postmodernism essay sociology

Postmodernism in Sociology: Definition, Terms & Critique

Postmodernism is a theory that questions grand narratives and objective truth. Instead, it focuses on how truth emerges through contextual and subjective circumstances.

It refers to a range of interrelated movements in art, sociology, philosophy, film, and literature. These movements are broadly influenced by the 1970s French philosophy of theorists, including:

• Michel Foucault
• Giles Deleuze
• Jean Baudrillard
• Jaques Derrida

Postmodernists in sociology believe that language, media, and social discourse construct reality and, in the process, necessarily create norms, in-groups, and out-groups.

In this process, discourses shape our understandings of what can and cannot be done. For example, they shape idealized notions of femininity and foreclose other versions of ‘doing’ womanhood.

Postmodernism in Sociology: Key Concepts

1. questioning objective truth.

Postmodernists examine concepts considered to be “truth” and explore how those concepts have changed over time.

They argue that the fact the truth has changed over time demonstrates that truth is contextual and subjective , not objective.

In his doctoral dissertation Madness and Civilization, Michel Foucault proposed that scientific discourse was used to instruct society about what is and is not considered ‘madness’.

This dissertation was hugely influential on what would become postmodern thought because it demonstrated how concepts like ‘madness’:

• Have changed over time,
• Are therefore social constructs , and
• The ways these concepts are constructed affect how people can live their lives.

Foucault argued that throughout Euroepan history, madness had been socially and culturally constructed in the following ways:

How the ‘Truth’ about Madness has Changed over Time

Renaissance Era (mad people are wise): During the renaissance era, so-called “mad” people were seen as wise. Their divergent ways of thinking had hidden truths embedded within them that the rest of us could not access, but that we could learn by spending time with mad people.

Classical Era (mad people are pariahs): So-called mad people were shunned by society. Their ability to participate in society was severely restricted.

Modern Era (mad people are sick): So-called mad people were pathologized and science was used to try to ‘fix’ them. It was a part of the rise of medicalization in normative scientific discourse.

In each era, the possible ways ‘mad’ people could participate in society, move through public spaces, and gain employment were vastly different.

The lesson we can learn is this: society creates stories (“regimes of truth”) about social identities that include and exclude, enable and constrain, and marginalize and idealize.

This lesson is not just restricted to madness.

The stories society tells about single mothers, trans people, women at work, children, and so forth, influence the ways in which those people are allowed to participate in society or, at times, be excluded, pathologized, and marginalized.

2. The Constructed nature of reality

In the above story of madness, we can see that madness is ‘constructed’ by society. At one point in history, mad people were seen as wise. During modernism, they were seen as sick.

The lesson we learn from this story is that society’s perceptions of truth and reality change dramatically over time, space, and cultural contexts.

There are things that you and I take for granted as unquestionable truth.

During a previous era, these things may have been so far outside of the norm that we would have been laughed at. The idea that black and white people should be considered equals is a classic example.

Another example is that of childhood: medieval scholar Philippe Aries examined how our perception of childhood was once that it ended at around the age of 12. Now, we see that it ends around age 18.

How Childhood has Been Socially Constructed

Before Industrial Revolution (Childhood is not a protected identity): Childhood ends around age 12. Children are not protected from adult knowledge. Child labor is common, marriage is young, and ‘children’ are not a protected class of people.

Industrial Revolution – 1980s (Childhood as innocent): With the rise of the middle class, children are no longer seen as an economic necessity. Middle-class people see their children as innocents who need to be protected and coddled.

Contemporary childhoods (Childhood as agentic): Children are seen as competent, capable, and agentic. They are still considered largely innocent, but their intelligence is increasingly respected and acknowledged.

According to postmodernists, the reality of social categories like childhood is constructed by society. There is no objective truth here – only an agreed upon set of beliefs.

3. Grand narratives

So far, we have seen that postmodernists believe that truth changes over time and, therefore, appears to be constructed by societies.

The dominant truth at any one point in time is labelled the “grand narrative” by postmodernists.

During the medieval era, an important ‘grand narrative’ was that of religion. The unquestionable truth was that which was written in the Bible. It was the Catholic Church’s sole ability to interpret the Bible. During this era, the Church owned and controlled the grand metanarrative.

People could not speak up against it for fear of being shouted down and, therefore, this ended up being unquestioned truth in most people’s minds.

During the modern era (20th Century), the grand metanarrative was scientific: science and economic rationalism ruled. Sick people were pathologized, sent to shrinks, and given medications to fix their ailments.

While it is arguable that the move toward scientific rationality in the age of modernism is a good thing, you need only look at the over-diagnosis of ADHD medications to see how sometimes the “scientific grand narrative” has led us astray at times.

4. Language and Discourse

Post-modernists believe that grand narratives are constructed through discourse. In post-modern speak, discourse is a way of speaking about something.

For example, if we look at mass media in the 1950s, we’ll see a very narrow understanding of women. They tend to be seen on screen in limited roles: passive, submissive, housewives.

There were no female role models working in business or as political leaders. They were constructed in language and discourse in a particular way.

Through continual, repeated, reiteration of the dominant discourse that women should look and act a certain way, our understandings of gender were socailly constructed in a very narrow way.

5. Deconstructionism

To highlight how dominant discourses construct reality, postmodernists deconstruct dominant discourses.

In academia, this often takes place through discourse analysis . A discourse analysis involves a close semiotic reading of a corpus of texts to identify the dominant narratives and ideologies that the texts are normalizing as ‘truth’.

In art and literature, desconstructionism is often more playful: it involves using techniques such as pastiche which chop up, blend, and undermine traditional ways of doing art and literature. Through pastiche, artists demonstrate the absurdity of grand metanarratives.

You can see ten examples of postmodernism in art and literature here for more examples of how deconstructionism takes place in postmodern texts.

6. Normativity

Another key concept in postmodernism is that of normativity. Normativity refers to the construction of ‘norms’ or, literally, the things that appear normal.

For example, when cultural discourse repeatedly only shows us stories of men in power and women cooking, we learn that it’s normal for men to be leaders and women to be housewives.

Over time, children learn that there are normative ways of doing gender (and racial constructs , and class, and so on).

According to theorists like Judith Butler, these normal ways of doing identities become so normalized that we believe them to be true! Nevertheless, postmodernists believe in the social construction of gender , as well as other categories of identity (e.g. heteronormativity).

7. Power as Productive

One way in which postmodernists differ from critical theorists is in their perception of power.

Like critical theorists, postmodernists are often very concerned with how people are oppressed and marginalized.

However, postmodernists don’t see the world as a series of battles between the powerful and the weak where the powerful use hard power in the form of oppression and punishment.

Rather, the stratification of society occurs through discourse: women learn to believe that women should behave certain ways, and women come to learn that if they behave like the ‘good’ housewife, they are rewarded by society.

Thus, people aren’t oppressed against their will into taking on gender norms (and other social roles ). Rather, they learn to believe that’s their destiny because that is the idealized identity construct they are presented with by society.

To describe this, postmodernists say that power is not just oppressive (which is what the critical theorists think). Rather, power is productive: it produces discourses and norms that shape how we think about ourselves and relate to our world.

