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Human Development Essay: Topics, Examples, & How-to Guide

A human development essay is a piece of writing that explores how a person or group of people can grow and thrive. Several disciplines study these processes and might require you to get ready with this kind of assignment:

• Biology analyzes human body development issues throughout our lifespan;
• Psychology views human development as gaining or abandoning certain behavioral trends;
• Sociology explains the cause-and-effect relationships between an individual and a group;
• Economics studies the growth of human freedoms through the improvement of their well-being.

This article systematizes the available bulk of knowledge on the importance of human development. We have collected the essential concepts and approaches you can explore through our human development essay topics and samples.

💵 Human Development in Economics

🤯 human development in psychology.

• 🧒 Human Growth Essay Topics
• 📑 Outlining Your Essay
• 1️⃣ HD Theories: Essay Example
• 2️⃣ HD & Economic Growth: Essay Example

The first Human Development Report introduced this notion back in 1990 . But the discussion of the relationship between economic growth and human development started in the middle of the 20 th century.

Now we believe that GDP is not the only indicator of our well-being . Human life is more than just selling, buying, and consuming.

Human development in economics focuses on the creation of equal rights and opportunities for everyone . This approach states that the entire society would prosper from the happiness of each of its members.

In these terms, human development has two dimensions:

• enhancement of human abilities;
• provision of prerequisites for our growth.

The former explores how we could ensure that everyone has access to education , healthcare, and decent living conditions. The latter involves achieving environmental sustainability and equality of rights and opportunities for people of all genders, ages, and ethnic backgrounds.

Human Development Index

The Human Development Index (HDI) emphasizes that people and their well-being are the criteria for a country’s prosperity, not only its economic growth.

Today, we use HDI to question the efficiency of national policy. It also allows us to compare different countries with the same GDP but different human development levels. Analyzing this data, governments can refocus their priorities and correct past mistakes.

HDI is calculated as the geometric mean of the following normalized indices:

• Life expectancy at birth is used to calculate the life expectancy index, where 85 years is the maximum.
• The education index is the sum of the expected and mean years of schooling divided by 2.
• This index is determined as GNI per capita.

Meanwhile, HDI is not as comprehensive as one might expect. HDRO (the Human Development Report Office) claims that it does not consider human inequalities, the empowerment of minorities, poverty levels, and gender disparity .

Psychology views human development from an individual’s perspective. This discipline distinguishes between three directions of human development.

• Physical changes occur in our bodies. How do we grow from a baby into an adult and from an adult into an older person? How do we acquire new motor skills, and what is the biology of our senses? What do our brains consist of , and how do they change with age? Correct answers to these questions help us explain the next direction.
• Cognitive changes cause the development of human behavior. What goes on in our brain that defines what kind of people we are? This domain focuses on logical thinking, learning, understanding, moral reasoning , and practical intelligence. It searches for the ways we could learn faster and become better versions of ourselves.
• Psychosocial changes track the growth of our social skills and preferences. It all starts with the principal caregiver. Gradually, we begin to interact with more people, such as friends, distant relatives, educators, and colleagues. It is all about our self-image, self-esteem , emotions, and relationships. The psychosocial domain also studies our ways to cope with losses or death.

Human Development Theories

The history of psychology knows many human development theories, many of which are still trusted. We will focus on the two fundamental approaches. They divide childhood into several critical stages that define our character, habits, likes, relationships, and even success in life.

Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory is the most widely accepted approach to child development. He believed that children construct knowledge while they manipulate and explore the objects around them. Jean Piaget marked four stages of cognitive development .

• Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years). A child learns that objects do not disappear. Their activity is all about experimenting with things to see what happens. This stage should culminate with developing the deferred imitation skill. It involves the ability to reproduce an action or sound made by another person later.
• Preoperational stage (2-6 years). Children use symbols to represent words and ideas. They develop the language and make-believe play but still lack logical reasoning . They are egocentric and cannot imagine that other people may feel or think differently.
• Concrete operational stage (6-12 years). Thinking becomes logical and focused. Children develop inductive reasoning: they observe to make generalizations about the world around them. But they still struggle with deductive thinking.
• Formal operational stage (12 years – adulthood). Abstract thinking emerges. They learn to develop theoretical ideas to explain the world.

Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development

The Father of Psychoanalysis believed that human personality consisted of ego, superego, and id. They become unified and inseparable once the child passes the five stages of psychosexual development.

• Oral stage (0-1 year). The mouth is the pleasure center for the infant. That is why everyone is born with a sucking reflex. If the oral needs are not met during the first year of life, the child can start biting their nails or suck a thumb.
• Anal stage (1-3 years). Children gain control over their bodily functions. They experiment with feces. But early toilet training can make a child too obsessed with order.
• Phallic stage (3-6 years). Children find out the pleasure they can get from their genitals. According to Freud, this is when the sexual desire to the parent of the opposite sex emerges. Boys go through the Oedipus complex. They want to replace their father and see him as a rival in the mother’s love. Later, Carl Jung spoke of the Electra Complex, a similar mechanism in girls.
• Latency stage (6-12 years). Sexual instincts give way to the superego. During this period, children adopt the moral principles and values of their parents.
• Genital stage (12+ years). Sexual instincts reemerge. If all the above steps passed successfully, adolescents would show appropriate sexual behavior.

But this theory is too controversial to be taken for granted. Do parents define their child’s sexual and aggressive drives? Nobody knows for sure.

💡 232 Human Development Essay Topics

Since human development is a debatable and scarcely studied area of knowledge, it offers a whole lot of topics to discuss. For your convenience, we have divided them into two categories:

• The first can be used for essays on human development psychology.
• The second includes human growth and development essay topics in economics and sociology.

155 Human Development Topics (Psychology)

Psychology focuses on the emotional, intellectual, and social development of an individual. Scientists traditionally divide this growth into stages, according to the respective age. That is why the topics here can be about early childhood, parent-child relationships, school years, adolescence, marriage, and divorce .

