biography of secondary source

Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary sources.

Primary sources are materials that are eyewitness accounts or as close to the original source as possible.

Qualitative data:

• What people say. They are usually Speeches , Interviews and Conversations, and they may be captured in Videos, Audio Recordings, or transcribed into text.
• What people write.  These include Autobiographies, Memoirs, Personal Journals and Diaries, Letters, Emails, Blogs, Twitter Feeds and other forms of Social Media.
• Images and Videos.
• Government Documents-- U.S . and rest of the world.
• Laws, Court Cases and Decisions, Treaties.
• Newspapers.

Quantitative data:

• Statistics and Data .
• Polls and Public Opinions .

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find both primary and secondary sources published in book form.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are interpretations and analyses based on primary sources.

For example, an autobiography is a primary source while a biography is a secondary source.

Typical secondary sources include:

• Scholarly Journal Articles.  Use these and books exclusively for writing Literature Reviews.
• Encyclopedias.
• Dictionaries.
• Documentaries.

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find primary and secondary sources published in book form.

When Secondary Sources Become Primary Sources

Often secondary and primary sources are relative concepts.  Typical secondary sources may be primary sources depending on the research topic.

• Intellectual history topics. For example, although scholarly journal articles are usually considered secondary sources, if one's topic is the history of human rights, then journal articles on human rights will be primary sources in this instance.  Similarly, research on the thinking of a scholar will include her published journal articles as primary sources.  
• Historical topics. Magazine articles are secondary sources, but for someone researching the view of judicial punishment in the 1920s, magazines from that time period are primary sources.  Indeed, any older publication, such as those prior to the 20th century, is very often automatically considered a primary source.  
• Newspapers may be either primary or secondary. Most articles in newspapers are secondary, but reporters may be considered as witnesses to an event.  Any topic on the media coverage of an event or phenomenon would treat newspapers as a primary source.  There are so many articles and types of articles in newspapers that newspapers can often be considered either primary or secondary.
• Last Updated: Aug 11, 2023 3:44 PM
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Is a Biography a Primary Source? Details Every Author Should Know

POSTED ON Oct 1, 2023

Written by Shannon Clark

Is a biography a primary source? Good question.

When writing for an audience, adding relevant quotes, excerpts, and data provides credibility to your work. Primary sources reign supreme because information that comes from the original source leaves little room for error. In our digital age, where so much information is repeated from website to website, it's easy for data to be mistyped, quotes to be misattributed, and information to just be wrong.

It's similar to the group game, Telephone, that kids play. One person starts the game by whispering a phrase into the person's ear next to them. The phrase is repeated until it gets to the last person who says the phrase out loud to see if the message changed. When I played it as a little girl, the phrase hardly ever came out like the original. We run the same risk when we copy statistics or information from random websites that aren't the primary or original source.

In the first half of this article, we'll answer the question, “Is a biography a primary source?” define what the answer means, and then take a closer look at why biographies are categorized as such. In the second part, we’ll look at what to consider before writing one.

Table of Contents

Is a biography a primary source.

The short answer is no. In most cases, a biography is considered a secondary source; however, there’s a little more to it than that.

A primary source is a first-person account (e.g., direct quote, diary entry) or the original source of information (e.g., a research organization that creates original data for an industry.).

A secondary source is a third-party account where the person or company sharing the information, got it from somewhere else. As I mentioned in the Telephone example, the problem with secondary sources is that since they aren't the first hands to touch the information, there's no guarantee that it's correct. Primary sources aren't always available, but if you have a choice between the two, do the extra research to find the primary source. It will pay off in the long run.

A biography is a third-person account of another person’s life written by a biographer whose name appears on the cover. The subject of the biography can be living or deceased and the work can be authorized or unauthorized. For these reasons, biographies are classified as secondary sources. 

Related: Biography vs Memoir

The rare occasion when a biography can be used as a primary source is when the biographer is the subject of the content being written.

For example, if one were to write an article that analyzed the works of the American biographer Jean Strouse, her best biographies , Alice James: A Biography or Morgan: American Financier would be considered primary sources.

The source status of her biographies changes from secondary to primary because it is her writing that's being analyzed not the personal knowledge of what she wrote (unless that was part of the review).

What’s the Difference Between an Authorized and an Unauthorized Biography? 

With an authorized biography, the subject of the work is either involved in the writing process or they’ve given permission for the biographer to write the book. The biographer works with the person to ensure that the information included is correct and approved. This can include talking to close family members and friends to get a more well-rounded, objective view of the person's life.

Unauthorized biographies are not approved by the subject. Anyone can write an unauthorized biography about anyone they’d like. You don’t need permission, and the final book doesn’t have to be approved to be published; however, unauthorized biographies can be seen as less reliable than approved ones. Content presented as fact may come into question exposing the work to libel, invasion of privacy claims, and other legal issues. To be clear, biographies, autobiographies, and memoirs can all be vulnerable to legal claims, so tread lightly when writing them. 

