essay summary

Summary: Using it Wisely

What this handout is about.

Knowing how to summarize something you have read, seen, or heard is a valuable skill, one you have probably used in many writing assignments. It is important, though, to recognize when you must go beyond describing, explaining, and restating texts and offer a more complex analysis. This handout will help you distinguish between summary and analysis and avoid inappropriate summary in your academic writing.

Is summary a bad thing?

Not necessarily. But it’s important that your keep your assignment and your audience in mind as you write. If your assignment requires an argument with a thesis statement and supporting evidence—as many academic writing assignments do—then you should limit the amount of summary in your paper. You might use summary to provide background, set the stage, or illustrate supporting evidence, but keep it very brief: a few sentences should do the trick. Most of your paper should focus on your argument. (Our handout on argument will help you construct a good one.)

Writing a summary of what you know about your topic before you start drafting your actual paper can sometimes be helpful. If you are unfamiliar with the material you’re analyzing, you may need to summarize what you’ve read in order to understand your reading and get your thoughts in order. Once you figure out what you know about a subject, it’s easier to decide what you want to argue.

You may also want to try some other pre-writing activities that can help you develop your own analysis. Outlining, freewriting, and mapping make it easier to get your thoughts on the page. (Check out our handout on brainstorming for some suggested techniques.)

Why is it so tempting to stick with summary and skip analysis?

Many writers rely too heavily on summary because it is what they can most easily write. If you’re stalled by a difficult writing prompt, summarizing the plot of The Great Gatsby may be more appealing than staring at the computer for three hours and wondering what to say about F. Scott Fitzgerald’s use of color symbolism. After all, the plot is usually the easiest part of a work to understand. Something similar can happen even when what you are writing about has no plot: if you don’t really understand an author’s argument, it might seem easiest to just repeat what he or she said.

To write a more analytical paper, you may need to review the text or film you are writing about, with a focus on the elements that are relevant to your thesis. If possible, carefully consider your writing assignment before reading, viewing, or listening to the material about which you’ll be writing so that your encounter with the material will be more purposeful. (We offer a handout on reading towards writing .)

How do I know if I’m summarizing?

As you read through your essay, ask yourself the following questions:

• Am I stating something that would be obvious to a reader or viewer?
• Does my essay move through the plot, history, or author’s argument in chronological order, or in the exact same order the author used?
• Am I simply describing what happens, where it happens, or whom it happens to?

A “yes” to any of these questions may be a sign that you are summarizing. If you answer yes to the questions below, though, it is a sign that your paper may have more analysis (which is usually a good thing):

• Am I making an original argument about the text?
• Have I arranged my evidence around my own points, rather than just following the author’s or plot’s order?
• Am I explaining why or how an aspect of the text is significant?

Certain phrases are warning signs of summary. Keep an eye out for these:

• “[This essay] is about…”
• “[This book] is the story of…”
• “[This author] writes about…”
• “[This movie] is set in…”

Here’s an example of an introductory paragraph containing unnecessary summary. Sentences that summarize are in italics:

The Great Gatsby is the story of a mysterious millionaire, Jay Gatsby, who lives alone on an island in New York. F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote the book, but the narrator is Nick Carraway. Nick is Gatsby’s neighbor, and he chronicles the story of Gatsby and his circle of friends, beginning with his introduction to the strange man and ending with Gatsby’s tragic death. In the story, Nick describes his environment through various colors, including green, white, and grey. Whereas white and grey symbolize false purity and decay respectively, the color green offers a symbol of hope.

Here’s how you might change the paragraph to make it a more effective introduction:

In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald provides readers with detailed descriptions of the area surrounding East Egg, New York. In fact, Nick Carraway’s narration describes the setting with as much detail as the characters in the book. Nick’s description of the colors in his environment presents the book’s themes, symbolizing significant aspects of the post-World War I era. Whereas white and grey symbolize the false purity and decay of the 1920s, the color green offers a symbol of hope.

This version of the paragraph mentions the book’s title, author, setting, and narrator so that the reader is reminded of the text. And that sounds a lot like summary—but the paragraph quickly moves on to the writer’s own main topic: the setting and its relationship to the main themes of the book. The paragraph then closes with the writer’s specific thesis about the symbolism of white, grey, and green.

How do I write more analytically?

Analysis requires breaking something—like a story, poem, play, theory, or argument—into parts so you can understand how those parts work together to make the whole. Ideally, you should begin to analyze a work as you read or view it instead of waiting until after you’re done—it may help you to jot down some notes as you read. Your notes can be about major themes or ideas you notice, as well as anything that intrigues, puzzles, excites, or irritates you. Remember, analytic writing goes beyond the obvious to discuss questions of how and why—so ask yourself those questions as you read.

The St. Martin’s Handbook (the bulleted material below is quoted from p. 38 of the fifth edition) encourages readers to take the following steps in order to analyze a text:

• Identify evidence that supports or illustrates the main point or theme as well as anything that seems to contradict it.
• Consider the relationship between the words and the visuals in the work. Are they well integrated, or are they sometimes at odds with one another? What functions do the visuals serve? To capture attention? To provide more detailed information or illustration? To appeal to readers’ emotions?
• Decide whether the sources used are trustworthy.
• Identify the work’s underlying assumptions about the subject, as well as any biases it reveals.

Once you have written a draft, some questions you might want to ask yourself about your writing are “What’s my point?” or “What am I arguing in this paper?” If you can’t answer these questions, then you haven’t gone beyond summarizing. You may also want to think about how much of your writing comes from your own ideas or arguments. If you’re only reporting someone else’s ideas, you probably aren’t offering an analysis.

What strategies can help me avoid excessive summary?

• Read the assignment (the prompt) as soon as you get it. Make sure to reread it before you start writing. Go back to your assignment often while you write. (Check out our handout on reading assignments ).
• Formulate an argument (including a good thesis) and be sure that your final draft is structured around it, including aspects of the plot, story, history, background, etc. only as evidence for your argument. (You can refer to our handout on constructing thesis statements ).
• Read critically—imagine having a dialogue with the work you are discussing. What parts do you agree with? What parts do you disagree with? What questions do you have about the work? Does it remind you of other works you’ve seen?
• Make sure you have clear topic sentences that make arguments in support of your thesis statement. (Read our handout on paragraph development if you want to work on writing strong paragraphs).
• Use two different highlighters to mark your paper. With one color, highlight areas of summary or description. With the other, highlight areas of analysis. For many college papers, it’s a good idea to have lots of analysis and minimal summary/description.
• Ask yourself: What part of the essay would be obvious to a reader/viewer of the work being discussed? What parts (words, sentences, paragraphs) of the essay could be deleted without loss? In most cases, your paper should focus on points that are essential and that will be interesting to people who have already read or seen the work you are writing about.

But I’m writing a review! Don’t I have to summarize?

That depends. If you’re writing a critique of a piece of literature, a film, or a dramatic performance, you don’t necessarily need to give away much of the plot. The point is to let readers decide whether they want to enjoy it for themselves. If you do summarize, keep your summary brief and to the point.

Instead of telling your readers that the play, book, or film was “boring,” “interesting,” or “really good,” tell them specifically what parts of the work you’re talking about. It’s also important that you go beyond adjectives and explain how the work achieved its effect (how was it interesting?) and why you think the author/director wanted the audience to react a certain way. (We have a special handout on writing reviews that offers more tips.)

If you’re writing a review of an academic book or article, it may be important for you to summarize the main ideas and give an overview of the organization so your readers can decide whether it is relevant to their specific research interests.

If you are unsure how much (if any) summary a particular assignment requires, ask your instructor for guidance.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Barnet, Sylvan. 2015. A Short Guide to Writing about Art , 11th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Corrigan, Timothy. 2014. A Short Guide to Writing About Film , 9th ed. New York: Pearson.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Zinsser, William. 2001. On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction , 6th ed. New York: Quill.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Summarizing

by jleemcga | Aug 18, 2023 | Resources for Students , Writing Resources

What is summarizing?

A summary of a text is a short overview of the main ideas written in your own words. While paraphrasing involves expressing specific ideas or details from a larger text in your own words, we generally summarize whole texts (whether it is an essay, article, chapter, book, et cetera). So, in order to ensure our summaries are not too wordy or confusing, we only cover the main ideas or argument presented within a whole text.