• Child psychology: Theories of development by J. Piaget .
• How can parents facilitate their child’s relationships with peers?
• Divorce: Psychological effects on children .
• Which purposes does attachment play in infants?
• Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development.
• Which ideas of Freud’s psychosexual development theory do you think are valid?
• Find the common features between Freud’s psychosexual theory and Erikson’s psychosocial theory.
• Child development and education.
• Explore the causes of inferiority complex in adolescents.
• Children’s play: An ingredient needed in children’s learning .
• How does one’s sense of self influence their future relationships?
• Corporal punishment and its effects on children.
• Why do we need to reward the feeling of gratitude in adolescents?
• What is the role of the family in shaping our social well-being?
• Developmental psychology in adolescence.
• Describe the principles of caregiving you consider as healthy and beneficial.
• Personal development plan .
• What is social knowledge, and where do we gain it?
• Write a human development theories essay.
• Emotional development in children and adults.
• What do the preferred leisure activities of adolescents tell us about their development?
• Early childhood classroom environment plan .
• Does the gender of the main caregiver matter?
• Study the effect of orphanage education on a child’s psychology.
• The introduction to early childhood education.
• Is a child’s family or school more defining for their development?
• Second life : Professional development and communication .
• How does patriarchal prejudice undermine the intellectual growth in girls?
• Does the lack of college-level education make a person less smart?
• Sigmund Freud’s personality and psychoanalysis.
• How did dr. Maria Montessori use human tendencies for child development?
• Adult learning theories .
• How does a father’s toxic masculinity impact a boy’s emotional well-being?
• Early childhood cognitive-based philosophy .
• Make a research summary of the role of IQ in human development.
• Explore the causes of the “terrible threes.”
• Lifespan human development: perspective and theories.
• Write a reflection about risk-taking behaviors in teenagers.
• Linking human development to the human condition .
• Is poverty the worst factor for a child’s development?
• Early childhood education activities and trends .
• Analyze the consequences of substance abuse in adolescence.
• Cognitive behavioural therapy for depression in adults .
• Do children adopt their same-sex parent’s gender roles in adulthood?
• Child abuse and neglect effects on adult survivors .
• What is the role of creativity in a preschooler’s development?
• Tools of the mind in the early childhood development.
• Do you agree that all psychological disorders of children under 12 are caused by an unhealthy family atmosphere?
• The theories of child development .
• How do we learn to control our emotions?
• How autistic children develop and learn?
• Analyze the major results of gender-neutral education.
• Early childhood education and skills development .
• When is the due time to start sex education of children and why?
• Erik Erikson’s theory of development .
• What is the tole of symbolic function and make-believe play in a child’s development?
• Family structure and its effects on children .
• Why is egocentrism in children normal?
• Infant development.
• Establish the relationship between language development and intellectual growth.
• Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional development .
• Sexism in human development theories.
• How an operant conditioning influences child development .
• Awareness of age-related change helps to live a healthy life.
• Middle childhood and adolescence development.
• The adverse effect of malnutrition in a child’s development.
• Assessment in early childhood: Special education .
• When is stress positive and negative for the psychological development of an individual?
• How video games affect children .
• Analyze human development in multigenerational families.
• Erickson’s psychosocial development and its stages.
• Compare and contrast the American and Japanese approaches to education and their results.
• Theoretical perspectives on human development: Freud, Piaget, and Skinner .
• The role of controlled independence in childhood.
• Technology impacts on the new generation of children .
• Why is periodical boredom necessary for a child to develop?
• Learning and student development theories and factors .
• Why is human development the basic need of any society?
• The development of secure and insecure attachments in children .
• Why is intellectual growth so pleasurable for us?
• Moral and personality development.
• If the human development mechanism is equal for all, why are we so different?
• 21 st century skills development .
• Why do modern sociologists think we should work less?
• Peer pressure on children in high school .
• What could we learn from the indigenous African tribes in terms of the psychological development of children?
• Interaction for child’s development and learning.
• Schools: an unknown war where we miss our childhood?
• Effects of media on children .
• To which degree do genes determine our development?
• Jean Piaget – cognitive theorist.
• Why are foster children less prepared for adult life than their adopted peers?
• When should children start school ?
• When do children stop learning through play?
• Managing stress better: Personal development .
• Which socio-emotional factors make aging less depressing?
• Preschool play role in the cognitive development.
• The benefits and drawbacks of grandparents’ raising children.
• Autism as the most prevalent developmental mental disorder .
• How does lifelong learning benefit human brain?
• Teaching and supporting adult learners .
• How does lifestyle influence our cognition?
• Parent-child relationships and parental authority .
• Should adults develop an awareness of their aging?
• Early intervention for young children with autism.
• Why do scientists no longer view aging as a negative process?
• Development and improvement of communication skills .
• Which factors define our ability for emotional regulation?
• Child’s play observation and parent interview .
• Compare the Christian and Muslim cultural differences in human development.
• The early abuse’ impacts on teenagers emotional development .
• Are private nurseries and schools better for children’s development?
• Behavior change in learning processes.
• Why is generation alpha more emotionally intelligent than any earlier-born children?
• Videogame addiction and its impact on children .
• Shout less and explain more: the effect of the modern approach to caregiving.
• Adult education, its objectives and approaches .
• Why should we tell our daughters they are smart rather than beautiful?
• Personal development: Career management .
• How does social change impact the life of an individual? Give examples.
• Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s child development theories.
• Suggest mentoring interventions for at-risk adolescents.
• Adult learning and effective instruction .
• To which extent should we normalize children with developmental disorders?
• Negative impacts of adult cartoon television programs on children .
• Do developmental differences make us more human?
• Social psychology in people’s life.
• Do all families need psychotherapy, like they need a family doctor?
• Childhood sexual abuse and adolescents’ self-esteem .
• Which barriers do LGBT adolescents meet in their development?
• Life-span development and personal life experiences .
• Outline a positive youth development program.
• Understanding learning: theories’ impacts.
• Explain eating disorders as the result of incorrect upbringing.
• The influence of online games on children and adults .
• Describe the changes our brain suffers under continuous stress.
• The psychological effect of 9-11 on young adults .
• Typical vs. Atypical development in children.
• Social psychology: group influence on the self.
• Why is mindfulness important for human development?
• Importance of a teacher in child development .
• We learn behavioral health from our parents.
• Divorce influence on childrens’ mental health.
• How do behavioral phenotypes emerge during early development?
• Child development theories: Comparative analysis .
• Why do many children function differently in home, school, or community settings?
• Communication role in the children’ development .
• Suggest ways to identify co-occurring conditions in developmental disorders.
• Psychological child development theories.
• Describe the existing approaches to establishing healthy schools.
• Piaget’s stages of cognitive development .
• Parental autonomy vs. Monitoring: which is better for an adolescent?
• Postpartum depression effect on children’s development .
• How do parents’ beliefs and values determine their parenting strategies?
• Childhood and optimal development analysis .