According to the Writer’s GPS: A guide for navigating the legal landscape of publishing by intellectual property attorney Matt Knight, securing life story rights is key to protecting yourself and your book from legal claims. Regarding life story rights, he says the following:

Life story rights are a collection of legal rights held by an individual regarding a story about someone's life. The purpose for securing these rights or the permission to use the facts of someone's life is to protect the writer and publisher from being sued for defamation, invasion of privacy, or the misappropriation of the right to publicity. Life story rights agreements, depending on the breadth of the contract language, allows the writer to use and potentially change or dramatize the life story for entertainment purposes (whether in print or on screen). Knight, M. (2020). The Writer’s Legal GPS: A Guide for Navigating the Legal Landscape of Publishing (A Sidebar Saturdays Desktop Reference) . Sidebar Saturdays Desk Referen.

If you're considering writing a biography (authorized or unauthorized), it's important to understand potential liability issues and how they can impact you as the writer.

It's interesting that for every authorized biography, it is not uncommon to find many unauthorized ones. For actress Elizabeth Taylor, the book on the left (below) was released in December 2022 and listed as “ the first ever authorized biography of the most famous movie star of the twentieth century, Elizabeth Taylor “; however, I found many biographies listed for her over the years (I stopped counting at 20).

Is it Possible to Write a Biography about Yourself? 

No. If you write a biography about yourself it is called an autobiography (different from a memoir). If you get a ghostwriter to write it, it is still an autobiography. Autobiographies are primary sources because they are first-hand accounts based on the subjects' memories and recall of past experiences. 

Unlike a biography, the subject of the autobiography is viewed as the author , whether they wrote it or used a ghostwriter . Autobiographies are considered subjective compared to biographies since they are a single person's account of events (not friends, family, or other third-party references like with a biography.)

How do You Write a Biography About Someone Who Has Passed?

As previously mentioned, if you can get permission to write the biography, do so. If the person is deceased, look for a representative, like a family member, or an executor of their estate. It’s important to share with them your plan for writing the person’s life story and hopefully get the green light to move forward. Getting approval can open the door to accessing archives and other personal details about the person to create a more in-depth work. This can include personal photos, diaries, and other information. Compare this to an unauthorized biography where you may only have access to what has already been talked about or uncovered. 

If the person passed a long time ago, getting permission might be a challenge, but you can still write the biography. Just do your research, save your notes, and try to write a biography that is thorough, objective, and professional. Prioritize primary sources over secondary and cite all of your sources to add credibility. It may be tempting to try to rush through the process, especially when you've been staring at the same information day after day, but doing a thorough job can pay big dividends.

In the writing of the Pulitzer Prize-winning biography American Prometheus: The Triumph and Trajedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer , it took author, Martin J. Sherwin, 25 years to complete the work. The first 20 years were spent doing interviews and collecting over fifty boxes of archives (some received through the Freedom of Information Act). The last five years he partnered with author Kai Bird to complete the work . While it doesn't take every biographer that long to write a biography, it does add a weighty perspective to what writing an in-depth book about someone's life could entail.

Whether you write an authorized or unauthorized biography, the quality and objectivity of your writing are what matter most. Although biographies are considered secondary sources, it doesn’t mean that they can’t make a significant contribution to the tapestry of a person’s public life record. 

Seek out the permission of the person you want to write about if they are living or their family or representative if they are incapacitated or deceased. People’s life stories are personal, so the best advice from one writer to another is to write their stories with the same respect you’d want someone to write yours. This will add a strong entry to your book portfolio, save you a lot of headaches in the long run, and help keep you out of a courtroom.

Note: In this article, we touched on nonfiction life stories, but there are also biographical novels (fictitious) and autobiographical fiction that are not within the scope of this article. For more information on creative nonfiction, start here . 

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Definitions (from Pennington School)

A primary source is an original material created during the time under study. Primary sources can be original documents, creative works, published materials of the times, institutional and government documents or relics and artifacts

Secondary sources put primary sources in context. They comment, summarize, interpret or analyze information found in primary sources. Secondary sources are usually written by individuals who did not experience firsthand the events about which they are writing.

Examples (from Penington School)

Selected sources.

• Primary, Secondary or Tertiary Sources Tertiary sources: good for an overview; can help narrow a topic Secondary sources: sources created after the time of the event and not contemporaneous with the lifetime of the person Primary sources: original objects or documents created near the time being studied.

Analyzing Primary Sources

• (3-D Pyramid) Five Steps to Analyze Primary Sources

Determining Primary vs. Secondary Sources (from Fresno State Univ.)

Primary vs. Secondary Sources: A Questionnaire

Answer the questions below about your source. If you answer, “yes” to any of the following questions, there is a good chance the source is PRIMARY.

