job satisfaction literature review 2018

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Related links, estudios gerenciales, print version  issn 0123-5923.

PUJOL-COLS, Lucas J.  and  DABOS, Guillermo E. . Job satisfaction: a literature review of its main antecedents. estud.gerenc. [online]. 2018, vol.34, n.146, pp.3-18. ISSN 0123-5923.  https://doi.org/10.18046/j.estger.2018.146.2809 .

Although job satisfaction has received considerable attention during most of the last century, it is still surprising how fragmented this field of studies is and how limited the efforts for integration have been. With the aim of identifying the key factors that have been suggested as key antecedents of job satisfaction in the empirical literature, we conduct a review of relevant research studies published in high-impact journals in the last two decades. Our findings reveal that research considering both dispositional and situational antecedents of job satisfaction is still very limited. Finally, this article analyzes major gaps in literature and suggests potential lines of research.

Keywords : job satisfaction; dispositions; personality; job design; person-situation debate.

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Determinants of Job Satisfaction: A Review of Empirical Literature

• Prof. Thomas Katua Ngui
• Mar 16, 2023
• Human resource management

Prof. Thomas Katua Ngui United States International University – Africa, KENYA

The commonly held opinion is that “a satisfied worker is a productive worker”. There is a reciprocal relationship between satisfaction and performance; this means that satisfaction causes performance and performance causes satisfaction. When an employee is satisfied with their job they commit their energies and effort towards achievement of organizational goals sometimes at the expense of their personal goals. The purpose of this study is to find out the factors that influence the level of job satisfaction among the workforce. Increased job satisfaction will motivate employees to achieve the organizational goals. A satisfied work force will create a pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform well (Pushpakumari, 2008).  Low job satisfaction could cause employees to move away from their jobs, search for new jobs, or change their existing jobs and careers. The degree of organizational loyalty of employee is higher when employee job satisfaction increased (Javed, Balouch & Hassan, 2014). It is therefore, very critical for organizations to approach their performance improvement goal from the employee job satisfaction point. For this to happen effectively, it is necessary for the managers to understand the factors that determine job satisfaction among employees. Studies have shown that job satisfaction is influenced by a variety of factors- both internal and external to the organization. This study sought to review literature on the factors that determine or influence job satisfaction. From the study it was found that job satisfaction is an outcome of different factors like pay, the work itself, job security, supervision, leadership styles, relationships with co-workers and opportunities for promotions. The findings of this study will help managers at all levels to play a key role in improving the levels of job satisfaction among employees within their jurisdictions. This in turn will lead to higher performance both at the individual, team and organizational levels.

Key Words: Job security, Job satisfaction; Performance

INTRODUCTION

With increased technological growth and globalization of markets the business environment has become very competitive and complex. This requires organizations to up their game in order to remain competitive and survive in the changed business environment. To succeed in this very turbulent market, most organizations have invested in acquisition of high quality resources that are valuable, unique, non- imitable and rare in order to sustain their competitiveness. Such resources include human, physical, technological and financial resources. Among the identified resources, the human resources have been found to be the best source of sustainable competitive advantage. The success of any organization depends on the satisfaction of its workforce (Mekonin & Teklu, 2021).

Every organization’s success indeed depends on employee satisfaction on job as their effort has been paid off ( Khaira, Afifah, Shariff & Sima, 2021) . Leaders today believe that impressive human resource is the power factor of an organization. This is because human resources are unique and cannot be copied. Human resource is an active resource which has emotions and can react differently to different situations. Human resource is considered as the most important asset which serves as the engine for providing a sustainable source of energy and service delivery in the organization (Muhammad & Wajidi, 2013). The importance of intellectual capital has increased to the point of being one of the most valuable assets that must be better understood in order to be developed (Ouedraogo & ALeclerc, 2013).  This is largely because the human resource is an active resource that has the capability to activate other resources in pursuit of organizational goals/ objectives. It is also very unique and cannot be copied.

The millennium generation employees (millennials) have different expectations from the job environment compared to the expectations of the previous generation of workers. For this new generation of employees to be productive and to unleash their full potential, they should be satisfied with their job. This requires managers to be very cautious while dealing with the millennials and also to understand their needs/ expectations in order to fully benefit from their skills and knowledge. Job satisfaction is a result of employees’ perception of how well their job provides those things which are viewed as important (Ndulue & Ekechukwu, 2016). If the human resource or employees are happy and contended with the moves and actions of the employer, they do their best for the best of the organization (Khan, Nawaz, Aleem & Hamed, 2012). A satisfied work force will create a pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform well (Pushpakumari, 2008).

There is a reciprocal relationship between satisfaction and performance; this means that satisfaction and performance influence each other. Increased job satisfaction will motivate employees to achieve the organizational goals. When employees perform well and achieve the organizational goals they are also likely to be motivated by the improved performance which in turn leads to higher job satisfaction. The factors that contribute to the positive morale and attitude also result in a higher degree of job satisfaction (Saranya, 2014). A highly satisfied work force is absolutely necessary for achieving a high level of performance in an organization. Satisfied workers tend to extend more effort to job performance, then work harder and better (Pushpakumari, 2008). Job satisfaction is an important factor for improving effectiveness and also a person’s satisfaction in a company. Job satisfaction is achieved from situations a person experience in his job, so factors such as management method, organization policy and structure, job conditions and type of relation with coworkers are important (Weiss, 2002).

Many studies have been done on the relationship between job satisfaction and performance, for example, Khan, Nawaz, Aleem and Hamed, (2012); Revenio Jr. (2016); Ndulue and Ekechukwu (2016) and Bakotic, (2016) have all done studies on this topic. However, due to the changing nature of the work environment as a result of advancement in technology and the changed expectation of the current millennial employee, this topic remains a topic of interest and requires continuous research in order to meet the psychological needs of the new category of employees whose expectations are quite different from those of the previous generation of workers. The purpose of this paper is to review literature on the factors that influence level of job satisfaction among the workforce and its effects on performance.

Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is an affective or emotional response towards various facets of one’s job (Ndulue & Ekechukwu, 2016). Cranny, Smith and Stone (2014) defined job satisfaction as employees’ emotional state regarding the job, considering what they expected and what they actually got out of it. According to Willem, (2007) job satisfaction shows the relation between human expectations and advantages taken from job. Vroom (1964) as cited in Revenio Jr. (2016) defines job satisfaction as an “effective orientations on the part of the individuals towards work roles which they are presently occupying”. Job satisfaction is a positive emotional state that arises from the employee’s work or practical experience, and results in job satisfaction from the realization of the extent to which the employees work provides the things that he or she considers important (Hareem, 2013). According to Spector (1997) job satisfaction shows peoples emotion about their job generally or about some parts of it (i.e. organization, job, supervisory, coworkers, salary and income and promotions). Job satisfaction describes the positive or negative attitude of a person regarding his employment and work environment (Weiss, 2002; Greenberg, 2008). This could be both psychological as well as physiological factors (Revenio Jr., 2016).

