assignment about child development

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1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development

Chapter objectives.

After this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the principles that underlie development.
• Differentiate periods of human development.
• Evaluate issues in development.
• Distinguish the different methods of research.
• Explain what a theory is.
• Compare and contrast different theories of child development.

Introduction

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn.

We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence. 1

Principles of Development

There are several underlying principles of development to keep in mind:

• Development is lifelong and change is apparent across the lifespan (although this text ends with adolescence). And early experiences affect later development.
• Development is multidirectional. We show gains in some areas of development, while showing loss in other areas.
• Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and social and emotional.
• The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, changes in gross and fine motor skills, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness.
• The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language.
• The social and emotional domain (also referred to as psychosocial) focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends.

All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains.

• Development is characterized by plasticity, which is our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. Early experiences are important, but children are remarkably resilient (able to overcome adversity).
• Development is multicontextual. 2 We are influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) – when and where we live and our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to circumstances surrounding us.  The key here is to understand that behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are all part of a bigger picture. 3

Now let’s look at a framework for examining development.

Periods of Development

Think about what periods of development that you think a course on Child Development would address. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: infancy, childhood, and teenagers. Developmentalists (those that study development) break this part of the life span into these five stages as follows:

• Prenatal Development (conception through birth)
• Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth through two years)
• Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
• Middle Childhood (6 to 11 years)
• Adolescence (12 years to adulthood)

This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adolescence that will be explored in this book. So while both an 8 month old and an 8 year old are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, social relationships, and cognitive skills. Their nutritional needs are different and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive.

Prenatal Development

Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.

Figure 1.1 – A tiny embryo depicting some development of arms and legs, as well as facial features that are starting to show. 4

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

Figure 1.2 – A swaddled newborn. 5

Early Childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for action that brings the disapproval of others.

Figure 1.3 – Two young children playing in the Singapore Botanic Gardens 6

Middle Childhood

The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students.

Figure 1.4 – Two children running down the street in Carenage, Trinidad and Tobago 7

Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. 8

Figure 1.5 – Two smiling teenage women. 9

There are some aspects of development that have been hotly debated. Let’s explore these.

Issues in Development

Nature and nurture.

Why are people the way they are? Are features such as height, weight, personality, being diabetic, etc. the result of heredity or environmental factors-or both? For decades, scholars have carried on the “nature/nurture” debate. For any particular feature, those on the side of Nature would argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side of Nurture would argue that one’s environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in all aspects of human development, and most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture.

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more abrupt change? The answer to that question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being studied. The theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories. Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as continuous development. For instance, they would see the adult as not possessing new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more developed skills.

Figure 1.6 – The graph to the left shows three stages in the continuous growth of a tree. The graph to the right shows four distinct stages of development in the life cycle of a ladybug. 10

Active versus Passive

How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process. 11

How do we know so much about how we grow, develop, and learn? Let’s look at how that data is gathered through research

Research Methods

An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information. The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon. Some people are hesitant to trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story. That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur. Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey. In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice. So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.

Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood. Now, how do you know? Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). There are several problems with personal inquiry. Read the following sentence aloud:

Paris in the

Are you sure that is what it said? Read it again:

If you read it differently the second time (adding the second “the”) you just experienced one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe. Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. This problem may just be a result of cognitive ‘blinders’ or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views. Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence. Popper suggests that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific. And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.

Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias.

Scientific Methods

One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:

• Determining a research question
• Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)
• Determining a method of gathering information
• Conducting the study
• Interpreting results
• Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
• Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)

Your findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and through this process a literature or knowledge base is established. This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question. And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner.

Another model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as these:

• Begin with a broad area of interest
• Gain entrance into a group to be researched
• Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest
• Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing subjects
• Modify research questions as study continues
• Note patterns or consistencies
• Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed
• Report findings

In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.

Let’s look more closely at some techniques, or research methods, used to describe, explain, or evaluate. Each of these designs has strengths and weaknesses and is sometimes used in combination with other designs within a single study.

Observational Studies

Observational studies involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play at a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2-year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event (such as observing children in a classroom and capturing the details about the room design and what the children and teachers are doing and saying). In general, observational studies have the strength of allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report. What people do and what they say they do are often very different. A major weakness of observational studies is that they do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships. Yet, observational studies are useful and widely used when studying children. Children tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched (known as the Hawthorne effect) and may not survey well.

Experiments

Experiments are designed to test hypotheses (or specific statements about the relationship between variables) in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes. A variable is anything that changes in value. Concepts are operationalized or transformed into variables in research, which means that the researcher must specify exactly what is going to be measured in the study.

Three conditions must be met in order to establish cause and effect. Experimental designs are useful in meeting these conditions.

The independent and dependent variables must be related. In other words, when one is altered, the other changes in response. (The independent variable is something altered or introduced by the researcher. The dependent variable is the outcome or the factor affected by the introduction of the independent variable. For example, if we are looking at the impact of exercise on stress levels, the independent variable would be exercise; the dependent variable would be stress.)

The cause must come before the effect. Experiments involve measuring subjects on the dependent variable before exposing them to the independent variable (establishing a baseline). So we would measure the subjects’ level of stress before introducing exercise and then again after the exercise to see if there has been a change in stress levels. (Observational and survey research does not always allow us to look at the timing of these events, which makes understanding causality problematic with these designs.)

The cause must be isolated. The researcher must ensure that no outside, perhaps unknown variables are actually causing the effect we see. The experimental design helps make this possible. In an experiment, we would make sure that our subjects’ diets were held constant throughout the exercise program. Otherwise, diet might really be creating the change in stress level rather than exercise.

A basic experimental design involves beginning with a sample (or subset of a population) and randomly assigning subjects to one of two groups: the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group is the group that is going to be exposed to an independent variable or condition the researcher is introducing as a potential cause of an event. The control group is going to be used for comparison and is going to have the same experience as the experimental group but will not be exposed to the independent variable. After exposing the experimental group to the independent variable, the two groups are measured again to see if a change has occurred. If so, we are in a better position to suggest that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.

The major advantage of the experimental design is that of helping to establish cause and effect relationships. A disadvantage of this design is the difficulty of translating much of what happens in a laboratory setting into real life.

Case Studies

Case studies involve exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation. Case studies are helpful when investigating unusual situations such as brain trauma or children reared in isolation. And they are often used by clinicians who conduct case studies as part of their normal practice when gathering information about a client or patient coming in for treatment. Case studies can be used to explore areas about which little is known and can provide rich detail about situations or conditions. However, the findings from case studies cannot be generalized or applied to larger populations; this is because cases are not randomly selected and no control group is used for comparison.

Figure 1.7 – Illustrated poster from a classroom describing a case study. 12

Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” This is known as Likert Scale . Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on many independent and dependent variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors, but may not allow for in-depth understanding of human behavior.

Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather than choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. Analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report or what people say they do rather than on observation and this can limit accuracy.

Developmental Designs

Developmental designs are techniques used in developmental research (and other areas as well). These techniques try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development.

Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal research involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background, and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through time and be compared with them when they were younger.

Figure 1.8 – A longitudinal research design. 13

A problem with this type of research is that it is very expensive and subjects may drop out over time. The Perry Preschool Project which began in 1962 is an example of a longitudinal study that continues to provide data on children’s development.

Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research involves beginning with a sample that represents a cross-section of the population. Respondents who vary in age, gender, ethnicity, and social class might be asked to complete a survey about television program preferences or attitudes toward the use of the Internet. The attitudes of males and females could then be compared, as could attitudes based on age. In cross-sectional research, respondents are measured only once.

Figure 1.9 – A cross-sectional research design. 14

This method is much less expensive than longitudinal research but does not allow the researcher to distinguish between the impact of age and the cohort effect. Different attitudes about the use of technology, for example, might not be altered by a person’s biological age as much as their life experiences as members of a cohort.

Sequential Research

Sequential research involves combining aspects of the previous two techniques; beginning with a cross-sectional sample and measuring them through time.

Figure 1.10 – A sequential research design. 15

This is the perfect model for looking at age, gender, social class, and ethnicity. But the drawbacks of high costs and attrition are here as well. 16

Table 1 .1 – Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Research Designs 17

Consent and Ethics in Research

Research should, as much as possible, be based on participants’ freely volunteered informed consent. For minors, this also requires consent from their legal guardians. This implies a responsibility to explain fully and meaningfully to both the child and their guardians what the research is about and how it will be disseminated. Participants and their legal guardians should be aware of the research purpose and procedures, their right to refuse to participate; the extent to which confidentiality will be maintained; the potential uses to which the data might be put; the foreseeable risks and expected benefits; and that participants have the right to discontinue at any time.

But consent alone does not absolve the responsibility of researchers to anticipate and guard against potential harmful consequences for participants. 18 It is critical that researchers protect all rights of the participants including confidentiality.

Child development is a fascinating field of study – but care must be taken to ensure that researchers use appropriate methods to examine infant and child behavior, use the correct experimental design to answer their questions, and be aware of the special challenges that are part-and-parcel of developmental research. Hopefully, this information helped you develop an understanding of these various issues and to be ready to think more critically about research questions that interest you. There are so many interesting questions that remain to be examined by future generations of developmental scientists – maybe you will make one of the next big discoveries! 19

Another really important framework to use when trying to understand children’s development are theories of development. Let’s explore what theories are and introduce you to some major theories in child development.

Developmental Theories

What is a theory.

Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, “Now we are going to look at some theories…” is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact they are proposed explanations for the “how” and “whys” of development. Have you ever wondered, “Why is my 3 year old so inquisitive?” or “Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?” Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.

A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.

Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation.  Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them. 20

Let’s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Figure 1.11 – Sigmund Freud. 21

Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.

The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.

The ego develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.

The superego represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.

The personality is thought to develop in response to the child’s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud’s stages.

Table 1. 2 – Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud’s views. 22

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Now, let’s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud’s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.

Figure 1.12 – Erik Erikson. 23

Erikson expanded on his Freud’s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome.  Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:

Table 1. 3 – Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices. 24

Behaviorism

While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior. 25

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. “This,” he thought, “is not natural!” One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when food hit their palate, but BEFORE the food comes? Of course, what had happened was . . . you tell me. That’s right! The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The key word here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response.

Figure 1.13 – Ivan Pavlov. 26

Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning . He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus . The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).

Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.

John B. Watson

John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public.

Figure 1.14 – John B. Watson. 27

He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18 month old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So let’s look at this a bit more.

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.

Figure 1.15 – B. F. Skinner. 28

A reinforcer is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.

Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.

The use of positive reinforcement involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.

Negative reinforcement occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?

Punishment is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn’t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you’re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well.

Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation

Figure 1.16 – Albert Bandura. 29

Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).

Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment. 30

Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.

Figure 1.17 – Jean Piaget. 32

Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive equilibrium . This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.

A schema or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for “under” and “soft” or “running” and “sour”. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.

One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is assimilation . So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being “sort of like my brother” or “his voice sounds a lot like yours.” Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!

Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is  accommodation . Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think “outside the box.”

Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:

Table 1.4 – Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances. 33

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development . 34 His belief was that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning. 35

Figure 1.18- Lev Vygotsky. 36

Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is scaffolding and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators. 37

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky concentrated more on the child’s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities. 38

Like Vygotsky’s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.

Figure 1.19 – Urie Bronfenbrenner. 39

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual’s development.

Table 1.5 – Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can’t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher’s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.

Figure 1.20 – Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. 40

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements. 41

In this chapter we looked at:

underlying principles of development

the five periods of development

three issues in development

Various methods of research

important theories that help us understand development

Next, we are going to be examining where we all started with conception, heredity, and prenatal development.

Child Growth and Development Copyright © by Jean Zaar is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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8 Things to Remember about Child Development

Content in this guide, step 1: why is early childhood important.

• : Brain Hero
• : The Science of ECD (Video)
• : The Science of ECD (Text)

Step 2: How Does Early Child Development Happen?

• : 3 Core Concepts in Early Development
• You Are Here: 8 Things to Remember about Child Development
• : InBrief: The Science of Resilience

Step 3: What Can We Do to Support Child Development?

• : From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts
• : 3 Principles to Improve Outcomes

Building on a well-established knowledge base more than half a century in the making, recent advanc es in the science of early childhood development and its underlying biology provide a deeper understanding that can inform and improve existing policy and practice, as well as help generate new ways of thinking about solutions. In this important list, featured in the From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts report, the Center on the Developing Child sets the record straight about some aspects of early child development.

Even infants and young children are affected adversely when significant stresses threaten their family and caregiving environments.

Adverse fetal and early childhood experiences can lead to physical and chemical disruptions in the brain that can last a lifetime. The biological changes associated with these experiences can affect multiple organ systems and increase the risk not only for impairments in future learning capacity and behavior, but also for poor physical and mental health outcomes.

Development is a highly interactive process, and life outcomes are not determined solely by genes.