A Criticism of Postmodernism

You may have read this piece and come to the conclusion that I am a postmodernist. And indeed, it’s true that I used postmodernism as a theoretical lends when writing my PhD. But, I am not wedded to the idea and see many, many flaws in its arguments.

I see postmodernism as a lens for analysis and not a rulebook that explains how we should live or think.

My main critique of postmodernism would be that it is too quick to reject the scientific rationality of modernism.

During the modern era, rationalization and the scientific method ruled. Science was the “grand metanarrative”.

In general, I embrace the ability of the scientific method to get closer to some sort of scientifically accurate truth. Most scientists don’t think we’ll ever reach natural ‘truths’, but we can get to a close approximation of the concept through use of the scientific method.

I would agree that the scientific method gets us closer to natural truths. But I’m not sure all people who use postmodern theory would.

A Critique of my Critique?

Where the scientific method fails is when it over-reaches when talking about social categories like gender, childhood, and culture.

We can’t draw a direct line from science to social categories in the same way that we can draw a direct line from science to things that are measurable in nature.

What the ‘end of childhood’ is can be informed by science (i.e. when our brains mature) but it’s ultimately a socio-political task to decide when children are endowed with the rights of adults and seen as adults rather than children in the eyes of society.

Similarly, while we can objectively measure sex by looking at X and Y chromosomes, gender is a cultural category that we’ve layered over sex: gender roles, gender identities, and gender norms are historically connected to sex, but they’re ultimately cultural categories that have layers of cultural expectations layered over them that are outside of the domain of science.

Here, I think postmodernism does a good job at pushing back at modernism’s constant attempts to pathologize and rationalize concepts that belong to the sociocultural rather than natural-scientific domains of thought.

Postmodernism can, for example, push back at science’s attempts to pathologize. It argues, instead, that we as a society should change our perceptions of the disabled, gay, sick, neurodivergent, etc., to ensure they can live full lives with equal social participation.

We need to change our grand metanarratives to ensure we are as inclusive as possible.

Postmodernism is a key theory that has shaped sociological thought since the 1970s. It has also greatly influenced art, literature, and film.

It has also broken into popular culture, with its beliefs about social constructivism and undermining of norms around gender and sexuality coming into the cultural zeitgeist in the 21st Century.

While being an extremely useful tool for understanding how language has power to influence our ideas of what is normal, idealized, and truthful, it’s faced criticism for undermining the concept of truth to the point that it could be seen as nihilistic and relativistic.

In my estimation, a lot of the problem arises because of the failure of academics and society to reconcile social constructionism with the ability of the natural sciences to get us closer to an approximation of objective truths in nature.

Ariès, P., & Baldick, R. (1962). Centuries of childhood . Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Derrida, J. (2020). Deconstruction in a nutshell: A conversation with Jacques Derrida, with a new introduction . New York: Fordham University Press.

Foucault, M. (2003). Madness and civilization . London: Routledge.

Lash, S. (2014). Sociology of postmodernism . London: Routledge.

McHale, B. (2012). Constructing postmodernism . London: Routledge.

McGowan, J. (2019). Postmodernism and its Critics. In Postmodernism and its Critics . New York: Cornell University Press.Searle, J. R. (2021). Postmodernism and the western rationalist tradition. In Campus Wars (pp. 28-48). London: Routledge.

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ReviseSociology

A level sociology revision – education, families, research methods, crime and deviance and more!

From Modernity to Post-Modernity

Modernity (1650 to 1950) involved industrialisation, capitalism, urbanisation, nation state building, and a belief in progress through science. Postmodernity (1950 to today) is global, media saturated and hyperreal, consumerist, culturally diverse, sceptical and uncertain about politics, science and the truth.

Table of Contents

Last Updated on January 20, 2023 by Karl Thompson

In order to understand what post-modernity is, one has to understand what modernity, or modern society was! Somewhat confusingly ‘modern society’ refers to European society between roughly 1650- 1950 (ish) and post-modern society refers to European and many other ‘advanced’ ‘post-industrial’ societies from around 1950 (ish) onwards.

Post-Modernists argue that post-modern society is different to modern society, so much so that it requires new methods of study and new theoretical frameworks. Essentially, what is different, according to Post-Modernists, is that those stable institutions which used to bind us together have much less influence now, and with the rise of globalisation and New Media technologies, individuals are much more free to construct their culture and identity that they once were. Sociologists disagree as to exactly when post-modernism started. For some, the roots of it lie in early modernity, for others, post-modernism does not properly begin until the 1970s, still others argue (Giddens) that we don’t even live in a post-modern society at all!

Now it’s important for you to get your head around what post-modern society is, because theorists of post-modernity argue that the traditional structuralist theories of Marxism and feminism are no longer relevant and suggest new ways of ‘doing sociology’.

In order to understand what post-modern society is, one has to understand what modern society was

What was modernity?

Modernity is the term used by sociologists to describe the “modern” period which began in Europe several hundred years ago. Some of the key features of modern societies were:

Industrialisation and Capitalism

Economic production is industrial and capitalist, with social class as the main form of social division. Social classes are based on people’s social and economic position. Marx’s view for instance, was that industrial society people were divided into two main classes, those who owned businesses and those who sold their labour to them.

Urbanisation

The growth of cities, or urbanisation. During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries thousands of people moved to cities to find work and make their homes.

Nation States and Bureaucracy

A powerful central government and administration, known as a bureaucratic state. Local and central government have played an ever increasing part in our lives, the development of compulsory education, public housing and the welfare state for example.

Science and rationality

People’s knowledge is derived from scientific and rational thinking rather than religious faith, magic or superstition. During this period people have looked to science and logical thinking to explain the world. Natural disasters such as earthquakes, for example, have tended to be explained scientifically rather than as an “act of god”.

Progress through science and industry

A widely held faith in scientifically based progress. An associated view has been that the more we trust in science and technological progress, the better our society will be.

Most of the “great” sociologists have attempted to find ways of understanding “modernity” and the “great transformation” which created it. Writers such as Marx and Durkheim attempted to create theories and concepts which could help explain the workings of societies and answer basic questions such as “what holds societies together?” and “what makes societies change?”

What is Postmodernity?

Post-Modernity refers to the view that the institutions and ways of living characteristic of Modernity have been replaced to such a profound extent that our society is fundamentally different to the ‘modern’ society. In contrast post-modernism is a term that refers to new ways of thinking about thought. Post-modernists believe that knowledge itself needs to be understood in a different way to modernists sociologists such as Functionalists and Marxists. It follows that not all theorists of post-modernity are post-modernists.

Five Key features of the postmodern society

Postmodern society is:

• Media saturated and hyper-real
• Consumerist
• Culturally diverse and hybrid.

Globalisation

A simple definition of Globalisation is the increasing connectedness between societies across the globe. Globalisation means there are more flows of information and ideas, money, and people moving across national boundaries.

The increasing importance of the mass media

The post-modern era has witnessed a huge expansion in media technology. The rise of digital media, especially the internet, has lead to a massive and unprecedented increase in the number of people using the media; a huge increase in the diversity of media products both factual and fictional; an increase in the number of people creating their own music, videos, profile sites and uploading them for public consumption, greater interactivity, more flexibility. All of this results in much more complex patterns of media usage, more picking and mixing

One consequence of this is that our society has an increased reliance on the media to tell us what is going on in the world. Some sociologists argue that the media creates something called ‘hyper reality’ where what we see in the media is different yet more real than reality. Baudrillard argues that the media coverage of war for example is different to reality, yet is the only reality most of us know.