Satisfaction is a complex and multifaceted concept (Revenio Jr., 2016) that is influenced by both internal and external environmental factors. Work environment is an important determinant of job satisfaction of employees (Herzberg, 1968; Spector, 2008).  Existing literature and research results show that job satisfaction is influenced by a variety of factors- both internal and external to the organization. The organizations have a level of control over the internal factors, however, they have very limited or no control of the external environmental factors that influence job satisfaction. Different factors within the working environment such as wages, working hours, autonomy given to employees, organizational structure and communication between employees and management may affect job satisfaction (Lane, Esser, Holte, & Anne, 2010). Therefore, the organization should strive to improve on the factors that they have control over in order to increase the level of job satisfaction. At the same time they should try as much as possible to support those responsible for the external environment to improve it. This may call for initiatives that are similar to the existing public-private partnerships.

The results of a study by Dawal and Taha, (2015) showed that job and environmental factors are significantly related to job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is an outcome of different factors like pay, promotion, the work itself, supervision, relationships with co-workers and opportunities for promotions (Opkara, 2002). Ndulue and Ekechukwu, (2016) have also identified pay, the work itself, promotions, supervision, workgroup, and working conditions as the factors that influence job satisfaction. The level of job satisfaction is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors, the quality of supervision, social relationships with work group and the degree to which individuals succeed or fail in their work (Armstrong, 2006).

Pay, the work itself, promotions, supervision, workgroup and working conditions have a great influence on the level of an employee’s satisfaction with the job (Luthans, 1985). According to Saranya, (2014) the important factors that contribute to the higher level of job satisfaction are challenging and responsible job, numerous promotional opportunities, impartial treatment by the management, creativity and innovative ideas of job security, attractive salary and perks, freedom in work situation, participative management and welfare facilities like medical, uniform, canteen etc. Smith, Kendall and Hullin (1969) expressed the five aspects that can be used to determine job satisfaction as; being satisfied from job (i.e. interesting tasks and opportunities for learning and training), being satisfied from supervisor (i.e. technical and managing abilities and their considerations about employees), being satisfied from coworkers (technical qualification and support they show), being satisfied from promotion (achieving real opportunity to advance), being satisfied from income (amount of income, its equality and way of paying to staff).

Other researchers who have investigated the factors that affect job satisfaction include Tabassum, Khan, Sherani, and Khan, (2016) who say that the major determinants of job satisfaction are basically nine facets which are pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, nature of works and communication. Purcell, Kinnie, Hutchinson, Rayton, and Swart, (2003) also did a research and found that the key factors affecting job satisfaction were career opportunities, job influence, team work and job challenge. According to Revenio Jr. (2016) leadership style also has a great role in the employee’s level of job satisfaction. Brudney and Coundry (1993) have also explained different variables that influence performance of the employees in the organization. They included factors such as pay, organization commitment, relationship between pay and performance, etc. Working conditions have positive impact on job satisfaction (Guest, 2004; Silla, Gracia & Peiro, 2005). Job satisfaction is adversely affected by factors such as lack of promotion, working conditions, low job security and low level of autonomy (Guest, 2004; Silla et al., 2005).

It is essential for an organization to motivate their employees to work hard for achieving the organizational goals and objectives. According to Jerrell, Coggburn, Battaglio Jr., and Bradbury, (2014) how an organization manages conflict also has a bearing on employee job satisfaction.

Empirical Review

Various studies have been done on the factors affecting job satisfaction. Some of the factors researched about include job security, leadership/ supervision styles, salaries, promotion opportunities among others.  Javed, Balouch and Hassan, (2014) did a study on the determinants of job satisfaction and its impact on employee performance and turnover intentions. The results of the study showed a significant positive association of employee empowerment, workplace environment, job loyalty and job performance with job satisfaction. The results show that employee empowerment has a significant positive relationship and it contributes more than 37% to job satisfaction. Therefore, when an employee is given autonomy in business decisions then his satisfaction level will rise. Furthermore, there was a significant negative relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention. According to the result of the study, job satisfaction has a significant negative relationship with turnover intentions contributing more than 32% to turnover intentions. Whenever there is low level of employee satisfaction in any organization, the employees of that organization will intentionally leave that organization.

Cheginy, Isfahani, Mohseni, Khakian and Khosravizadeh (2014) did a study to investigate the factors influencing job satisfaction among hospital personnel. The results of the study showed that there is a significant relationship between job satisfaction and personnel’s perceptions about their work conditions, satisfaction with supervision, satisfaction with coworkers, satisfaction with work nature and satisfaction with salary and advantage. Rukh, Choundhary and Abbasi (2015) did a study on the analysis of factors affecting employee satisfaction in Pakistan. Research findings indicated the significant factors that affect the satisfaction level of employees as pay, promotion, relation with employees, relation with supervisor, work stress and job security. The results further showed that the median group differences existed between responses based on age, work experience, salary and designation (i.e. job position/rank) of employees. Job satisfaction was also positively and significantly associated with job related factors such as pay, promotion, relation with employees, relation with supervisor, work stress and job security. From the study they concluded that job satisfaction of employees was significantly affected by demographic, financial and non-financial factors. Employees who are older than 50 years, with greater experience, and in higher management positions were more satisfied with pay, promotion, work stress, work condition and working environment. The employees’ departments did not play any significant role in affecting satisfaction levels.

Viñas-Bardolet, Velazco and Torrent-Sellens (2013) did a study on the determinants of Job Satisfaction, the Role of Knowledge-based work: An illustration from Spain and found that job satisfaction, depends on worker attributes, financial and non-financial job characteristics. The results also show that net monthly income is a positive and highly significant variable in explaining job satisfaction. Evidence suggests that financial and non-financial (work organisation and work intensity) job dimensions are the most important determinants of knowledge-based workers satisfaction in Spain. Mosadegh Rad and De Moraes (2009) did a study to investigate the specific factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in employees at the Isfahan University Hospitals (lUHs) in Isfahan, Iran. The study also focused on revealing homogeneous demographic characteristics that these employees exhibited, and which affect their satisfaction level. It was found that overall employees were moderately satisfied with their jobs, and more satisfied with the following aspects of their current work situation: supervision, job identity and co-workers. The lowest satisfaction scores were found for benefits, contingent rewards, communication, salaries, work conditions and promotion. Motivating factors included loyalty to employees, job security, good pay, good working conditions, tactful discipline, involvement, recognition and promotion.

Job security is a significant determinant of job satisfaction. Job security provides workers with a much-needed sense of structure (Woods, 2018). The effect of job security on worker job satisfaction is different depending on whether perceived job loss occurs (or not), whether job openings are scarce or whether job openings are plentiful (Artz & Kaya, 2014). In the results of their study Artz & Kaya (2014) showed that three measures of job security increase private sector worker job satisfaction, and reduce worker incentives to quit. Few workers quit when job openings are relatively scarce (during contractions) than when job openings are relatively plentiful (during expansions). People want to know their job is available for as long as they wish to hold it. When job security decreases, satisfaction and performance levels also take a hit. Results of a study by Reisel, Probst, Chia, Maloles and König, (2010) on the effects of job insecurity on job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, deviant behavior, and negative emotions of employees show that job insecurity is negatively related to satisfaction and that job insecurity has both direct and indirect effects on work behaviors and emotions.