The environment in which one develops before and soon after birth provides powerful experiences that chemically modify certain genes in ways that then define how much and when they are expressed. Thus, while genetic factors exert potent influences on human development, environmental factors have the ability to alter family inheritance. For example, children are born with the capacity to learn to control impulses, focus attention, and retain information in memory, but their experiences as early as the first year of life lay a foundation for how well these and other executive function skills develop.

While attachments to their parents are primary, young children can also benefit significantly from relationships with other responsive caregivers both within and outside the family.

Close relationships with other nurturing and reliably available adults do not interfere with the strength of a young child’s primary relationship with his or her parents. In fact, multiple caregivers can promote young children’s social and emotional development. That said, frequent disruptions in care and high staff turnover and poor-quality interactions in early childhood program settings can undermine children’s ability to establish secure expectations about whether and how their needs will be met.

A great deal of brain architecture is shaped during the first three years after birth, but the window of opportunity for its development does not close on a child’s third birthday.

Far from it! Basic aspects of brain function, such as the ability to see and hear effectively, do depend critically on very early experiences as do some aspects of emotional development. And, while the regions of the brain dedicated to higher-order functions—which involve most social, emotional, and cognitive capacities, including multiple aspects of executive functioning —are also affected powerfully by early influences, they continue to develop well into adolescence and early adulthood. So, although the basic principle that “earlier is better than later” generally applies, the window of opportunity for most domains of development remains open far beyond age 3, and we remain capable of learning ways to “work around” earlier impacts well into the adult years.

Severe neglect appears to be at least as great a threat to health and development as physical abuse—possibly even greater.

When compared with children who have been victimized by overt physical maltreatment, young children who experienced prolonged periods of neglect exhibit more serious cognitive impairments, attention problems, language deficits, academic difficulties, withdrawn behavior, and problems with peer interaction as they get older. This suggests that sustained disruption of serve and return interactions in early relationships may be more damaging to the developing architecture of the brain than physical trauma, yet it often receives less attention. 

Young children who have been exposed to adversity or violence do not invariably develop stress-related disorders or grow up to be violent adults.

Although children who have these experiences clearly are at greater risk for adverse impacts on brain development and later problems with aggression, they are not doomed to poor outcomes. Indeed, they can be helped substantially if reliable and nurturing relationships with supportive caregivers are established as soon as possible and appropriate treatments are provided as needed.

Simply removing a child from a dangerous environment will not automatically reverse the negative impacts of that experience.

There is no doubt that children in harm’s way should be removed from dangerous situations immediately. Similarly, children experiencing severe neglect should be provided with responsive caregiving as soon as possible. That said, children who have been traumatized need to be in environments that restore their sense of safety, control, and predictability, and they typically require therapeutic, supportive care to facilitate their recovery.

Resilience requires relationships, not rugged individualism.

The capacity to adapt and thrive despite adversity develops through the interaction of supportive relationships, biological systems, and gene expression. Despite the widespread yet erroneous belief that people need only draw upon some heroic strength of character, science now tells us that it is the reliable presence of at least one supportive relationship and multiple opportunities for developing effective coping skills that are the essential building blocks for strengthening the capacity to do well in the face of significant adversity. 

Suggested citation: Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2016). 8 Things to Remember about Child Development. Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu.

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Child Development Theorists Cheat Sheet – Everything you Need to Know

Lead Academy

There are so many child development theorists and theories that one may easily be forgiven for getting overwhelmed. However, if you categorise them neatly, then according to the time these theories emerged, you can paint a pretty compact digestible picture. That’s what this blog aims to do. This is your ultimate child development theorists cheat sheet.

We will also make this a downloadable PDF copy so you can have a portable copy whenever you need to take a quick look at it.

So let’s talk about the theories and issues in child development.

Table of Content

Child Development Theory

Child development theory cheat sheet, sigmund freud, austrian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, erik erikson, german psychologist; later moved to america, arnold gesell, american psychologist, urie bronfenbrenner, american psychologist and lecturer, jean piaget, swiss biologist, psychologist, and educator, maria montessori, italian physician and educator, howard gardner, american psychologist and educator, lev vygotsky, russian psychologist and lecturer, b. f. skinner, american psychologist and educator, albert banduram, canadian psychologist, lawrence kohlberg, american psychologist and educator, robert coles, american psychiatrist and professor of literature and social ethic, carol gilligan, american psychologist and professor, what to read next:.

“Different theories about early childhood inform approaches to children’s learning and development. Early childhood educators draw upon a range of perspectives in their work …”

Belonging, Being & Becoming: The Early Years Learning Framework for Australia (Commonwealth of Australia, 2009) p.11

A theory is a collection of concepts that describe a specific topic in the area of children’s learning and development in the field of early childhood education and care. Theories are typically developed through a thoughtful, logical chain of thinking and discussion. Furthermore, a theory is frequently founded on general principles. They remain unrelated to the subject of the explanation.

So, a theorist is someone who studies facts and comes up with a probable explanation for those findings. Some argue that theorists come up with abstract concepts and views. Afterwards, they spend their careers attempting to prove them. Once a theory is proven, it obviously becomes a fact. Theories provide ‘ways of knowing’ that shape thinking and have a specific impact on practice.

So, what is child development theory?

Child development theories are sets of assumptions about how young children learn and develop, as well as what learning and instruction should look like. These assumptions impact how educators think and act, as well as their ideas and beliefs.

Choosing a perspective or theory entails deciding on a value system and, unavoidably, a set of beliefs.

So, what is a value system ?

It’s a set of principles or ideals that motivate and/or guide a person’s actions. For example, if one of your personal values is to protect the environment, you might install solar panels on your roof in the hopes of reducing your energy footprint. This will eventually end the mining of environmentally unhealthy things like coal and gas in order to achieve a more sustainable future.

In the field of child development theory, each theorist’s beliefs are distinct from one another. There are many diverse ideas. But when combined, they provide a comprehensive picture of how children develop as they grow older.

You can check out our other blog on the environmental factors that affect child development.

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The following is a list and details of child development theorists and their theories. We have divided them according to their value system or categories. This is your ultimate child development theorists cheat sheet. If you’re looking for an “early childhood theorists cheat sheet”, this blog addresses that too.

So, there are 5 main categories of child developmental theorists. However, this list is, by any means of the word, absolute. As research areas in child development broaden, so do the categories of theorists. But we’re going to discuss the major ones. With that said, here is the list:

Personality (Psychosocial) Development Theorists

Growth & development theories, cognitive (intellectual) development theories, social learning theories, moral reasoning theories.

For convenience, we’re also adding a child development theories chart and how they relate to researchers.

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Sigmund Freud believed that children’s experiences will have a significant impact on their adult lives. Children’s decisions, according to Freud, develop their personalities as teenagers and adults. Children’s caretakers should also be understanding and sympathetic to their emotional states. The personalities and emotional well-being of children are more likely to be secure and stable if they are emotionally nurtured.

His theory is also known as Freud’s psychosexual development.

Erik Erikson studied under Freud. He refined Freud’s theory by proposing that personality develops in eight phases, beginning in childhood and ending in the old life. The name of this theory is the Psychosocial stage theory.

Each stage has its own psychological crises, the fate of which is determined by how caregivers and important others respond to the stage’s needs. If a person has difficulty during any of the stages, they will experience an identity crisis later in life.

His theory is still regarded to be correct. From infancy to puberty, caregivers can use this approach to satisfy the various emotional needs of each age group effectively.

He is also one of the few theorists who has addressed the stages of early, middle, and elder adulthood. Thus, the parents can determine where their children are in their development.

He was the founder of the Gesell Institute of Human Behaviour in 1911. To understand Gesell’s theory , you first have to understand the Nature vs. Nurture debate. Nature refers to our genetic makeup, while Nurture refers to the environment in which we grow.

Gesell thought that nature influenced development more than nurture. He believed that children develop in a predictable pattern which genetics dictates. The development will take place only when the youngster is ready. Gesell gave the basic data on child development’s sequence and rate.

Gesell was honoured for his groundbreaking contributions to the approach of carefully observing and quantifying behaviour, as well as characterising the development of children. He was the first to use photography and one-way mirror observation as research methods . The Gesell Institute of Human Behaviour is still a world-renowned centre for child development research.

Urie Bronfenbrenner is famous for his Ecological systems theory. His field of research was the children and their families in the context of twentieth-century social transformations.

He developed the Ecological Systems Theory to better comprehend the complicated link that exists between the infant, the family, and society, as well as how these factors influence child development. Also, he had an impact on how psychologists and other social scientists viewed the study of people in their surroundings.

Furthermore, he linked child psychology to sociology (family studies), anthropology (society studies), economics, and political science. The goal here is to examine how all of these factors affect development rather than reviewing each independently.

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When his three children were born, he got interested in the scientific study of intelligence. He observed and took scientific notes on his children’s intellectual growth.

Better known for his Cognitive developmental stage theory , he was also the first person to conduct a scientific study of children based on real-life observations and meticulous note-taking. He observed that children’s intellectual growth is divided into four stages, beginning in infancy and ending in puberty.

As a youngster grows older, his or her thinking becomes more complicated. Each stage of development causes the youngster to view the world in a new light. He stated that a youngster must ‘master’ one stage before progressing to the next. They will never realise their full potential if they are unable to master a stage. Piaget thought that intellectual development is tightly linked to all other aspects of growth.

Maria Montessori believed that children from low-income families require a better start in life in order to succeed in school. She based her teaching methods and philosophy on Piaget’s theories.

Montessori believed that rather than forcing children to learn, they learn best by using their senses and pursuing their interests. You can call it self-directed learning. Children have inborn skills and talents. There are sensitive periods in a child’s life that can be used as an indicator to when the child is ready to learn.

The premise that children learn and think differently than adults is central to her Educational Philosophy. Many traditional types of achievement (like grades and tests) are discouraged, and Montessori schools all around the world (including Canada) implement her concepts as strictly as possible. Montessori thought that teachers should give the essential resources for children to learn independently while interfering as little as possible with the children’s learning experience.

Children will learn on their own if they receive affection. In essence, you can minimise group courses and emphasise the solo investigation of subjects like language, geography, and maths. Also, you can emphasise the importance of real-life experiences and hands-on activities. Children will take over the learning process if you can easily supply the age-appropriate learning resources.

Howard Gardner was tutored by Erik Erikson while studying law at Harvard University. There, his interest in psychology and the social sciences flourished, and he became interested in how people thought.

Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences contradicted the idea that humans have a single, fixed intelligence. He implies that intelligence is multidimensional. Each person has a different mix of several intelligences, resulting in a unique cognitive profile. Gardner believed that humans learned through seven (and later nine) separate intelligences.

One of socio behaviourist theories in early childhood- Lev Vygotsky is better known for his zone of proximal development (ZPD) theory. He began his laboratory studies while he was in his twenties and died of tuberculosis when he was in his thirties.

Vygotsky argued that nurture influences development more than nature in the nature vs nurture argument. The main concept of Vygotsky’s work was that social interaction is critical to learning. The development of a child is seen on two levels :

First , on a social level

Second , on an individual level

He thought that social interactions such as adult mentorship or peer collaboration help talents grow to a higher level. Adults, according to Vygotsky, were utilised by children to solve “knowledge issues”. Knowledge issues refer to their learning how their cultures operated and how they fit in. He also felt that thinking and linguistic skills are mutually reinforcing.

• F. Skinner’s theory (Behaviourist psychological theory) is founded on “operant conditioning”. The majority of his research involved tiny rats locked up in mazes. There was no systematic study of children. The theory states that a consequence follows behaviour. The nature of the result affects the tendency to repeat the behaviour. It’s a form of learning through rewards and punishment.

He claimed that youngsters would repeat rewarded behaviour in order to receive more rewards. It results in a higher likelihood of the behaviour occurring again. Similarly, youngsters will quit engaging in repeatedly penalised “bad” behaviour. Thus you can reduce the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again. Skinner also thought that parents play a critical role in training children by providing both positive and negative feedback.

As thus, he introduced the notions of-

• Positive reinforcement or reinforcing stimuli: If the desired behaviour is witnessed, something nice occurs.
• Negative reinforcement or aversive stimuli: When a bad behaviour is stopped by the desired behaviour.
• Extinction: It occurs when nothing happens while the behaviour occurs. As a result, the behaviour finally stops.
• Intermittent reinforcement : The most effective method of maintaining behaviour. It’s a combination of positive reinforcement and extinction . The most effective incentive here is the expectation of a reward.

Albert Banduram is famous for his social learning theory. Skinner’s theories heavily influenced him. But he did not agree with all of Skinner’s beliefs. He conducted a number of well-designed and tightly controlled studies on children’s behaviour.

Banduram implies that the environment determines children’s behaviour. But the behaviour also both shapes and modifies the environment. You can call it as “reciprocal determinism”. He looked at how personality interacts with the environment, behaviour, and a person’s psychological processes.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s research ( Moral understanding stage theory ) was inspired by Piaget’s theories and conducted during Skinner’s period. In order to monitor moral growth in children, he investigated male children.