New networks also emerge through the use of media, most obviously through profile sites such as Facebook. One consequence of this is the breakdown of local communities, as people increasingly network online in the privacy of their own homes, and don’t communicate with their next door neighbours.

A world in fragments

In post-modern society, the pace of change is much more rapid than in modern society. Post-modern society is thus more dynamic, more fluid if you like. The post-modern society doesn’t sit still, it is like a fidgeting child, and as a result, it lacks any coherent, stable social structure. This can be evidenced in the following areas:

Work: Gone are the days of a ‘Job for Life’, today is the era of the ‘portfolio worker’ who is much more likely to move jobs and change career several times throughout his or her working life. Working life is also characterised by much more uncertainty as businesses are quick to move to other regions or countries if they can find cheaper labour abroad. One very good illustrative example of this is Dyson, which recently closed down a factory in South Wales to seek cheaper labour in China. From the perspective of the South Wales workers, Dyson came and went in a very short time frame. Also, companies are now increasingly likely to employ workers through recruitment agencies which can fire at short notice, and much work is temporary, part time and characterised by flexible working hours. There are of course good sides and bad sides to all of this, but the upshot is that working life is much less stable than it used to be. See Richard Sennet: The Corrossion of Character chapter 1 and Polly Toynbe: Hard Work for an insight into the post-modern world of work.

Fashion and Music : Two of the most visible examples of the fast pace of change lies in the fashion and music industries, which are constantly evolving with new styles and musical forms constantly emerging, and with many artists having to continually reinvent themselves to stay in the spotlight. At the extreme end of this, the pop-idol genre of shows demonstrates how individuals are made stars for a month and then forgotten.

The breakdown of local communities : The increased flexibility of labour associated with the world of work means people move more often in their lifetimes, meaning that people are much less able to put down sable roots in their local communities. This has lead to a decline in ‘social capital’ (pretty much like trust) according to Robert Putnam. Look him up on Google, go on, you know you want to. Do something different instead of wasting your time surfing for information on…

The Consumer society

According to post-modernists one Fundamental difference between the post-modern society and modern society is that our society is consumer oriented, rather than work oriented. This means that consuming things, and leisure activities are more important today than work. The image of the post-modern society is thus one of a shopping mall, rather than a factory.

Post modernists argue that we live in a ‘Pick and mix’ society. Individuals today are free to pick their lifestyle and life course, from a wider range of options than ever before, just as if they were picking and choosing products in a super market! Importantly, post modernists argue that individuals are much less shaped by their class, gender and ethnic backgrounds today. Women, for example, are not expected to become housewives and mothers, just because they are women and work is much less gendered than it used to be. Society is no longer divided along class lines, or gender lines, or even ethnic lines. Being born working class, being born a woman, or being born black, does not, according to post-modernists, pre-determine one’s future, or shape one’s consciousness (identity) as it did in modernity (and the extent to which it did was often exaggerated by the classical sociologists).

Cultural diversity and hybridity

The ever increasing pace of globalisation has lead to an increase in cultural diversity and ‘hybridity’ , which refers to the mixing of different cultural traditions. If we compare society today to that of 100 or even 50 years ago we see a bewildering increase in the diversity of social and cultural forms. Some of the more obvious examples include:

• Goods and services: A simple trip to the supermarket or shopping mall reveals a huge range of products one can buy, and the same is true of services.
• Fashion and Music: Once again, one can spend several hours in a week simply choosing what to buy or wear, or sorting MP3s on one’s MP3 player (once you’ve chosen one of those course!)
• Pretty much every other sphere of life is more diverse than it was 50 years ago: Education, work, family life…..

Review Questions

• In a post-modern society, we have much more consumerism choice, what are the consequences of this for individuals?
• Briefly explain two key features of the modern society
• What is ‘Globalisation’?
• What is meant by the term ‘hyperreality’?
• Briefly explain what is meant by the fragmented society
• What is cultural hybridity, illustrate with an example

Signposting and Related Posts

This material is most relevant to the social theories aspect of A-level Sociology.

Three examples of Postmodern Thinkers

Criticisms of Postmodernism

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Navigating from Modernity to Postmodernism: A Theoretical Shift

Table of Contents

Have you ever considered how society’s collective mindset evolves over time? The transition from modernity to postmodernism represents one of the most profound shifts in our understanding of the world and ourselves. This journey is not just about changing artistic styles or new philosophical ideas; it’s about how we interpret history, diversity , and the structure of society itself.

Understanding the shift from modernity to postmodernism

In order to appreciate the postmodern perspective, it’s essential to grasp what it diverges from: modernity. Modernity was characterized by a belief in progress, a trust in the power of reason, and the idea that history was a continuous narrative leading to an improved state of human existence. Fast forward to the postmodern era, and we encounter a radical departure from these principles. Postmodernism, instead, questions the very notion of progress and challenges the linear view of history.

The critique of historical continuity

Postmodernism posits that history is not a unidirectional, continuous thread, but rather a series of disconnected episodes. It argues that each historical moment is unique and that imposing a linear narrative is an oversimplification that ignores the complexity of human experiences. This perspective invites us to reconsider how we understand our past and, consequently, how we envision our future.

Celebrating diversity in society

One of the most refreshing aspects of postmodernism is its celebration of diversity. In contrast to modernist tendencies to generalize and homogenize, postmodern thought embraces differences. This has profound implications for how we consider culture, identity, and individuality. By recognizing the multitude of voices and experiences, postmodernism fosters a more inclusive view of society.

Challenging centralizing tendencies

Centralization, whether in the form of government, narratives, or cultural standards, is another concept that postmodernism takes to task. It encourages skepticism towards any attempts to centralize authority or establish a ‘ universal truth ’. Instead, postmodernism advocates for a decentralized, multifaceted approach to understanding the world around us.

Giddens’s reflexive society vs. the postmodern perspective

The sociologist Anthony Giddens developed the concept of a “reflexive society”, a society constantly examining and changing itself based on new information and insights. This idea aligns with modernist thought in its belief in progress through self-awareness and adaptation. However, postmodernism diverges by questioning the very possibility of a coherent, unified societal self-reflection.

Continuous reflexivity in a complex world

Giddens’s idea of reflexivity suggests an ongoing process of social evolution , where society learns from its past and adjusts accordingly. This continuous adaptation is seen as a positive and forward-moving process. But the postmodern critique counters that reflexivity can often lead to fragmentation and discontinuity, which doesn’t necessarily align with the idea of progress.

Societal change through the postmodern lens

Postmodernism views societal change as more chaotic and less predictable than the modernist or reflexive society models suggest. It argues that change is not always linear or progressive but can be cyclical, regressive, or even stagnant. This view encourages us to be more open to unexpected outcomes and to be cautious of grand narratives that promise a certain direction of change.