The work environment has also been researched in relation to job satisfaction. Raziq and Maulabakhsh, (2015) did a study on the Impact of Working Environment on Job Satisfaction and found a positive relationship between working environment and employee job satisfaction. Their study concluded that the businesses need to realize the importance of good working environment for maximizing the level of job satisfaction.  Other results have also shown that there is a positive link between work environment and intrinsic aspect of the job satisfaction. According to Javed, Balouch, and Hassan, (2014) work place environment has a positive relation with job satisfaction and it contributes 16% to job satisfaction. Since it has a positive impact on job satisfaction so it shows that when an employee is given favorable and clean environment then his/her satisfaction level rises. Bakotic and Babic (2013) found that the workers who work under difficult working conditions, are dissatisfied through this work environment.

Promotions are also an important aspect of a worker’s career and life, affecting other facets of the work experience. With regard to promotions some studies have also been done by various researchers. Malik, Danish and Munir, (2012) did a study  to determine the impact of pay and promotion on job satisfaction in higher education institutes of Pakistan and found that pay has significant influence on job satisfaction but the promotion has less influence and partially significant to the job satisfaction. Kosteas (2007) did a study on job Satisfaction and Promotions and found that promotions have a lasting, but diminishing impact on job satisfaction. Kosteas (2007) also find a strong, negative correlation between quits and both job satisfaction and promotion expectations. Promotion has a positive impact on job satisfaction (Nguyen et al., 2003; Teseema & Soeters, 2006). Khan and Mishra, (2013) also did a research on promotion as job satisfaction, a study on Colleges of Muscat, Sultanate Of Oman and the research findings indicate that academic teaching employees where satisfied with the promotion. There was a significant difference in the level of satisfaction. Analysis showed that promotion has a modest and positive effect on job satisfaction.

Mabaso and Dlamini (2017) did a study on the impact of compensation and benefits on job satisfaction and found a positive and significant effect of compensation on job satisfaction (p = 0.263). Moreover, they found that there was no significant effect between benefits and job satisfaction. Therefore, only compensation significantly predicted job satisfaction among academic staff. A study by Usman, Akbar and Ramzan (2013) on the effect of salary and stress on job satisfaction of teachers in District Sialkot, Pakistan found that from the two independent variables (salary and stress) only salary of the teachers was significantly affecting the job satisfaction of teachers. Financial rewards (salary) were found to significantly affect job satisfaction of teachers. Based on the findings of the study by Usman, Akbar and Ramzan (2013) it means that if employees are not given proper salary in time, they would be highly dissatisfied with their jobs and may ultimately start thinking of leaving the profession. This is due to the fact that cost of living is highly increasing in Pakistan. Other results of a study by Muhammed zia Ur Rehman, (2010) found that job satisfaction was significantly related with extrinsic rewards (salary and other benefits). Arian, Soleimani and Oghazian (2018) did a study on job satisfaction and the factors affecting satisfaction in nurse educators and found that there is a positive correlation between job satisfaction and promotion opportunities and that those professors with a high level of job satisfaction had a higher pay and salary. Job satisfaction of bank officers is significantly dependent upon compensation, promotion opportunities, rewards, relation with boss and coworkers. The study found that compensation is the main factor affecting job satisfaction, and it also has significant relationships with job involvement and promotion. Some evidence that workers who are dissatisfied with their bosses are more sensitive to their compensation in deciding on whether they are satisfied with their job was also established from the study.

An affable relationship between supervisor and employee leads to job satisfaction. According to the Essays, UK (November 2013) an amiable supervisor-employee relationship builds the employee’s morale, which makes him to feel affective about his job, especially when his efforts are recognized and rewarded. This brings him satisfaction in his job. Thus, the employee strives to achieve both organizational and personal goals.

A study by Nidadhavolu, Akhila, (2018) on the impact of leadership styles on employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the construction sector in India proved that an organization’s leadership style strongly influences employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The application of transformational leadership style leads to stronger job satisfaction. This finding established that leadership has a major influence on work outcome and job satisfaction in the company. The employees are most satisfied when they see their leaders possess both relation-oriented and task-oriented behaviors. The study also highlighted a laissez-faire leadership style is a consequence of job satisfaction. The findings show that the laissez-faire leadership style could result in low interpersonal relationships, resulting in weak employee job satisfaction and productivity levels. The research findings found that out of the three construction companies chosen for the study, the laissez-faire leadership style had a negative influence on job satisfaction and organizational commitment on the employees of two companies. Whereas, the transformational leadership style had a positive impact on the employees of one company. The study also discovered the negative influence of upper-management leadership style on employees has a negative influence on organization performance.

Saleem, (2015) did a study on the impact of leadership styles on job satisfaction and mediating role of perceived organizational politics. Research findings revealed that transformational leadership has a positive impact on job satisfaction and transactional leadership has a negative impact on job satisfaction. The findings also suggest that, perceived organizational politics partially mediate the relationship between both leadership styles and job satisfaction.

Sarwar, Mumtaz, Batool and Ikram, (2015) also did a study on the impact of leadership styles on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. This study tested the effects of both transactional and transformational leadership styles of supervisors/ managers on job satisfaction and organizational commitment of employees. Data was collected from the managers and employees working in IT research and development department in Pakistan. The results of the study revealed a positive effect of both transformational and transactional leadership on job satisfaction and organizational commitment, but this effect is more in case of transactional leadership.

Chien- Wen Tsai (2008) did a study on leadership style and employee’s job satisfaction in international tourist hotels. Through correlation analysis, this research found that employees are more satisfied under consideration-style-leadership than construction-style-leadership. After controlling for differences in salary, employees appear to prefer consideration-style-leadership. No matter what the leadership style is, employees’ job satisfaction does not relate towards their coworkers. Besides, employees have different perceptions on work, salary, and overall satisfaction depending on their education level and seniority.

Bulitia, Godrick (2006) did a survey of supervision styles and employee job satisfaction in commercial banks in Kenya. The findings of this study showed a high correlation between supervision styles and job satisfaction. All the correlated statements between supervision styles and job satisfaction had +1 correlation coefficient. This gave a perfect positive correlation meaning the two variables supervision styles and job satisfaction move together in the completely linear manner. However, based on the study results by Bulitia, Godrick (2006) there is need for line managers to improve the use of supervision styles and relationship with employee job satisfaction in Commercial banks in Kenya. For them to improve and succeed in their supervision styles there should be changes at the individual and organizational levels. At individual level improving line managers’ supervision styles, would involve basic education and specific job related training. They should also be encouraged to enhance their skills through continuous self-learning. At organizational level top management should provide appropriate reinforcements for line managers in learning about and improving their supervision styles (Bulitia, Godrick, 2006).

Ayodele, Ekemode and Kajimo-Shakantu (2020) investigated the job satisfaction levels of real estate firms’ employees and the relationship between employees’ personal and demographic characteristics and their job satisfaction levels. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. The result showed that financial consideration/personal accomplishment was the most important factor influencing employees’ level of satisfaction, followed by work environment skill variety/organizational culture, feedback/fairness, work passion and supervision/workload/work-life balance. The results of the analysis also showed that demographic factors such as age, marital status, academic qualification, management level, years spent under the current line manager, remuneration and number of firm branches had a significant relationship with job satisfaction.