Kohlberg argued that we could divide moral or ethical reasoning into six stages. Furthermore, we could classify each of them into three levels. According to Kohlberg, individuals can only move through the stages one at a time. We believe that the majority of moral development comes as a result of social interaction.

Robert Coles’ field of study was children’s moral growth. He thinks that their parent’s behaviour shapes the moral character of the children. In addition, their school, peers and their nurturing attitude also have the same influence.

Life stories are a great way to learn. He discovered that youngsters have a strong moral sensitivity to things like ideas and values, right and wrong. They are morally concerned about issues that affect their daily lives. In addition, our motivations behind what we do, feel and think nudges their thought faculty too. 

Carol Gilligan believed that most moral development theories were skewed since they were based on studies of “privileged white men” in the 1970s. She questioned if she could apply the statistics to women without additional research.

Gilligan stressed the role of gender in the formation of morality too.

If you ever dream of becoming a child psychologist, check out our other blog, “ How to Become a Child Psychologist in the UK .”

Who was the first child development theorists?

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was the first researcher to study children scientifically.

Who is the father of child development?

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is the father of the field of “child development theory”.

What was Erik Erikson’s theory?

You can call Erik Erikson’s theory the Psychosocial stage theory.

Who influenced Piaget?

Piaget’s theory expanded from the likes of Skinner and Pavlov’s behaviourist theories.

Where is Jean Piaget from?

Jean Piaget was from Switzerland.

How are Piaget and Erikson’s theories different?

The main distinction between Piaget’s and Erikson’s theory is that Erikson focused on development throughout life, whereas Piaget only looked at it from infancy to late adolescence.

Why is Piaget’s theory important?

Piaget’s cognitive development hypothesis contributed to our knowledge of children’s intellectual development. It also emphasised that children were not just passive consumers of information. Instead, as they develop their understanding of how the world works, children are continuously studying and experimenting.

What was Skinner’s theory?

Skinner’s theory focused on the Behaviourist Psychological Theory and you can find it in “operant conditioning”.

Although there are many more related topics inherent in our child development theorists cheat sheet, these are the major ones. If you still want more comprehensive information on how theories influence current practice, you may have to refer to a book that focuses on child development and child psychology. You may be looking for this sheet either for self-study or for professional development. “Child development and psychology course” offered by Lead Academy is a course that can help you with that. Professionally made courses like these will give you a deep dive into the field of child development.

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Child Growth and Development

(12 reviews)

Jennifer Paris

Antoinette Ricardo

Dawn Rymond

Alexa Johnson

Copyright Year: 2018

Last Update: 2019

Publisher: College of the Canyons

Language: English

Formats Available

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Reviewed by Mistie Potts, Assistant Professor, Manchester University on 11/22/22

This text covers some topics with more detail than necessary (e.g., detailing infant urination) yet it lacks comprehensiveness in a few areas that may need revision. For example, the text discusses issues with vaccines and offers a 2018 vaccine... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This text covers some topics with more detail than necessary (e.g., detailing infant urination) yet it lacks comprehensiveness in a few areas that may need revision. For example, the text discusses issues with vaccines and offers a 2018 vaccine schedule for infants. The text brushes over “commonly circulated concerns” regarding vaccines and dispels these with statements about the small number of antigens a body receives through vaccines versus the numerous antigens the body normally encounters. With changes in vaccines currently offered, shifting CDC viewpoints on recommendations, and changing requirements for vaccine regulations among vaccine producers, the authors will need to revisit this information to comprehensively address all recommended vaccines, potential risks, and side effects among other topics in the current zeitgeist of our world.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

At face level, the content shared within this book appears accurate. It would be a great task to individually check each in-text citation and determine relevance, credibility and accuracy. It is notable that many of the citations, although this text was updated in 2019, remain outdated. Authors could update many of the in-text citations for current references. For example, multiple in-text citations refer to the March of Dimes and many are dated from 2012 or 2015. To increase content accuracy, authors should consider revisiting their content and current citations to determine if these continue to be the most relevant sources or if revisions are necessary. Finally, readers could benefit from a reference list in this textbook. With multiple in-text citations throughout the book, it is surprising no reference list is provided.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

This text would be ideal for an introduction to child development course and could possibly be used in a high school dual credit or beginning undergraduate course or certificate program such as a CDA. The outdated citations and formatting in APA 6th edition cry out for updating. Putting those aside, the content provides a solid base for learners interested in pursuing educational domains/careers relevant to child development. Certain issues (i.e., romantic relationships in adolescence, sexual orientation, and vaccination) may need to be revisited and updated, or instructors using this text will need to include supplemental information to provide students with current research findings and changes in these areas.

Clarity rating: 4

The text reads like an encyclopedia entry. It provides bold print headers and brief definitions with a few examples. Sprinkled throughout the text are helpful photographs with captions describing the images. The words chosen in the text are relatable to most high school or undergraduate level readers and do not burden the reader with expert level academic vocabulary. The layout of the text and images is simple and repetitive with photographs complementing the text entries. This allows the reader to focus their concentration on comprehension rather than deciphering a more confusing format. An index where readers could go back and search for certain terms within the textbook would be helpful. Additionally, a glossary of key terms would add clarity to this textbook.

Consistency rating: 5

Chapters appear in a similar layout throughout the textbook. The reader can anticipate the flow of the text and easily identify important terms. Authors utilized familiar headings in each chapter providing consistency to the reader.

Modularity rating: 4

Given the repetitive structure and the layout of the topics by developmental issues (physical, social emotional) the book could be divided into sections or modules. It would be easier if infancy and fetal development were more clearly distinct and stages of infant development more clearly defined, however the book could still be approached in sections or modules.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The text is organized in a logical way when we consider our own developmental trajectories. For this reason, readers learning about these topics can easily relate to the flow of topics as they are presented throughout the book. However, when attempting to find certain topics, the reader must consider what part of development that topic may inhabit and then turn to the portion of the book aligned with that developmental issue. To ease the organization and improve readability as a reference book, authors could implement an index in the back of the book. With an index by topic, readers could quickly turn to pages covering specific topics of interest. Additionally, the text structure could be improved by providing some guiding questions or reflection prompts for readers. This would provide signals for readers to stop and think about their comprehension of the material and would also benefit instructors using this textbook in classroom settings.

Interface rating: 4

The online interface for this textbook did not hinder readability or comprehension of the text. All information including photographs, charts, and diagrams appeared to be clearly depicted within this interface. To ease reading this text online authors should create a live table of contents with bookmarks to the beginning of chapters. This book does not offer such links and therefore the reader must scroll through the pdf to find each chapter or topic.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammatical errors were found in reviewing this textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

Cultural diversity is represented throughout this text by way of the topics described and the images selected. The authors provide various perspectives that individuals or groups from multiple cultures may resonate with including parenting styles, developmental trajectories, sexuality, approaches to feeding infants, and the social emotional development of children. This text could expand in the realm of cultural diversity by addressing current issues regarding many of the hot topics in our society. Additionally, this textbook could include other types of cultural diversity aside from geographical location (e.g., religion-based or ability-based differences).

While this text lacks some of the features I would appreciate as an instructor (e.g., study guides, review questions, prompts for critical thinking/reflection) and it does not contain an index or glossary, it would be appropriate as an accessible resource for an introduction to child development. Students could easily access this text and find reliable and easily readable information to build basic content knowledge in this domain.

Reviewed by Caroline Taylor, Instructor, Virginia Tech on 12/30/21

Each chapter is comprehensively described and organized by the period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped together, they are logically organized and discussed within each chapter. One helpful addition that would largely... read more

Each chapter is comprehensively described and organized by the period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped together, they are logically organized and discussed within each chapter. One helpful addition that would largely contribute to the comprehensiveness is a glossary of terms at the end of the text.

From my reading, the content is accurate and unbiased. However, it is difficult to confidently respond due to a lack of references. It is sometimes clear where the information came from, but when I followed one link to a citation the link was to another textbook. There are many citations embedded within the text, but it would be beneficial (and helpful for further reading) to have a list of references at the end of each chapter. The references used within the text are also older, so implementing updated references would also enhance accuracy. If used for a course, instructors will need to supplement the textbook readings with other materials.

This text can be implemented for many semesters to come, though as previously discussed, further readings and updated materials can be used to supplement this text. It provides a good foundation for students to read prior to lectures.

Clarity rating: 5

This text is unique in its writing style for a textbook. It is written in a way that is easily accessible to students and is also engaging. The text doesn't overly use jargon or provide complex, long-winded examples. The examples used are clear and concise. Many key terms are in bold which is helpful to the reader.

For the terms that are in bold, it would be helpful to have a definition of the term listed separately on the page within the side margins, as well as include the definition in a glossary at the end.

Each period of development is consistently described by first addressing physical development, cognitive development, and then social-emotional development.

Modularity rating: 5

This text is easily divisible to assign to students. There were few (if any) large blocks of texts without subheadings, graphs, or images. This feature not only improves modularity but also promotes engagement with the reading.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The organization of the text flows logically. I appreciate the order of the topics, which are clearly described in the first chapter by each period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped into one period of development, development is appropriately described for both infants and toddlers. Key theories are discussed for infants and toddlers and clearly presented for the appropriate age.

Interface rating: 5

There were no significant interface issues. No images or charts were distorted.

It would be helpful to the reader if the table of contents included a navigation option, but this doesn't detract from the overall interface.

I did not see any grammatical errors.

This text includes some cultural examples across each area of development, such as differences in first words, parenting styles, personalities, and attachments styles (to list a few). The photos included throughout the text are inclusive of various family styles, races, and ethnicities. This text could implement more cultural components, but does include some cultural examples. Again, instructors can supplement more cultural examples to bolster the reading.

This text is a great introductory text for students. The text is written in a fun, approachable way for students. Though the text is not as interactive (e.g., further reading suggestions, list of references, discussion points at the end of each chapter, etc.), this is a great resource to cover development that is open access.

Reviewed by Charlotte Wilinsky, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Holyoke Community College on 6/29/21

This text is very thorough in its coverage of child and adolescent development. Important theories and frameworks in developmental psychology are discussed in appropriate depth. There is no glossary of terms at the end of the text, but I do not... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This text is very thorough in its coverage of child and adolescent development. Important theories and frameworks in developmental psychology are discussed in appropriate depth. There is no glossary of terms at the end of the text, but I do not think this really hurts its comprehensiveness.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The citations throughout the textbook help to ensure its accuracy. However, the text could benefit from additional references to recent empirical studies in the developmental field.

It seems as if updates to this textbook will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement given how well organized the text is and its numerous sections and subsections. For example, a recent narrative review was published on the effects of corporal punishment (Heilmann et al., 2021). The addition of a reference to this review, and other more recent work on spanking and other forms of corporal punishment, could serve to update the text's section on spanking (pp. 223-224; p. 418).

The text is very clear and easily understandable.

Consistency rating: 4

There do not appear to be any inconsistencies in the text. The lack of a glossary at the end of the text may be a limitation in this area, however, since glossaries can help with consistent use of language or clarify when different terms are used.

This textbook does an excellent job of dividing up and organizing its chapters. For example, chapters start with bulleted objectives and end with a bulleted conclusion section. Within each chapter, there are many headings and subheadings, making it easy for the reader to methodically read through the chapter or quickly identify a section of interest. This would also assist in assigning reading on specific topics. Additionally, the text is broken up by relevant photos, charts, graphs, and diagrams, depending on the topic being discussed.

This textbook takes a chronological approach. The broad developmental stages covered include, in order, birth and the newborn, infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Starting with the infancy and toddlerhood stage, physical, cognitive, and social emotional development are covered.

There are no interface issues with this textbook. It is easily accessible as a PDF file. Images are clear and there is no distortion apparent.

I did not notice any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

This text does a good job of including content relevant to different cultures and backgrounds. One example of this is in the "Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles" subsection (p. 222). Here the authors discuss how socioeconomic status and cultural background can affect parenting styles. Including references to specific studies could further strengthen this section, and, more broadly, additional specific examples grounded in research could help to fortify similar sections focused on cultural differences.

Overall, I think this is a terrific resource for a child and adolescent development course. It is user-friendly and comprehensive.

Reviewed by Lois Pribble, Lecturer, University of Oregon on 6/14/21

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains. read more

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains.

The book provides accurate information, emphasizes using data based on scientific research, and is stated in a non-biased fashion.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The book is relevant and provides up-to-date information. There are areas where updates will need to be made as research and practices change (e.g., autism information), but it is written in a way where updates should be easy to make as needed.

The book is clear and easy to read. It is well organized.

Good consistency in format and language.

It would be very easy to assign students certain chapters to read based on content such as theory, developmental stages, or developmental domains.

Very well organized.