It’s best to summarize when you’re contextualizing a topic by letting your readers know about the current, ongoing conversation. By summarizing relevant sources, you’re providing your audience with an overview of what has already been said about this topic to help them understand how you’ll be adding to it. Summarizing material within your paper allows you to:

• Condense key ideas or arguments relevant to your paper
• Simplify the connection between a source and your own writing

How do I summarize?

To approach summarizing a source, try the following steps:

• First make sure you carefully read the original source material to understand it. Like paraphrasing, summarizing effectively requires an accurate understanding of the source material
• Identify all the main ideas from the text. It helps to look for the thesis or overall claim the author is presenting, as well as any important reasons they give to back their claim. Basically, you’re looking for why their argument is what it is
• When you begin your summary, you might use a TAG line. This stands for Title, Author, Genre and allows you to formally introduce the text before you summarize its ideas. An example of a TAG line is: In the article “Stuck on the Streets of San Francisco in a Driverless Car”, Cade Metz reports … TAG lines add a helpful framework for the summary
• Be sure not to include any specific examples, details, or evidence from the text. In summaries, we don’t describe the author’s examples (this would be like rewriting the entire text). Instead, we offer a map of the main idea and major points
• Once you finish writing your summary, check to make sure your summary concisely and accurately captures the author’s main ideas
• Remember to cite!

Examples of summarizing

Here is an example of a writer summarizing a main idea from the source Social Death: Racialized Rightlessness and the Criminalization of the Unprotected by Lisa Marie Cacho in their essay about a Salvadoran poet and her poetry’s relationship to reclaiming identity:

The ambiguity that is scored onto the bodies of Salvadoran migrants creates an impoverished sense of time and freedom by keeping these individuals indefinitely “temporary,” an ephemera that imposes a constant threat against safety and belonging for Salvadorans in the US. This weaponization of time also contributes to the condition of social death that Cacho describes as being prevalent for people of color, and particularly immigrants, in the US. According to Cacho, part of the criminalization of people of color within the US— not based on one’s behavior, but by their appearance— is heightened further by the notion of documentation. The rhetoric surrounding immigration in the US ultimately aims to invalidate those without documentation by using slurs like “illegal” (Cacho).

Note: The writer quotes some key terms, like “temporary” or “illegal” that the author emphasizes in the original source but describes the main ideas of the source in their own words. Note, too, that the summary focuses on the big-picture ideas of the source without mentioning examples that are too specific.

Things to keep in mind when summarizing

Some important things to remain mindful of while summarizing in your assignments are:

• There is no specified length for writing summaries; they may be a few sentences or a few paragraphs depending on your writing project. For most academic essays, a summary of a few sentences to a short paragraph is appropriate. Concision is key
• Do not include your opinions on the topic or the author’s ideas in your summary; your ideas are important, but summary is a genre of writing that requires objectivity
• Do not include specific details or examples from the text—just focus on the big picture ideas

Our Newest Resources!

• Incorporating Headings & Subheadings
• Revision vs. Proofreading
• Engaging With Sources Effectively
• The Dos and Don’ts of Using Tables and Figures in Your Writing
• Synthesis and Making Connections for Strong Analysis

Additional Resources

• Graduate Writing Consultants
• Instructor Resources
• Student Resources
• Quick Guides and Handouts
• Self-Guided and Directed Learning Activities

how to write a summary

A step-by-step guide to writing a great summary.

A summary of a literary work isn't just a plain-old synopsis. It's a valuable study tool, a foundational element of all kinds of essays, a common testing mechanism, and one of the basics of literary analysis. 

Whether you're in high school or college, developing a deep understanding of how and when to summarize a book or text is a valuable skill. Doing so might require a little more knowledge and effort than you'd think. 

That's why we're covering all aspects of summaries, from study tools to plot summaries, below.

What Is a Summary?

A summary is a brief overview of a text (or movie, speech, podcast, etcetera) that succinctly and comprehensively covers the main ideas or plot points. 

Sounds simple, right? Well, there are a lot of unique characteristics that differentiate summaries from other commentary, such as analyses, book reviews, or outlines. 

Summaries are: 

• In your own words. It's important that you don't just copy and paste the writer's words (in fact, that's plagiarizing). Writing the key points of a work in your own words indicates your comprehension and absorption of the material. 
• Objective. While a summary should be in your own words, it shouldn't contain your opinions. Instead, you should gather the main points and intentions of the writer and present them impartially. (If you include your opinions, it instead becomes an analysis or review.)
• More than paraphrasing. Many students fall into the trap of simply paraphrasing—plainly restating the ideas or events of the work. (Is our definition starting to sound contradictory? We told you it wasn't straightforward!) Rather than recounting the events or ideas in a work chronologically or in the order they're presented, instead consider the broad scope of how they all contribute to the narrative or argument. 
• Short. There are no strict rules regarding length, only that it is concise. It's largely dependent on the length of the text it summarizes: longer texts, longer summaries. It also depends on the assignment or objective. However, most are about one to two paragraphs in length. 
• Comprehensive. Yes, it's another seemingly contradictory descriptor, but an important one. Summaries are comprehensive, meaning they cover all of the main plot points or ideas in a work (so they inherently contain "spoilers"). You should present those ideas in a way that condenses them into an inclusive, but not exhaustive, recounting in order to keep it short.  
• Straightforward (even if the text isn't). A good summary should be easy to comprehend, presenting the reader with a simple but all-encompassing understanding of the work at hand. With complex texts, summaries can be particularly useful because they distill big, complicated ideas into a bite-sized package. 

When to Write a Summary

Like so many elements of literary analysis, summaries are misunderstood. We've already explained why they aren't as simple as most people think, but neither are their uses. 

Summary writing is a useful skill in a variety of circumstances, both in and outside the English and Language Arts classrooms. 

Readers, writers, teachers, and students can use summaries: 

• As a study tactic. The ability to summarize a book or text indicates that you've absorbed and understand the material. Plus, writing down notes (as in a summary) is a great way to retain material. Try summarizing at the end of a book chapter, after each section of an article, or periodically in textbooks. Doing so will help you digest the material you've just read, confirming you understood and retained the information therein. Stopping frequently to summarize is most effective because you're less likely to forget important plot points or ideas. 
• As an assignment. Teachers and professors often ask students to summarize a text as a test to confirm they read and understood the material. Before heading into class—especially if you have a test or quiz scheduled—try practicing summarizing the text. Write it down (rather than practicing it out loud or in your head) so that you can review your ideas and ensure you're presenting them succinctly and sensibly. 
• As part of an essay. If you're referencing a book or article in your own paper, you might need to summarize the source as the foundation for your argument. In this case, your summary should be particularly short so the reader doesn't lose sight of your own argument and intention. Introduce the name of the work and its author, then use one sentence (two at most) to describe their objective and how it relates to your own. 
• As part of a review. Summaries are very useful in an academic setting, but they have their place outside of it too. Whether you're on a book review site or just sharing a recommendation with a friend, being able to succinctly write a book summary (with or without spoilers) will help others to make their own judgements of a book. 

Your Step-by-Step Guide for How to Write a Summary

Step 1: read the work .

Summaries are often perceived as a workaround for reading the work itself. That's not a great strategy under most circumstances because you tend to lose a lot of the details and nuance of a work, but it's particularly impractical to do so when writing about the work. 

Remember, a summary is supposed to present your perception of the work as a whole. So in order to develop that perception, you have to first read the original text. 

Step 2: Take Notes 

As you read the work, simultaneously take notes. If you own the book, it might be helpful to add your notes to the margins or highlight passages that are particularly relevant or capture a key idea. If you don't own the book, try taking notes on your computer or in a notebook. You can still notate important passages by writing down the page and paragraph number or writing an abbreviated version of the quotation. Alternatively, try marking key passages with sticky notes or tabs. 

It might also be helpful to write out a short outline of the work as you go. While you won't want to use this verbatim (remember, you shouldn't just paraphrase the work), it can help you establish and remember the text's framework. 

Step 3: Identify the Author's Thesis Statement, Objective, or Main Point 

In some works, such as a journal article, a writer will provide a thesis statement. A thesis statement is a one-sentence synopsis of the author's argument and intention. A thesis statement can be really helpful in forming the backbone of your own summary, just as it forms the backbone of the essay. 

However, even when a thesis statement isn't present—like in a novel—the writer always has an objective or main idea. You should always identify this idea and use it to form the foundation of your summary. 