77 Human Development Topics (Economics)

• How entrepreneurship in the energy sector can pave the way for sustainable development in Africa .
• What are the parties involved in human development, and why don’t they share the same interests?
• Should we care about income inequality ?
• Why does totalitarianism entail stagnation?
• Democratic and Economic Development in Asian Countries.
• Do migrant incomes spur economic development in their native countries?
• International human resource development .
• How does the growth of female entrepreneurship favor economics?
• A development of American society .
• How can equal rights and possibilities of all people make governments more efficient?
• Resolving the problems of poverty and income inequality .
• How does the availability of loans benefit human development?
• Development Theory and Human Rights.
• Should towns transform into cities to become more prosperous?
• Resource availability for low to moderate income families in New York City .
• Is feminism a sign of human evolution?
• Rapid urbanization in the developing world is increasing .
• What is the impact of literacy campaigns in socially disadvantaged rural areas?
• Poverty reduction in developing countries .
• Find the relationship between water resources and the level of farming development in a given region.
• Human Rights for Development.
• Explore the growing urban-rural interactions in large cities.
• Employment opportunity for people with learning disabilities in the UK .
• Give examples of win-win scenarios in human evolution.
• Analysing a community development: Case study .
• Why do societies often ignore or resist the advantages of human development?
• How innovation and growth strategy will develop Abu Dhabi economy through Abu Dhabi Economic Vision 2030 .
• Study the role of recreational possibilities for the local population.
• Values of innovation and entrepreneurship in economic development .
• The effect of food availability on human development.
• Millennium Development and Well-Being of Families.
• Do you support transnational social movements, and why?
• Compensation and benefits in an area of human resources development .
• Do religions favor economic development?
• Influence of religion on the development of colonial American society .
• Analyze the impact of socioeconomic context on human development.
• Is nationalism beneficial for a country’s well-being?
• The development of the industrial work environment .
• Which factors impede poor people from growing their capital?
• Crime prevention through social development .
• Is leisure more critical for economic growth than production?
• Alternative Fuels and the US Nation Development.
• Should the government regulate human development, or is it unpredictable?
• Development traps and failure: The negative consequences of disasters on the economy .
• What are the external factors of human development in emerging countries?
• Fiscal decentralisation and local economic development in Ghana .
• Human Development Index (HDI) Vs. Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
• National human resource development in Asian states .
• Which aspects would you include in the HDI formula?
• Is late retirement beneficial for a country’s economic development?
• Environment: Sustainable Development in Abu Dhabi.
• Which material conditions affect human evolution?
• The critical points of equal employment opportunity .
• The role of sustainable development in a country’s well-being.
• Globalization drives inequality: Liberalist and structuralist perspectives .
• What is the primary goal of human development for economics?
• The income gap in the US economy .
• Are elevated birth rates a positive or negative factor for economic growth?
• Human resources development in the UK and Australia .
• What is the relationship between foreign capital penetration and human life expectancy in third-world countries?
• Economic and Social Development of the UAE.
• How does ethnic homogeneity influence human development in a given area?
• Gender wage gap and inequality .
• Why is the majority of wealthy countries democratic?
• Human resource development practices to achieve economic growth: The case of Singapore .
• Analyze the role of free medicine in social well-being.
• How can the employment of the disabled favor a country’s economy?
• Assessing why Nigeria LNG has been restricted in development .
• How is the work/family balance of employees important for a company’s prosperity?
• Workforce development and modern trends .
• Explore the effect of an individual’s well-being on a country’s development.
• Small business and development in South Africa .
• How does democratization improve a country’s productivity?
• Regional inequality of Yogyakarta .
• How does English training in third-world countries influence their development?
• Post-disaster development of Haiti .
• New conceptions of adulthood among the youth in the developing countries.

