach are excellent in easy weeknight meals and can often be better and fresher from frozen. Then, add items that will lend heft — eggs, tofu, canned legumes, pasta, noodles and tortillas are just a few options.

What kinds of ingredients should I be shopping for?

Vegetables: Having many of the five basic tastes — sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami — vegetables can take on a number of characteristics depending on how they’re cooked.

Take broccoli . Eaten raw, it is mildly bitter with a grassy aftertaste. A quick blanch in salted water unveils its natural sweetness, and high-heat cooking in a pan , in the oven or on a grill results in crisp edges with an earthy smokiness. Treat vegetables well, and you’ll be rewarded in spades.

Complex carbohydrates: Complex carbohydrates like brown rice, quinoa , barley, spelt and oats take longer for your body to digest than simple carbohydrates — and make you feel satisfied for longer. Pasta and noodles are easy options for vegetarians; going heavy on the vegetables and lighter on the pasta can make for a nutrient-rich meal.

Lentils, chickpeas, cannellini beans, black beans and pinto beans — among others — can also anchor dishes and add protein. Crisp them in the oven for a mouthwatering snack or salad topper , combine them with vegetables to make burger patties , whip them into a dip or use them as the main attraction in soups , stews and curries .

Tofu: For vegetarians, tofu is not only an excellent source of protein, but it’s also highly versatile, absorbing flavors and taking on all kinds of textures. Don’t limit yourself to one type or one way to prepare it. Crisp extra-firm or firm tofu in a pan, in the oven or air fryer ; braise firm or medium-firm in a simple savory sauce; crumble and scramble various kinds with spices; or blend silken to make a creamy sauce for noodles or pasta. Blocks of soft, jiggly silken tofu can also be topped with a spicy dressing for a quick no-cook dinner, broken into stews like mapo tofu or jjigaes , or blended into soups to add body and a creamy finish.

Umami: Umami, or savoriness, plays a pivotal role in vegetarian dishes, making every one richer and tastier. There are many vegetarian sources of it. Mushrooms are perhaps the most well known, offering a “meaty” texture to dishes as well. Others include nuts and nut butters ; tomato; seaweed; alliums like onions, garlic, shallots, leeks and scallions; seasoned oils like chile oil, chile crisp and salsa macha ; and fermented foods like kimchi , pickles , soy sauce, miso, gochujang, doubanjiang and more.

Find more grilled veggie recipes , sheet-pan vegetarian recipes , tofu recipes , bean soups and stews , and vegetarian pastas on NYT Cooking.

How can i make easy dinners.

On those “I don’t know what to cook” days, stick to a simple formula. As a starting point, think of this as a “meat and three” for vegetarians. And remember: There is no one way to be vegetarian, so, for it to stick long-term, make sure it suits your lifestyle, pantry and the flavors that you crave.

Start with a vegetable or two, cooked to your preference: roasted , grilled , pan-fried, air-fried, steamed or raw.

Add a base starch or two: rice, quinoa, pasta, noodles, legumes.

Add an optional green: spinach, kale, salad leaves.

Add a sauce: tahini , pesto , seasoned oil, yogurt, vinaigrette .

Add some extras: Tofu, tempeh or eggs for heft, herbs for vibrant freshness, nuts and seeds for a textural crunch.

How will I know if I’m getting enough protein?

Federal guidelines recommend that most adults should consume at least 0.36 grams of protein per pound of body weight every day. For an average 185-pound adult, this translates to 67 grams of protein per day.

If you include at least one serving of a high-protein food with every meal, you’ll most likely hit that goal, said Reed Mangels, a retired nutrition professor and co-author of “The Dietitian’s Guide to Vegetarian Diets.”

Beans, lentils, nuts, nut butters, seeds, tofu, eggs and dairy products are all good sources. And remember: The grains and vegetables on your plate contribute small amounts of protein, too.

What other nutrients should I be mindful of?

The biggest concern is vitamin B12 , said Sudha Raj, a professor of nutrition at Syracuse University and a lifelong vegetarian. B12 deficiencies can lead to a host of blood and nerve cell issues, which could result in fatigue, anemia, nerve problems and mental issues like depression, memory loss and confusion. The vitamin is found only in animal-based foods and a few fortified foods, like nutritional yeast and many plant-based milks and breakfast cereals. If you’re following a vegetarian diet, it’s a good idea to take a B12 supplement, Dr. Raj said.