The main point might be apparent at the outset of the work. Other times, the author won't present it until the conclusion. Sometimes you might identify multiple objectives throughout the work. That's why it's important, as you read, to note any ideas that might be the  main  idea. Even those that aren't the  most  important will likely remain relevant. 

Step 4: Note Other Important Elements

If something stands out to you about the work and seems to play an important role in the text's overall narrative or structure, make a note about it. This could be a recurring theme, an incident in the storyline, or a deviation from the overall argument. 

As you identify and note important elements and moments in the work, the structure of your summary should begin to fall into place. 

Step 5: Prepare to Write Your Summary 

Once you've finished reading the work, review your notes and highlight the key points that came to light. Remember, your summary should be objective, so disregard any opinions you might have noted about the work. You should introduce the thesis or objective, briefly encapsulate the important ideas and moments from the work, and end with a conclusion that ties those ideas to the objective. Keep this structure in mind as you begin. 

Step 6: Begin by Introducing the Work 

As you begin, introduce the work, its author, and, if relevant, the context.

Depending on your situation—for example, if your teacher or professor has asked you to summarize a work as part of an assignment or quiz—this might seem redundant. However, it is standard practice to begin by introducing the work, even if the reader already knows what you're writing about. 

Example:  In  The Great Gatsby , F. Scott Fitzgerald... 

Step 7: Present the Thesis, Main Idea, or Central Argument

Once you've introduced the work, your priority is to clearly define the author's thesis, important point, or central argument. As mentioned above, sometimes the author presents this idea clearly and succinctly at the outset of their work; at other times, it's buried deep in the text. 

Regardless of how the main idea is presented in the work, it should be front and center in your summary. Some teachers might refer to this as a "topic sentence" or "introductory sentence." This is the central point around which you will construct the rest of your writing. As you progress, you'll highlight other ideas or occurrences that relate or contribute to this main idea, so it's important that your representation of it is easily understood. 

Example:  In  The Great Gatsby , F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the story of Jay Gatsby as a symbol of the social stratification, greed, and indulgence of 1920s America. 

Step 8: Briefly Discuss the Important Elements of the Work

After identifying the thesis or central argument, you should provide a brief overview of the work's other elements, ideas, and plot points. For the most part, the information you present throughout this section should bolster the thesis presented previously. Each sentence should serve as a supporting point for the topic sentence. Don't simply list ideas or plot points, but show how they're connected and inform the work as a whole. Of course, there may also be important elements of the work that are not directly tied to the main idea; it's ok to include these if you feel they are vital to understanding the work.

When writing the body, you should consciously and intentionally leave out unnecessary details. They tend to bog down your writing and lose the reader. 

Example:  The narrator, Nick Carraway, moves to New York's "West Egg," where he reunites with his cousin, Daisy, and her husband, Tom Buchanan. Fitzgerald clearly delineates social lines between West Egg (new money) and East Egg (old money), where Tom and Daisy reside. 

Nick attends a lavish party thrown by his neighbor, Jay Gatsby, and learns Jay formerly had a relationship with Daisy. The two reignite their forbidden affair. Tom reveals to Daisy that Gatsby earned his money illegally, through smuggling alcohol, and is actually a man of humble Midwestern origins. Daisy and Gatsby try to run away together, but Daisy accidentally runs over Tom's mistress. Tom, eager to exact revenge, convinces his mistress' husband that Gatsby was to blame in her death, and he murders Gatsby before committing suicide. Few of Gatsby's many friends attend his funeral.

Step 9: Write a Conclusion that Ties It All Together

Much like you introduce the author's major point at the outset of your summary, you should revisit it as you close out your writing. If you presented the author's main idea in the introduction, and then bolstered that main idea by recollecting plot points or important elements from the work, your conclusion should then reiterate how those elements relate to the main idea. 

Example:  Though Gatsby subscribed to the extravagance of his peers, his efforts to fit into the upper echelon of West and East Egg were negated by his humble origins; always out of place, he was rejected for his social class as much as his perceived crimes.  

Step 10: Edit

Before submitting your work, read it in full, and edit out any superfluous and redundant information. It's likely that unnecessary details snuck in as you were writing, and you might find that certain plot points just feel unnecessary within the scope of your finished product. 

In addition to editing for content, be sure to edit it closely for grammatical or spelling errors. Even if your summary is well thought out, its expertise is compromised if it's full of errors! 

How to Write a Plot Summary

The step-by-step guide to writing an effective summary, outlined above, applies to most summaries. However, each type has its own unique elements outside of those standard requirements. 

A plot or book summary, for example, should encapsulate the plot of a short story or novel. When writing one, there are unique strategies to follow.  

Dos of Writing a Plot Summary

• Note plot points as the book or story unfolds. Especially in longer novels, it can be difficult to keep track of the twists and turns in the storyline. That's why we recommend taking notes as you read. 
• Use online study guides for inspiration. Websites like SuperSummary provide in-depth summaries free of charge. While this is a good starting point when writing your own, it should only be for inspiration. Don't copy examples online (that's plagiarism!). 
• Be sure to cover the three main arcs of every story: the exposition, climax, and conclusion. The exposition is the moment when the conflict or driving narrative is introduced. The climax is when that conflict comes to a head, and the narrative reaches its most dramatic moments. The conclusion is when the conflict is resolved or the story comes to an end. You should also include any inciting incidents (the first domino in a plot point).
• Connect the dots. Throughout, you should demonstrate an understanding of how events and characters are related, rather than introducing each element as an independent variable. Remember, you should tie each plot point back to the main idea. 

Don'ts of Writing a Plot Summary

• Don't just regurgitate the storyline. Rather than drone through the story plot point by plot point, you should highlight key moments in the narrative and direct them back to the author's objective. 
• Avoid repetitive phrases like "then" or "next." A key indication you're just repeating the storyline point by point is utilizing a phrase like "then" or "next." While you should recount the major incidents of the narrative, it shouldn't feel so formulaic. 
• Don't let it drag on. Books are long, but summarizing a book should still be short. While it depends on the assignment and the work in question, your summary should be 200 to 600 words, max.

Example :   In  The Great Gatsby , F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the story of Jay Gatsby as a symbol of the social stratification, greed, and indulgence of 1920s America.   The narrator, Nick Carraway, moves to New York's "West Egg," where he reunites with his cousin, Daisy, and her husband, Tom Buchanan. Fitzgerald clearly delineates social lines between West Egg (new money) and East Egg (old money), where Tom and Daisy reside. 

Nick attends a lavish party thrown by his neighbor, Jay Gatsby, and learns he formerly had a relationship with Daisy. When the two reignite their forbidden affair, disaster ensues. Tom reveals to Daisy that Gatsby earned his money illegally, through smuggling alcohol, and is actually a man of humble Midwestern origins. Daisy and Gatsby try to run away together, but Daisy accidentally runs over Tom's mistress. Tom, eager to exact revenge, convinces his mistress' husband that Gatsby was to blame in her death, and he murders Gatsby before committing suicide. Few of Gatsby's many friends attend his funeral.

Though Gatsby subscribed to the extravagance of his peers, his efforts to fit into the upper echelon of West and East Egg were negated by his humble origins; always out of place, he was rejected for his social class as much as his perceived crimes.

For an in-depth analysis of The Great Gatsby , check out the our study guide (we have an audio guide, too!).

How to Summarize an Article or Essay

The nature of an article or essay is quite different from a novel or short story, and in many ways, your summary should be too. The outline above remains the same, but the details are different. 

Here's what you should and shouldn't do when writing your article summary. 

Dos of Writing an Article Summary

• Skim the original article first. To develop a basic understanding of the article and the writer's objectives, skim the content before reading it closely. Doing so will help you to identify some of the key points and then pay attention to the arguments around them when you read the article in full. 
• Then read the article closely, marking key passages and ideas. Noting important ideas as you read will help you develop a deeper understanding of the writer's intentions.  
• Note headings and subheadings, which likely identify important points. In articles and essays, the author often utilizes subheadings to introduce their most important ideas. These subheadings can help guide your own writing. 
• Keep it short. The rule of brevity applies to article summaries too. In fact, because articles are usually short compared to novels or books, your text should be correlatively brief. And if you're utilizing the work as part of your own essay or argument, just a couple sentences will do.