Did the author personally witness or experience the subject in question? Does the author know about this subject because of personal experience rather than having just read about it? Is this source a diary, letter, memoir, autobiography, oral history, or interview of a person with first hand experience of the subject? Is this source an official document or record published at the time of the event by the government, courts, or another organization? Is this source a newspaper or magazine article written at the time of the event? Is this a creative work such as a novel, poem, art or music piece created by a firsthand witness of the subject in question? Is this an excerpt from a primary source, such as the constitution or a letter written by a Civil War soldier that has been imbedded in a secondary source, such as a textbook?Remember, secondary sources may include reprints of primary sources. Is this an artifact or relic such as jewelry, pottery, clothing, music, art, architecture, dance or weaponry that was used by witnesses of the subject in question? Is this a compilation of raw scientific data or statistics, such as census statistics published by the U.S. Census Bureau, that is being published without commentary or interpretation?

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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on 4 September 2022 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on 15 May 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesises primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

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Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyses information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesise information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopaedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyse it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in analysing the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesise a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review , you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of sources are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analysing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyse language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analysing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

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Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 15). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 22 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/primary-vs-secondary-sources/

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Looking for a book, article, database or something else for your research, primary sources.

A  primary source  is an  original  document containing  firsthand  information about a topic.

Different fields of study may use different types of primary sources. Common examples of a primary source are:

• Autobiographies
• Eyewitness Accounts
• Interview Transcripts
• Legal Documents
• Original works of art
• Photographs of the topic
• Original Research
• Video Footage of the topic event
• Works of literature

Secondary Sources

A  secondary source  contains commentary on or discussion about a primary source. The most important feature of secondary sources is that they offer an  interpretation  of information gathered from primary sources.

Common examples of a secondary source are:

• Biographies
• Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies (used to locate a secondary source)
• Journal Articles
• Literary Criticism
• Monographs written about the topic
• Reviews of books, movies, musical recordings,. works of art, etc.

Primary vs. Secondary Information

Primary sources are first hand sources; secondary sources are second-hand sources. For example, suppose there had been a car accident. The description of the accident which a witness gives to the police is a primary source because it comes from someone who was actually there at the time. The next day's newspaper story is a secondary source because the reporter who wrote the story did not actually witness the event.  The reporter is presenting a way of understanding the accident or an interpretation.

*From North Park University, History Department

However , the distinctions between primary and secondary sources can be ambiguous. It is important to remember that you cannot determine whether a source is primary or secondary solely based on the document type. An individual document may be a primary source in one context and a secondary source in another. For example, the movie  Love, Marilyn  is a secondary source when the topic is Marilyn Monroe; it would be considered a primary source if the topic of research was the works of Liz Garbus (the film's director).

Additionally, time can be a defining element. For example, a recent newspaper article is not usually a primary source; but a newspaper article from the 1860’s may be a primary source for United States Civil War research.

*From CBB Library and IT Consortium

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Sometimes, the same source might be a primary source for one research paper and a secondary source for another. It all depends on the relationship of the source to your research question. For example, if you are researching Franklin Roosevelt's life, the book  No ordinary time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The home front in World War II  by Doris Kearns Goodwin would be a secondary source. If you were researching the literary style of Ms. Goodwin, it would be a primary source.

*From Joyner Library, East Carolina University

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HIST 215J The Art of Biography Research Guide: Background and Secondary Sources

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Selected reference works

Background or "reference" sources are a great place to start your research. Reference works include bibliographies, scholarly encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, and other sources that provide overviews of topics and suggestions for further reading.

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History

A scholarly encyclopedia of potentially great use in the early stages of your research project. Each article has a discussion of the literature, including primary sources. A great starting point for finding more sources and arranged into browsable subject areas. 

American National Biography Online

Gale in Context: U.S. History

This resource brings together reference articles, along with selected primary and secondary sources for getting started on your research.

Oxford Bibliographies

This is an extensive collection of annotated bibliographies that are keyword searchable and can also be browsed by subject and geographic areas. These bibliographies are a great starting point for finding resources, primary and secondary, for your research topic. 

Oxford Handbooks Online Lengthy chapters in the Oxford Handbooks usually provide helpful overviews of scholarly topics and historical literature, along with suggestions for further reading. A number of the handbooks may be helpful depending on your research topic. 

Wiley Online Library

Includes scholarly journal articles and monographs as well as reference works. Often a single chapter or two within a reference work can provide a helpful starting point for research. Thousands of articles in this reference database touch on topics relating to eugenics.  Titles include A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era  and  A Companion to Post-1945 America .

Secondary sources

In addition to the online library catalog ( Books+  and  Orbis ), reference sources, and footnotes in sources you've already found (etc.), subject-specific databases are another extremely helpful resource for finding secondary literature, including the latest scholarly journal articles in the field.