A handful of other nutrients can sometimes come up short when following a plant-based diet, including iron, calcium, vitamin D, zinc and omega-3 fatty acids.

Incorporating a variety of food groups into your meals will help you meet these needs, Dr. Raj said. Beans, lentils, soy products and whole grains are all high in iron; and eating them with vitamin C-rich foods, like tomatoes, citrus fruits, cabbage or potatoes, will enhance your absorption of iron .

If you’re not consuming dairy, vegetables like kale, bok choy and mustard greens can help you get enough calcium. Flax seeds, chia seeds and nuts can add zinc and omega-3 fatty acids — along with a satisfying crunch — to your meals.

Some helpful nutrients are included in fortified plant milks , too; just check their nutrition labels to be sure they’re good sources of calcium, vitamin D and B12. Ideally, choose an unsweetened version, or at least one with less than 10 grams of added sugars per serving, said Matthew Landry, a nutrition scientist at the University of California, Irvine.

You can also consider taking a multivitamin as a nutritional “insurance policy,” Dr. Mangels said, though it’s usually not necessary with a well-planned diet.

How can I feel full?

If you simply cut meat from your meals without adding hearty plant-based foods, you may end up hungry, Dr. Mangels said. Fill your plate with nourishing staples that provide fiber and protein, like beans, whole grains, tofu and vegetables, she suggested. And be sure to include good sources of fats like nuts, seeds, avocados, yogurt, cheese, eggs and cooking oils.

You may find that you need to increase your serving sizes or eat more frequently to feel satisfied, Dr. Mangels said — “there’s nothing wrong with snacking,” she added.

Will following a vegetarian diet improve my health?

It’s likely. Studies suggest that adopting a balanced plant-based diet can improve your cholesterol levels and reduce your blood pressure, and it may help you lose a bit of weight, Dr. Landry said. Emerging evidence suggests that it may reduce inflammation in your body and support a healthy gut microbiome , he added.

But it’s not an all-or-nothing proposition. Any shift toward eating more plants and less meat — making a stir-fry with tofu instead of chicken, or replacing half of the beef in your chili with beans — will probably benefit your health, he said.

Follow New York Times Cooking on Instagram , Facebook , YouTube , TikTok and Pinterest . Get regular updates from New York Times Cooking, with recipe suggestions, cooking tips and shopping advice .

Hetty Lui McKinnon has developed thousands of recipes, including a number for New York Times cooking, and written five vegetarian cookbooks. She has been a vegetarian for 30 years.

Alice Callahan is a Times reporter covering nutrition and health. She has a Ph.D. in nutrition from the University of California, Davis. More about Alice Callahan

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Breezy and adaptable, we’ve rounded up 100 easy summer recipes  that can be on the table in 30 minutes or less.

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Vegetarian or carnivorous diet Argumentative Essay

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Such phrases such as “we are what we eat” has gained prominence today as people engage in debate on the best eating habits that we need to embrace. Everything that we eat has consequences in as far as our overall health is concerned. It is therefore our responsibility to make informed choices when it comes to choosing dietary alternatives.

Dieting is a means of maintaining a good healthy body. A well balanced diet includes both vegetarian foods and carnivorous or meat based food. Vegetarian diet totally excludes meat or any animal products. While nutritionists propose a well balanced diet, substituting meat and other animal products with vegetable equivalent reduces chances of lifestyle diseases, which are a major concern today. The purpose of this paper is to highlight how a vegetarian diet is more beneficial for better health.

Smith (para. 2) argues that meat is a very healthy source of high quality proteins, which builds our bodies. Essential amino acids necessary for our bodies growth are contained in diet rich with red meat. Phosphorous found in meat is easily absorbed in our bodies than phosphorous found in vegetables. Meat is a source of important micronutrients such as iron, selenium, vitamins A, B12 and folic acid, which are not available in plant based foods.

Further, Anderson, Konz and Jenkins (1243) state that meat-based products are helpful in short term weight loss. Therefore, meat and animal products play an essential diet supplementary role. Meat contains essential amino acids and micronutrients. In addition, it also plays a vital role in the regulation of energy metabolism processes (Koebnick et al 3215).