Don'ts of Writing an Article Summary

• Don't ignore the conclusion. When reading a long article or essay, it can be tempting to overlook the conclusion and focus on the body paragraphs of the article. However, the conclusion is often where the author most clearly outlines their findings and why they matter. It can serve as a great foundation for your own writing. 
• Don't copy anything from the article directly—always paraphrase. If you copy any passages word-for-word from the article, be sure to identify them as quotations and attribute them to the author. Even this should be done sparingly. Instead, you should encapsulate their ideas within your own, abbreviated words.  
• Don't forget to include proper citations. If you do include a direct quotation from the article, be sure to properly cite them. You can learn how to properly cite quotations in our Academic Citation Resource Guide . 

Example Summary of  "Gatsby as a Drowned Sailor" :  In her essay, "Gatsby as a Drowned Sailor," Margaret Lukens posits that a major, and often overlooked, motif in  The Great Gatsby  is that of the "drowned sailor." The novel, she points out, is immersed in nautical symbols and themes, particularly in the scenes surrounding Jay Gatsby. For example, Gatsby grew up on the shores of Lake Superior, now owns a house on the Long Island Sound, and supposedly spends much of his time on his boat. 

Lukens nods to the nautical imagery throughout Gatsby's lavish party, as well as Nick's interactions with Gatsby. Many of these, she argues, foreshadow Gatsby's death in his pool. Even his funeral is a testament to the motif, with the few attendees soaked to the skin with rain. Lukens presents a thorough case for the overarching nautical motif in  The Great Gatsby  and her argument that though Gatsby hooked a big one, ultimately it was "the one that got away." 

FAQs: How to Write a Book Summary  

How do you summarize without plagiarizing .

By its very nature, a summary isn't plagiarizing because it should be written in your own words. However, there are cases where it might be difficult to identify an appropriate synonym, and the phrase remains somewhat close to the original. In this scenario, just be sure to differentiate the rest of the phrase as much as possible. And if you need to include a direct quote from the work, be sure to appropriately cite it. 

How to write a summary and a reaction? 

In some cases, your teacher may ask you to write a summary and a reaction. Whereas a summary is objective, a reaction is a matter of opinion. So in this case, you should present the actions or ideas of the work, then respond to those actions and ideas with your personal thoughts. 

Why write a summary? 

A summary is a helpful tool many educators use to test their students' comprehension of a text. However, it is also a useful study tactic because recounting what you read can help you organize and retain information. 

• How to Write a Summary

Proficient students understand that  summarizing , identifying what is most important and restating the text (or other media) in your own words, is an important tool for college success.

After all, if you really know a subject, you will be able to summarize it. If you cannot summarize a subject, even if you have memorized all the facts about it, you can be absolutely sure that you have not learned it. And, if you truly learn the subject, you will still be able to summarize it months or years from now.

Proficient students may monitor their understanding of a text by summarizing as they read. They understand that if they can write a one- or two-sentence summary of each paragraph after reading it, then that is a good sign that they have correctly understood it. If they can not summarize the main idea of the paragraph, they know that comprehension has broken down and they need to use fix-up strategies to repair understanding.

Summary Writing Format

• When writing a summary, remember that it should be in the form of a paragraph.
• A summary begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, author and main point of the text as you see it.
• A summary is written in your own words.
• A summary contains only the ideas of the original text. Do not insert any of your own opinions, interpretations, deductions or comments into a summary.
• Identify in order the significant sub-claims the author uses to defend the main point.
• Copy word-for-word three separate passages from the essay that you think support and/or defend the main point of the essay as you see it.
• Cite each passage by first signaling the work and the author, put “quotation marks” around the passage you chose, and put the number of the paragraph where the passages can be found immediately after the passage.
• Using source material from the essay is important. Why? Because defending claims with source material is what you will be asked to do when writing papers for your college professors.
• Write a last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; often a simple rephrasing of the main point.

Example Summary Writing Format

In the essay Santa Ana , author Joan Didion’s main point is ( state main point ). According to Didion “… passage 1 …” (para.3). Didion also writes “… passage 2 …” (para.8). Finally, she states “… passage 3 …” (para. 12) Write a last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; often a simple rephrasing of the main point.

• Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : http://lumenlearning.com/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Authored by : Paul Powell. Provided by : Central Community College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Authored by : Elisabeth Ellington and Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer. Provided by : Chadron State College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Table of Contents

Instructor Resources (Access Requires Login)

• Overview of Instructor Resources

An Overview of the Writing Process

• Introduction to the Writing Process
• Introduction to Writing
• Your Role as a Learner
• What is an Essay?
• Reading to Write
• Defining the Writing Process
• Videos: Prewriting Techniques
• Thesis Statements
• Organizing an Essay
• Creating Paragraphs
• Conclusions
• Editing and Proofreading
• Matters of Grammar, Mechanics, and Style
• Peer Review Checklist
• Comparative Chart of Writing Strategies

Using Sources

• Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism
• Formatting the Works Cited Page (MLA)
• Citing Paraphrases and Summaries (APA)
• APA Citation Style, 6th edition: General Style Guidelines

Definition Essay

• Definitional Argument Essay
• How to Write a Definition Essay
• Critical Thinking
• Video: Thesis Explained
• Effective Thesis Statements
• Student Sample: Definition Essay

Narrative Essay

• Introduction to Narrative Essay
• Student Sample: Narrative Essay
• "Shooting an Elephant" by George Orwell
• "Sixty-nine Cents" by Gary Shteyngart
• Video: The Danger of a Single Story
• How to Write an Annotation
• Writing for Success: Narration

Illustration/Example Essay

• Introduction to Illustration/Example Essay
• "She's Your Basic L.O.L. in N.A.D" by Perri Klass
• "April & Paris" by David Sedaris
• Writing for Success: Illustration/Example
• Student Sample: Illustration/Example Essay

Compare/Contrast Essay

• Introduction to Compare/Contrast Essay
• "Disability" by Nancy Mairs
• "Friending, Ancient or Otherwise" by Alex Wright
• "A South African Storm" by Allison Howard
• Writing for Success: Compare/Contrast
• Student Sample: Compare/Contrast Essay

Cause-and-Effect Essay

• Introduction to Cause-and-Effect Essay
• "Cultural Baggage" by Barbara Ehrenreich
• "Women in Science" by K.C. Cole
• Writing for Success: Cause and Effect
• Student Sample: Cause-and-Effect Essay

Argument Essay

• Introduction to Argument Essay
• Rogerian Argument
• "The Case Against Torture," by Alisa Soloman
• "The Case for Torture" by Michael Levin
• How to Write a Summary by Paraphrasing Source Material
• Writing for Success: Argument
• Student Sample: Argument Essay
• Grammar/Mechanics Mini-lessons
• Mini-lesson: Subjects and Verbs, Irregular Verbs, Subject Verb Agreement
• Mini-lesson: Sentence Types
• Mini-lesson: Fragments I
• Mini-lesson: Run-ons and Comma Splices I
• Mini-lesson: Comma Usage
• Mini-lesson: Parallelism
• Mini-lesson: The Apostrophe
• Mini-lesson: Capital Letters
• Grammar Practice - Interactive Quizzes
• De Copia - Demonstration of the Variety of Language
• Style Exercise: Voice

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• How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples

How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples

Published on 25 September 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 12 May 2023.

Summarising , or writing a summary, means giving a concise overview of a text’s main points in your own words. A summary is always much shorter than the original text.

There are five key steps that can help you to write a summary:

• Read the text
• Break it down into sections
• Identify the key points in each section
• Write the summary
• Check the summary against the article

Writing a summary does not involve critiquing or analysing the source. You should simply provide an accurate account of the most important information and ideas (without copying any text from the original).

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Table of contents

When to write a summary, step 1: read the text, step 2: break the text down into sections, step 3: identify the key points in each section, step 4: write the summary, step 5: check the summary against the article, frequently asked questions.

There are many situations in which you might have to summarise an article or other source:

• As a stand-alone assignment to show you’ve understood the material
• To keep notes that will help you remember what you’ve read
• To give an overview of other researchers’ work in a literature review

When you’re writing an academic text like an essay , research paper , or dissertation , you’ll integrate sources in a variety of ways. You might use a brief quote to support your point, or paraphrase a few sentences or paragraphs.

But it’s often appropriate to summarize a whole article or chapter if it is especially relevant to your own research, or to provide an overview of a source before you analyse or critique it.