Reconciling postmodern insights with contemporary society

Today’s world, with its rapid technological advancements , globalization , and cultural exchanges, seems to operate on both modern and postmodern wavelengths. We witness incredible progress and interconnectedness, yet also a growing recognition of the uniqueness and fragmentation of experiences. The challenge lies in reconciling the desire for progress with the postmodern respect for diversity and skepticism towards grand narratives.

Embracing the postmodern ethos in everyday life

To live in a postmodern society means to acknowledge the plurality of truths and to be comfortable with uncertainty. It encourages an open-mindedness that is crucial for personal and societal growth. This ethos can be applied in our daily interactions, our consumption of media, and our understanding of global events.

Postmodernism in the context of global challenges

As we face global challenges such as climate change , political upheaval , and social inequalities , the postmodern perspective can offer valuable insights. It reminds us that there are no easy answers or one-size-fits-all solutions. A postmodern approach requires us to consider multiple perspectives and to be willing to adapt our strategies as we learn more.

Postmodernism, with its critical eye and celebration of diversity, offers a rich lens through which to view our complex world. It challenges us to question the status quo, to be wary of oversimplified narratives, and to embrace the multitude of human experiences. As we navigate the intricate terrain of societal change, the postmodern perspective can serve as both a compass and a map, pointing us towards a more nuanced and inclusive understanding of the human journey.

What resonates more with you: the modernist belief in progress and continuity, or the postmodern celebration of diversity and skepticism of grand narratives? How do you see postmodernism influencing your views on current global issues?

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Sociology of Development

1 Development and Progress-Economic and Social Dimensions

• Understanding of Development and Progress
• Comte, Morgan, Marx and Spencer on Development and Progress
• Tonnies, Durkheim, Weber, Hobhouse, and Parsons on Development and Progress
• Development as Growth, Change and Modernisation
• Capitalist, Socialist and Third World Models of Development
• Development: Social and Human Dimensions
• Paradigm Shift in Development Strategies

2 Change, Modernisation and Development

• Social Change: Concept Characteristics and Causes
• Perspective of Social Change
• Modernisation: Concept and Features
• Perspectives On Modernisation
• Critics of Modernisation Theories
• Development: Conditions and Barriers

3 Social, Human and Gender Development

• Development as Realisation of Human Potential
• Impact of Development on Women
• Women as a Constituency in Development Policies
• Identification of Gender Need Role and Strategy
• Perspectives on Women and Development

4 Sustainable Development

• Sustainable Development: Historical Context
• Sustainable Development: Genesis and Evolution
• Concept of Sustainable Development as Defined in Our Common Future (1987)
• Criticisms of the Concept of Sustainable Development
• Globalisation and Future of Sustainable Development

5 Modernisation

• Understanding Modernisation
• Giddens’s Theory of Modernity
• Decline of the Paradigm
• Postmodernism
• Modernisation and Globalisation

6 Liberal Perspective on Development

• Liberalism as an Ideology
• Streams of Liberal Thought
• Evolution of Liberal State
• Addressing Social Inequality
• The Welfare State
• Emergence of Neo-Liberalism
• Criticism of the Liberal Perspective

7 Marxian Perspective on Development

• Marxian Idea of Development
• Capitalism Class Relations and Development
• Marx’s Plan of Action
• Neo-Marxian Approach: World-Systems Analysis
• Critical Theory: Frankfurt School

8 Gandhian Perspective on Development

• Khadi and Village Industries
• Economic Progress and ‘Real Progress’
• Alternative Viewpoint

9 Dependency Theory of Underdevelopment

• Dependency Theory: The Beginning
• How Can One Define Dependency Theory?
• Structural Context of Dependency: Is it Capitalism or is it Power?
• The Central Propositions of Dependency Theory
• The Policy Implications of Dependency Analysis
• Critics of Dependency Theory
• Relevance of Dependency Theories

10 Social and Human Development

• Growth Models of Economic Development
• Criticism of Growth Oriented Theories of Development: The Need for a Holistic Perspective
• The Human Development Reports: From Income to Cultural Freedom
• What is Human Development?
• Measuring Human Development
• Critical Evaluation of Human Development Approach

11 Gender Perspective on Development

• The Concept of Gender
• Women Gender and Development
• Gender and the Constitution: Women in India
• Development Planning in India
• Policy and Planning for Women

12 Micro-Planning

• The Concept Need and Objectives
• The Background of Micro-Planning in India
• Approach and Strategies
• Advancement of Primary Education through Micro-Planning
• Micro-Planning: The Need for a Holistic Approach

13 Ecology, Environment and Development

• Ecology and Sustainable Development
• Environmental Concerns and Contemporary Social Theory
• Consequences of Development on Ecology and Environment
• Ecology Movements and Survival
• Development Projects as Ecological Concerns
• Internationalisation of Environmental Concerns
• Participatory Approach for the Management of Natural Resources

14 Ethno-Development

• New Concerns in Development Theories
• Emergence of Alternative Approaches
• Methodology of Ethno-development

15 Population and Development

• Historical Background
• The Politics of Population Control: Environment and Gender
• India: The Population Experience and Developmental Concerns
• The Path of Development
• Stagnation of Indian Economy
• Post-Independence Phase of Development
• The Present Scenario: Liberalisation Privatisation and Globalisation
• ICT Revolution in India
• Poverty Estimates and Poverty Eradication Measures During the Reform Period
• Development and Social Sectors
• Economic History of Canada
• Canadian Economy — An Overview
• Emergence of Economic Nationalism
• Macdonald Commission: Future Economic Prospects
• Economic and Social Indicators
• Relations with India

18 Zimbabwe

• Historical and Socio-economic Background
• Southern African Regional Perspective
• Contemporary Political Scenario
• Zimbabwe’s Economic Development Policies (1991-2001)
• Poverty Alleviation Strategies
• Indigenisation of the Economy
• Post Independence Development Scenario — An Overview
• A General Background
• People and History
• Brazilian Economy
• Brazil’s Trading Partners
• Government and Politics
• Environmental Issues
• The Social Challenges

20 Economic, Social and Cultural Dimensions of Globalisation

• The Concept and Definition of Globalisation
• The Features of Present Day Globalisation
• Economic Dimensions of Globalisation
• Social Dimension of Globalisation
• Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

21 Liberalisation and Structural Adjustment Programme

• Defining the Terms
• Internal Political Crisis
• External Crisis
• Liberalisation and the Current Account Deficit
• The Official Crisis Management Schema
• Revenue Issues
• External Sector
• Economic Reforms — An Appraisal

22 Globalisation, Privatisation and Indigenous knowledge

• Globalisation Liberalisation and Free Trade
• World Trade Organisation (WTO)
• Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs)
• Domination of the Developed North in WTO
• Implications of TRIPs for the Third World Countries
• Indigenous Knowledge and Biopiracy
• Protection of Indigenous and Traditional Knowledge

23 WTO, GATT, GATS- Capital and Human Flows

• Social Development, Globalisation and Trade Agreements
• World Trade Organisation (WTO): Origin
• World Trade Organisation: Functions Principles and Scope
• General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
• General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)
• Trade Liberalisation: The Emerging Concerns for Developing Countries
• Implication for Health and Education