However, a diet rich in meat and animal products has been found to have severe detrimental effects to people’s health. Smith (para. 3) argues that people retain the hormones fed to dairy animal to accelerate growth. When they meat and animal products these hormones lead to an increased weight gain. Uncontrolled intake of roast meat is also a major cause of gout and arthritis. He continues to argue that fish and other edible marine foods are preserved using boric acid.

A sustained intake of this chemical may cause brain and liver damage Biesalski (1243) argues that continued intake of meat exposes one to risk of contracting cancer, obesity and metabolic syndrome. Anderson and colleagues (1243) report that increased intake of meat increases serum cholesterol levels, which put people at the risk of contracting cardiovascular and coronary diseases. Therefore, meat should be consumed in controlled portions to avoid such negative implications.

Vegetarian diet too has its own disadvantages. Smith (para. 5) report that important vitamins responsible for formation of red blood cells (for example, vitamin B2 and B12), are absent in vegetarian diets. A fiber rich vegetarian diet may also lead to malnutrition as victims lack other food supplements available only in meat-based foods.

If a vegetarian diet is not properly planned, a person may miss several nutritional intakes such as proteins iron zinc calcium vitamin B (12) and essential amino acids. This can however be overcome if a well balanced vegetarian diet is observed.

Despite these shortcomings, Lietzmann (148) argues that a wholesome vegetarians diet offers more advantages compared to meat based diet. Well balanced vegetarian diets are essential in all stages of human development form childhood, adolescent, pregnancy stage, adult hood to old age. Anderson et al (1244) states that low fat vegetarian diets are responsible for improving cardiovascular status.

Smith Biesalski (510) says that vegetarian diets reduce the level of cholesterol intake to the bare minimum. Vegetarian diets have been found to play an important role in the prevention and treatment of life threatening diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, diabetes, cancer osteoporosis among others.

Low fat vegetarian diet is responsible for altering serum cholesterol intake for improved health in pre menopausal women. Lietzmann (149) reports that research in England have found that vegetarian diet is responsible for reducing diabetes and heart disease. All these benefits explain why vegetarian diet is gaining a worldwide popularity for its health benefits.

Vegetarian diet goes beyond health concerns (Lietzmann, 2005). Vegetarian diet has more benefits to a human being than meat based diet. Some religious denominations such as the Adventist strictly follow a vegetarian diet as a religious culture (Levin and Vanderpool 70).

Despite all the advantages of a herbivorous diet a carnivorous diet is still essential to humans as it contains essentials nutrients absent in plant food. A well balanced diet that incorporates both meat and vegetables is essential. To achieve proper health and reduce chances of contracting life threatening diseases, intake of meat and animal products should be reduced to a minimum.

A balanced diet that contains both the animal sources of nutrition on the one hand and those from the plant sources is more ideal. This is because some of the nutrients in the plant sources are in a bound form and for maximum absorption they need to be supplemented with their equivalent from animal sources, and vice versa.

Works Cited

Anderson, John, Smith, Michael and Gustafson, Joseph. Health Benefits And Practical Aspects Of High-Fiber Diets. American Journal Of Clinical Nutrition 59.5(1994):1242-47.

Biesalski, Henry . Meat As A Component Of A Healthy Diet – Are There Any Risks Or Benefits If Meat Is Avoided In The Diet? Meat science , 70.3(2005):509-24.

Koebnick, Corinna, Hoffmann, Ingrid, Dagnelie, Pieter, Heins, Ulrike, Wickramasinghe, Indrika D., Ratnayaka, Sindy and Lindemans, Jan. Claus L. Long-term ovolacto vegetarian diet impairs vitamin B-12 status in pregnant women. J. Nutr. 134.(2004): 12 3215-3218.

Levin, Jeffrey and Vanderpool, Harold. Is Religion Therapeutically Significant For Hypertension? Social Science & Medicine, 29.1(1989):69-78.

Lietzmann, Charles. Vegetarian Diets: What Are The Advantages? 2005. Forum Nutr ., 57(2005):147-56.

Smith, Heather. The Pros and Cons Of Vegetraina Diet. 2010. Web.

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