Park (2020) did a study to investigate the direct effects of supervisor satisfaction, public service motivation, and job characteristics on job satisfaction and the indirect effects mediated by organizational commitment. The survey data used for the empirical analysis was collected from central government agencies in the Republic of Korea. The study found that all three factors indirectly affect job satisfaction through organizational commitment. Only job characteristics were found to directly affect job satisfaction (Park, 2020).

Another study done by Abdelmoula and Boudabbous (2021) with the aim of identifying the factors that affect the job satisfaction of professional accountants. The study examined the relative effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on job satisfaction among accounting professionals using the principal component analysis (PCA) and multiple regression methods of data analysis. The results of the study showed that three intrinsic factors, namely achievement, the work itself, recognition, along with four extrinsic ones, i.e., salary, relationship with supervisor and co-workers, working conditions, and the company policy, significantly affect the job satisfaction. However, promotion, growth and recognition do not have a significant effect on job satisfaction.

The study by Hussain and Diaz, (2021) identified factors affecting employee job satisfaction in the University of Karachi using a survey questionnaire data. The study found that a generous rewards and compensation packages lead to job satisfaction and are affected by promotion and job security. Good working relationship with co-workers also contributes to employee job satisfaction. The study also found that good working environment also contributes to employee motivation, and is influenced by better facilities, and training and development. Finally, good supervision provides motivation that enhances the quality of output and employee performance.

Jędrzejczak-Gas and Wyrwa (2020) conducted a study to analyze and evaluate environmental factors shaping job satisfaction in a company from the TSL industry. For the study the correlation between general job satisfaction and particular factors of job satisfaction was examined. The values of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients and Kendall’s tau coefficients were also calculated. The results of the study show that the two most important factors necessary to achieve job satisfaction are access to information necessary for proper performance of work and independence in performing the entrusted tasks.

Okuwa (2019) examined the determinants of job satisfaction and job turnover intention of the workers of selected banks in Ibadan. Multiple sampling methods were used to select the sample (purposive sampling method was employed to select 12 banks that have the highest number of branches in Ibadan, while random sampling technique was used to select 20 respondents from each of the bank). The results showed that adequacy of salary, safety in work place, possibility of promotion, and interpersonal relations among the staff were the factors that enhanced job satisfaction. However, long working hours, job insecurity and conflicts between office and family schedules reduced the job satisfaction of the bankers.

Using an explanatory research design with a quantitative research approach Mekonin and Teklu (2021) did a study to investigate the determinants of employee job satisfaction in the case of kirkos sub-city of Addis Ababa city administration. The data for the study was collected using a structured close-ended questions from a sample of 310 randomly selected employees and was analyzed using inferential statistics with the aid of Statistical Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 23.0. Multiple regression and ANOVA analysis techniques were also used to explain the nature and effects between employees’ job satisfaction and (Gender, Age, Academic level, Work experience, Work position, pay and benefit, working environment, promotion opportunity, relation with supervisors, trust in leadership). The study found that there is a significant effect with pay and benefit, working environment, Promotion opportunities, relation with supervisors, work experience, and trust in leadership to employees’ job satisfaction and regression analysis result indicated that 81.6% of the variation on the employees’ job satisfaction can be explained by the composite measure the independent variables.

Senek. et al. (2020) analyzed data from a cross-sectional mixed-methods survey to investigate the Determinants of nurse job dissatisfaction – findings from a cross-sectional survey analysis in the UK . Logistic regression analysis of the data was done in order to determine what impacts job dissatisfaction. The study found that nearly two-thirds of nurses were dissatisfied and demoralized.

Monica, Devi and Mohapatra (2020) did a study on Determinants of Job Satisfaction.  Using a sample of 150 respondents and data collected using questionnaire method the study examined whether job characteristics (JC) and individual characteristics (IC) have an effect on worker’s job satisfaction (JS). The result suggest that job characteristics and self-efficacy are significant predictors of job satisfaction (JS).

Khaira, Afifah; Shariff, and Sima, (2021) did a study on the determinants of employee job satisfaction in Malaysia . This study aimed to determine demographic factors (gender and living areas), education and skills, work environment and compensation as the determinants of employee job satisfaction. Data collected from 132 employees from various sectors in Malaysia was analyzed using Pearson’s correlation and the Ordinal Logistic Regression. From the study it was concluded that living area, education qualification and skills and compensation are significant and considered important factors to meet their job satisfaction compared to gender and work environment.

Ranatunga, (2020) did a study to identify the relationship between pay, promotion, supervision, co-workers and work itself of job satisfaction and job performance among employees in classified hotels. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 150 non–executive employees selected using the convenience sampling method. Frequencies, univariate analysis, Pearson’s correlation, T-test and multiple regression analysis as well as multivariate analysis were used in the study. The study concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between selected factors of job satisfaction and job performance. The results of the correlation coefficient showed that pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision, work itself has a significant positive relationship with job performance and it emphasized that pay and co-workers have a strong relationship with job performance. According to the multiple regression analysis, the model was strongly fitted to the data and 40.6% variance of job performance was explained by pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision and work itself of job satisfaction.

Parveen, Maimani, and Kassim (2016) did a study to examine the effects of demographic characteristics on the QWL dimensions and satisfaction, and the relationships between the QWL dimensions and satisfaction, and between satisfaction and retention among nurses and other health care professionals Saudi Arabia.  A sample of 360 nurses and other health care professionals was collected in Jeddah, in Saudi Arabia and the data collected was analysed using multivariate analysis of variance and structural equation modeling were used to test the hypotheses. The results of the study show that there is a significant difference between demographic and QWL dimensions and satisfaction. Satisfaction with personal growth and salary package were found to have significant positive impacts on overall retention.

Jigme, and Namgyal, (2021) did a study to determine the relationship between the determinants of job satisfaction such as work environment, pay and allowances, promotion, training and development, and job satisfaction in the Bhutanese context. Data from a sample of 76 civil servants were collected through a questionnaire survey and Google form and analyzed using SPSS 23. The Pearson correlation analysis was performed to find out the relationship between the independent variables (determinants of job satisfaction) and a dependent variable (job satisfaction). Linear regression and multiple regression analysis were also performed to understand the strength and types of relationship. The results of Pearson correlation and regression analysis indicate that the work environment (rp = 0.603, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.364, B = 0.460), and training and development (rp = 0.583, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.340, B = 0.383) have strong significant positive relationships with job satisfaction. However, other determinants such as pay and allowances (rp = 0.436, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.190, B = 0.283) and promotion (rp = 0.395, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.156, B = 0.288) have moderate relationships with job satisfaction. The result for multiple regression analysis shows that all the determinants have a strong correlation (R = 0.624, R 2 = 0.481, p < 0.01) with job satisfaction and these determinants determine 48.1 percent of the total satisfaction level perceived by the employee. The findings indicate that the work environment is the strongest predictor of job satisfaction as compared to other determinants.