• America: History and Life Provides historical coverage of the United States and Canada and indexes over 2000 historical journals. A key resource if you are searching for historical scholarship related to your research project. Among the journals indexed here are the Journal of American History, American Historical Review, and several more that can provide examples of some of the most recent scholarship in the field.
• Historical Abstracts Provides historical coverage of historical journals covering non-U.S./Canada history.
• JSTOR JSTOR provides access to more than 12 million academic journal articles, books, and primary sources in 75 disciplines.
• International Bibliography of the Social Sciences

And, don’t forget,  Orbis,   Books+  and  Articles+  are all useful tools for locating secondary sources!

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Primary sources/secondary sources, what is a primary source, primary source examples.

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Primary sources provide the raw data you use to support your arguments. Some common types of primary resources include manuscripts, diaries, court cases, maps, data sets, experiment results, news stories, polls, or original research.  In many cases what makes a primary resource is contextual.  For example, a biography about Abraham Lincoln is a secondary resource about Lincoln. However, if examined as a piece of evidence about the nature of biographical writing, or as an example of the biographer's writing method it becomes a primary resource.

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Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources

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What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources depend upon primary sources. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a secondary source.

What is the role of secondary sources in research?

Secondary sources represent the scholarly conversation that has taken place, or is currently taking place, on a given topic. Thus, it is imperative that researchers acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the secondary literature on their topic to be able to then engage with it and offer their own perspective through their writing. Scholars show their deep knowledge of their topic by demonstrating in their writing their awareness of secondary literature. Research that does not include substantial references to both primary and secondary sources is not likely to be authoritative or reliable. For that reason, looking at the listed references in a piece of research can help you determine its value.

What are some examples of secondary sources?

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be lots of different kinds of resources depending on discipline and application. Secondary sources can be:

• Journal articles
• Monographs (books written on a single subject)
• Newspaper or magazine articles
• Book or movie reviews 

In the sciences, secondary sources tend to be things like literature reviews (synthesized descriptions of previous scholarship on a topic), systematic reviews (overviews of primary sources on a topic), or meta analyses (studies in which conclusions are drawn from consideration of systematic reviews).

In the humanities, secondary sources tend to be journal articles that discuss or evaluate someone else's research, monographs, or reviews. 

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Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources: A Quick Guide: Secondary Sources

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What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources are books, periodicals, web sites, etc. that people write using the information from primary sources. They are not written by eyewitnesses to events, for instance, but use eyewitness accounts, photographs, diaries and other primary sources to reconstruct events or to support a writer's thesis about the events and their meaning. Many books you find in the Cornell Library Catalog are secondary sources.

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Guide to Historical Research: Secondary Sources

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What Is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources are written by someone who was not present during the event or condition under discussion. Authors of secondary sources use primary sources or other secondary sources to gather their information.

When doing historical research, it is important to distinguish between  primary  and  secondary  sources.

" Primary sources provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic under investigation. They are created by witnesses or recorders who experienced the events or conditions being documented. Often these sources are created at the time when the events or conditions are occurring, but primary sources can also include autobiographies, memoirs, and oral histories recorded later. Primary sources are characterized by their content, regardless of whether they are available in original format, in microfilm/microfiche, in digital format, or in published format." ( What Are Primary Sources? Yale University)

For information about finding primary source materials, see the Finding Primary Sources for Historical Research user guide.

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Library Research Guide for the History of Science

Secondary sources.

• Newsletter February 2024
• Research Methods
• HOLLIS (and other) Catalogs
• Finding Primary Sources Online
• Outline of Primary Sources for History
• Background/Context
• Bibliographies
• Digital Libraries/Collections
• Public Health Reports
• League of Nations/WHO
• Personal Writings/Oral History
• Archives and Manuscripts
• Images & Film
• Harvard Collections
• Countway Library
• Boston-Area Repositories
• Citing Sources & Organizing Research
• Digital Collections List

Periodical indexes for general historical secondary sources are listed in Library Research Guide for History .

Bibliographies of Secondary Books and Articles

Look for specialized subject bibliographies in  HOLLIS  or WorldCat : Search <"science and society" [Keyword search] and bibliography [Subject Keyword search]> on Expanded Search screen in HOLLIS Classic or the Advanced search screen in HOLLIS or WorldCat.  Examples of secondary source bibliographies .

Periodical Indexes

• History of Science, Technology and Medicine

Book Reviews

Other Indexes

History of Science, Technology and Medicine [HSTM], 1975- .