24 Dimensions of Knowledge Society- Issues of Access and Equity

• Technological Transformation and Human Progress
• The Emergence of Information and Knowledge Society
• What is Knowledge/Information Society?
• Knowledge Economy and Knowledge Workers in a Knowledge Society
• Skill Acquisition and Training for Work in Knowledge Society
• ICT Infrastructure and Knowledge Dissemination

25 Critique of Knowledge Society

• Criticisms of Knowledge Society
• A Critical Appraisal of Discourses on Web-based Knowledge Dispersal
• The Digital Divide in Knowledge Society
• Divide in Employment Accessibility

26 Changing Roles of Media and ICTs on Employment

• The Evolution of Mass Media
• Mass Media and Globalisation
• Internet as Mass Media
• ICTs — The Convergence of Information and Communication Technologies
• ICTs Boosted Service Economy
• ICTs and Employment Opportunities

27 Dam and Displacement

• Dams and Development: Background
• Arguments Against Large Dams
• Arguments For Large Dams
• Dams and Displacement: Persons and Values
• Experiments with Alternatives to Large Dams

28 Green Peace Movement

• The Emergence and Growth of the Organisation
• Green Peace Movements: Objectives
• Green Peace Movements: Global Avenues of Action

29 People Science Movement

• Genesis and Aim
• A Brief History
• Some Fundamental Issues
• Activities of PSMs
• Some Prominent PSMs in India

30 Civil Society Movements and Grassroots Initiatives

• Civil Society: Meanings and Dimensions
• Civil Society as Social Movements
• Non-Governmental Organisations as Civil Society Actors
• Relationship Between NGOs and the Government
• Marginalisation and the Marginalised People
• Civil Society and Empowerment of the Marginalised
• Civil Society Movements: A Critique

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Postmodernist Perspective

Postmodernism and the family.

• Postmodernists disagree with the premise that society is orderly and predictable.

Postmodernists

• They view sociological theories as merely metanarratives, big stories that are no longer able to explain the diversity of personal relationships, so it is no longer possible to make generalised statements of theories about family life.

Change to social order

• They argue that contemporary society is rapidly changing and, therefore, full of uncertainties; people are rejecting notions of the traditional family as a mainstay of the social order.

Individualism

• The disintegration of the traditional family.
• The growing diversity of households.
• The personal relationships in which people choose to live.

Decline of tradition

• Rising divorce rates.
• Cohabitation.
• Multiple partners.
• Stepfamilies.
• Gay couples.
• Births outside marriage.
• These all show that the way people live their lives is more flexible now.