Mensah, Amrago, Asare, Yeboah and Donkor (2020) did a study to investigate the factors affecting job satisfaction amongst workers of the poultry sub-sector: a test of equity theory in the Dormaa Municipality in the Bono Region of Ghana. The multistage sampling technique was employed in collecting data from 100 poultry workers with the aid of a structured questionnaire. The logit model was employed in modeling the factors affecting job satisfaction. The empirical findings reveal that occupational level, pay, and relationships with co-workers were the statistically significant determinants of job satisfaction.

Subarto, Solihin, and Qurbani, (2021) did a study on the determinants of job satisfaction and its implications for the lecturers performance. The purpose of the study was to examine the positive effects of leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate on lecturer performance through Pamulang University’s job satisfaction.  The quantitative research method was used and data was collected using survey questionnaires distributed to a sample of 135 respondents selected using a proportional random sampling. Statistical analysis was done using the partial least squares (PLS). From the results of the analysis it was found that leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate have an impact on job satisfaction. Leadership style, work environment, and organizational atmosphere also affect the performance of lecturers. Job satisfaction affects the performance of lecturers and can mediate the influence of leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate on lecturer performance.

From this study it is concluded that the factors that contribute to the positive morale and attitude also result in a higher degree of job satisfaction (Saranya, 2014). The review has shown that the major determinants of job satisfaction are basically nine facets which are pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, nature of works and communication. Job Satisfaction is thus derived from and is the result of many interrelated factors which cannot be completely isolated from one another for analytical purposes. Job Satisfaction is the essential component for employee motivation and encouragement towards better performance (Vroom, 1964). A highly satisfied work force is absolutely necessary for achieving a high level of performance in an organization. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly and responsive which attracts customers while dissatisfied employees can lead to customer dissatisfaction (Mahmud, Hasan, and Asif, 2014). It is therefore necessary for organizations to ensure that the above determinants are provided at the required levels to ensure optimum satisfaction of employees. Of all the major job satisfaction areas, satisfaction with the nature of the work itself—which includes job challenge, autonomy, variety, and scope—best predicts overall job satisfaction, as well as other important outcomes like employee retention (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Parisi & Weiner, 1999 as quoted in Ram, (2013).

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Organizational motivation, employee job satisfaction and organizational performance: An empirical study of container shipping companies in Taiwan

Maritime Business Review

ISSN : 2397-3757

Article publication date: 18 April 2018

Issue publication date: 28 June 2018

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of motivation on job satisfaction and organizational performance in the context of container shipping companies in Taiwan. Four motivation dimensions were identified based on an exploratory factor analysis, including remuneration, job achievement, job security and job environment. In addition, five job satisfaction dimensions were identified, namely: job policy, job autonomy, job workload, job performance and job status. Organizational performance dimensions included financial and non-financial performance.

Design/methodology/approach

Factor analysis was used to summarize a large number of motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance attributes to identify the crucial factors. Reliability tests based on Cronbach’s alpha and corrected item-total correlation coefficients was used to test the internal consistency of questionnaire responses. ANOVA tests were subsequently used to test for differences in respondents’ perception of these factors according to selected demographics. Finally, a multiple regression model analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance.

Results indicated that remuneration and job performance had a positive effect on financial performance dimensions such as return on assets, turnover growth rate and profitability while job environment and job autonomy had a positive effect on non-financial performance dimensions, such as customer service, employee productivity and service quality.

Originality/value

This study has drawn attention to the importance of the relationships between motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance in the container shipping context. The findings have significant implications for researchers and shipping practitioners. Despite the existence of research on the inter-relationships between motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance in other disciplines, no empirical study was discussed in previous shipping or transportation-related research.

• Job satisfaction
• Container shipping
• Organizational performance

Pang, K. and Lu, C.-S. (2018), "Organizational motivation, employee job satisfaction and organizational performance: An empirical study of container shipping companies in Taiwan", Maritime Business Review , Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 36-52. https://doi.org/10.1108/MABR-03-2018-0007

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2018, Pacific Star Group Educational Foundation.

1. Introduction

The container shipping industry plays a vital role in the world’s economy. World container throughput reached 171 million TEUs in 2014 accounting for more than 85 per cent of total world trade output (UNCTAD, 2015). It helps to facilitate the seamless movement of containerized cargoes on regularly scheduled service routes connecting countries, markets, businesses and people on a global scale. As nations become more interdependent on each other for goods and services, the container shipping industry is a crucial link generating choices, improving economies and creating employment. However, container shipping companies compete aggressively to survive in a highly volatile environment through a low-cost pricing structure with good service quality with little distinction in the types of services it provides ( Lu et al. , 2009 ). As a result, companies constantly look for ways to differentiate itself from their competitors through operations management and strategy, organizational management and human resources management. Developing a well-structured motivation system is crucial for organizations to retain talent and to enable employees to produce the maximum benefits for the organizations ( Al-Alawi, 2005 ). An organization’s motivation system will directly affect employees’ efficiency, morale and job satisfaction ( Parsons and Broadbridge, 2006 ). In addition, a developed motivation system to improve employees’ job satisfaction has a positive impact on organizational performance ( Analoui, 1999 ).

In container shipping, shore-based personnel perform a variety of important functions, especially sales and marketing, which contributes to overall organizational performance. These tasks require employees to be motivated to achieve intended targets. To the author’s knowledge, few empirical studies have discussed the relationships between organizational motivation on job satisfaction and organizational performance in the shipping industry. Talley (2013) summarized the different topics that has been research in the maritime academic field. Much focused has been placed on shipping performance/management with a growing emphasis on environmental protection. Accordingly, the objectives of this research are to examine the effect of organizational motivation on job satisfaction and their effects on organizational performance in container shipping firms in Taiwan.

The following section provides a theoretical background on, organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance and suggests three hypotheses. It then describes the methodological approach to the research issues. The fourth section presents the results and findings of the survey. Conclusions are drawn from the analyses and strategic implications for container shipping companies are discussed in the final section.

2. Theoretical background and hypotheses

2.1 definition of organizational motivation.

The word motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere”, which means to “transfer” or “push”. Robbins and Coulter (2014) describe motivation as a process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed and sustained toward attaining a goal. Sansone and Harackiewicz (2000) define motivation as an internal mechanism that guides behavior. This can be referred to the catalyzer for individual employees to enhance their working performance to achieve organizational performance ( Sekhar et al. , 2013 ). Steer (1994) also argues that the goal of motivation is to enable employees to improve productivity, increase efficiency and improve overall organizational performance. It is important for organizations to find the factors to motivate employees to perform to their maximum ability. Employees are assumed to value intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Both form of rewards contribute significantly to the levels of employees’ motivation to work ( Herzberg et al. , 1959 ).