Clear and easy to follow.

I did not find any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

General content related to culture was infused throughout the book. The pictures used were of children and families from a variety of cultures.

This book provides a very thorough introduction to child development, emphasizing child development theories, stages of development, and developmental domains.

Reviewed by Nancy Pynchon, Adjunct Faculty, Middlesex Community College on 4/14/21

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development . read more

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development .

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Most of the information is accurately written, there is some outdated references, for example: Many adults can remember being spanked as a child. This method of discipline continues to be endorsed by the majority of parents (Smith, 2012). It seems as though there may be more current research on parent's methods of discipline as this information is 10 years old. (page 223).

The content was current with the terminology used.

Easy to follow the references made in the chapters.

Each chapter covers the different stages of development and includes the theories of each stage with guided information for each age group.

The formatting of the book makes it reader friendly and easy to follow the content.

Very consistent from chapter to chapter.

Provided a lot of charts and references within each chapter.

Formatted and written concisely.

Included several different references to diversity in the chapters.

There was no glossary at the end of the book and there were no vignettes or reflective thinking scenarios in the chapters. Overall it was a well written book on child development which covered infancy through adolescents.

Reviewed by Deborah Murphy, Full Time Instructor, Rogue Community College on 1/11/21

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided.

The material seems very accurate and current. It is well written. It is very professionally done and is accessible to students.

This text addresses topics that will serve this field in positive ways that should be able to address the needs of students and instructors for the next several years.

Complex concepts are delivered accurately and are still accessible for students . Figures and tables complement the text . Terms are explained and are embedded in the text, not in a glossary. I do think indices and glossaries are helpful tools. Terminology is highlighted with bold fonts to accentuate definitions.

Yes the text is consistent in its format. As this is a text on Child Development it consistently addresses each developmental domain and then repeats the sequence for each age group in childhood. It is very logically presented.

Yes this text is definitely divisible. This text addresses development from conception to adolescents. For the community college course that my department wants to use it is very adaptable. Our course ends at middle school age development; our courses are offered on a quarter system. This text is adaptable for the content and our term time schedule.

This text book flows very clearly from Basic principles to Conception. It then divides each stage of development into Physical, Cognitive and Social Emotional development. Those concepts and information are then repeated for each stage of development. e.g. Infants and Toddler-hood, Early Childhood, and Middle Childhood. It is very clearly presented.

It is very professionally presented. It is quite attractive in its presentation .

I saw no errors

The text appears to be aware of being diverse and inclusive both in its content and its graphics. It discusses culture and represents a variety of family structures representing contemporary society.

It is wonderfully researched. It will serve our students well. It is comprehensive and constructed very well. I have enjoyed getting familiar with this text and am looking forward to using it with my students in this upcoming term. The authors have presented a valuable, well written book that will be an addition to our field. Their scholarly efforts are very apparent. All of this text earns high grades in my evaluation. My only criticism is, as mentioned above, is that there is not a glossary or index provided. All citations are embedded in the text.

Reviewed by Ida Weldon, Adjunct Professor, Bunker Hill Community College on 6/30/20

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth read more

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth

Most of the information was accurate. However, I think more references should have been provided to support some claims made in the text.

The material appeared to be relevant. However, it did not provide guidance for teachers in addressing topics of social justice, equality that most children will ask as they try to make sense of their environment.

The information was presented (use of language) that added to its understand-ability. However, I think more discussions and examples would be helpful.

The text appeared to be consistent. The purpose and intent of the text was understandable throughout.

The text can easily be divided into smaller reading sections or restructured to meet the needs of the professor.

The organization of the text adds to its consistency. However, some sections can be included in others decreasing the length of the text.

Interface issues were not visible.

The text appears to be free of grammatical errors.

While cultural differences are mentioned, more time can be given to helping teachers understand and create a culturally and ethnically focused curriculum.

The textbook provides a comprehensive summary of curriculum planing for preschool age children. However, very few chapters address infant/toddlers.

Reviewed by Veronica Harris, Adjunct Faculty, Northern Essex Community College on 6/28/20

This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary. However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical,... read more

This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary. However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical, cognitive and social emotional development. It is thorough and easy to read. The theories of development are inclusive to give the reader a broader understanding on how the domains of development are intertwined. The content is comprehensive, well - researched and sequential. Each chapter begins with the learning outcomes for the upcoming material and closes with an outline of the topics covered. Furthermore, a look into the next chapter is discussed.

The content is accurate, well - researched and unbiased. An historical context is provided putting content into perspective for the student. It appears to be unbiased.

Updated and accurate research is evidenced in the text. The text is written and organized in such a way that updates can be easily implemented. The author provides theoretical approaches in the psychological domains with examples along with real - life scenarios providing meaningful references invoking understanding by the student.

The text is written with clarity and is easily understood. The topics are sequential, comprehensive and and inclusive to all students. This content is presented in a cohesive, engaging, scholarly manner. The terminology used is appropriate to students studying Developmental Psychology spanning from birth through adolescents.

The book's approach to the content is consistent and well organized. . Theoretical contexts are presented throughout the text.

The text contains subheadings chunking the reading sections which can be assigned at various points throughout the course. The content flows seamlessly from one idea to the next. Written chronologically and subdividing each age span into the domains of psychology provides clarity without overwhelming the reader.

The book begins with an overview of child development. Next, the text is divided logically into chapters which focus on each developmental age span. The domains of each age span are addressed separately in subsequent chapters. Each chapter outlines the chapter objectives and ends with an outline of the topics covered and share an idea of what is to follow.

Pages load clearly and consistently without distortion of text, charts and tables. Navigating through the pages is met with ease.

The text is written with no grammatical or spelling errors.

The text did not present with biases or insensitivity to cultural differences. Photos are inclusive of various cultures.

The thoroughness, clarity and comprehensiveness promote an approach to Developmental Psychology that stands alongside the best of texts in this area. I am confident that this text encompasses all the required elements in this area.

Reviewed by Kathryn Frazier, Assistant Professor, Worcester State University on 6/23/20

This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence. All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to... read more

This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence. All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to summarize debates and controversies, when relevant and include a large amount of applied / practical material. For example, beyond infant growth patterns and motor milestone, the infancy/toddler chapters spend several pages on the mechanics of car seat safety, best practices for introducing solid foods (and the rationale), and common concerns like diaper rash. In addition to being generally useful information for students who are parents, or who may go on to be parents, this text takes care to contextualize the psychological research in the lived experiences of children and their parents. This is an approach that I find highly valuable. While the text does not contain an index, the search & find capacity of OER to make an index a deal-breaker for me.

The text includes accurate information that is well-sourced. Relevant debates, controversies and historical context is also provided throughout which results in a rich, balanced text.

This text provides an excellent summary of classic and updated developmental work. While the majority of the text is skewed toward dated, classic work, some updated research is included. Instructors may wish to supplement this text with more recent work, particularly that which includes diverse samples and specifically addresses topics of class, race, gender and sexual orientation (see comment below regarding cultural aspects).

The text is written in highly accessible language, free of jargon. Of particular value are the many author-generated tables which clearly organize and display critical information. The authors have also included many excellent figures, which reinforce and visually organize the information presented.

This text is consistent in its use of terminology. Balanced discussion of multiple theoretical frameworks are included throughout, with adequate space provided to address controversies and debates.

The text is clearly organized and structured. Each chapter is self-contained. In places where the authors do refer to prior or future chapters (something that I find helps students contextualize their reading), a complete discussion of the topic is included. While this may result in repetition for students reading the text from cover to cover, the repetition of some content is not so egregious that it outweighs the benefit of a flexible, modular textbook.

Excellent, clear organization. This text closely follows the organization of published textbooks that I have used in the past for both lifespan and child development. As this text follows a chronological format, a discussion of theory and methods, and genetics and prenatal growth is followed by sections devoted to a specific age range: infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood (preschool), middle childhood and adolescence. Each age range is further split into three chapters that address each developmental domain: physical, cognitive and social emotional development.

All text appears clearly and all images, tables and figures are positioned correctly and free of distortion.

The text contains no spelling or grammatical errors.

While this text provides adequate discussion of gender and cross-cultural influences on development, it is not sufficient. This is not a problem unique to this text, and is indeed a critique I have of all developmental textbooks. In particular, in my view this text does not adequately address the role of race, class or sexual orientation on development.

All in all, this is a comprehensive and well-written textbook that very closely follows the format of standard chronologically-organized child development textbooks. This is a fantastic alternative for those standard texts, with the added benefit of language that is more accessible, and content that is skewed toward practical applications.

Reviewed by Tony Philcox, Professor, Valencia College on 6/4/20

The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the... read more

The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the Introduction. The principles of development were delineated and were thoroughly presented in a very understandable way. Nine theories were presented which gave the reader an understanding of the many authors who have contributed to Child Development. A good backdrop to start a conversation. This book discusses the early beginnings starting with Conception, Hereditary and Prenatal stages which provides a foundation for the future developmental stages such as infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. The three domains of developmental psychology – physical, cognitive and social emotional are entertained with each stage of development. This book is thoroughly researched and is written in a way to not overwhelm. Language is concise and easily understood.

This book is a very comprehensive and detailed account of Child Growth and Development. The author leaves no stone unturned. It has the essential elements addressed in each of the developmental stages. Thoroughly researched and well thought out. The content covered was accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The content is very relevant to the subject of Child Growth and Development. It is comprehensive and thoroughly researched. The author has included a number of relevant subjects that highlight the three domains of developmental psychology, physical, cognitive and social emotional. Topics are included that help the student see the relevancy of the theories being discussed. Any necessary updates along the way will be very easy and straightforward to insert.

The text is easily understood. From the very beginning of this book, the author has given the reader a very clear message that does not overwhelm but pulls the reader in for more information. The very first chapter sets a tone for what is to come and entices the reader to learn more. Well organized and jargon appropriate for students in a Developmental Psychology class.

This book has all the ingredients necessary to address Child Growth and Development. Even at the very beginning of the book the backdrop is set for future discussions on the stages of development. Theorists are mentioned and embellished throughout the book. A very consistent and organized approach.

This book has all the features you would want. There are textbooks that try to cover too much in one chapter. In this book the sections are clearly identified and divided into smaller and digestible parts so the reader can easily comprehend the topic under discussion. This book easily flows from one subject to the next. Blocks of information are being built, one brick on top of another as you move through the domains of development and the stages of development.

This book starts out with a comprehensive overview in the introduction to child development. From that point forward it is organized into the various stages of development and flows well. As mentioned previously the information is organized into building blocks as you move from one stage to the next.

The text does not contain any significant interface issued. There are no navigation problems. There is nothing that was detected that would distract or confuse the reader.

There are no grammatical errors that were identified.

This book was not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

This book is clearly a very comprehensive approach to Child Growth and Development. It contains all the essential ingredients that you would expect in a discussion on this subject. At the very outset this book went into detail on the principles of development and included all relevant theories. I was never left with wondering why certain topics were left out. This is undoubtedly a well written, organized and systematic approach to the subject.

Reviewed by Eleni Makris, Associate Professor, Northeastern Illinois University on 5/6/20

This book is organized by developmental stages (infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence). The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and... read more

This book is organized by developmental stages (infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence). The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and expectations of newborns. In addition, there is a consistency to each developmental stage. For infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence, the textbook covers physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development for each stage. While some textbooks devote entire chapters to themes such as physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development and write about how children change developmentally in each stage this book focuses on human stages of development. The book is written in clear language and is easy to understand.

There is so much information in this book that it is a very good overview of child development. The content is error-free and unbiased. In some spots it briefly introduces multicultural traditions, beliefs, and attitudes. It is accurate for the citations that have been provided. However, it could benefit from updating to research that has been done recently. I believe that if the instructor supplements this text with current peer-reviewed research and organizations that are implementing what the book explains, this book will serve as a strong source of information.

While the book covers a very broad range of topics, many times the citations have not been updated and are often times dated. The content and information that is provided is correct and accurate, but this text can certainly benefit from having the latest research added. It does, however, include a great many topics that serve to inform students well.

The text is very easy to understand. It is written in a way that first and second year college students will find easy to understand. It also introduces students to current child and adolescent behavior that is important to be understood on an academic level. It does this in a comprehensive and clear manner.

This book is very consistent. The chapters are arranged by developmental stage. Even within each chapter there is a consistency of theorists. For example, each chapter begins with Piaget, then moves to Vygotsky, etc. This allows for great consistency among chapters. If I as the instructor decide to have students write about Piaget and his development theories throughout the life span, students will easily know that they can find this information in the first few pages of each chapter.

Certainly instructors will find the modularity of this book easy. Within each chapter the topics are self-contained and extensive. As I read the textbook, I envisioned myself perhaps not assigning entire chapters but assigning specific topics/modules and pages that students can read. I believe the modules can be used as a strong foundational reading to introduce students to concepts and then have students read supplemental information from primary sources or journals to reinforce what they have read in the chapter.