1 Theory & Methods

1.1 Sociological Theories

1.1.1 Marxism

1.1.2 Feminism

1.1.3 Social Action Theories

1.2 Sociological Methods

1.2.1 Types of Data

1.2.2 Positivism & Interpretivism

1.2.3 Research Design

1.2.4 Research Considerations

1.2.5 Values in Research

1.2.6 Modernity & Post-Modernity

1.2.7 Sociology as a Science

1.2.8 Sociology & Social Policy

1.2.9 End of Topic Test - Sociology Methods & Theories

1.3 Sources of Data

1.3.1 Introduction

1.3.2 Experiments

1.3.3 Surveys

1.3.4 Longitudinal Studies

1.3.5 Questionnaires

1.3.6 Types of Questionnaires

1.3.7 Interviews

1.3.8 Observation

1.3.9 Case Studies

1.3.10 Documents

1.3.11 Official Statistics

1.3.12 End of Topic Test - Sources of Data

2 Education with Methods in Context

2.1 Role & Function of the Education System

2.1.1 Introduction

2.1.2 Functionalist Theories

2.1.3 Marxist & Feminist Theories

2.1.4 The New Right

2.2 Educational Achievement

2.2.1 Social Class: Internal Factors

2.2.2 Social Class: External Factors

2.2.3 Social Class: Attitudes to Education

2.2.4 Social Class: Difference in Achievement

2.2.5 Gender

2.2.6 Ethnicity

2.3 Relationships & Processes Within Schools

2.3.1 Processes

2.3.2 Labelling

2.3.3 Categorisations

2.3.4 Student Experience

2.3.5 End of Topic Test -Education with Methods

2.4 Educational Policies

2.4.1 Equality

2.4.2 Privatisation

2.4.3 Marketisation

2.4.4 Government Policies by Party

2.4.5 Globalisation

2.4.6 End of Topic Test- Educational Policies

2.4.7 Practice Exam Question - Social Policies

3 Option 1: Culture & Identity

3.1 Conceptions of Culture

3.1.1 Culture

3.1.2 Mass Culture

3.1.3 Popular Culture

3.1.4 Global Culture

3.1.5 End of Topic Test - Culture and Identity

3.2 Identity & Socialisation

3.2.1 Identities

3.2.2 Socialisation

3.2.3 Secondary Socialisation

3.2.4 Theories of Socialisation

3.2.5 End of Topic Test - Identity

3.2.6 Practice Exam Question - Socialisation & Equality

3.3 Social Identity

3.3.1 Social Class

3.3.2 Upper & Middle Class

3.3.3 Working & Underclass

3.3.4 Social Class Evaluation

3.3.5 Gender

3.3.6 Changing Gender Identities

3.3.7 Ethnicity

3.3.9 Disability

3.3.10 Nationality

3.3.11 End of Topic Test - Social Identity

3.4 Production, Consumption & Globalisation

3.4.1 Production & Consumption

3.4.2 Globalisation

3.4.3 Evaluation

3.4.4 End of Topic Test - Production

4 Option 1: Families & Households

4.1 Families & Households

4.1.1 Definitions

4.1.2 Functionalist & New Right Perspectives

4.1.3 Marxist & Feminist Perspectives

4.1.4 Postmodernist Perspective

4.1.5 End of Topic Test - Families & Households

4.1.6 Practice Exam Question - Function of Family

4.2 Changing Patterns

4.2.1 Marriage

4.2.2 Divorce

4.2.3 LAT Relationships

4.2.4 Child-Bearing

4.2.5 Lone Parenthood

4.2.6 Diversity

4.2.7 The Sociology of Personal Life

4.2.8 Government Policies Post-WW2

4.2.9 End of Topic Test - Changing Patterns

4.3 The Symmetrical Family

4.3.1 The Symmetrical Family

4.3.2 Evaluation

4.4 Children & Childhood

4.4.1 Childhood

4.4.2 Childhood in the UK

4.4.3 Childhood as a Social Construct

4.4.4 The Disappearance of Childhood

4.4.5 Child Abuse

4.4.6 Domestic Violence

4.4.7 End of Topic Test - Family & Childhood

4.5 Demographic Trends UK

4.5.1 Introduction

4.5.2 Birth Rates

4.5.3 Death Rates

4.5.4 The Ageing Population

4.5.5 Studies on the Ageing Population

4.5.6 Migration

4.5.7 Globalisation

4.5.8 End of Topic Test - Demographics UK

5 Option 1: Health

5.1 Social Constructions

5.1.1 The Body

5.1.2 Health, Illness & Disease

5.1.3 Disability

5.1.4 Models of Health & Illness

5.1.5 End of Topic Test - Social Constructions

5.2 Social Distribution of Healthcare

5.2.1 Social Class

5.2.2 Gender

5.2.3 Ethnicity

5.2.4 Regional

5.3 Provision & Access to Healthcare

5.3.1 The NHS

5.3.2 Inequalities in Provision

5.3.3 Sociological Explanations

5.3.4 Inequalities in Access

5.3.5 Inequalities in Access 2

5.3.6 End of Topic Test - Distribution Health

5.4 Mental Health

5.4.1 The Biomedical Approach

5.4.2 Social Patterns

5.4.3 Social Constructionist Approach

5.5 The Globalised Health Industry

5.5.1 The Functionalist Approach

5.5.2 The Postmodernist Approach

5.5.3 The Globalised Health Industry

5.5.4 End of Topic Test - Mental Health & Globalisation

6 Option 1: Work, Poverty & Welfare

6.1 Poverty & Wealth

6.1.1 Types of Poverty

6.1.2 Types of Poverty 2

6.1.3 Distribution of Wealth UK

6.1.4 Sociological Theories

6.1.5 Sociological Theories 2

6.1.6 Distribution of Poverty UK

6.1.7 End of Topic Test - Poverty & Wealth

6.2 Welfare

6.2.1 The Welfare State

6.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Welfare

6.3 Labour Process

6.3.1 Nature of Work

6.3.2 Technology & Control

6.3.3 Work & Life

6.3.4 The Effects of Globalisation

6.3.5 Globalisation & Worklessness

6.3.6 End of Topic Test - Welfare & Labour

7 Option 2: Beliefs in Society

7.1 Ideology, Science & Religion

7.1.1 Types of Religion

7.1.2 Ideology & Belief Systems

7.1.3 Social Stability & Religion

7.1.4 Social Change & Religion

7.1.5 End of Topic Test - Ideology, Science & Religion

7.2 Religious Movements

7.2.1 Religious Organisations

7.2.2 New Religious Movements

7.2.3 New Age Movements

7.2.4 Practice Exam Question - Growth of NRMs

7.3 Society & Religion

7.3.1 Social Groups & Religion

7.3.2 Gender & Religion

7.3.3 End of Topic Test- Religious Movements & Society

7.4 Contemporary Religion

7.4.1 Secularisation UK

7.4.2 Against Secularisation

7.4.3 Secularisation US

7.4.4 Fundamentalism

7.4.5 Economic Development & Religion

7.4.6 End of Topic - Contemporary Religion

8 Option 2: Global Development

8.1 Development, Underdevelopment & Global Inequality

8.1.1 Development

8.1.2 Underdevelopment & Global Inequality

8.2 Globalisation & Global Organisations

8.2.1 Globalisation

8.2.2 Transnational Corporations & International Agency

8.2.3 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

8.3 Aid, Trade, Industrialisation, Urbanisation

8.3.1 Development: Aid & Trade

8.3.2 Development: Industrialisation & Urbanisation

8.3.3 Development: Environment & War

9 Option 2: The Media

9.1 Contemporary Media

9.1.1 New Media

9.1.2 Control of the Media

9.1.3 Sociological Approaches: New Media

9.1.4 Globalisation

9.1.5 News Selection

9.1.6 Moral Panics

9.1.7 End of Topic Test - Contemporary Media

9.2 Media Representations

9.2.2 Social Class & Ethnicity

9.2.3 Gender

9.2.4 Sexuality & Disability

9.2.5 Practice Exam Questions - Presentation of Women

9.3 Audiences

9.3.1 Media Theories

9.3.2 Media Theories 2

9.3.3 Media Representations & Audiences

10 Crime & Deviance

10.1 Crime & Society

10.1.1 Functionalism

10.1.2 Subcultural Theory

10.1.3 Marxism

10.1.4 Realism

10.1.5 Other Approaches

10.1.6 End of Topic Test - Crime & Society

10.1.7 Practice Exam Questions - Social Construction

10.2 Social Distribution of Crime

10.2.1 Ethnicity

10.2.2 Gender

10.2.3 Globalisation & Crime

10.2.4 Media & Crime

10.2.5 Types of Crimes

10.2.6 End of Topic Test - Social Distribution of Crime

10.3 Prevention & Punishment

10.3.1 Surveillance

10.3.2 Prevention

10.3.3 Punishment

10.3.4 Victimology

10.3.5 End of Topic Test - Prevention & Punishment

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Theoretical Debates in Sociology: Postmodernity / Postmodernism

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The post-modernist approach to sociology is explored and explained in this A-Level Sociology revision video.

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The Postmodernist View of Identity: An Outline and Explanation

In the field of sociology, the concept of identity has long been a topic of interest and exploration. One particular perspective that has gained prominence in recent decades is the postmodernist view of identity. This perspective challenges traditional notions of identity as fixed and stable, instead emphasizing the fluid and fragmented nature of individual and collective identities in contemporary society.

1. Deconstruction of Identity

Postmodernists argue that identity is not an inherent or essential aspect of individuals, but rather a social construct that is shaped by various factors such as culture , history, and power dynamics. They emphasize that identities are not fixed or predetermined, but are constantly being constructed and reconstructed through social interactions and discourses.

This deconstruction of identity challenges the idea that there is a single, unified self that remains consistent over time. Instead, postmodernists suggest that individuals have multiple and often conflicting identities that are context-dependent and subject to change.

2. Fragmentation and Hybridity

Postmodernists also highlight the fragmentation and hybridity of identity in contemporary society. They argue that globalization, migration, and technological advancements have led to the mixing and blending of different cultural, ethnic, and social influences, resulting in the emergence of hybrid identities.

These hybrid identities challenge traditional categorizations and binaries, such as gender, race, and class, as individuals navigate and negotiate multiple cultural and social contexts. Postmodernists argue that this fragmentation and hybridity of identity contribute to the diversity and complexity of contemporary societies.

3. The Role of Language and Discourse

Language and discourse play a crucial role in the postmodernist view of identity. Postmodernists argue that language is not simply a neutral tool for communication, but a powerful force that shapes our understanding of ourselves and others.

They suggest that identities are constructed and performed through language, and that different discourses and narratives have the power to shape and influence how we perceive ourselves and others. Postmodernists critique the idea that language can accurately represent a fixed and authentic identity, instead emphasizing the role of language in constructing and deconstructing identities.

4. Identity as Performance

Building on the idea of language and discourse, postmodernists view identity as a performative act. They argue that individuals “perform” their identities through various social practices, such as clothing, gestures, and speech.

These performances are not simply expressions of an authentic self, but are influenced by societal norms , expectations, and power dynamics. Postmodernists suggest that individuals have agency in how they perform their identities, but also acknowledge the constraints and influences of social structures.

5. Challenges to Identity Politics

The postmodernist view of identity has also posed challenges to identity politics, which seek to address social inequalities based on categories such as gender, race, and sexuality. Postmodernists argue that identity politics can sometimes reinforce fixed and essentialist notions of identity, overlooking the fluidity and complexity of individual experiences.

They suggest that a more nuanced understanding of identity is needed, one that recognizes the intersections and multiplicities of identities and avoids the pitfalls of essentialism. Postmodernists advocate for a more inclusive and fluid approach to identity politics that acknowledges the diverse and changing nature of identity.