Different motivation theories (e.g. content theories and process theories) describe why and how human behavior is activated and directed ( Seiler et al. , 2012 ). These motivation theories have been discussed extensively in prior literature ( Latham and Ernst, 2006 ; Sekhar et al. , 2013 ). Organizations utilize various motivation and reward system to motivate employees. Organizational motivation can be divided into financial or non-financial and intrinsic and extrinsic systems. The majority of the research on motivation studies tends to use Herzberg’s model of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Parsons and Broadbridge (2006) investigated the role of job characteristics and communication in relation to job motivation and satisfaction among UK charity shop managers. Their study found that managers exhibit low levels of satisfaction in relation to pay, job status and working conditions. Islam and Ismail (2008) identified high wages, job security, promotion and good working conditions as the top motivators among Malaysian employees. Kubo and Saka (2002) concluded that monetary incentives, human resource development and job autonomy act as motivators to knowledge workers in the Japanese financial industry. Al-Alawi (2005) explored the motivating factors of information technology employees in the Bahrain hotel industry. They found that supervisor’s appreciation, prizes, salary increase and bonus as important factors.

2.2 Definition of job satisfaction

Job satisfaction describes how contented an individual is with his or her job ( Parvin and Kabir, 2011 ). Job satisfaction is often assumed to be a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from evaluation or appraisal of one’s job or job experience ( Locke, 1975 ). Spector (1997) referred to job satisfaction in terms of how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. Job satisfaction is closely related with many organizational phenomena such as motivation, performance, leadership, attitude, conflict, etc. ( Parvin and Kabir, 2011 ). Saari and Judge (2004) concluded through their research on numerous studies that intrinsic job characteristics are the most notable factor affecting job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is said to be complex phenomenon with multiple facets ( Parvin and Kabir, 2011 ). The factors include salary, working environment, autonomy, communication and organizational commitment ( Sansone and Harackiewicz, 2000 ; Vidal et al. , 2007 ; Lane et al. , 2010 ).

2.3 Definition of organizational performance

For organizations, performance is one of the ways to measure the extent of its effectiveness. The need for the ability to set goals and objectives to achieve its performance and how to improve the overall organizational performance is undoubtedly the most important organizational goals and objectives. Definition and measurement of performance is a challenge for researchers because organizations have many, frequently conflicting, goals ( Chow et al. , 1994 ). Sarah and Tricia (2005) indicated that performance is often used to measure the overall status of the organization and its related policies. Organizational performance can be measured by both financial and non-financial performance ( Yang et al. , 2009 ). Venkatraman and Ramanujam (1986) considered three factors to corporate performance measurement, namely, financial performance (i.e. return on investment, earnings per share, etc.), operational performance (i.e. market share, product quality, etc.) and organizational effectiveness (i.e. employee’s morale, work atmosphere, etc.). Stella (1987) explored the relationship between human resource planning and organizational performance. From a human resources viewpoint, six financial factors were found to be the main determinants of organizational performance – turnover growth rate, profitability, earnings per share, return on assets, average annual profitability per employee and proportion of company assets per employee.

2.4 Organizational motivation and job satisfaction

Organizational motivation is positively related to job satisfaction.

2.5 Organizational motivation and organizational performance

Organizational motivation is positively related to organizational performance.

2.6 Job satisfaction and organizational performance

Job satisfaction is positively related to organizational performance.

3. Methodology

The sample of container shipping firms was selected from employees working for companies from the Directory of the National Association of Shipping Agencies and Companies in Taiwan . The sample included container shipping companies and container shipping agencies. A total of 96 questionnaires were sent to shipping firms and 40 usable questionnaires were returned. A follow-up mailing was sent three weeks after the initial mailing and 19 usable responses. The total number of usable questionnaires was 59 with a response rate of 61.5 per cent.

To test for non-response bias ( Armstrong and Overton, 1977 ), this study compared the first (40 respondents) and second data (19 respondents) set. T -tests were performed on the two groups’ responses across 48 measurement items and the results indicated that, at the 5 per cent significance level, there were three items showing significant differences. Results of the non-response bias test suggested that it was appropriate to combine both data sets.

With regards to the respondent profiles, more than 73 per cent of respondents were classified according to the title of being either general manager or above or manager/assistant manager, reinforcing the reliability of the survey findings. In all, 64 per cent of the respondents had worked in the liner shipping industry for more than 10 years, suggesting that they had abundant practical experience to answer the questions. Table I shows that 15 per cent of the respondents employed over 500 employees, whereas 30 per cent had less than 20 employees. In terms of ownership pattern, local firm was 68 per cent followed by foreign-owned firm which was 17 per cent. 74.5 per cent of the respondents reported their company’s turnover was less than NT$1bn, while 15.3 per cent respondents’ company turnover was more than NT$10bn.

3.2 Measures

The measurement items for this study were mainly adapted from extensive review of published literature on organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance. Organizational motivation dimensions consisted of 19 items, namely, bonus ( Urbanski, 1986 ), dividend ( Greenberg and Liebman, 1990 ), promotion opportunity ( Analoui, 1999 ), salary increment ( Al-Alawi, 2005 ), education and job training ( Smyth, 1986 ), job recognition ( Robbins and Coulter, 2014 ), staff travel allowance ( Hemsi et al. , 2003 ), allowance ( Urbanski, 1986 ), job autonomy ( Robbins and Coulter, 2014 ), personal development ( Parsons and Broadbridge, 2006 ), workplace ( Urbanski, 1986 ), annual leave ( Al-Alawi, 2005 ), prize ( Urbanski, 1986 ), job diversification ( Robbins and Coulter, 2014 ), job rotation ( Al-Alawi,2005 ), job responsibility ( Al-Alawi, 2005 ), job safety ( Hemsi et al. , 2003 ), employee insurance ( Robbins and Coulter, 2014 ) and stock allocation ( Al-Alawi, 2005 ). These items were measured using a five-point Likert scale with “1 = Least Important” to “5 = Most Important”.

Job satisfaction dimensions used the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) developed by Weiss et al. (1967) with 20 short questions. This questionnaire is well-developed and tested in other studies ( Hancer and George, 2003 ; Martins and Proenca, 2012 ; Abugre, 2014 ). For each job satisfaction item, respondents were asked to indicate the extent to indicate their implementation for each item using five-point scale, where “1 = strongly dissatisfied” and “5 = strongly satisfied”.

Organizational performance consisted of nine items, namely, service quality ( Hax and Majluf, 1984 ), customer satisfaction ( Youndt et al. , 1996 ), employee productivity ( Youndt et al. , 1996 ), competitive position ( Venkatraman and Ramanujam, 1986 ), return on assets ( Venkatraman and Ramanujam, 1986 ), market share ( Venkatraman and Ramanujam, 1986 ), operating expenses ( Stella, 1987 ), profitability ( Ghalayini et al. , 1997 ) and turnover growth rate ( Stella, 1987 ). Respondents were asked to rate their firm’s performance by indicating their choices of the items on a five-point Likert scale, where “1 = strongly dissatisfied” and “5 = strongly satisfied”.

The items were tested for their accuracy and content validity through interviews conducted with five academic experts and ten experienced shipping practitioners to obtain their valuable feedback for questionnaire improvement. In addition, the resulting items were validated with a pilot field study to further ascertain their content validity as well as construct reliability and validity.

3.3 Data analysis method

Factor analysis was employed to summarize a large number of organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance attributes to identify the crucial factors. Reliability tests based on Cronbach’s alpha and corrected item-total correlation coefficients was used to test the internal consistency of questionnaire responses. ANOVA tests were subsequently used to test for differences in respondents’ perception of these factors according to selected demographics. Finally, a multiple regression model analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance.