Includes books, book chapters, and journal articles. Includes medicine and social science as well as science and technology. Electronic equivalent of four printed indexes:

• Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science and its Cultural Influences , 1975-. [Coverage of book reviews begins (in a small way) in 2000 and becomes substantial in 2002. Enter the phrase "book review" in the title field along with the title of the book. Use print version for earlier book reviews (see below)]
• Current Bibliography in the History of Technology , 1987- . [Book reviews included]
• Wellcome Bibliography of the History of Medicine , 1991-2004. [No book reviews]
• Bibliografia italiana di storia della scienza , 1982- . [Book reviews included]

Since HSTM is an amalgamation of four separate indexes with four different subject term systems, study the results of keyword searches to be sure that you know the proper subject terms for your topic in each of the, possibly four, relevant component databases. For example, the Wellcome Bibliography uses "Contraception" but the Isis Current Bibliography uses "Birth control".

Limiting by Time Period

Note the different terms used by these three indexes: Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science and its Cultural Influences : Pre-history, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance (15th and 16th), 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, 20th century Current Bibliography in the History of Technology: Prehistory, Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, 20th century Wellcome Bibliography of the History of Medicine : Ancient, Greek and Roman, Medieval, 13th century , 14th century , 15th century , 16th century, 17th century, 18th century, 19th century, 20th century

Searching for literature published before 1975 (pre-HSTM)

ISISCB Bibliographic Resources in the History of Science, Technology and Medicine  indexes the Isis Current Bibliography.  Search results extend back to 1970.  It also offers a browse of the  Isis Cumulative Bibliographies  (1913-1975).  Search ISISCB Explore

Isis (1913-1996), together with the Critical Bibliography, is available in JSTOR . You can search just the Critical Bibliography:

• Choose <Search JSTOR>
• Choose <Advanced Search>
• In one search field enter your search terms, leaving the menu at <full-text>
• In another search field enter <’Critical Bibliography’>, adjusting the menu to <item title>
• Enter Isis at <Enter Title>

Note that a single Critical Bibliography is searched as a unit. Thus, the search <Darwin and finches> will return all Critical Bibliographies containing these two words, but not necessarily within the same citation. To find book reviews, enter the book title as a phrase.

Title changed from Critical Bibliography to Current Bibliography in 1989 (v. 80).

Earlier material may also be found in the printed versions

Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science and its Cultural Influences , 1913- (Formerly the Isis Critical Bibliography ) offers annual sparsely annotated bibliographies of current works which accompany each volume of Isis . Book reviews are listed at the end of each issue. HOLLIS Record

Cumulated in the ISIS cumulative bibliography; a bibliography of the history of science formed from ISIS critical bibliographies , 1913-95. 14 v. In the 1913-1965 series, citations for books include reviews; in later series, books reviews are at the back of the last volume. LOCATION: History of Science: LOCATION: Widener: RR 5002.36 LOCATION: Wolbach Obs (HCO): Ref Biblio. Cat. Q125.Z99 I87 (Incomplete)

Current Bibliography in the History of Technology , 1964- (Annual in the journal Technology and culture , after 1990 published separately)

Technology and culture , 1964-89 LOCATION: History of Science: PerT 40 LOCATION: Widener: Sci 120.159 Bibliography continued by: Current Bibliography in the History of Technology , 1990- . LOCATION: History of Science LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC T15.Z99 T43x Book reviews are noted in the record for the book reviewed both in print and HSTM. For earlier literature see: Eugene S. Ferguson's Bibliography of the history of technology . 1968. LOCATION: Baker Business: Z7914.H5 F4 1968 LOCATION: Widener: RR5003.40

Wellcome Bibliography of the History of Medicine (formerly Current Work in the History of Medicine ). London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1954-2004. Section on biographies (including obituaries), no. 150 (Ap/June, 1991)- . Obituaries were separated from Biographies and given their own heading "Recent Obituaries" in no. 158 (Ap/June, 1993). Includes obituaries of physicians from the Times . Some material continues to be added to the Wellcome Library catalogue. Some issues still available online (2000-2004). LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Abst & Ind ZWZ 40 C8 LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Rare Books Serial LOCATION: History of Science: Per C 60

Cumulated in: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine and Related Sciences. 1979-80. Subject Catalogue of the History of Medicine. 18 v. [5 biographical v., 4 topographical v., 9 subject v.] LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Rare Books f Z6207.M4 W45

Bibliografia italiana di storia della scienza , 1982- . LOCATION: History of Science LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC Q125.Z99 B53x -- Bucciantini , M., F.  Guidi  & A.  Lenzi . 1995. The database of the Italian Bibliography of the History of Science.  Nuncius , v. 10, pp. 331-343.

PubMed (1947- ) is the National Library of Medicine's index to biomedical journal articles.

• To limit to historical sources, attach the phrase (in"") "historical article" to your search. Example: "Psychology, clinical" and "historical article".
• Be sure to look for MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) on pertinent records by scrolling down past the abstracts. (Not all records in PubMed have MeSH terms.) Subject headings can help you get to more relevant records and/or can be helpful keyword suggestions.
• Very recent articles may not as yet received their MeSH terms.  So look at older records to find the MeSH terms, and use a variety of keywords as well as MeSH terms to find the new records. The MeSH terms are the same as the Medical Subject terms found in HOLLIS.