In any case, the goal of summarising is to give your reader a clear understanding of the original source. Follow the five steps outlined below to write a good summary.

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You should read the article more than once to make sure you’ve thoroughly understood it. It’s often effective to read in three stages:

• Scan the article quickly to get a sense of its topic and overall shape.
• Read the article carefully, highlighting important points and taking notes as you read.
• Skim the article again to confirm you’ve understood the key points, and reread any particularly important or difficult passages.

There are some tricks you can use to identify the key points as you read:

• Start by reading the abstract . This already contains the author’s own summary of their work, and it tells you what to expect from the article.
• Pay attention to headings and subheadings . These should give you a good sense of what each part is about.
• Read the introduction and the conclusion together and compare them: What did the author set out to do, and what was the outcome?

To make the text more manageable and understand its sub-points, break it down into smaller sections.

If the text is a scientific paper that follows a standard empirical structure, it is probably already organised into clearly marked sections, usually including an introduction, methods, results, and discussion.

Other types of articles may not be explicitly divided into sections. But most articles and essays will be structured around a series of sub-points or themes.

Now it’s time go through each section and pick out its most important points. What does your reader need to know to understand the overall argument or conclusion of the article?

Keep in mind that a summary does not involve paraphrasing every single paragraph of the article. Your goal is to extract the essential points, leaving out anything that can be considered background information or supplementary detail.

In a scientific article, there are some easy questions you can ask to identify the key points in each part.

If the article takes a different form, you might have to think more carefully about what points are most important for the reader to understand its argument.

In that case, pay particular attention to the thesis statement —the central claim that the author wants us to accept, which usually appears in the introduction—and the topic sentences that signal the main idea of each paragraph.

Now that you know the key points that the article aims to communicate, you need to put them in your own words.

To avoid plagiarism and show you’ve understood the article, it’s essential to properly paraphrase the author’s ideas. Do not copy and paste parts of the article, not even just a sentence or two.

The best way to do this is to put the article aside and write out your own understanding of the author’s key points.

Examples of article summaries

Let’s take a look at an example. Below, we summarise this article , which scientifically investigates the old saying ‘an apple a day keeps the doctor away’.

An article summary like the above would be appropriate for a stand-alone summary assignment. However, you’ll often want to give an even more concise summary of an article.

For example, in a literature review or research paper, you may want to briefly summarize this study as part of a wider discussion of various sources. In this case, we can boil our summary down even further to include only the most relevant information.

Citing the source you’re summarizing

When including a summary as part of a larger text, it’s essential to properly cite the source you’re summarizing. The exact format depends on your citation style , but it usually includes an in-text citation and a full reference at the end of your paper.

You can easily create your citations and references in APA or MLA using our free citation generators.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

Finally, read through the article once more to ensure that:

• You’ve accurately represented the author’s work
• You haven’t missed any essential information
• The phrasing is not too similar to any sentences in the original.

If you’re summarising many articles as part of your own work, it may be a good idea to use a plagiarism checker to double-check that your text is completely original and properly cited. Just be sure to use one that’s safe and reliable.

A summary is a short overview of the main points of an article or other source, written entirely in your own words.

Save yourself some time with the free summariser.

A summary is always much shorter than the original text. The length of a summary can range from just a few sentences to several paragraphs; it depends on the length of the article you’re summarising, and on the purpose of the summary.

With the summariser tool you can easily adjust the length of your summary.

You might have to write a summary of a source:

• As a stand-alone assignment to prove you understand the material
• For your own use, to keep notes on your reading
• To provide an overview of other researchers’ work in a literature review
• In a paper , to summarise or introduce a relevant study

To avoid plagiarism when summarising an article or other source, follow these two rules:

• Write the summary entirely in your own words by   paraphrasing the author’s ideas.
• Reference the source with an in-text citation and a full reference so your reader can easily find the original text.

An abstract concisely explains all the key points of an academic text such as a thesis , dissertation or journal article. It should summarise the whole text, not just introduce it.

An abstract is a type of summary , but summaries are also written elsewhere in academic writing . For example, you might summarise a source in a paper , in a literature review , or as a standalone assignment.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, May 12). How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 14 May 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/how-to-write-a-summary/

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Paraphrasing and Summarizing Tool

Our teachers share tons of different information with us, expecting us to keep it all neat and organized in our heads. Is that fair—or even possible?! From now on, you can easily solve the problem of information overload by using our Summarizer online tool to compress any important text into a 10-sentence summary.

The size of your summary is: % ( words, characters)

This tool analyzes the textual patterns of any piece to render the best results. You’ll get the gist of any article, essay, research paper or any other text compressed into just a couple of sentences! You can also use this tool to summarize your own papers or custom writing works and to create great abstracts, thesis statements, and more.

• ❇️ Summary & conclusion generators today
• ✅ Online summarizer’s 5 practical advantages

Extraction-based

Abstraction-based

Aided summarization

• ❓ Summary Making FAQs

❇️ Why Are Summarizing Tools Important?

Today, machine learning, artificial intelligence, and neural networks are developing rapidly. So it would be weird not to take advantage of this development by using an online summarizer.

Modern online summarizing tools are capable of delivering a decent result regardless of the text’s complexity and the length of summary you want to get. And the technology just keeps getting better. It’s very rare that you’ll have to revise the text you get from a summary maker.

Why summary making tool is a must-have for students:

• Because the summary generator delivers a clear structure, the text is easy to digest.
• If you’re working with a lengthy summary, the article summarizer usually divides the text into meaningful parts and complete paragraphs.
• Summary tools are also capable of making a smooth transition from general to specific, uncovering the main ideas of the text in more detail.
• The resulting summary has a good overall readability without additional “information noise,” dangling references, broken-up sentences, or semantic flaws.

✅ Summarizing and Paraphrasing tool: the Benefits

In other words:

It keeps you from missing any important info from the text.

An article summarizer can highlight keywords, so you don’t even have to worry about looking for those. The tool scans the text and picks out the most important details. As a result, you’ll get a clear picture of what the text is about—without stressing about whether or not you’ve missed anything.

It delivers instant results.

How much time does it take you to read through and digest a page? You’ll then spend even more time to write a summary of your own. Let’s say you can finish reading a 500-word article in about 4 minutes. You’ll spend another 10 to 15 minutes writing a short summary. And that’s only if you don’t have to re-read anything!

A summary tool works instantly. You just paste the text, press the button, and get your summary in a split second.

You’ll get all the same important data, only much quicker, and without having to read through all the text yourself (which might contain a lot of unimportant stuff, too).

It increases your productivity.

This one is a result of the previous advantage. Being able to make a summary with a single click allows you to go through way more material.

For instance, when you’re researching a topic, searching the web can easily take hours and hours. You have to carefully read through each article that might contain some piece of information you need.

There’s no such task when using a summary generator. It will give you short snippets that are clear and to the point.

It boosts your study process.

Notes, written answers, and summaries are often the result of study sessions. Being able to produce summaries without having to put in too much effort increases your feeling of accomplishment. All you have left to do is to check out your summaries in order to engage the new material even more and retain the information you’ve gathered.

It can become a vital part of your review sessions.

It doesn’t matter whether you already have summaries or were just about to make them. A text summarizing tool can still be a huge help when you have to review material to prepare for a test or exam.

Attempting to skim the text won’t do you any good and will only turn out to be a waste of time. Having a good summary allows you to avoid this unnecessary and time-consuming step and instead get right down to business.

To memorize the information even better, you can try and interpret the summary in your own words. This way, the material will be more familiar to you. This step will also ensure that the summary has no contextual flaws and that its message is clear.

Just the fact that you can skip all the steps required to summarize the text or article properly makes an online summarizer an absolute winner in terms of usefulness.

All automatic summary tools rely on a certain algorithm to produce the desired result. The way a specific algorithm works is determined by the type of summarization that the tool performs.

📃 3 Types of Summarizing Tools

Conclusion generators can usually perform one of three major summary types:

With this type, the article summarizer will extract snippets from the whole text without changing or altering them in any way.

The process is very similar to extracting key phrases, where the purpose is to find phrases or individual words that could be used as tags for the text or document.

In other words, an extraction-based summary generator copies the most important information from the source text and puts the pieces together to create a summary.

This type of summary is more advanced than the extraction-based type. It involves paraphrasing the parts of text you initially input into the summarizer tool.