4. Results and analysis

4.1 exploratory factor analysis (efa).

Exploratory factor analysis was used to identify the dimensions of organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance. The results of the exploratory factor analysis are provided in Tables II , III and IV . Principal component analysis with VARIMAX rotation was used to extract the factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0. According to Hair et al. (2009) , when factor loadings are 0.50 or greater, they can be considered significant.

Factor 1 is “remuneration” factor composed of five items. “Prize” had the highest factor loading on this factor. The other four items include “stock allocation”, “dividend”, “staff travel allowance” and “bonus”. This factor was identified as “remuneration” factor which accounted for 37.78 per cent of the total variance.

Factor 2, termed “job achievement”, consisted of five item, namely, “salary increment”, “promotion opportunity”, “job autonomy”, “job recognition” and “job responsibility”. This factor was identified as “job achievement” and it accounted for 12.91 per cent of the total variance.

Factor 3, designated “job security”, composed of two items. “Job safety” and “employee insurance” accounted for 9.82 per cent of the total variance.

Factor 4, termed “job environment”, consisted of four items. “Job variety” had the highest factor loading on this factor. The other three items include “job rotation”, “workplace environment” and “personal development”. This factor was referred to as “job environment” and accounted for 7.46 per cent of the total variance.

Factor 1, named “reward policy”, comprised four items. “The way company policies are put into practice” had the highest factor loading on this factor. The other three items include “the praise I get for doing a good job”, “the competence of my supervisor in making decisions” and “the chances of advancement on this job”. This factor was designated “job achievement” and accounted for 39.27 per cent of the total variance.

Factor 2 consisted of five items. “The chance to do something that makes use of my own ability” had the highest factor loading on this factor. The other factors include “the freedom to use my own judgement”, “the way my co-workers get along with each other” and “the feeling of accomplishment I get from the job”. This factor was identified as “work itself” factor which accounted for 12.27 per cent of the total variance.

Factor 3 designated “job workload” consisted of three items. “Being able to keep busy all the time” had the highest factor loading on this factor. The other two items include “my pay and the amount of work I do” and “the way my boss handles his/her workers”. This factor was named “job workload” and accounted for 7.28 per cent of the total variance.

Factor 4, namely, “skill variety”, consisted of two items. “The chance to work alone on the job” and “the chance to do different things from time to time” accounted for 6.50 per cent of the total variance.

Factor 5 is “job status” composed of four items, namely, “the chance to do things for other people”, “the chance to be “somebody” in the community”, “the way my job provides for steady employment” and “the working conditions”. This factor termed as “job status” accounted for 6.17 per cent of the total variance.

Table IV shows the results of exploratory factor analysis of organizational performance dimensions indicated two factors accounted for approximately 64.26 per cent of the total variance and were thus considered to represent all the organizational performance. Factor 1, named “financial performance” dimension, comprised four items and accounted for 44.27 per cent of the total variance. Factor 2, termed “non-financial performance”, consisted of four items, which accounted for 19.99 per cent of the total variance.

4.2 Reliability test

Cronbach’s alpha statistics and corrected item-total-correlation coefficients were conducted to examine the consistency and reliability of the measurement items. The high level of item reliability indicated the items are strongly affected by each measure construct and implied set of items are unidimensional ( Hair et al. , 2009 ). Table V reveals the Cronbach’s alpha values and corrected item-total correlation coefficients of each measurement scale are all above the suggested threshold of 0.8 and 0.5, respectively ( Nunnally, 1978 ).

4.3 ANOVA result

Table VI shows the results of the ANOVA test of the differences in the level of satisfactory assigned to organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance according to firm size. A comparison of the factor mean scores showed that all three firm size segments had their highest centroid scores on “job security” with no significant difference between these three segments. Differences were found among four dimensions including “remuneration”, “job workload”, “skill variety” and “financial performance”. Overall, the level of satisfaction accorded to organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance by large firms (with more than 500 employees) was greater than that indicated by small size firms (with less than 50 employees) and medium size firms (between 51 and 500 employees).

Table VII presents differences between the three ownership segments. Similar to the findings in Table VI , “job security” consists of the highest centroid scores with no significant differences. Two dimensions were found to be significantly differ, that is, “job achievement” and “job environment”. In general, the level of satisfaction indicated by foreign firms was higher than expressed by local firms and foreign-local jointly operated firms.

4.4 Correlation analysis result

Table VIII presents the descriptive statistics and correlations of the study variables. The means of the four organizational motivation dimensions were obtained from the respondents based on their perceptions in terms of importance. Comparisons of the mean scores show that respondents have their highest mean scores on job security (mean = 4.13), followed by job achievement, job environment and remuneration. Respondents display their highest mean scored of job satisfaction on job status (mean = 3.87), whereas job performance receives (mean = 3.50) the lowest mean scored. High bivariate correlation coefficients between the dimensions of job satisfaction indicate high potential of multicollinearity among them, which is hardly surprising given that previous research has reported closer relationships among the dimensions of job satisfaction ( Shore and Martin, 1989 ; Wanous et al. , 1997 ).

4.5 Multiple regression and hypotheses test results

Table IX presents the results of the multiple regression analysis of the relationships between organizational motivation dimensions on job satisfaction factors. Results indicate that there is a positive relationship between organizational motivation dimensions and job satisfaction in the container shipping industry in Taiwan. In the models, organizational motivation factors were the independent variables with job satisfaction factors as dependent variables to ascertain the impact of organizational motivation on job satisfaction. The Durbin–Watson statistic fell in the range of 1.565-2.220 which indicates that autocorrelation problem did not exist in this study. Results indicated that “job environment” was significant at the 0.01 level, which provide evidence of a positive influence on reward policy, job workload and skill variety. Results also indicated that “remuneration” had a positive influence on skill variety.

Table X presents the results of the multiple regression analysis of the influence of organizational motivation and job satisfaction dimensions on financial and non-financial performance. Durbin–Watson results for both models indicate that no autocorrelation between variables. Results also indicated that “remuneration” as well as “job autonomy”, were significant at the 0.01 level, which is evidence of a positive influence on financial and non-financial performance, respectively.

H1 was partially supported by the multiple regression results indicating that significant relationship existed between organizational motivation dimension, “job environment” and job satisfaction dimensions. This is consistent with the findings of Igalens and Roussel (1999) when organizations pay more attention to implantation of an effective system, especially in the areas of job variety and clear career path, employees’ job satisfaction will be higher.

The findings also partially validated H2 and H3 . There was a significant positive effect between organizational motivation and financial performance and job satisfaction and non-financial performance. The results indicated that an effective motivation system using remuneration and job environment increases organization’s profitability and productivity. This is consistent with previous studies ( Waldrop, 1987 ; Al-Alawi, 2005 ). The results also revealed that job satisfaction dimensions have differing impacts on organization performance. Employees’ satisfaction of skill variety impacts financial performance, while work itself helps to improve employee’s productivity and provides better customer satisfaction and service quality. This is consistent with the finding of Shore and Martin (1989) , where it was found that when employees experienced a higher level of job satisfaction, their work attitudes improved and are able to complete more tasks, thus improving organizational performance.