Books, book chapters, and dissertations formerly searched in HISTLINE are now in the National Library of Medicine (NLM) online catalog . To limit to historical sources: Under Publication Types, scroll to More Publication Types, and choose Historical Articles. This retrieves books and other material as well as articles.

For earlier literature see: Bibliography of the history of medicine of the United States and Canada, 1939-1960 , by Genevieve Miller, which cumulates the serial bibliography published in the Bulletin of the history of medicine , which carried on through the commencement of the Bibliography of the history of medicine in 1965. LOCATION: Countway Medicine: ZWZ 70 M5b 1964 LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Rare Books Z6661.U6 M14 1964 LOCATION: History of Science: LOCATION: Widener: Med 100.116 A bibliography of articles on the history of American medicine compiled from "Writings on American history" 1902-1937 , by Judson B. Gilbert. LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Rare Books Z6661.U6 G3

Coverage of book reviews in HSTM begins (in a small way) in 2000 and becomes substantial in 2002. Enter the phrase "book review" in the title field along with the title of the book: "Sun Kings" and "book review".

General sources include: Academic Search Premier , the Web of Science and Periodicals Index Online (for pre-1995 books). Additional general sources for book reviews . Some of the specialized indexes and bibliographies listed in this guide carry book reviews.

The best specialized source is:

ISIS cumulative bibliography; a bibliography of the history of science formed from ISIS critical bibliographies , 1913-95. 14 v. LOCATION: History of Science: LOCATION: Widener: RR 5002.36 LOCATION: Wolbach Obs (HCO): Ref Biblio. Cat. Q125.Z99 I87 (Incomplete)

In the 1913-1965 series, citations for books include reviews; in later series books reviews are at the back of the last volume.

For post-1995 reviews check the individual issues of the Current Bibliography, shelved with Isis . Book reviews are listed at the end of each issue. LOCATION: Countway Medicine: Serial, 1913- . LOCATION: History of Science: Per I 50, 1913- LOCATION: Lamont: Periodicals, 1913-2001 LOCATION: Widener: Sci 65.55

Citations for book reviews can often be found in the JSTOR version

• Enter book title in quotes, leaving menu at full text. Reviews of books lacking distinctive titles may be difficult to separate from other occurrences of the search phrase. If the author name is more distinctive than the title, search the author name using the inverted first initial only, e.g., "Righini G."
• Scrolling down, enter Isis at <Publication Title>

Numerous historical articles are published in science rather than history of science journals. Many of these do not appear in history of science indexes. To find these, search the scientific indexes listed in the Periodicals/Article section of this guide.

Bibliography (1998- ) published in Public understanding of science lists books, articles, and Internet resources on science, health and technology in public attitudes, educational institutions (especially museums, zoos, etc.), and mass and interactive media. Print version: LOCATION: McKay Applied Sci: Journal (1999- ) LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC Q225.P8

Bibliography of the history of Australian science, 1981- . In: Historical Records of Australian Science . LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC Q93.A879x

Bibliography: Relations of Literature and Science (1880-2001) was published in Configurations (1993-1999) with citations arranged under broad subjects, with author and topic index. Topic index includes period/century access. Print version: LOCATION: Widener: WID-LC PN55.C66x

For the Configurations bibliographies online: for 1989-1990 in vol. 1, issue 2 (Spring 1993) for 1991-1992 in vol. 2, issue 2 (Spring 1994) for 1993 in vol. 3, issue 2 (Spring 1995) for 1994 in vol. 4, issue 2 (Spring 1996) for 1995 in vol. 5, issue 2 (Spring 1997) for 1996 in vol. 6, issue 3 (Fall 1998) for 1997 in vol. 7, issue 3 (Fall 1999) for 1998 in vol. 9, issue 3 (Fall 2000) for 1999 in vol. 9, issue 2 (Spring 2001) for 2001-2004 Previously published in: Publication of the Society for Literature and Science: PSLS , 1984-88. LOCATION: Not held at Harvard or the Boston area The Relations of literature and science: an annotated bibliography of scholarship, 1880-1980 , edited by W. Schatzberg, R. A. Waite, and J. K. Johnson. NY: Modern Language Association of America, 1987, 458 pp. LOCATION: Widener: RR 3003.82

JSTOR allows simultaneous or individual searching, full-text searching optional, of several history of science journals from their inceptions to about 5 years ago. JSTOR provides a list of included history of science & technology  journals.