🧒 Human Growth and Development Essay Topics

• The impact of aging on human development.
• How do role models promote moral and behavioral development in the 21st century?
• Socioeconomic factors and their value in growth and development.
• The development of moral predispositions at an early age.
• The value of professional development of a person.
• Genetic regulation of growth in height and weight in teenagers.
• The role of initiative and guilt in the preschool age group.
• What are the main red flags in growth and development?
• Child health and human development over the lifespan.
• Emotional development of a person from birth to old age.
• Regulation of early human growth: the main peculiarities.
• COVID-19 and its role in children’s social development.
• How does environmental pollution affect human growth and development?
• The language development in humans and its key stages.
• How does maternal physical activity influence fetal growth?

Haven’t found the perfect topic in the lists above? Use our essay topic generator !

📑 Human Development Essay Outline

1. Introduction. By the end of your essay, your readers will surely forget what you wrote here. But do not underestimate the effect of a well-composed introduction on your audience’s expectations! Do your best to sound inspiring and upbeat in your human development essay introduction. Tell yourself, why did you select this topic? If it is an exciting issue for you, the readers will also get interested. So, the introduction speaks about the topicality and urgency of a problem. The thesis statement culminates your introduction. You should explain your position in a single sentence. Here are some good and bad examples:

Need to formulate a thesis statement? Use our thesis-making tool !

2. Main body. The primary rule here is structure. It is hard to read one long paragraph with many ideas. Introduce each argument from the new line. Give a topic sentence at the beginning of each section and then elaborate on it with examples and reflections.

3. Conclusion. In the field of human development, the conclusion of an essay should provide the prospects of the tendency you analyzed. Imagine yourself an analyst consulting an international company. What will happen if they continue doing the same? How can they reach different results? Once again, try to sound inspiring.

1️⃣ Human Development Essay Example #1 (Psychology)

Below you will find a sample of human development essays for a psychology-related discipline. It illustrates the outline we have mentioned above based on the topic Why Is Freud’s Developmental Theory considered outdated?

Human Development Theories Essay

1. Introduction. In the XXI century, we are all obsessed with development. We would like to become a better version of ourselves, develop our country, and humanity as a whole. Unfortunately, there is no axiom confirming the mechanism of human development.

Thesis statement. This essay explores the pitfalls of Freud’s developmental theory and questions its applicability.

2. Main Body.

Argument 1. Freud drew his theory from memories of his patients. But certain experiences people believe are true often turn out to be inaccurate. Sometimes, we fabricate our memories due to how we felt back then or would like to feel now. Thus, Freud used unreliable sources of information about child development.

Argument 2. Freud’s theory revolves around sexuality . But as Jung and Adler noticed, human life is more complicated than that. Oversimplification reduces us to instincts, which is not true. People have their subconscious fears and desires, but sexual energy is only one of their aspects.

Argument 3. Sigmund Freud only worked with adults. All adults are former children, but the researcher never studied children in their games, education, or frustrations. Freud had six kids, but his career never allowed him to spend much time with family. It is questionable how someone could draw conclusions about a child’s mental processes without actually speaking to a child.

3. Conclusion. Sigmund Freud largely contributed to modern psychology. He was the first to question our rational thinking and intellectual sobriety. But his five stages of psychosexual development are far from reality. First, they are constructed based on inaccurate and unreliable reports of mentally disturbed people. Second, sexuality is only one of the many things that make us who we are. Third, the scientist never did live research on children. That is why his theory is outdated now.

2️⃣ Human Development Essay Example #2 (Economics)

If you need to write an essay on human development while studying economics, you may use the following sample. It illustrates how to write an essay on the relationship between human development and economic growth.

Human Development and Economic Growth

1. Introduction. What happened first, human development or economic growth ? The early signs of economic growth appeared when the first people started exchanging their goods with the neighboring tribes. They had to develop a new skill and change their picture of the world to catalyze economic growth.

Thesis statement. This essay aims to confirm the two-way linkage between the development of individuals and economic growth.

Argument 1. If that first exchange of crops and cattle did not work out, we would have never got as developed as we are now. The economic growth that happened once we had mastered “business negotiations” gave us the necessary resources to develop other skills.