5. Discussions and conclusion

Within the shipping industry, a dedicated and motivated workforce is needed to provide excellent services and maintain a competitive advantage. This study has aimed to investigate the effects of organizational motivation factors on job satisfaction and their effects on organizational performance using multiple regression analysis. The main findings, derived from a survey conducted into the container shipping industry in Taiwan, are summarized below.

Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to derive four critical factors of the organizational motivation dimension, namely, “remuneration”, “job achievement”, “job security” and “job environment”. Five job satisfaction dimensions was derived, namely, “reward policy”, “work itself”, “job workload”, “skill variety” and “job status”. Two organizational performance dimensions were identified, namely, “financial performance” and “non-financial performance”. The findings are consistent with those reported in previous studies ( Parsons and Broadbridge, 2006 ; Yang et al. , 2009 ; Robbins and Coulter, 2014 ).

Variation in perceived differences of organizational motivation, job satisfaction and performance in terms of years of tenure, firm size and ownership types were analyzed. Results showed that organizational motivation and job satisfaction ratings between different years of tenure differed significantly in “remuneration”, “job achievement”, “job autonomy” and “skill variety”. In terms of firm size, large shipping companies perceived job workload and financial performance as significantly higher than smaller firms. Larger firms are able to achieve greater economies of scale and efficiently utilize their resources to increase their return on assets and experience higher turnover growth rate. Findings showed that foreign-owned firms differ significantly from others in terms of job achievement and job environment, focusing more on employees’ recognition and personal development.

Multiple regression analysis was carried out to assess the influence of organizational motivation dimensions on job satisfaction as well as their relationship on organizational performance. Results indicated that “remuneration” and “job environment” had a positive effect on employees’ job satisfaction in terms of skill variety. This would imply that employees’ value monetary incentives as well as a positive workplace with job variety and rotation and personal development. Furthermore, “remuneration” and “job variety” had a positive effect on financial performance, while “job environment” and “job autonomy” had a positive effect on non-financial performance.

The findings imply that employees’ in container shipping companies perceive that providing incentives, such as more bonuses, dividends and stock allocation, as well as the chance to work alone could improve organizational performance in terms of turnover growth rate, return on assets, profitability and market share. This is might be application to employees working in sales department who normally work independently to achieve sales targets. Findings also suggest that the degree of freedom afforded to employees to use their own ability to make their own decisions and methods could improve customer satisfaction, service quality and employee productivity.

This study has drawn attention to the importance of the relationships between organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance in the container shipping context. The findings have significant implications for researchers and shipping practitioners. First, despite the existence of research on the inter-relationships between organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance in other disciplines, no empirical study was discussed in previous shipping or transportation-related research. Second, the understanding of relationships between the dimensions will encourage container shipping companies to develop a career development-oriented motivation system to increase job satisfaction and a sound financial-based motivation system to improve organizational performance. Finally, this study specifically focused on the container shipping industry. This study’s insights into shipping managers’ perceived organizational motivation and job satisfaction factors may also be of interest to other service industries including airlines, forwarders and logistics services providers by providing a useful approach to evaluate their organizational performance.

This research was limited to an evaluation of organizational motivation factors on job satisfaction and organizational performance in the shipping industry. Future research can focus on analyzing individual departments to understand the perceptions of organizational motivation and job satisfaction factors in different departments. In addition, the research was limited to a particular industry in the Taiwan area. The container shipping industry is an international business and future research could include other nations in the study. Finally, this research only used job satisfaction as a variable in analyzing organizational performance. In future, other constructs such as leadership patterns or organizational communication could be added to strengthen the integrity of the research.

Profile of respondents

Results of factor analysis of job satisfaction

Results of factor analysis of organizational performance

Results of reliability testing

ANOVA analysis of organizational motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance between firm size

Significant at level p < 0.05;

Significant at level p < 0.01

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Ms. Ai-Ting Chung, an Employee at the Maersk Line Taiwan Ltd, for her assistance in data collection.

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The Relationship Between “Job Satisfaction” and “Job Performance”: A Meta-analysis

• Original Research
• Published: 24 August 2021
• Volume 23 , pages 21–42, ( 2022 )

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• Ali Katebi 1 ,
• Mohammad Hossain HajiZadeh 1 ,
• Ali Bordbar 1 &
• Amir Masoud Salehi 1  

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The purpose of this meta-analytic research is to obtain a clear and unified result for the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, as previous research has shown contradictions in this regard. A total of 913 articles in both English and Persian languages were obtained from four databases, and finally, 113 articles with 123 independent data were selected and analyzed. The random-effects model was adopted based on results, and the analysis resulted a medium, positive, and significant relationship between job performance and job satisfaction ( r  = 0.339; 95% CI = 0.303 to 0.374; P  = 0.000). Finally, the country of India was identified as a moderator variable. The publication, language, selection, and citation biases have been examined in this study. Increasing and improving the job performance of employees have always been an important issue for organizations. The results of this study can be useful for managers in different industries, especially for Indian professionals in both public and private sectors, to better plan and manage the satisfaction and the performance of their employees. Also, Indian scholars can use these results to localize the global research in this regard.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to express our special thanks and gratitude to prof. Gholamreza Asadollahfardi for sharing his pearls of wisdom and experience with us to improve this research. We are immensely grateful to him for his comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. His insightful comments and suggestions have truly shined a light on our path and helped us to achieve better and brighter intuition.

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Katebi, A., HajiZadeh, M.H., Bordbar, A. et al. The Relationship Between “Job Satisfaction” and “Job Performance”: A Meta-analysis. Glob J Flex Syst Manag 23 , 21–42 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40171-021-00280-y

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Received : 22 September 2020

Accepted : 25 June 2021

Published : 24 August 2021

Issue Date : March 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40171-021-00280-y

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Job Satisfaction, Quality of Work Life and Work Motivation in Employees with Intellectual Disability: A Systematic Review

Affiliation.

• 1 Department for Applied Psychology: Health, Development, Enhancement and Intervention, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
• PMID: 28000421
• DOI: 10.1111/jar.12319

Background: Current research on employment options for people with Intellectual Disability emphasizes the importance of employee needs and satisfaction. The study aims at systematically reviewing the literature on job satisfaction and related constructs.

Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted. Studies were included if (i) they are specific to effects of work, (ii) assessed variables are related to job satisfaction, QoWL, attitudes towards work or work motivation and if (iii) studies reported intellectual disability-specific results. Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria. Findings were classified according to the socio-cognitive model of job satisfaction.

Results: Current literature suggests high job satisfaction in people with intellectual disability. Predictors of job satisfaction are similar to people without disabilities, albeit the importance of factors differs.

Conclusions: Stronger consideration of well-established theories and measures from organizational psychology would enhance future research. Findings indicate that high satisfaction ratings might result from lack of control over vocational decisions.

Keywords: employment; intellectual disability; job satisfaction; motivation; quality of work life; systematic review.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Publication types

• Systematic Review
• Employment / psychology*
• Intellectual Disability / psychology*
• Job Satisfaction*
• Motivation*
• Quality of Life / psychology*
• Workplace / psychology*