Generally speaking, tools that can perform this type of summarization do a much better job of condensing the source text, bringing results that are superior to those of extraction-based summarizers.

The only downside is that it’s much more difficult to develop such summary machine. The main reason for this is that in order to work properly, paraphrasing and summarizing tool requires natural language generation technology. This field is continuously growing, and there have been attempts to create an abstract synopsis capability that’s similar to what we as humans have. But for now, the majority of summary generating tools remain extraction-based.

This type comes as the result of merging findings from the fields of machine learning, text mining, and information retrieval in an attempt to improve the process of automatic summary generation.

This is an obvious step away from fully automatic summarizers towards a slightly different concept. Instead of being a summary generator that does the entire job itself, machine-aided human summarization systems only provide help in the process. For instance, they can highlight passages that could potentially be included in a summary.

On the other hand, human-aided machine summarization systems act in a reverse manner. They generate a summary on their own so that the result can later be processed by a human.

As you can see, the possibilities are endless. It’s only a matter of further developments in the field that will bring automatic text summary creation to the next level.

But for now, a free online summarizer has already proven its usefulness.

If you’re short on time, have a ton of essays and research papers that will take you forever to complete, or just don’t feel like sitting for hours trying to capture the main idea from a lengthy text—be sure to try a free summarizer. It’ll make writing summaries much more effortless and save you extra time to spend on the things that are really important to you.

❓ Paragraph Shortener FAQ

❓ how to summarize an article without plagiarizing.

To create an original summary, follow these tips:

• Read the article several times to have a clear idea of its content
• Inspect the introduction, find the thesis statement and rephrase it
• Write down the article’s key points and phrases so as not to forget them
• Compose your summary without peeking at the source text, relying only on your notes
• Cite all the sources used

Alternatively, you can use our online tool, which creates summaries of source texts automatically.

❓ How to make a paragraph shorter?

To shorten a paragraph, cut the unnecessary or redundant information. Your paragraph should contain only one idea, outlined in an introductory sentence. Make sure to elaborate on it in 2 to 3 sentences, cutting out phrases or ideas t that deviate from the core subject.

Then, eliminate words that don’t add any value to the text, stating the obvious or excessive information. Get rid of unnecessary determiners and modifiers and cut repetitive phrases or words.

❓ How to summarize a research paper?

To create a summary, you need to divide the research paper into key sections and elaborate on each one. You then compose a brief overview of everything that’s crucial in the document.

In your summary, include the following parts:

• An introduction, in which you engage the reader in your study
• An explanation of the hypothesis, or purpose of your research
• Description of the methods used
• A review of the results that ties directly to the hypothesis
• A conclusion in which you outline your interpretation of the results and plans for future study

❓ Is there an app that can summarize articles?

Yes, of course! There are plenty of summary makers available in the App Store or Google Play. Furthermore, you can find some great summarizing tools online that don’t require payment or registration. Or use our automatic summary generator above to get an original summary of your text.

❓ How to summarize an article online?

You can use our free summarizer to create a summary of an article. You don’t have to download it on your computer or pay a subscription or fee to use it.. Just follow these simple instructions and get your summary online:

• Copy and paste your text (up to 17.000 characters long) in the available space
• Choose how long you would like the summary to be
• Indicate whether you want to see keywords
• Click the “Analyze text” button and get your summary online!
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The (AI) sky isn’t falling

Students using generative AI to write their essays is a problem, but it isn’t a crisis, writes Christopher Hallenbrook. We have the tools to tackle the issue of artificial intelligence

Christopher R. Hallenbrook

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In January, the literary world was rocked by the news that novelist Rie Qudan had used ChatGPT to write 5 per cent of her novel that won Japan’s prestigious Akutagawa Prize. The consternation over this revelation mirrored the conversations that have been taking place in academia since ChatGPT was launched in late 2022. Discussions and academic essays since that time have consistently spoken of a new wave of cheating on campus, one we are powerless to prevent. 

While this reaction is understandable, I disagree with it. Students using AI to write their essays is a problem, but it isn’t a crisis. We have the tools to tackle the issue.

AI is easy to spot

In most cases AI writing can be easily recognised. If you ask multipart questions, as I do, ChatGPT defaults to using section headings for each component. When I grade a paper that has six section headings in a three- to five-page paper (something I have experienced), I see a red flag. ChatGPT’s vocabulary reinforces this impression. Its word choice does not align with how most undergraduates write. I’ve never seen a student call Publius a “collective pseudonym” in a paper about The Federalist Papers , but ChatGPT frequently does. AI is quick to discuss the “ethical foundations of governance”, “intrinsic equilibrium” and other terms that are rare in undergraduate writing if you haven’t used the terms in class. Certainly, some students do use such vocabulary. 

One must be careful and know one’s students. In-class discussions and short response papers can help you get a feel for how your students talk and write. Worst-case scenario, a one-to-one discussion of the paper with the student goes a long way. I’ve asked students to explain what they meant by a certain term. The answer “I don’t know” tells you what you need to know about whether or not they used AI. 

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Even when you can’t identify AI writing so readily, you will likely fail the paper on its merits anyway. I’ve found ChatGPT will frequently engage with the topic but will write around the question. The answer is related to what I asked about but doesn’t answer my question. By missing the question, making its points in brief and not using the textual evidence that I instruct students to include (but I don’t put that instruction in the question itself), ChatGPT produces an essay that omits the most essential elements that I grade on. So even if I miss that the essay was AI generated, I’m still going to give it a poor grade.

The summary is ‘dead and buried’

Careful consideration and structuring of essay prompts also reduce the risk of students getting AI-written work past you. A simple summary of concepts is easy for ChatGPT. Even deep questions of political theory have enough written on them for ChatGPT to rapidly produce a quality summary. Summaries were never the most pedagogically sound take-home essay assignment; now they are dead and buried. 

Creativity in how we ask students to analyse and apply concepts makes it much harder for ChatGPT to answer our questions. When I was an undergraduate student, my mentor framed all his questions as “in what manner and to what extent” can something be said to be true. That framework invites nuance, forces students to define their terms and can be used to create less-written-about topics. 

Similarly, when responding to prompts asking about theories of democratic representation, ChatGPT can effectively summarise the beliefs of Publius, the anti-federalist Brutus or Malcolm X on the nature of representation, but it struggles to answer: “Can Professor Hallenbrook properly represent Carson? Why or why not? Draw on the ideas of thinkers we have read in class to justify your answer.” In fact, it doesn’t always recognise that by “Carson”, I am referring to the city where I teach, not a person. By not specifying which thinkers, ChatGPT has to pick its own and in my practice runs with this prompt, it used almost exclusively thinkers I had not taught in my American political thought class.

Ask ChatGPT first, then set the essay topic

I select my phrasing after putting different versions of the question through ChatGPT. Running your prompt through ChatGPT before you assign it will both let you know if you’ve successfully created a question that the generative AI will struggle with and give you a feel for the tells in its approach that will let you know if a student tries to use it. I’d recommend running the prompt multiple times to see different versions of an AI answer and make note of the tells. It is a touch more prep time but totally worth it. After all, we should be continually re-examining our prompts anyway.

So, yes, ChatGPT is a potential problem. But it is not insurmountable. As with plagiarism, some uses may escape our detection. But through attention to detail and careful design of our assignments, we can make it harder for students to use ChatGPT to write their papers effectively and easier to spot it when they do.

Christopher R. Hallenbrook is assistant professor of political science and chair of the general education committee at California State University, Dominguez Hills.

If you would like advice and insight from academics and university staff delivered direct to your inbox each week, sign up for the Campus newsletter .

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the Difference between Latino and Hispanic: a Cultural Perspective

This essay about the differences between “Latino” and “Hispanic” clarifies the distinct meanings behind these commonly interchanged terms. “Hispanic” is defined by a connection to Spanish-speaking countries and emphasizes linguistic ties to the Spanish language, excluding non-Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America like Brazil and Haiti. In contrast, “Latino” refers to individuals from or descended from any country in Latin America, regardless of the predominant language, highlighting a geographic and cultural connection. The essay explores how personal identity, cultural expression, and social contexts influence the choice between these terms, particularly in the U.S., where they intersect with broader discussions about ethnicity and belonging. It also discusses the adoption of “Latinx” as a gender-neutral option that addresses the gender binary in Spanish and promotes inclusivity. The terms not only signify where individuals come from but also how they see themselves and their connections to their heritage and communities.