The organization of the book is clear and flows nicely. From the table of context students understand how the book is organized. The textbook would be even stronger if there was a more detailed table of context which highlights what topics are covered within each of the chapter. There is so much information contained within each chapter that it would be very beneficial to both students and instructor to quickly see what content and topics are covered in each chapter.

The interface is fine and works well.

The text is free from grammatical errors.

While the textbook does introduce some multicultural differences and similarities, it does not delve deeply into multiracial and multiethnic issues within America. It also offers very little comment on differences that occur among urban, rural, and suburban experiences. In addition, while it does talk about maturation and sexuality, LGBTQ issues could be more prominent.

Overall I enjoyed this text and will strongly consider using it in my course. The focus is clearly on human development and has very little emphasis on education. However, I intend to supplement this text with additional readings and videos that will show concrete examples of the concepts which are introduced in the text. It is a strong and worthy alternative to high-priced textbooks.

Reviewed by Mohsin Ahmed Shaikh, Assistant Professor, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania on 9/5/19

The content extensively discusses various aspects of emotional, cognitive, physical and social development. Examples and case studies are really informative. Some of the areas that can be elaborated more are speech-language and hearing... read more

The content extensively discusses various aspects of emotional, cognitive, physical and social development. Examples and case studies are really informative. Some of the areas that can be elaborated more are speech-language and hearing development. Because these components contribute significantly in development of communication abilities and self-image.

Content covered is pretty accurate. I think the details impressive.

The content is relevant and is based on the established knowledge of the field.

Easy to read and follow.

The terminology used is consistent and appropriate.

I think of using various sections of this book in some of undergraduate and graduate classes.

The flow of the book is logical and easy to follow.

There are no interface issues. Images, charts and diagram are clear and easy to understand.

Well written

The text appropriate and do not use any culturally insensitive language.

I really like that this is a book with really good information which is available in open text book library.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development
• Chapter 2: Conception, Heredity, & Prenatal Development
• Chapter 3: Birth and the Newborn
• Chapter 4: Physical Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood
• Chapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
• Chapter 6: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
• Chapter 7: Physical Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 8: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 9: Social Emotional Development in Early Childhood
• Chapter 10: Middle Childhood - Physical Development
• Chapter 11: Middle Childhood – Cognitive Development
• Chapter 12: Middle Childhood - Social Emotional Development
• Chapter 13: Adolescence – Physical Development
• Chapter 14: Adolescence – Cognitive Development
• Chapter 15: Adolescence – Social Emotional Development

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn. We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence.

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100+ Child Development Research Topics for Assignments

Table of Contents

Child development is self-explanatory. It denotes the development process that a child undergoes over time. Some even refer to it as the course of a kid’s growth. 

Field Experts explain child development as the sequence of dialectal, thinking, emotional and physical changes occurring within a kid from birth to adulthood. 

In this crucial period, the child, completely dependent on their parents, becomes somewhat independent. 

These experts further opine that child development is often influenced by the genes passed down by their parents along with prenatal life events. Of course, environmental factors also play an influential role in developing kids’ learning capabilities. 

What Does Child Development Include?

During the child development stage, kids learn various useful life skills. In doing so, they lay the path for their righteous future and their vivid endeavours.

Some vital skills that kids master during their early learning and development stage include as follows –

Exciting Trivia on Child Development

• For every child, the first 3-5 years of their life hold lots of importance. During this phase, their brain/cognitive functions create a neural pathway at increased rates. Hence, kids undergo rapid growth and Development.
• When they’re 6 years old, their brains reach 90% of their adult size and can soak up an astonishing amount of information from their everyday experiences and surroundings. 
• According to UNICEF, approximately 200 million less fortunate kids can’t fully develop their key skills due to low income in their families.
• Furthermore, the interrelationship between parents’ genetics and environmental factors is pivotal in early kids’ learning and development.

The Crucial Stages of Child Development

As children grow, their physical, emotional, and cognitive skills also develop. And once a child learns and masters a particular skill at a specific age, it is called the ‘ Development Milestone .’

Parents often watch such development milestone stages to determine whether their kid is growing and developing life skills at the right pace. 

For A Better Understanding, Here Are the Crucial Stages of a Child’s Development

The First 2 Months (from birth) 

Kids respond particularly to exterior inducements during the first couple of months from their birth. These new-borns observe their surroundings, react to sounds, and even move their heads from one side to another as their means of expression.

After they cross the 2 months phase, most kids start smiling at folks to show gestures. 

3 to 6 Months (from birth) 

During the span of 3-6 months, kids start becoming more adept at recognising faces and sounds! Plus, they move their heads often and make cute sounds. 

6 Months (from birth) 

After 6 months, the new-borns start communicating with cute gestures and even responding whenever called by their names. They even learn to stand upright and sit.

9 to 12 Months (from birth) 

Kids 9-12 months old begin crawling on all fours and standing up without help or support. Moreover, these kids respond to sounds and gestures better. 

Toddle Phase 

The toddler phase begins when kids are 1-3 years old. Once kids reach this stage, they walk alone without relying on their parents or caregivers. 

They may even be seen climbing stairs or running. Also, during this period, the kid begins uttering some words and understanding their parents’ instructions properly.

Pre-School Phase 

This phase is when a child is 3-6 years old. During this period, the kid develops motor skills and leans to throw, hop, skip and even yank stuff. 

Although not perfect, they can also speak full sentences without much issues. Also, by teaching them proper toilet etiquette, kids can go to the loo independently.

Schooling Phase 

This phase is when the child is 6-7 years old. It is also the period when kid develops language, listening and cognitive skills. Moreover, they start understanding and differentiating various emotions like friendship, love, anger, sadness and respect towards superiors. 

By the time they reach 8, kids start expressing themselves through proper gestures, language and meaningful action. 

Why is Early Childhood Learning & Development So Vital?

Plenty of evidence reveals that kids learn best between 1-6 years old. So, it is imperative to help kids develop critical life skills and lay the foundation for their future.

• Early child development helps parents/caregivers determine the strengths and weaknesses of a kid. By identifying those issues early on, they can formulate a treatment plan to end the issue before it becomes serious.
• Early childhood learning and development manifest positive experiences within a child and helps boost their self-confidence. Kids learn to stay optimistic regardless of their circumstances. Moreover, with lots of confidence and positivity oozing out of them, kids dare to try new things and develop new interests/hobbies that give them joy. 
• Children, from their birth, experience things that shape their identity and personality. By complementing their efforts  (instead of their personality) , early childhood educators help develop stronger personalities in these children, thus shaping them into the person their parents want them to become.
• Proper childhood learning and development also teaches kids to forge healthy relationships with similar-aged kids around them. Through these meaningful interactions, kids learn about teamwork and working conjointly to accomplish a common task.
• Furthermore, proper childhood development also positively impacts the child’s long-term physical health outcomes. And that augments their future prospects and inevitable earning potential.

How to Properly Write Child Development Research Topics?

Quality research paper writing from scratch can often overwhelm the best of students. In fact, many suffer sleeplessness worrying about how to write their child development research  paper  topic  properly .

Luckily, the following tips will ease your woes and miseries and educate you on the process. 

You start by using the tips above to browse Child development research topics for Assignments and finalise one you’re confident writing in.

• Prepare the research paper outline  (featuring the introduction, thesis statement, body, and conclusion).
• Once you have a proper outline, move over to the researching part. Dig up as much information and data as you can. But only refer to legitimate and quality web sources.
• After accumulating sufficient information for your paper start writing it per the outline. In the introduction, introduce the topic tactfully and keep your explanations brief and direct. You can also include meaningful data on child development or incorporate an interrogative statement to hook your readers’ interests. Make sure your thesis statement serves as the summary for your whole paper. Do mention your topic coverage, your objective through research and your final verdict!
• In the body section, you elaborate on those selected points. Use examples, quotations and relevant data to improve reader engagement. You can also incorporate some word art, tables or graphic representations to make your post a good read for your audience. While writing the body, cite all used sources correctly. Pay attention to the specified citation style and ensure you don’t make mistakes. In-text source references add more depth and credibility to your post. It also helps you bypass plagiarism nuisances when rephrasing information from various sources. 
• Of course, properly writing it won’t do. You must also arrange the information properly so everything doesn’t appear cluttered or incomprehensible. Use individual stanzas to elaborate on various points. Also, use proper transitions to maintain flow and uniformity throughout the research paper. It will simplify things for your readers ( and your paper reviewer ) to grasp everything in one read.
• Finally, you write the conclusion ( which will surmise everything covered in the body section ). Rephrase the thesis statement. Avoid adding any new information. It may create confusion among your readers. Finally, prompt a call to action among your audience. You can do it with a compelling statement, thought-provoking question or strong quote.

After You Finish Writing:

• Include a citation index/bibliography section.
• Edit and proofread your paper thoroughly.
• Scan the file using premium anti-plagiarism software.
• Make corrections whenever necessary.
• Download a report if there are no plagiarism traces.
• Lastly, request someone to review your work and suggest room for improvement. Make the changes whenever applicable.

That’s it. Your research paper is now submission-ready!

100+ Interesting Child Development Research Topics for College Students

Excellent child development topics.

• What is the impact of domestic violence on early childhood development?
• What is the significance of preschool in early kids’ development – Elaborate through your assignment research
• Explain the various moral development phases in child development.
• Write a research paper on the important kid’s development theories or philosophies
• Explain the relevance of Vygotsky’s kids’ development philosophy
• How does divorce impact a child’s development early on?
• Explain the role of music in a kid’s early development – Also, share relatable examples with your research
• Explain in detail the value and importance of early kid’s development
• An account of the best parenting style. Also, explain how they work through your assignment research paper
• A detailed analysis of Kid’s Abuse Prevention Programs
• What is the impact of obesity on early kid’s development
• How does depression hinder a child’s positive development?
• Does having an imaginary friend prove problematic for proper child development?
• How does having siblings help in a kid’s early development?
•  A Comprehensive Account of Child Service and their role in optimum kids’ development

Developmental Psychology Research Topics

• Environment and Kid’s Development – What’s the Connection?
• An Account of Bilingualism’s Effect on early kid’s development
• Sure-fire ways to educate communities and create awareness towards early childhood learning and education
• How does good parenting influence positive child development?
• Explain how negative parenting hinders proper kids’ development early on
• How to develop proper language skills in children?
• What are the factors that positively influence early kids’ development?
• Does having good genetics guarantee positive child development early on?
• What are the effects of poverty on early kids’ development?
• How to boost cognitive development in kids? Explain through your assignment research
• An account of the prevalent circular issues in early childhood development
• What factors hinder a kid’s development early on?
• A detailed account of Asperger’s Disorder and its Influence on Kid’s Development
•  How does child development gets hindered by toxic/abusive relationships?
• How does technology help advance kids’ Development early on? – Write using real-time examples

Easy Child Development Research Topics

• What role do video games play in kids’ development?
• Why must kids attain proper computer literacy?
• Classroom influence on early childhood development?
• Why/How appropriate parenting style is pivotal in positive kid development?
• The Influence of Genes on a Kid’s Early development
• An Account of the 5 crucial stages of early kid’s development
• How does outdoor playing help in early kids’ development?
• Is technology a boon or bane for early kids’ development? Write using examples 
• How does aiming the Microbiome augments under-nutrition children?
• How does physically hitting children hinder their early development and self-confidence?
• How to prevent anxiety, depression and mental illness in kids?
• Does family lifestyle play a role in a kid’s development – Elaborate through your research paper
• Why must parents keep an eye on their kid’s mental development?
• What amount of time must parents spend with their little ones?
• Does digital media hamper kids’ development?

Thought-Provoking Research Topics in Early Childhood Education

• A detailed account of Early kid’s educational policies and standards
• The hallmarks of a competent early child educator
• Improvement suggestions in the existing early kid’s education and development
• The value of educational headship in early kid’s education
• Tips for optimal early kid’s education – Does parent’s involvement make a difference? Explain with examples through your assignment research.
• What entail the moral dilemmas in early childhood learning and development?
• An Account of child learning stratagems
• Why is social interaction crucial to early kids’ education and development?
• Do parents take it easy when it comes to early childhood education?
• A crucial facet of early childhood education and development is experiencing nature – Is this statement true?
• COVID-19 impact on early childhood education and development – Explain comprehensively with examples and relevant data
•  The importance of encouragement and acknowledgement in early kid’s education and development
•  The Condition of early childhood education and development in India
• The State of Early kid’s Education and Development in the USA 
• What is the condition of early kids’ education in the UK?