The postmodernist view of identity offers a critical and nuanced perspective on the construction and fluidity of identities in contemporary society . It challenges traditional notions of identity as fixed and stable, emphasizing the role of social factors, language, and performance in shaping individual and collective identities.

By recognizing the fragmentation, hybridity, and complexity of identity, the postmodernist view opens up new possibilities for understanding and engaging with the diverse and ever-changing nature of human identity.

Mr Edwards has a PhD in sociology and 10 years of experience in sociological knowledge

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Postmodern Feminism Theory in Sociology

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Postmodern feminism is a philosophical tendency within feminism that incorporates postmodern theory and thought into its analysis and critiques of gender, sexuality, culture, politics, power, identity, society, and social relations, arguing that reality and power dynamics are socially constructed rather than innate or essential.

Key Takeaways

• Postmodern feminism is a type of feminism that emerged in the late 20th century. It is marked by a rejection of traditional feminist ideas and an embrace of postmodern philosophy.
• Postmodern feminism is critical of essentialism, patriarchy, and binary thinking. Instead, it emphasizes the importance of social context and power relationships in understanding gender.
• Postmodern feminism has been criticized for being too theoretical and disconnected from real-world issues.

What is Postmodern Feminist Theory?

Postmodern feminist theory is a school of thought that emphasizes the importance of social and political factors in understanding gender.

Postmodern feminists believe that gender is not determined by biology, but rather by culture and society.

They argue that women have been oppressed not because they are biologically inferior to men, but because they have been socially and politically marginalized.

Postmodern feminism began in the 1970s as a reaction to second-wave feminism. Second-wave feminism was based on the belief that women were oppressed due to their biology (i.e., their sex). This led to a focus on issues like reproductive rights and equal access to education and employment.

However, postmodern feminists argued that these issues were not enough to liberate women from oppression. Instead, they believed that women’s oppression was the result of social and political factors (Waugh, 2012).

Postmodern feminism is associated with thinkers as diverse as Michel Foucault, Judith Butler, and Donna Haraway.

Post-modern feminists assume that the modernist conception of feminism emphasizes gender differences between women and men whilst ignoring the differences within each gender. For example,  while all women may be oppressed by patriarchy, not all women experience this oppression in the same way.

White, middle-class women, for example, may have more privilege than women of color or working-class women. Similarly, lesbians may experience different forms of oppression than heterosexual women (Waugh, 2012).

Postmodern feminists also critiqued the notion of a unified “sisterhood” among all women. They pointed out that there are many factors that divide women along lines of race, class, sexuality, and other categories. As such, they argued that it was important to focus on the unique experiences of each group of women.

Theoretical assumptions

The personal is political.

This means that the private experiences of women are shaped by larger social and political structures.

For example, if a woman is being abused by a male partner, postmodern feminists contend that the societal oppression of women is an important factor in explaining this abuse.

This term was popularized by Carol Hanisch”s 1970 essay, “The Person is Political.”

There is no one way to be a woman

This means that there is no universal experience of womanhood. Instead, each woman experiences gender in their own unique way.

Postmodern feminists also believe that gender is not something that people are born with, but rather something that they perform.

In the postmodernist view, feminism is for everyone. This means that feminism is not just for women. It is for anyone who experiences oppression due to their gender, including transgender and genderqueer people (Rossitier, 2000).

Knowledge is power

This means that women can empower themselves by acquiring knowledge about the social and political factors that shape their lives.

For example,  women can learn about sexism, racism, and other forms of oppression. This knowledge can then be used to challenge and resist these structures of oppression.

Postmodern feminism has been critiqued for its focus on individual experience and its lack of attention to structural issues.

However, it has also been praised for its inclusiveness and its emphasis on the diversity of women’s experiences (Rossitier, 2000).

What are Patriarchy and Sexism?

Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political authority. It occurs in both one’s personal life and within the workplace.

Sexism, meanwhile, is prejudice or discrimination based on sex; typically directed against women and girls. It manifests in subtle ways, such as through jokes or comments, as well as more overt forms of discrimination, such as denying women equal opportunities in education or employment.

Combined, patriarchy and sexism create a system in which women are oppressed both socially and economically. Patriarchy reinforces sexist attitudes and beliefs, and provides men with the power to act on them.

This can result in women being denied equal rights and opportunities, or experiencing violence and abuse.

Sexism, on its own, can also lead to discrimination and oppression. For example, women may be paid less than men for doing the same job, or be passed over for promotions because of their gender (Lerner, 1986).

What is the Difference Between Feminism and Postmodern Feminism?

Feminism is a political movement that aims to end gender inequality and oppression. It emerged in the 19th century in response to the Industrial Revolution, which led to new opportunities and challenges for women.

Postmodern feminism is a later form of feminism that critiqued some of the assumptions of earlier feminist thought by combining both post-modern and post-structuralist theory.

Postmodern feminists reject essentialism, which is the belief that there is necessarily an inherent difference between men and women. Postmodern feminists also put an emphasis on the theory of the symbolic order.

The Symbolic Order contends that when young children learn the language, they will have to submit to the Order so they can follow the linguistic patterns of society (Tong & Botts, 2018).

This symbolic order regulates society through individuals, who constantly use the language that perpetuates gender and other social roles (Ebert, 1991).

Examples of Postmodern Feminism Theory

Judith butler.

Judith Butler is an American philosopher and gender theorist whose work has been extremely influential within the field of postmodern feminism.

Butler”s most famous work is Gender Trouble , in which she challenges the idea that there is a natural, essential difference between men and women.

Instead, Butler argues that gender is something that is performed. This means that it is not something that people are born with, but something they do (Salih & Butler, 2004).

For Butler, the performativity of gender is related to power. She argues that gender is not simply imposed on by society; rather, people continually reproduce and reinforce it through their actions and words. In other words, people perform gender every time they speak or act in a gendered way.

In Gender Trouble (2002), Butler also argues that sex, or at least gender, is constructed through language. This draws on a critique of Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, and Luce Irigary”s argument that what is conventionally feminine is a reflection of what is considered to be masculine.

Butler also criticizes the distinction between biological sex and socially constructed gender. She argues that this distinction reinforces the idea that there is a natural, essential difference between men and women. This, in turn, justifies men”s dominance over women.

Yet, this argument implies that women’s subordination has no single cause or solution. In lieu of the criticism that postmodern feminism offers no clear path to action, Butler herself rejected the term postmodernism as too vague to be meaningful.

Instead, she advocated for a feminism that is more inclusive and attentive to the particularities of women”s lives (Salih & Butler, 2004).

Mary Joe Frug

Mary Joe Frug was an American lawyer and legal scholar. She was a professor at Harvard Law School and New York University School of Law. Frug’s work focused on gender and the law, as well as postmodern feminist theory.

Legal postmodern feminist theory is a theory that critiques the legal system from a feminist perspective. Frug’s work is significant because she was one of the first to bring postmodernism into the field of law (Frug, 2014).

Frug argued that the law is inherently patriarchal and that it therefore benefits men more than women. She critiqued the way that the law treats women as property, rather than autonomous individuals.

Frug also criticized the fact that the law often reinforces gender roles, such as women being expected to be wives and mothers, rather than workers or professionals.