Periodicals index online  indexes contents of thousands of journals in the humanities and social sciences, from their first issues to 5 years ago. Covers journals from North America, the UK, and Continental Europe. Includes the complete table of contents for each issue of each journal. Includes book reviews. Indexes the following journals in the history of science:

• Agricultural History
• Agricultural History Review
• Ambix (history of chemistry)
• Annals of Science
• Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences
• British Journal for the History of Science
• Bulletin of the History of Medicine
• Clio Medica
• History and Technology
• History of Science
• Industrial Archaeology Review
• Journal of Garden History
• Journal of the History of Ideas
• Journal of the History of Philosophy
• Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
• Journal of Transport History
• Medical History and Medical History, Supplement
• Medizinhistorisches Journal
• Newcomen Society for the Study of the History of Engineering and Technology, Transactions
• Quipu: Revista Latinoamericana de Historia de las Ciencias y la Tecnologia
• Social History of Medicine
• Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
• Technology and Culture
• Victorian Studies
• Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science
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• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/histsci

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HIST 150: History Through Objects: The Atlantic World

• Introduction
• In This Session (3/7/24)
• What's Left Behind
• Your Library: Overview of Services
• Primary VS Secondary Sources
• What is Peer Review?
• Types of Sources
• What is a "Good" Secondary Source?
• Historical Statistics
• Finding Encyclopedias
• Boolean (AND OR NOT)
• Article Tips
• How to order articles we don't own?
• Analyzing, Summarizing, and Critiquing an Article
• Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Publications
• Worldcat: Accessing books we don't own
• Analyzing, Summarizing, and Critiquing a Book
• Getting Started with Secondary Sources
• Difficulty with primary sources
• Why so many databases?
• Key Databases
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Stuck or need help? No problem!

Guide to Finding Search Terms for Secondary Sources

• Guide to finding keywords in secondary research

What is a secondary source?

A Secondary source is a work written about an event or person  after  it has taken place. Some examples:

• Academic Article
• Most websites
• Media depictions (ex. films)
• Documentaries
• Reinactments

Types of Secondary Sources

In Academe, we are especially interested in a specific  type  of secondary source: Peer Reviewed Publications.

But what's the difference between scholarly, peer reviewed, popular, or refereed? Scholarly : A source written by an expert, but not subjected to the peer review process.  Example: magazine articles (if written by expert), public presentations, reviews, opinion pieces. Refereed : Academic work that has some level of vetting, usually by an editor or panel.  Example: Conference papers, journal articles that are approved by an editor but not external reviewers. NOTE: refereed is often used interchangeably with Peer Reviewed by databases, but it isn't always the same. Popular : Written for a wide readership. May or may not be written by a subject expert. Examples: newspaper or magazine, popular press books, websites. Peer Reviewed : Academic books and articles written by a specialist, reviewed by other experts, and published by an academic press. Examples: Articles in academic journals, some conference papers, books published  by university presses.

• << Previous: Primary VS Secondary Sources
• Next: What is Peer Review? >>
• Last Updated: Mar 12, 2024 1:15 PM
• URL: https://guides.libraries.wm.edu/HIST150ObjectsSp24

Primary and Secondary Sources

• Primary Sources
• Finding Primary Sources

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Scholarly Sources
• Finding Secondary (and Scholarly) Sources

A  secondary source  is one that was created later by someone that did not experience firsthand or participate in the events in which the author is writing about. Secondary sources often summarize, interpret, analyze or comment on information found in primary sources.

Common examples of secondary sources include:

• Biographies
• Literary Criticism
• Journal articles that do not present new research
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• Next: Scholarly Sources >>
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• UHV Library 3006 N. Ben Wilson Victoria, TX 77901

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Biographies

Use a biography when you are looking for facts and accounts about notable people. An autobiography is a biography in which the author writes about his or her own life. Many biographies focus on one person.Some are collective biographies which have information about multiple people. Some collective biographies are subject specific, like a book or series about famous scientists or one about actors.

When do I use a biography? Use a biography when you need the following:

• quick facts about an individual
• in-depth information about an individual
• information about an individual's role in a specific event (e.g., Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation Proclamation)

Where do I find a biography? Look for a biography in the reference or nonfiction sections of your library. Often the books have a call number of 921, 920 (collective), B or Bio, or the number associated with what the individual is noted for (e. g., athletes in 796 or mathematicians in 510). Use your library's online catalog to find the call number by using the person's name in a subject search. Or, enter the topic you are interested in, like athletes or mathematician s, and adding biography as a keyword.  

How is a biography organized? Biographies can be arranged in a variety of ways. Some cover  a person's entire life, and others focus on a significant contribution or event. In the case of collective biographies, a chapter or section will often focus on one individual.

How do I use a print biography? Think about what information you need. Use the table of contents to see how the book is arranged, and use the index to locate the specific pieces of information you need. In a collective biography, the index will list names of individuals and also related topics and events.