Unique Child Development Research Topics for College Students

• 10 benefits of early childhood education and development – write with examples 
• How does a good breakfast help improve a kid’s performance?
• How to make your child understand ‘Sharing is Caring’? Write using relatable examples 
• Precisely when should a parent take their kid to visit a psychologist?
• How to monitor your kid’s early learning and development?
• Is child development given enough importance worldwide? Draw a comparison between 3 worldwide nations
• What’s the best nutritional diet for little kids? Present 5 dietary suggestions with reasons in your research paper
• Explain the contrast between Autism and Dyspraxia – How does either condition impact child development?
• How to teach your child proper eating etiquette?
• How to empower an introverted kid during early education and development?
• How does story narration help improve dialectal development in young kids?
• Ways for parents to deal with bedwetting children?
• Tips for tackling a fussy child and teaching them good manners
• Role of Kinder garden learning programs for early child development
• Learning practices for kids with ADHD ( Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

Interesting Child Development Research Topics

• An account of Mommy and Me classes – What’s the significance?
• Explain the various phases of PLAY in early child development.
• The Role of Health in positive early kids’ development
• How to augment your child’s math skills early on? Write using examples 
• Tips to improve kid’s confidence during the early stages of learning and development
• What are the various types of parenting? Explain each type with examples through your assignment research.
• An Account of Kid’s Early Care Crisis in the US?
• How proper sleep positively impacts a kid’s neurological development early on?
• Compile an elaborate piece on various kid’s development theories – Explain each and include examples in your research paper. 
• Best learning games for kids to partake in during the early stages of learning and development
• How does Peer interaction impact kids’ early learning and development?
• Ways to address behavioural issues in young children
• How financial instability hinders kids’ learning and development?
•  An account of sleeping disorders and how it impacts kid’s early learning and development
• What are the primary causes of ADHD in kids? Also, explain the potential cure for ADHD in this 21st century.

Dominant Child Development Topics

• Ways to maximise capabilities and potential in disabled kids
• How to empower kids with Autism and develop meaningful habits and behaviours?
• What does Extended Adolescence denote? Elaborate on this context using real-time examples 
• What can one do with an early child development course degree?
• Write a research paper on the fundamentals of proper child development early on
• At what age do kids learn the fastest and why – explain using examples 
• Various challenges kids encounter during their early stage
• How does pollution hamper kids’ development?
• How do various playing exercises contribute to optimal child development?
•  How does lack of play hinder proper development in kids?
• An account of Play-centric learning and development – write using examples 
• How to enhance your kid’s listening skills? Write using relatable examples 
• How does early education trigger holistic development in kids?
• An account of incorporating ART as a medium for kid’s early learning and development
• Write a research paper on kid’s curriculum standards and early education

If you need help researching your human development research paper topics or require assistance crafting a top-quality paper, get in touch with us. Rest assured our experts will be by your side from start to finish. Get in touch today.

Most Important Frequently Asked Questions Searched By Students

What includes as prevalent child development research topics.

Some common childhood development research topics are as follows –

• What role do video games play in kids’ Development?
• How should parents improve their kid’s language skills?

Are you struggling to sortout what are good   child development research topics? Refer to the above section for ideas or communicate with us immediately. 

How do researchers study child development?

Researchers primarily study child development using quantitative methods. They include – Experimentation, Correlation, and Quasi-experimental methods. 

Each method enables researchers to comprehend the relationship among various child development influential factors and come to concrete causes and explanations.

Get help with research topics for child development today through our diligent essay experts.

What are the key theories in child development?

The crucial theories in kids’ Development are Behaviourist , Ecological , Maturationis t, Constructivist, and Psychoanalytic. These theories interpret child’s Development and their overall behaviour in various ways. 

If you need interesting child development research topics on all key theories, contact us ASAP!

How does child development differ across cultures?

Cultural influence plays a crucial role in a kid’s positive Development. It provides them with awareness of who they are and their beliefs regarding language, religion, food, and societal customs. Furthermore, cultures also influence a kid’s linguistic, physical and emotional development.

 If you can’t find child development research paper topics in this context, let us help you. 

What include the crucial factors influencing positive child development?

There are several influential factors. 

• Economics 
• Family 
• Physical ability

Each plays a crucial role in manifesting positive child development. Convey to us if you need help with child development essay topics in these genres. 

In what way is technology impacting kids’ Development?

Technology can positively impact kids’ development by giving them easy access to information and augmenting their overall knowledge. 

Both software and hardware assist in developing children’s social skills and familiarising them with study disciplines – Art, Science, Mathematics, English, etc.

Consult with us if your research paper pertains to this child development issue!

What denote the 5 milestones in child development?

The 5 crucial milestones in child development entail as follows –

• Cognitive growth
• Physical Development
• Social and emotional growth
• Motor and sensory development
• Dialectal or Language Development

Speak to us if you require expert assistance writing a paper on this child psychology topic.

How do children develop language skills?

Although this phenomenon happens during early childhood ( 2-4 years ), some kids develop language skills between 5-6 years.

However, language skills develop for each child through gestures and sounds and eventually via phrases and sentences. 

Parents must always respond to their kids to hone their interactive skills. Moreover, they can also recite storybooks to advance their dialectal skills. 

Hire our experts to explore amazing child development research topics for assignments.

What entails the common parenting styles?

Typically, there are 4 main parenting styles – Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive and neglectful.

Speak to us if you require help sorting child development research questions in this context. We will happily offer you the help you seek.

How can research on child development inform parenting practices and policies?

Proper research on child development does help make parenting practices and policies simpler. Parents with more knowledge and awareness about their child’s development can better influence their kids’ mental well-being. 

Hi, I am Mark, a Literature writer by profession. Fueled by a lifelong passion for Literature, story, and creative expression, I went on to get a PhD in creative writing. Over all these years, my passion has helped me manage a publication of my write ups in prominent websites and e-magazines. I have also been working part-time as a writing expert for myassignmenthelp.com for 5+ years now. It’s fun to guide students on academic write ups and bag those top grades like a pro. Apart from my professional life, I am a big-time foodie and travel enthusiast in my personal life. So, when I am not working, I am probably travelling places to try regional delicacies and sharing my experiences with people through my blog. 

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Child Development Assignment

Introduction.

Human development has been studied by psychologists and educators to explain some behavioral phenomena related to growth. Theorists have categorized human development in terms of stages of growth. In this Child Development Assignment (CDA), the pediatric group observed belonged to the early childhood development stage (ages 3-6). It will explain some theories explaining development in this particular stage as well as describe the children in this stage of development. It will also discuss appropriate nursing diagnosis based on the observed developmental assessment of preschoolers and finally, describe the role of the pediatric nurse in providing anticipatory guidance and promoting the health and well-being of the young children.

The children observed belonged to Piaget’s Pre-Operational Stage of Cognitive Development. This stage is characterized by the emergence of the ability to represent objects and knowledge through imitation, symbolic play, drawing, mental images and spoken language (Piaget and Inhelder, 1969). Lack of conservation skills is also characteristic of this stage. “Conservation is defined as the knowledge that the number, mass, area, length, weight, and volume of objects are not changed by physically rearranging the objects” (Brewer, 2001). Preschool children are very open to learning and they are able to express what they learn in a variety of media. They enjoy engaging in magical thinking either by themselves or with peers. However, they can still be very egocentric and have difficulty seeing other people’s perspective.

Preschoolers belong to Erikson’s Initiative vs. Guilt Stage of Psychosocial Development. These children are into doing things on their own and showing everyone how much they have grown in many ways. Having developed more skills, a child exhibits competence in some tasks more than before. He craves for freedom to make choices to have a positive view of himself and follow through on his projects. However, at this stage, children may be awkward, and their good intentions may backfire as in destroying some things in the process. When this happens, they are overcome with guilt. Not being allowed to make their own decisions makes them develop guilt over taking initiative. Hence, the tendency is to take a passive stance and let others choose for them (Erikson, 1963).

Preschool-aged children are in between Freud’s Anal and Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Development. They begin to explore their body and discover that some parts give them pleasure. Also, at this stage when they are mastering their toilet skills, they may sometimes fail to comply with adult rules of going to the bathroom, hence, it is still likely that they may wet or soil their underwear (Brewer, 2001). Psychologically, with regards to the Anal stage, preschoolers may be ambivalent in keeping the room orderly and clean, however, there are times when they would just want to mess everything up.

Children’s emotional development is also linked to their moral development. Kohlberg (1984) came up with a theory of moral development based on a hypothetical moral situation calling on children’s decision-making skills, and his theories attracted much attention from moral philosophers. His proposed dilemma was about a husband named Heinz who needed to decide whether to steal an overpriced drug to save his dying wife. It was theorized that young children conceptualize morality in terms of obedience to adults’ rules and regulations. They know that it makes them good children. This is so because they think in concrete, physical, egocentric ways and their social worlds are dominated by adults.

Growth and development rapidly advances in the early childhood years. Although these young children seem to be small, they grow at an increasingly fast pace that parents and teachers often wonder how they’ve grown so much in such a short time, like in a span of one school year. The following discusses how children’s skills are developed in the different developmental areas.

Physically, preschool children develop more strength as their bodies’ proportions become more adult-like. Beginnings of athletic skills such as running, jumping and hopping are manifested. With regards to their gross motor development, as children grow older, they are more able to move their large muscles in more well-coordinated movements so they are able to do more challenging things with their bodies such as skipping, running with agility, dancing with flexibility, tumbling and the like. On the other hand, children’s fine motor skills are slower to develop. Younger children’s fine motor skills, eye-hand coordination and body coordination are much less developed and more awkward than their older counterparts. As they grow, they also gain more control of their fine motor muscles to enable them to do more things with their hands, such as cutting, drawing and writing.

By the time a child steps into the early childhood stage, his brain has attained 90% of its adult weight by age 5 (Child Development, 2011). This develops faster than any other body part.

Many factors affect a child’s cognitive development. Their intellectual capacity may be inherited from their parents or other blood relatives. Nature and nurture may work together to affect a child’s intellect. Children who are constantly stimulated intellectually with activities that promote creative and critical thinking skills grow up using these skills when the situation calls for it.

Young children develop various cognitive skills simultaneously. They enjoy asking a lot of questions and are eager to pursue their curiosity in a number of interests. Preschool-aged children think in concrete terms, but begin to use mental representations and symbols. However, fantasy and reality still gets blurred together in their minds, and ideas about the world may continue to be illogical. They hone their ideas from social interactions with their parents and playmates.

Their language skills rapidly develop, gaining, on the average a 14,000- word vocabulary and extensive grammatical knowledge by the time they reach 6 years of age (Child Development, 2011). Children at this stage learn to adjust their style of communication to who they speak to.

The children are learning what is right from wrong. At this age, they are beginning to be less egocentric and more others-aware. They are able to feel how others feel. Likewise, children genuinely express their feelings towards others and show their preference for good over bad especially with regards to story characters. They understand the moral lessons in such stories.

They have developed some tolerance for frustration and are developing some self-control. They need overt expressions of affection and have fears of abandonment. They need routines and a semblance of security (Brewer, 2001).

Socially, there are children who may be inherently shy or gregarious, as is likewise dictated by their genetic make up or as an effect of exposure to shy or gregarious parents. However, as children get older, they are provided more opportunities to be with other people and learn to deal with different personalities.

Edgington (1999) posits that children learn best in an environment that makes them feel secure and confident enough to develop their own ideas with open-ended experiences. They actively engage in learning by partaking of fun, play-based hands-on experiences while adults around them challenge and extend their thinking.

Children’s play at this stage, either alone or with others, becomes increasingly complex and imaginative. They vacillate from solitary play to associative play with their peers and back again. They may engage in dramatic play as they embody roles of different characters and even animals or objects and come up with word play to stimulate themselves. They develop a great initiative to do things, especially if they receive praise for these actions. Their increased energy makes them more daring to try out novel things. Such desire to be independent in pursuing these new discoveries and controlling their environment increases, making their parents more supervisory towards them.

From observing the children, a nurse can see if a child exhibits wellness and good health. The children’s behaviors can reveal a lot about how they feel. If a child exhibits the expected developmental behaviors appropriate to his or her age (as discussed above) – physically –moves well in terms of fine and motor coordination; cognitively – shows understanding of what is being presented to him and manifests good intellectual skills and language; socio-emotional – relates well with others and responds appropriately to certain situations; and if the child exudes a healthy and happy disposition, then the nurse can diagnose that he or she is a well child.

However, if a child is observed to be particularly sluggish, sleepy or cranky, it may be a symptom that manifests due to tiredness and lack of rest. He or she may also be hungry. Worse, it may reflect ineffective health management from the home. Since children become so preoccupied in their play, sometimes, they neglect to give attention to body signals such as hunger or tiredness. A child may also be observed to be ill when he or she is flushed, has cough and/or cold and often sneezes. This child is unwell and needs medical attention.

As children go through their developmental stages, they also become at risk. For example, muscular development and increased mobility put them at risk for injury since they would now tend to run around and explore the environment with their bodies. Climbing on playground equipment and riding on wheeled toys may be fun for them, but they need to be extra careful in estimating their movements so as to prevent accidents.