How it works

When delving into the vibrant and diverse cultures that make up the Latin American and Spanish-speaking communities, the terms “Latino” and “Hispanic” frequently pop up. These terms are often tossed around as if they were synonyms, but they actually have quite distinct meanings that can influence how people identify themselves and relate to others.

• 1 Hispanic: The Language Link
• 2 Latino: Geographic Bonds
• 3 Identity and Cultural Expression
• 4 In Summary

Hispanic: The Language Link

“Hispanic” is a term that ties directly to the Spanish language. It encompasses people from, or descendants of, Spanish-speaking countries. This includes a vast array of nations stretching from the European shores of Spain to the bustling cities and tranquil landscapes of Mexico, Cuba, and Colombia in the Americas.

The common thread among Hispanics is the Spanish language, which serves as a linguistic bridge linking these diverse cultures.

However, the term Hispanic leaves out individuals from Latin American countries where Spanish is not the primary language, like Brazil or Haiti. Brazilians, for instance, speak Portuguese, and thus, while they are part of the broader Latin American community, they aren’t considered Hispanic.

Latino: Geographic Bonds

On the other hand, “Latino” refers to people from Latin America or those of Latin American descent, encompassing all countries within the region. This term is not confined to language but rather geography and shared regional culture. Whether speaking Spanish, Portuguese, or French, Latinos share a connection to Latin America. This makes the term Latino inclusive of all Hispanic people from Latin American countries but also extends to include non-Hispanic individuals from regions like Brazil.

The term Latino captures the essence of Latin America’s rich cultural mosaic—from the samba rhythms of Brazil to the tango melodies of Argentina—highlighting the shared heritage and diverse traditions of the region.

Identity and Cultural Expression

Identity is personal and complex, influenced by many factors including family heritage, personal beliefs, and social experiences. Someone from Spain might choose to identify as Hispanic, emphasizing their linguistic and cultural ties to Spain, whereas a person of Mexican descent living in the U.S. might identify more strongly as Latino, connecting more with their Latin American roots rather than the broader Spanish-speaking world.

Moreover, these terms carry different connotations and implications in various contexts, especially in the U.S., where they intersect with broader discussions about immigration, ethnicity, and belonging. The term Hispanic was officially adopted by the U.S. government in the 1970s for census data, but its use has evolved and sometimes been contested due to its implications of colonialism and its focus on language over geography or culture.

Evolving Discussions on Identity

As discussions on identity continue to evolve, so too do the preferences for these terms within communities. Some prefer Latino or Latina to emphasize their cultural connections without highlighting the colonial history associated with the Spanish language. Others opt for “Latinx,” a gender-neutral term that challenges the gender binary prevalent in the Spanish language and aims to be more inclusive.

While the terms Latino and Hispanic may seem simple at a glance, they encapsulate deep and nuanced cultural, linguistic, and geographical histories. The choice between them can reflect personal identity, historical awareness, and cultural connection. Understanding the distinctions between these terms enriches our appreciation for the complexity of cultural identities and encourages more respectful and informed interactions within and across communities. Each term offers a window into the diverse ways people relate to their heritage and to each other in a multicultural world.

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Forget Aircraft Carriers: Submarines are How the U.S. Navy Beats China in a War

Summary: Mike Sweeney's essay, published by the U.S. Naval Institute, argues that submarines, not aircraft carriers, will dominate future naval warfare, especially in a potential conflict with China.

-Historian John Keegan's insights support this view, emphasizing submarines' stealth and versatility compared to carriers' vulnerability. Despite its ambitious shipbuilding, China lags in developing quiet, capable nuclear submarines, making it a regional rather than a global naval power.

-Sweeney contends that without advanced undersea warfare capabilities, China cannot match U.S. naval superiority globally. The essay highlights the strategic importance of submarines in maintaining U.S. naval dominance amid evolving threats.

Why Submarines Could Eclipse Aircraft Carriers in U.S.-China Naval Conflict

Last year, the U.S. Naval Institute published an essay by Mike Sweeney claiming that “ Submarines Will Reign in a War with China .” The essay, as you might expect, suggested that the submarine—rather than the  aircraft carrier —will be the most important naval vessel of the future.

Were submarines to reign supreme in the future of naval warfare, the United States would benefit, as  China  has failed to develop a submarine fleet capable of competing with the Americans.

The era of the submarine?

Sweeney’s essay echoed the sentiments of noted historian  John Keegan , who argued in the 1980s that of the two most important naval platforms to emerge during World War II (the aircraft carrier and the submarine) it was the submarine that would prove more vital to future warfare.

“The aircraft carrier, whatever realistic scenario or action is drawn...will be exposed to a wider range of threats than the submarine must face,” Keegan wrote. “In a shoreward context, it risks attack not only by carrier-borne but also by land-based aircraft, land-based missiles, and the submarine itself.”

Keegan’s insights drew heavily upon the only significant naval engagement fought since the conclusion of World War II, the  Falkland Islands War . During the  conflict , the British navy was confronted with a new threat (anti-ship cruise missiles, or ASCMs) and an old threat, the submarine.

The Argentinians, defending the Falkland Islands, deployed the  San Luis  diesel-powered submarine. Despite being poorly maintained, despite being staffed with a poorly trained crew, the  San Luis  proved troublesome for the relatively advanced British navy. The British navy deployed a submarine, too, the nuclear-powered HMS  Conqueror , which sank Argentina’s  General Belgrano  cruiser, scaring the Argentine Navy to port for the rest of the conflict.

Keegan believed that the threat submarines (and ASCMs) posed would prove insurmountable and un-survivable, causing the oceans to become “empty,” with future combatants engaging only beneath the surface of the waves.

Now, Keegan’s prediction hangs over the heads of U.S. war planners prepping for conflict with China.

“Increased threats to aircraft carriers and other surface combatants from “land-based aircraft, land-based missiles, and the submarine itself” is a fair description of the anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) capabilities China has developed,” Sweeney wrote. “More broadly, the future of undersea warfare is likely to be a major determinant of the long-term military balance between China and the United States.”

Preparing for China

China is currently amid one of world history’s most ambitious  shipbuilding sprees , a modernization “remarkable in its scope and success,” according to Sweeney. Yet, despite the scope and success, China’s navy has failed to produce high-quality nuclear submarines. Whereas the United States (and Soviets) were able to achieve sophisticated quieting technology decades ago, the Chinese SSN, the  Shang -class, “is estimated to be on par with Soviet designs from the 1970s, before the quieting breakthroughs that produced the  Akula .” And “China’s SSBNs, the Jin-class , have noise levels comparable to Soviet SSBNs that first put to sea more than four decades ago,” Sweeney wrote.

Accordingly, without capable nuclear-powered submarines, Sweeney argues, the Chinese navy will “remain a regional navy.” True, China has built the capabilities to challenge U.S. supremacy in the narrowly defined “western Pacific,” but that “does not equate to a global challenge to U.S. naval superiority.” In order to compete with the United States on a global  level , “China would have to expand its expeditionary operations and a central part of that would need to be vastly improved undersea warfare capabilities.”

About the Author: Harrison Kass

Harrison Kass is a defense and national security writer with over 1,000 total pieces on issues involving global affairs. An attorney, pilot, guitarist, and minor pro hockey player, Harrison joined the US Air Force as a Pilot Trainee but was medically discharged. Harrison holds a BA from Lake Forest College, a JD from the University of Oregon, and an MA from New York University. Harrison listens to Dokken.

• International

Michael Cohen testifies in Trump hush money trial

By CNN's Kara Scannell, Lauren Del Valle and Jeremy Herb in the courthouse

Key takeaways from Michael Cohen's first day of testimony

From CNN's  Jeremy Herb, Lauren del Valle and Kara Scannell

Michael Cohen implicated his former boss  Donald Trump  in the hush money scheme to pay Stormy Daniels just days before the 2016 election, saying he doled out $130,000 at Trump’s direction and was promised reimbursement.

Cohen’s testimony ties together the prosecution’s allegations that Trump broke the law by falsifying business records to reimburse Cohen and conceal the hush money payment that Cohen said he made at Trump’s direction. Trump has pleaded not guilty and denies having an affair with Daniels.