The index will be in alphabetical order by main headings (usually in bold print) and subheadings (usually indented):   

How do I use an online biography? Your public or school library might have eBook biographies about the person you are studying. Check the online catalogs or databases. Also, there are websites dedicated to biographical information, like Biography.com and History.com. Browse by topics or use the website's, eBook's, or database's search features. Or, use a search engine to search the Internet for information about your subject.

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Meet the team who covers the people you know and the stories you don’t.

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Since the 1960s when Biography premiered as a television show, the Biography name has been synonymous with intriguing life stories. Launched in 1996, Biography.com covers the people you know through stories you don’t. In addition to the fascinating, highly credible profiles we are known for, our daily news operation reports on all facets of pop culture, true crime , and power dynamics . Our scope includes current and historical figures , as well as athletes , actors , musicians , scientists , and innovators from every discipline.

QUICK FACTS IN OPERATION SINCE: 1996 LOCATION: Easton, Pennsylvania NUMBER OF PROFILES: 3,079 and counting

Biography.com is home to more than 3,000 profiles of well-known, notable, and lasting figures. We don’t just tell you who someone is; we explain how their contributions fit within the broader societal and historical context. We also research far beyond someone’s resume to share the quirkier aspects about them. (Did you know Queen Elizabeth II owned more than 30 descendants of the first corgi she received as a teenager?)

We take a similar approach with our news coverage, which is why we can tell you that country star Morgan Wallen shares a record with Taylor Swift and The Beatles . And that there have been eight sets of brothers to face each other in a major sports championship. We hope that after spending five minutes with our context, you’ll feel 5 percent smarter.

Since 2023, Biography.com has been a part of Hearst Magazines , one of the largest publishers of magazine media across all platforms with nearly 260 magazine editions and 200 websites around the world, including Good Housekeeping , Esquire , Popular Mechanics , and Town & Country . For more about Biography TV specials, visit our partners at A&E Television Networks .

Our Editorial Standards and Practices

All content on biography.com must be accurate, clear, engaging, and fair. Our editorial values include:

• Accuracy: Biography.com is a beacon of trust in an ocean of information. We take our credibility seriously, in all regards, to deliver facts and insights you can trust. Our staff includes journalists with years of reporting experience and awards to their name. We also hire expert freelance writers who specialize in the beats we cover to ensure sharp, insightful coverage.
• Relevance: As a news outlet, we focus on current events and conversations. Our content is timely and relevant to your interests.
• Prominence: We report on people from many industries, but all our subjects are well-known or notable.
• Durability: Our profile subjects are people who continue to surface in current events or have a lasting legacy that is still important today. You might call them icons.

Fact Checking

All our content is fact-checked prior to publication. This means our editors and freelance researchers use a minimum of two reputable secondary sources, or one reputable primary source, to confirm that all objective information is correct at the time of publication. This includes names, locations, dates, and statistics. When information is lost to history, we promise to be upfront with you about what is scholarly speculation.

Updating Profiles

We regularly update our profiles to make sure what’s included is must-know information about the subject and that all the facts about them are still accurate.

Affiliate Disclosure

Biography.com participates in various affiliate marketing programs, which means we may get paid commissions on products purchased through our links to retailer sites. The merchandise we feature on our site is always driven by editorial standards, not by affiliate deals or advertising relationships.

We take our trusted relationship with you seriously and therefore maintain a strict privacy policy .

The Biography.com editorial office is located at 132 S. 3rd Street in Easton, Pennsylvania. You can email us at [email protected] . Visit our Contact Us page to sign up for our newsletter and follow us on social media.

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The news and profiles team publishes articles about whoever is currently in the spotlight and keeps Biography.com’s profiles in tip-top shape. Our freelance contributors include John Gilpatrick , Sara Kettler , Emily Shiffer , and more.

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Reference List: Textual Sources

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Basic Format for Books

Edited book, no author, edited book with an author or authors, a translation.

Note : When you cite a republished work, like the one above, in your text, it should appear with both dates: Plato (385-378/1989)

Edition Other Than the First

Article or chapter in an edited book.

Note : When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers. List any edition number in the same set of parentheses as the page numbers, separated by a comma: (2nd ed., pp. 66-72).

Multivolume Work

Articles in periodicals.

APA style dictates that authors are named with their last name followed by their initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized. If a DOI has been assigned to the article that you are using, you should include this after the page numbers for the article. If no DOI has been assigned and you are accessing the periodical online, use the URL of the website from which you are retrieving the periodical.

Article in Print Journal

Note: APA 7 advises writers to include a DOI (if available), even when using the print source. The example above assumes no DOI is available.

Article in Electronic Journal

Note :  This content also appears on Reference List: Online Media .

As noted above, when citing an article in an electronic journal, include a DOI if one is associated with the article.

DOIs may not always be available. In these cases, use a URL. Many academic journals provide stable URLs that function similarly to DOIs. These are preferable to ordinary URLs copied and pasted from the browser's address bar.

Article in a Magazine

Article in a newspaper.