A nurse should be alert to symptoms exhibited by children which may spell a deeper and/or worse condition – rashes from allergies, bruises, awkwardness in movement, difficulty in hearing or seeing well, etc. These symptoms need to be observed further for a more accurate diagnosis by a medical professional.

Some children may be observed to be at risk of danger from the home. Bruised, sad and quiet children must be more carefully observed for signs of child abuse. Anda et al (2005) discussed in their study that the traumatic experiences of abused or neglected children often stays on with the victim into adulthood, and can even influence the raising of that victim’s own children. More often than not, abused children repeat the pattern with their own children. With other children, recovery from trauma is unlikely and they suffer from lifelong depression, anxiety and even personality disorders that keep them from living fulfilling lives. The pediatric nurse may be able to diagnose if the child is abused or not by examining the child’s bruises and interviewing him about his home life. She should be adept in reading non-verbal communication that may point to signs of abuse and network with the child’s teacher to investigate the matter further.

Children who are underweight and show a distaste for food or lack of appetite as well as not able to make better nutritional choices may be at risk for malnutrition. The Bindler-Ball Healthcare Model (2006) recommends that for cases like this, the child should be brought in for nutritional assessment with the child’s family. Parents may be interviewed as to the diet of their children and the nurse can suggest appropriate foods that can support the children’s growth and development. If there are cultural restrictions on diet, then the nurse should respect it and provide alternatives.

It is dangerous for a nurse to jump into conclusions, that is why it is essential that he or she coordinates with a teacher or parent to jointly discuss the child’s perceived behaviors at home and in school, so when it is decided that he or she should see a doctor, the observations of both teacher, parent and nurse are well-taken into consideration for a more accurate diagnosis.

For example, a five-year old boy, Jeff, was observed to sit in a corner, quiet and seems to look into space. He plays with his top again and again and again, laughing at times, but never interacting with anyone else. The same boy does not seem to communicate at all. The researcher asked his teacher about him and she shares some of her observations which are consistent with the researcher’s. Jeff’s behavior observations as having difficulty in establishing and maintaining friendships, preference to be with adults and older children rather than his peers disliking changes in routines, becoming disruptive when he is unable to sit in his usual place all check out as characteristics of Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Chowdhury (2009) identifies the key characteristics of ASD as: (1) impairment in communication, (2) impairment in social interaction and (3) restrictive and repetitive as well as stereotyped patterns of behavior and one-tracked interests and activities. In the researcher’s observation, such patterns of behavior were exhibited by Jeff. As such, his observed behaviors may serve as a prompt to send him for assessment to a qualified developmental Paediatrician to validate if Jeff does have ASD. This medical doctor is authorized to test and dispense diagnosis and medical advise for possible interventions. He can validate whether Jeff has a developmental disability based from the observations of the parents and teachers of Jeff’s behaviours and advise the appropriate interventions.

Early childhood practitioners should be knowledgeable about the developmental expectations of children so they can identify atypical development. This is especially important if the child displays developmental delays. The child may be diagnosed for delayed growth and development related to an illness or disorder. An example is a child like Jeff, not being able to speak or relate to others at age 5 or a child who has yet to learn to walk steadily at age 3. Another child may not be responsive when his name is called and may have a difficult time understanding his teacher or classmate when they talk to him. If such symptoms are always observed by the teacher or nurse, then it may be wise to suggest a referral for diagnosis from a doctor. A medical doctor can determine a disease or disorder such as autism, muscular dystrophy, hearing impairment or other more serious disorders.

Usually, the Pediatric Nurse is constrained to the School Clinic, on hand for medical emergencies or to care for sick children in school. As with other age groups, rapport building is important for a nurse to be able to work effectively to address the medical problem. However, it is often difficult to establish rapport with very young children, especially when it is their first time to visit the clinic. That is why, they need to be approached gently and maybe engage in a game or two initially in the presence of a trusted adult. Eventually, as they feel more comfortable with the nurse, they will feel safer to be left with her.

When a nurse moves around the school and sees children who do not exhibit wellness, he or she can approach that child and talk to him about how he feels and if something is hurting, to show where and why it hurts. Anticipatory guidance comes in the form of talking to children about their health and some recommendations to the child as to what must be done to achieve good health, maintain it and prevent disease in developmentally-appropriate language they can understand.

Anticipatory guidance “applies an understanding of human development to predict the child’s upcoming developmental stages, and common situational crises experienced at those ages” (Binder & Ball, 2007, p. 121). Part of Anticipatory Guidance is communicating to parents and families about appropriate and effective health management for children. The school nurse can talk to parents about enhancing nutrition to promote a healthy development, encouraging daily physical exercise for children and not just being hooked on television or video games. However, when children are sent out of the house, safe clothing according to the weather (ex. jackets over shirts and pants with rubber-soled footwear for better ground grip) as well as safety gears such as helmets and knee pads should be worn by children as they venture to more active outdoor play such as riding tricycles to protect them from possible injury. Aside from those concerns, the school nurse can also advise parents to take their children to regular dental check-ups.

She can also provide guidelines for parents to follow in fostering the formation of their children’s positive self-concept (Bindler & Ball, 2007). This includes developmentally-appropriate discipline and encouragement of healthy self-esteem and good values.

For parents of preschool-aged children, parents may be guided accordingly in the choice of safe and non-toxic toys like those free of sharp edges and paints with lead content. Preschool children can be very active and explorative and may still have tendencies of putting objects into their mouths, so wise choices of toys are recommended for their optimal health and development. Age-appropriate toys such as those made of natural substances like wood (blocks, toy trains, etc.), clay dough, are healthy to use. Play materials with open-ended themes such as manipulative interconnecting toys, dolls, art materials and age-appropriate storybooks facilitate children’s creative thinking as well as fine motor development.

Specifically, the school nurse can communicate the importance of daily activities that enhance health such as healthy habits like eating right and keeping clean. She also encourages safety practices like taking vitamins daily and regular immunizations to prevent disease. Some parents have knowledge deficit related to the importance of immunization, so it is the nurse’s role to educate them on the benefits of each medication. However, the nurse should be aware that “teaching may need to be tailored to the particular child due to activity limitations, food sensitivities, or neighborhood characteristics” (Bindler & Ball, 2007, p. 124).

A Pediatric Nurse can contribute much to promoting health awareness in the preschool. Ensuring a child’s health also means monitoring his nourishment and maintenance of a clean and safe environment for him. She can be invited to the class to give a session on eating the right foods and developing healthy habits such as daily bathing and brushing of teeth. She can coordinate with the teacher or Physical Education teacher to develop a program for health and fitness.

Brewer (2001) suggests that a significant portion of health education should be taught as daily routines are established. Routines such as washing hands before eating, changing soiled clothing after outdoor play and rest time may be taught with reminders of why these activities are important. She adds that “although young children are not able to understand the causal relationships between germs and disease, they can understand that regular hygiene routines contribute to their staying well and feeling healthy” (p. 456).

Children will get to imbibe knowledge on health and sanitation practices by modeling the adults around them. Teachers and staff must themselves practice good hygiene and cleanliness in their surroundings.

The school nurse monitors the children’s health in school. She has access to the medical records and can organize a way to remind parents when the children are due for their shots or to conference with parents regarding some medical concerns as observed in the child in the school setting.

A more active health promotion program that reaches out to parents and the community is engaging in health research and writing some articles or brochures to disseminate to parents. These may include topics on healthy eating; benefits and disadvantages of TV viewing and computer games; article on allergenic foods and substances; tips on choosing the right foods; discussing the advantages of play and movement to health, and so many more! The school nurse may write the article herself and make herself available for consultation about the article in case anyone wants more information.

Medical missions may be organized by the school nurse, tapping some parents who may be doctors, dentists, nurses, or any health care professional. These professionals may go to a certain location to provide free medical services for the people there.

The pediatric school nurse plays multiple roles in the environment she works in. As such, she becomes an indispensable member of the school staff in promoting healthy growth and development of young children. Having her there not only ensures the safety of the children but also gives parents of these little ones more peace of mind.

Anda, R. F., V. J. Felitti, J. D. Bremner, J. D. Walker, C. Whitfield, B. D. Perry, S. R. Dube, and W. H. Giles.(2005) The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 256(3): 174–86

Ball, J., & Bindler, R. (2006) Child health nursing: Partnering with children & families. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Health.

Bindler, R.C. & Ball, J.W. (2007) The Bindler-Ball Healthcare Model: A New Paradigm for Health Promotion, Pediatric Nursing, 33(2).

Brewer, J. (2001) Introduction to Early Childhood Education . Allyn & Bacon. Child Development. Web.

Chowdhury, U. (2009) Autistic Spectrum Disorders: Assessment and Intervention in Children and Adolescents, British Journal of Medical Practitioners , 2(4).

Edgington, M. (1999) Priorities in the Early Years Curriculum, course held at the University of Hertfordshire.

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.

Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays in moral development: Vol. 2. The psychology of moral development. New York: Harper & Row.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969) The Psychology of the Child . New York: Basic Books.

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Child Development Assignment Example, Ireland

In this sample assignment, the focus is on the Child Development (QQI Level 5) course which is offered by “The Open College” in Dublin. This course is a distance learning program and has a duration of 8 weeks. On successful completion of the course, the students are offered a certificate (Level 5) by QQI. If you want to pursue “Early Childhood Care and Education” then the Child Development (QQI Level 5) module is a mandatory one.

Hire Childcare Assignment Experts For QQI Level 5 Child Development Module

Candidates who have completed the module get equipped with the know-how, and skills pertinent to childcare development and learning within the ECCE settings. The module covers the moral, social, emotional, and physical development of the kid. It also covers language, cognitive, creative, spiritual, and cultural development.

This essay explores various theories related to child development. It also outlines the different ways of developing a child and also outlines the observations to monitor child development. 

Topics on QQI Level 5  Child Development  Course

The various topics related to the course Child Development (QQI Level 5) are covered as follows:-

Holistic Development

Holistic development in early childhood in Ireland is a learning approach that stresses the emotional, physical, and psychological well-being of the child. There are at least 5 aspects of holistic development in early childhood and they are

1. Emotional

2. Physical

3. Spiritual

Holistic development (physical) includes climbing trees, moving through the jungle, cooking, using tools, motor skills, and woodland crafts, getting creative using clay, and connecting with nature are some of them.

The course also provides information about the holistic approach to learning. It says that the approach completely activates the learner’s personality like emotions, intellect, body, and imagination for comprehensive and effective learning.

Theories of Child Development and Learning

There are many theories of child development and learning. This section discusses the important ones. The main theories that are associated with child development and learning are as follows:-

• Psychosexual Theory
• Behavioral Theories
• Psychosocial Theory
• Cognitive Theory
• Social Learning Theory
• Attachment Theory
• Socio-cultural Theory

There are also five important theories on just child development and they are as follows:-

• Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Developmental 
• Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment
• Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Developmental
• Bandura’s Theory of Social Learning
• Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

According to eminent theorists of child development social learning occurs through processes of reinforcement and association. On the other hand, the various behavioral theories related to child development focus on how interaction with the environment influences the behavior of a child. 

Influencing Factors

During his childhood when a child is growing several factors may influence the development and growth of the child. These factors are listed as follows:-

Heredity results in the transmission of physical attributes from the parent to the offspring. It affects various aspects of the physical appearance of the child, and the kid’s health.

Environment

The environment plays an important role in the growth and development of the child.

Sex is another prime factor that affects the development and growth of a child, it helps to understand how boys and girls grow and develop are separate from each other.

Health and Exercise

Kids who exercise in their childhood years have a better physique than those who do not. Hence exercise does affect the health, growth, and development of a child.

Kids who take in more nutritious food during their childhood years develop and grow well than those who fail to receive proper nourishment in their childhood years.

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Hormones also make an important contribution to the growth and development of a child.

Influence of the family

Family influences often help the kids to develop socially and psychologically.

Geographical influences

The schools that a child attends, the environment in which he lives, and the opportunities he gets during his childhood years are all geographical influences that contribute to the growth and development of a child. 

Social and economic status

A family’s social and economic status decides the opportunities that a kid gets during his childhood. Therefore, it contributes to the growth and development of the child. 

The process of child growth and development involves learning skills like walking, sitting, talking, tying shoes, and skipping. Learning is important for a child as it provides a foundation for a group of kids. 

Supporting Child Development

This section of the essay discusses why supporting a child’s development is important. The social, emotional, and physical development of a child affects the overall development of the kid and it determines the type of person that the kid is going to become. It is because of this that supporting a child during his developmental phase is vital as by doing so one maximizes the future well-being of the kid. There are 5 major areas of child development and they are as follows:-

• Cognitive development
• Speech and language development
• Social and emotional development
• Gross motor skill development
• Fine motor skill development

Observations

Observations are important concerning child development. It helps the educator to comprehend the reasons why a child is having developmental issues in his childhood. Observations help to understand a child and document and analyze the actions, and words of kids whenever they interact with other people and the surroundings. There are 4 types of observations and they are listed as follows:-

• Complete Observer
• Participant as Observer
• Observer as Participant
• Complete Participant

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Elucidating the Effects of Digital Media on Children

Use of technology and digital media is nearly universal among children and adolescents in the United States, and it plays a key role in our nation’s unprecedented youth mental health crisis. Last year, building on the U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory on Social Media and Youth Mental Health , the White House announced actions to protect youth mental health, safety, and privacy online .  