In addition, Frug argued that the law is biased against women in divorce proceedings and child custody cases (Frug, 2014).

Frug’s work was groundbreaking in its application of postmodern feminist theory to the field of law.

She showed that the law is not neutral, but rather that it benefits those who are already in a position of power. Frug”s work has been highly influential in subsequent feminist legal scholarship, and her casebook, Women and the Law, is still in publication and used by legal scholars (Schneider, 1991).

Nonetheless, Frug”s work was controversial for its time. Eventually, Frug was murdered by who police believed to be an academic rival in an unsolved case.

French Feminism

French feminism is a branch of feminist thought that originated in France during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

French feminists typically draw on the work of thinkers such as Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, and Luce Irigary.

Helen Cixous

Helen Cixous is a French-Algerian feminist writer, thinker, and literary critic. She is best known for her work in feminist theory and for her writing style, which she has termed “écriture féminine”.

Cixous” work often focuses on women” ‘s relationship to language and literature (Cixous & Derrida, 1994).

Cixous, most famous for her article, “the laugh of the Medusa,” is critical of the way that women have been excluded from the field of literature (Cixous, 2009). She argues that this exclusion is due to the fact that literature has been seen as a masculine activity.

Cixous also critiques the way that women have been portrayed in literature, arguing that they have typically been shown as objects or subordinate to men. In order to counter this, Cixous advocates for a “feminine ” writing style that would be more inclusive of women’s experiences and perspectives.

Cixous” work has been highly influential in feminist literary criticism. Her ideas about écriture féminine have been particularly influential, as they have allowed for a re-examination of the relationship between women and literature.

Cixous” work has also been significant in its application of postmodernist thought to feminist issues (Cixous & Derrida, 1994).

Luna Irigaray

Luna Irigaray is a Belgian-born French feminist thinker and philosopher. She is best known for her work “Speculum of the other woman,” and studies the uses and misuses of language in relation to women. Irigaray’s work often focuses on the ways that women have been marginalized by Western thought.

In Speculum of the Other Women (1974), Irigaray critiques Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex, arguing that it relies on a masculine understanding of sexuality.

She also argued that Freud’s theories about women are based on stereotypes and that they serve to further marginalize women. In addition, Irigaray critiqued Lacan’s re-interpretation of Freud, arguing that it perpetuates the same problems with Freud’s theories.

Irigaray has also written about the ways that women have been excluded from the field of philosophy. She has argued that this exclusion is due to the fact that Western philosophy is based on a masculine understanding of reason.

Irigaray’s work has been highly influential in challenging traditional conceptions of psychoanalysis and philosophy.

Julia Kristeva

Julia Kristeva is a Bulgarian-born French thinker, writer, and psychoanalyst. She is best known for her work in feminist theory, psychoanalysis, and linguistics. Kristeva’s work often focuses on the ways that women have been marginalized by Western society.

In her most famous work, “Women’s time” (1996) Kristeva argues that women have been excluded from history because they have typically been associated with the private sphere of domestic life.

Kristeva also critiques the way that women have been portrayed in literature, arguing that they have typically been shown as objects or subordinate to men.

She also argues that Children undergo various stages in learning languages, where they learn to ascertain shared cultural meaning from language.

Postmodern Feminism Criticism

There have been numerous critiques of postmodern feminism since it originated in the 1990s. Most notably, postmodern feminism has been critiqued for its focus on deconstruction and its alleged rejection of the notion of “woman” as a coherent category.

Some feminists have argued that postmodern feminism’s focus on deconstruction leaves women without a stable identity or sense of self.

This critique is based on the belief that postmodernism, with its emphasis on instability and flux, is inherently anti-feminist.

Other feminists have argued that postmodern feminism’s rejection of the notion of “woman” as a coherent category further marginalizes women.

These critics argue that by denying the existence of a shared female identity, postmodern feminism essentially denies the very existence of women as a group (Ebert, 1991).

Despite these critiques, postmodern feminism has had a significant impact on feminist thought. In particular, its focus on deconstruction has allowed for a re-examination of the relationship between women and literature.

Additionally, its application of postmodernist thought to feminist issues has shed new light on familiar problems.

Modernists have also notably criticized postmodern feminism for its abandonment of the values of Enlightenment thought, which precludes the possibility that postmodernists can justify liberating political action.

By emphasizing its rejection of essentialism, critics claim that postmodern feminism has failed to provide a viable political program for women’s emancipation.

Moreover, because postmodernism is often associated with relativism, some modernists argue that it is impossible to make any claims about the oppression of women under patriarchy. In response, postmodern feminists have argued that their critique of essentialism does not mean that they are unable to make political claims.

They maintain that their approach simply takes into account the complex and intersectional nature of women”s experiences (Ebert, 1991).

Alison Assister, in her book Enlightened Women , critiqued postmodern feminism for its focus on deconstruction and its alleged rejection of the notion of “woman” as a coherent category.

Assister argued that postmodern feminism’s focus on deconstruction leaves women without a stable identity or sense of self. This critique is based on the belief that postmodernism, with its emphasis on instability and flux, is inherently anti-feminist.

Other feminists have argued that postmodern feminism’s rejection of the notion of “woman” as a coherent category further marginalizes women. These critics argue that by denying the existence of a shared female identity, postmodern feminism essentially denies the very existence of women as a group.

The field has additionally been criticized by others for its overly academic focus and inaccessibility to those unfamiliar with its jargon (Ebert, 1991).

Butler, J. (2002). Gender trouble . Routledge.

Cixous, H. (2009). The laugh of the Medusa. Feminisms Redux, 416-431.

Cixous, H., & Derrida, J. (1994). T he Hélène Cixous Reader. Psychology Press.

Ebert, T. L. (1991). The” difference” of postmodern feminism. College English, 5 3(8), 886-904.

Frug, M. J. (2014). Postmodern legal feminism . Routledge.

Hanisch, C. (1970). The Person is Political

Irigaray, L. (1974). Speculum of the other woman . Cornell University Press.

Kristeva, J. (1996). Women’s time. Women, Knowledge, and Reality: Explorations in Feminist Philosophy , 61-83.

Lerner, G. (1986). The creation of patriarchy (Vol. 1). Women and History; V. 1.

Rossiter, A. (2000). The postmodern feminist condition . B. Fawcett, B. Featherstone, J. Fook y A. Rossiter, Practice and research in social work , 24-38.

Salih, S., & Butler, J. (2004). The Judith Butler reader .

Schneider, E. M. (1991). Violence Against Women and Legal Education: An Essay for Mary Joe Frug . New Eng. L. Rev. , 26, 843.

Tong, R., & Botts, T. F. (2018). Feminist thought: A more comprehensive introduction . Routledge.

Waugh, P. (2012). Feminine fictions: Revisiting the postmodern. Routledge.

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Sociology Professor & Alum Publish on Shifting Cultural Fears & Horror Movies

Kyle Green and alum Kelsey Berry’s co-authored essay on shifting cultural fears in horror movies was published in the Spring 2024 edition of Contexts Magazine.

The whole issue is now free to read, download, and share (plus a direct link to Kyle and Kelsey’s article ).

The project began as a final assignment for sociological theory and was then continued as part of the Summer Undergraduate Research Program.

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