Here are some of the key takeaways from Cohen's first day on the stand:

• Cohen ties Trump to the Daniels hush money payment: Through roughly five hours of testimony Monday, Cohen walked jurors through how he worked with former National Enquirer editor David Pecker on Trump’s behalf during the 2016 campaign to kill negative stories; how he kept Trump apprised of his hush money negotiations with Keith Davidson, the attorney for Daniels and former Playboy model Karen McDougal; and how Trump approved and was aware of how Cohen would be falsely repaid in 2017 for the Daniels payment as legal services.
• Cohen ties the hush money reimbursement to Trump, too: Trump is charged with 34 counts of falsifying business records – 11 invoices, 12 vouchers and 11 checks – records that prosecutors say stem from the monthly reimbursements Cohen received in 2017 for the hush money payment he made to Daniels. On Monday, jurors heard through Cohen for the first-time evidence directly connecting Trump to those reimbursements.
• Cohen describes being Trump’s protector: As Cohen described each media story he killed and nondisclosure agreement he locked down ahead of the 2016 election, it was always in the name of protecting Trump. When it came to the settlement agreement with Daniels, Cohen said he kept control of a document revealing the identities of “David Dennison” and “Peggy Peterson” so that he could protect Trump. And he testified that he used the Essential Consultants LLC to facilitate the payment to Daniels “to protect him and to isolate him from the transaction.” Hoffinger asked Cohen whether he would sometimes bully people. Cohen confirmed he would.

Cohen is expected back in court tomorrow

Donald Trump's ex-attorney and fixer  Michael Cohen  took the stand today to testify about the  Stormy Daniels hush money payment  and Trump's  alleged involvement in the scheme .

He's expected to face more questions tomorrow. Court proceedings are expected to resume at 9:30 a.m. ET.

Michael Cohen took the stand as a key witness in Donald Trump's hush money trial. Here's what he said

From CNN's Elise Hammond

Michael Cohen took the stand on Monday in Donald Trump’s hush money trial in New York.

When he was Trump’s personal attorney, Cohen made the $130,000 payment to adult film actress Stormy Daniels before the 2016 election. He landed in federal prison  over that transaction for breaking campaign finance laws. 

Through previous witnesses’ testimony, jurors have already heard plenty about Cohen. They have painted an unflattering portrait of an aggressive, impulsive and unlikeable attorney. The former “fixer,” now a critical witness , testified about the payment and Trump’s alleged involvement.

Here’s a look at what Cohen said on the stand today:

• Relationship with Trump: Cohen said he worked directly for Trump , not the general counsel's office at the Trump Organization. He said working with the press was a “portion” of his job and would sometimes call news outlets and ask them to redact or take articles down. Cohen testified that it was required for him to keep Trump updated about his work.
• On the presidential run: Cohen said Trump was worried about stories about his personal life coming out as he weighed a run for president, with Trump saying, “Just be prepared there’s going to be a lot of women coming forward,” according to Cohen. He testified that he didn’t have a formal role in the 2016 campaign, but he used his press contacts to be a surrogate .
• The doorman story: Cohen said he learned about the doorman story circulating about Trump having fathered "a love child” and testified Trump told him to “handle it.” He confirmed that the strategy was to take the story “off the market” for $30,000, and Trump was grateful it wouldn’t be published. Cohen said he went to Trump to tell him the agreement was completed , as well as to get credit for executing it. 
• Karen McDougal: He said Trump told him to make sure the story about former Playboy model Karen McDougal didn’t get released, which he believed meant acquiring it . Cohen recounted a call with Pecker and Trump about the story. When Cohen told Trump the cost of controlling the McDougal story, Cohen testified Trump said, “No problem, I’ll take care of it.” Later, David Pecker, former CEO of the National Enquirer’s parent company, spoke to Cohen and insisted on being reimbursed .
• "Access Hollywood" tape: When he learned about the video , released by the Washington Post, Cohen said he wanted to "ensure" things were being taken care of properly and that Trump would be protected . He testified that it was Melania Trump’s idea to say the language in the video “was locker room talk.” Cohen recalled thinking the tape would impact women voters.
• Stormy Daniels: When he initially told Trump about the Stormy Daniels story, Cohen testified that Trump said, “Women are going to hate me” and that it would be “a disaster for the campaign.” Cohen said his former boss told him to work with Pecker to “take care of it.” As the agreement unfolded, Cohen said he kept Trump informed on the deal with Daniels.
• Timing of Daniel’s payment: Trump wanted the situation with Daniels to be under wraps until after the election “because if I win, it will have no relevance because I'm president. And if I lose, I don't even care,” Trump said, according to Cohen.
• Making the payment: Cohen said he spoke with Trump twice to get his sign-off before making the payment to Daniels using a company he created , Essential Consultants LLC. He said he would have never gone forward to the bank without Trump’s approval. He testified he also let Trump know he signed the agreement with Daniels.
• Repayment to Cohen: Trump Organization CFO Allen Weisselberg told Cohen he would be paid $420,000 for Daniel’s payment over 12 months . He testified that the payment series set up for future legal services was actually a reimbursement .

Trump rails against judge and says there's no crime in remarks outside of Manhattan courthouse

From CNN's Maureen Chowdhury

Donald Trump slammed Judge Juan Merchan and called the hush money trial a "scam" as he left the Manhattan courthouse on Monday.

“This is a scam, I think it’s it’s terrible thing that’s happening to democracy in this country,” Trump said. He then called the case a "rigged deal" and Merchan "conflicted." 

He went on to read comments made by his allies regarding the case.

“There’s no fraud here, there’s no crime here," Trump said.

Trump's motorcade leaves the courthouse

Donald Trump's motorcade has left the courthouse. His car slowed down so he could wave and flash a thumbs up to supporters gathered outside.

Testimony in Trump's trial continues tomorrow.

Afternoon sketches show Michael Cohen on the stand as his former boss sits nearby in court

From CNN Digital's Photo Desk

Sketch artists Christine Cornell and Jane Rosenberg have been providing us with courtroom perspectives throughout the trial as cameras are not allowed inside during proceedings.

Here are some of their latest sketches from Michael Cohen’s testimony Monday afternoon:

More sketches from Cohen's testimony can be seen here .

The final moments today in the courtroom: Trump stacks his papers and Cohen nods toward jurors

As Judge Juan Merchan gives his daily instructions to the jury, Donald Trump is stacking up his papers and whispering with attorney Todd Blanche.

His hands are folded on the table and he then flips through the papers one more time.

Michael Cohen, for his part, pans the courtroom and then looks down at his hands as Merchan is speaking.

Cohen gives a small smile and nods toward the jurors as Merchan dismisses them for the day.

The key points of Michael Cohen's testimony about how he was reimbursed for the hush money deal

From CNN's Eric Levenson

Michael Cohen finished the day’s testimony by explaining how he, former Trump Org. CFO Allen Weisselberg and Donald Trump agreed to reimburse him for the $130,000 hush money payment to Stormy Daniels.

After Trump won the election, Cohen pitched Trump on a set up in which he would serve as Trump’s personal attorney for free but would be paid by companies hoping for insights on Trump.

In early January, Cohen went to Weisselberg about being reimbursed for the $130,000 payment, and Weisselberg agreed, Cohen testified. He showed Weisselberg the wire transfer document, and Weisselberg took handwritten notes calculating what Trump owed Cohen based on their conversations.

Weisselberg suggested Cohen take the money as income rather than as untaxed reimbursements, Cohen testified. "I didn’t really think about it. I just wanted to get my money back,” he said.

According to Cohen, they agreed that Trump would pay him $420,000 in all: $130,000 to reimburse him for the payment to Daniels, $50,000 to reimburse him for unrelated tech services, $180,000 to account for estimated taxes and a $60,000 bonus. The payments would be made over 12 months “as like a legal service rendered since I was then going to be given the title of personal attorney to the president,” Cohen testified.

They presented the plan to Trump, and he approved it, Cohen said. The payments were designed to look like future legal services, but they were actually reimbursement for the Daniels’ deal, he testified.

Cohen never actually put together a retainer agreement for any future work he'd do for Trump, “because I knew there was going to be no compensation,” he testified.

Court is breaking for the day

The court is breaking for the day and the jury is leaving the courtroom.

Donald Trump's ex-attorney Michael Cohen is expected to continue to be questioned by prosecutor Susan Hoffinger tomorrow.

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