NICHD has a longstanding commitment to research on the effects of exposure to and use of technology and digital media from infancy through adolescence. As I highlighted last year , one of the aspirational goals laid out in our 2020 Strategic Plan is to discover how such exposure and use affect developmental trajectories, health outcomes, and parent-child interactions in early childhood. Since 2020, we have expanded our research in this area to advance toward this goal. Between 2020 and 2023, the number of NICHD-supported projects addressing the effects of technology and digital media on youth grew from 11 to 35. Our investment in this area increased from $3.4 million in 2020 to an estimated $16.8 million in 2023.

In certain contexts, technology and digital media may be beneficial for child development. For example, exposing preschool-aged and older children to educational media may enhance vocabulary learning and promote helpful and empathic behavior . Understanding the complex relationships between digital media and behavior, brain activity, health, and well-being is critical to help inform best practices for technology and media use among children and adolescents.

NICHD-supported projects are helping to advance knowledge about the effects of media and technology on children of all ages. For example, we have learned more about the negative effects of high levels of screen time, which rose among children during the COVID-19 pandemic . A recent analysis of data from nearly 1,500 toddlers who participated in an NICHD-funded study found that screen exposure for children ages 2 years and younger was linked to atypical sensory processing . Findings from another study suggest that high amounts of screen time may exacerbate the cognitive deficits and behavioral problems common to children born extremely preterm . Researchers found that, among 6- and 7-year-olds who were born before 28 weeks of pregnancy, those who had more than two hours of screen time a day were more likely to have deficits in overall IQ, problem solving skills, impulse control, and attention span. Another project, which analyzed data from more than 9,000 children ages 9 to 10 years, found that playing videogames and watching videos is linked to the onset of obsessive-compulsive disorder .

NICHD is also helping to build a research agenda to better assess the effects of technology and digital media on the developmental trajectories and mental health outcomes of infants, children, and adolescents. On April 4 and 5, we will be holding a scientific workshop to delve into these topics in response to the Children and Media Research Advancement (CAMRA) Act, which was passed as part of the fiscal year 2023 federal budget. I encourage you to learn more about the workshop and register to join us next month as we work toward our goal to better understand the effects of digital media on children and mitigate its harmful impacts.

Replenish, Disburse, and Deliver: How the World Bank's IDA21 can strengthen education and early childhood development

Extreme poverty and climate impacts are increasingly concentrated in low-income countries, particularly those experiencing conflict. According to the World Bank’s projections, up to two-thirds of those living in extreme poverty globally will live in fragile, conflict, and violence (FCV) affected countries by 2030, the target year for the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development Goals.

Given 80% of extreme poverty is concentrated in the 13 countries defined by the United Nations as least developed countries, there is an opportunity for IDA resourcing to fill the longer-term gaps that are not currently tackled under the remit of humanitarian response. This opportunity is complementary to accomplishing the Bank’s new mission “to eliminate extreme poverty on a livable planet” and will depend on a replenished and reformed IDA that can finance and deliver results in FCV settings.

Crisis and conflict are robbing 43 million displaced children of the essential building blocks that provide the safety, security, and stimulation they need to thrive. Rising rates of conflict and climate disasters are making school closures and interruptions the norm. The need for reshaping investment in FCV contexts is acutely demonstrated by the neglect of education and child development services in humanitarian settings, which receive between 2-3% of humanitarian aid.

As the IDA replenishment discussions proceed, the Bank must serve as a frontrunner to better navigate, adapt to, and deliver services to children and caregivers in crisis contexts, particularly those most affected by climate change. However, the Bank investment in education and early childhood development (ECD) for FCV settings will not meaningfully reach those most affected by extreme poverty with its current operating model. The “disbursement gaps” reveal the delivery challenges the Bank faces, including the limits of its government-first approach. 

The Bank must trial new ways of partnering in conflict-affected countries with non-government actors to reach those left furthest behind. The IRC offers lessons from its program Ahlan Simsim , the largest ECD program in humanitarian response, on how to reach varying population types through government and nongovernment alike; as well as inspiration from the IRC's new program CREST, which connects early-action approaches with parametric climate insurance to increase the volume and speed of funding available for communities affected by climate-related school closures.

Therefore, in complement to achieving IDA 21 reforms , the IRC is calling on the World Bank to:

• Use robust IDA funds to provide long-term financing for the inclusion of displaced populations in least-developed countries’ national education and care systems
• Strengthen its reliance on non government partnerships to improve the reach and delivery of World Bank education and early childhood projects in FCV settings

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• Download this report Replenish, Disburse, and Deliver: How the World Bank's IDA21 can strengthen education and early childhood development

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Public health researcher chosen for maternal and child health fellowship

• April 10, 2024

University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa public health assistant professor Jonathan Huang is one of only 10 faculty members nationwide to be selected a fellow of the 2024–25 Maternal and Child Health Faculty Development Fellowship Program at Diverse Institutions from the National Maternal and Child Health Workforce Development Center.

“I’m truly privileged to have the opportunity to draw on these resources to help strengthen what I and the Office of Public Health Studies can offer the broader community of maternal and child health practitioners, researchers and advocates,” said Huang.

The fellowship program aims to empower selected fellows in advancing their maternal and child health work and scholarship in areas including public health education, student mentorship, research and collaborative partnership development.

Developing a new course

Huang’s primary objective within this fellowship is to develop a comprehensive graduate course on epidemiologic methods to address the unique maternal and child health needs of Hawaiʻi , while supporting ongoing efforts to enhance the curriculum at UH Mānoa.

With input from community stakeholders, academia and public sectors, the curriculum may include topics such as quantifying disparities in pregnancy and child outcomes specific to Hawaiʻi , employing life course models, and navigating challenges posed by data scarcity due to issues like small sample sizes and historical lack of collection or disaggregation of race/ethnicity data relevant to Hawaiʻi (reporting data separately for different self-identified race/ethnicity communities).

With more than a decade of extensive research experience, Huang is an expert in exploring how social and environmental inequities materialize as health disparities, starting even before birth. He has actively engaged with diverse global communities, academics, and longitudinal cohort studies, with recent work focused on Southeast Asia.

Participation in this fellowship presents an invaluable opportunity for Huang to exchange ideas and best practices with the fellow selected faculty members from diverse backgrounds and communities. By leveraging this collaborative platform, he hopes to incorporate insights gained and tailor them to the specific needs of Hawaiʻi ’s community.

“We are excited for Jonathan and our students as maternal and child health is so vital yet understudied especially in Hawaiʻi ,” said Eric Hurwitz, chair of the Office of Public Health Studies. “The innovative, community-informed course will be a great addition to our curriculum.”

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Study helps explain why childhood maltreatment continues to impact on mental and physical health into adulthood

Childhood maltreatment can continue to have an impact long into adulthood because of how it effects an individual's risk of poor physical health and traumatic experiences many years later, a new study has found.

Individuals who experienced maltreatment in childhood -- such as emotional, physical and sexual abuse, or emotional and physical neglect -- are more likely to develop mental illness throughout their entire life, but it is not yet well understood why this risk persists many decades after maltreatment first took place.

In a study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , scientists from the University of Cambridge and Leiden University found that adult brains continue to be affected by childhood maltreatment in adulthood because these experiences make individuals more likely to experience obesity, inflammation and traumatic events, all of which are risk factors for poor health and wellbeing, which in turn also affect brain structure and therefore brain health.

The researchers examined MRI brain scans from approximately 21,000 adult participants aged 40 to 70 years in UK Biobank, as well as information on body mass index (an indicator of metabolic health), CRP (a blood marker of inflammation) and experiences of childhood maltreatment and adult trauma.

Sofia Orellana, a PhD student at the Department of Psychiatry and Darwin College, University of Cambridge, said: "We've known for some time that people who experience abuse or neglect as a child can continue to experience mental health problems long into adulthood and that their experiences can also cause long term problems for the brain, the immune system and the metabolic system, which ultimately controls the health of your heart or your propensity to diabetes for instance. What hasn't been clear is how all these effects interact or reinforce each other."

Using a type of statistical modelling that allowed them to determine how these interactions work, the researchers confirmed that experiencing childhood maltreatment made individuals more likely to have an increased body mass index (or obesity) and experience greater rates of trauma in adulthood. Individuals with a history of maltreatment tended to show signs of dysfunction in their immune systems, and the researchers showed that this dysfunction is the product of obesity and repeated exposure to traumatic events.

Next, the researchers expanded their models to include MRI measures of the adult's brains and were able to show that widespread increases and decreases in brain thickness and volume associated with greater body mass index, inflammation and trauma were attributable to childhood maltreatment having made these factors more likely in the first place. These changes in brain structure likely mean that some form of physical damage is occurring to brain cells, affecting how they work and function.

Although there is more to do to understand how these effects operate at a cellular level in the brain, the researchers believe that their findings advance our understanding of how adverse events in childhood can contribute to life-long increased risk of brain and mind health disorders.

Professor Ed Bullmore from the Department of Psychiatry and an Honorary Fellow at Downing College, Cambridge, said: "Now that we have a better understanding of why childhood maltreatment has long term effects, we can potentially look for biomarkers -- biological red flags -- that indicate whether an individual is at increased risk of continuing problems. This could help us target early on those who most need help, and hopefully aid them in breaking this chain of ill health."

The research was supported by MQ: Transforming Mental Health, the Royal Society, Medical Research Council, National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration East of England, Girton College and Darwin College.

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Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Cambridge . The original text of this story is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Orellana, SC et al. Childhood maltreatment influences adult brain structure through its effects on immune, metabolic and psychosocial factors. . PNAS , 2024 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.230470412

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Youth advocates programme: applications now open, the new talent programme by unicef and unv aims at empowering young people, including youth with disabilities, to become agents of change.

UNICEF has launched the Youth Advocates programme , a new initiative to recruit talent in partnership with United Nations Volunteers  (UNV) . We aim at empowering young people , including youth with disabilities, to become agents of change and champion children's rights.

Click here to go to the video | Click here to go to the assignments

The Youth Advocates

After the success of the first initiative in 2018 - 2019, which mobilized 42 Youth Advocates (18-24 years old) in 27 countries, UNICEF, in partnership with UNV, is now looking for the second cohort.  We are searching for 20 young, passionate, and skilled advocates to join us and become agents of change advocating for the protection of children’s rights.

The Youth Advocates Programme offers young people the chance to gain one-year professional experience through a National UN Volunteer (UNV) assignment with UNICEF , while also imparting their valuable insights into the organization's work for children and young people.

The recruited Youth Advocates will have access to learning and professional development opportunities, including a suite of online learning programmes.

Young professionals with disabilities and from under-represented groups are especially encouraged to apply.

If you are 18-35 years of age and passionate about children´s rights, check out the assignment opportunities listed below.

Click here to go to the assignments

Listen to what Joyranig, Jean Junior, and Rediet,

UN Youth Volunteers at UNICEF have to say about their experience

and why they think you should join  too.

Youth Advocates Assignments

Take note of the closing date for applications, as this may differ for each assignment. Click on the country you are interested in to go to the assignment.

Bhutan | Congo | Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) | Iran |  Liberia | Mozambique | Namibia | Nepal | Peru | Sao Tome and Principe |  Senegal |  Thailand | Türkiye | Zimbabwe

Youth Participation Specialist - UNICEF Bhutan

U-Report and Youth engagement Specialist - UNICEF Congo

Welcoming applications by candidates with disabilities.

Monitoring & Evaluation Officer (Nexus Resilience and Private sector)  - Democratic Republic of Congo

Disability Inclusion Assistant - UNICEF Iran

Child Protection Officer - UNICEF Liberia

Programme officer (climate change and environment focus on adolescents) - unicef mozambique.

Adolescent Health Programme Associate (HIV/AIDS) - UNICEF Namibia

Disability inclusion and engagement officer - unicef south asia regional office (kathmandu, nepal).

Promotor/a de participación y medio ambiente - UNICEF Peru (Lima, Peru)

Social and behaviour change officer - unicef rwanda, adolescent health specialist - unicef sao tome and principe, adolescent and youth programme officer - unicef west and central africa regional office (dakar, senegal).

Communication Associate - UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office (Bangkok, Thailand)

Human Resources Officer - UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office (Bangkok, Thailand)

Human resources assistant - unicef türkiye.

Welcoming applications by candidates with disabilities

Programme Officer - UNICEF Zimbabwe

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