Argument 2. Human development is hardly predictable. The most significant improvements in technology, medicine, construction, and science happened during the most challenging times for humanity. The two world wars showed that we could develop when the economy is in decay. But the new production methods and scientific achievements give us an opportunity to grow the economy when things get better.

Argument 3. Economic growth without human development is limited. For example, when a third-world country receives an external capital inflow, its economy stabilizes or even grows. But if its population does not acquire new models of doing business, the money will end. Such a country will return to its previous poor condition.

3. Conclusion. It would be wrong to say that human development caused economic growth or vice versa. None of the two are possible without the other. Human development happened first, but further knowledge acquisition required economic growth. Improvement of the economy does not guarantee human intellectual growth. Meanwhile, it is an indispensable prerequisite for our development.

❓ Human Development Questions & Answers

What does the science of human development seek to understand.

This science tries to find the reasons why people tend to change over time or why they remain at the same level. It establishes the mechanisms through which we become more educated, moral, organized, and civilized. The science also describes the benefits and drawbacks of human development for the economy, sociology, psychology, and ecology.

What is Human Development and Family Studies?

Human Development and Family Studies focuses on the health and psychology of individuals throughout their lifespan. This area of knowledge discusses human life in the context of their family relationships and social roles. It is an interdisciplinary science that involves psychology, economy, and sociology.

How does culture affect human development?

Culture defines the way we perceive society and the world as a whole. It affects our vision of reality from early childhood. Culture influences our beliefs, values, and purposes. Moreover, it is a decisive factor for our self-image as an individual and a member of society.

What makes the study of human development a science?

The study of human development explores how we learn, mature, and adapt to changes and adverse conditions. It is largely related to psychology but also involves sociology, economics, anthropology, and biology. It is a science because it aims to describe, predict, and understand the changes in human behavior that bring us to development.

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What is Human Development?

While the expression “human development” is widely used, it is understood in different ways around..

HDRO Outreach

2015 marks 25 years since the first Human Development Report introduced a new approach for advancing human flourishing. And while the expression “human development” is widely used, it is understood in different ways around the world. So on the occasion of the 25th anniversary year of human development reporting, we’d like to highlight how the Human Development Report Office (HDRO) presents human development.

Credit: UNDP Kosovo’s animation "What is Human Development?" explains and promotes sustainable human development.

Human development grew out of global discussions on the links between economic growth and development during the second half of the 20th Century. By the early 1960s there were increasingly loud calls to “dethrone” GDP: economic growth had emerged as both a leading objective, and indicator, of national progress in many countries i , even though GDP was never intended to be used as a measure of wellbeing ii . In the 1970s and 80s development debate considered using alternative focuses to go beyond GDP, including putting greater emphasis on employment, followed by redistribution with growth, and then whether people had their basic needs met.

These ideas helped pave the way for the human development approach, which is about expanding the richness of human life, rather than simply the richness of the economy in which human beings live. It is an approach that is focused on creating fair opportunities and choices for all people. So how do these ideas come together in the human development approach?

• People: the human development approach focuses on improving the lives people lead rather than assuming that economic growth will lead, automatically, to greater opportunities for all. Income growth is an important means to development, rather than an end in itself.

• Choices: human development is, fundamentally, about more choice. It is about providing people with opportunities, not insisting that they make use of them. No one can guarantee human happiness, and the choices people make are their own concern. The process of development – human development - should at least create an environment for people, individually and collectively, to develop to their full potential and to have a reasonable chance of leading productive and creative lives that they value.

The human development approach, developed by the economist Mahbub Ul Haq, is anchored in Amartya Sen’s work on human capabilities, often framed in terms of whether people are able to “be” and “do” desirable things in life iii . Examples include

Beings: well fed, sheltered, healthy

Doings: work, education, voting, participating in community life.

Freedom of choice is central: someone choosing to be hungry (during a religious fast say) is quite different to someone who is hungry because they cannot afford to buy food.

As the international community seeks to define a new development agenda post-2015, the human development approach remains useful to articulating the objectives of development and improving people’s well-being by ensuring an equitable, sustainable and stable planet.

i Kennedy, Robert. (1968). Address to the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas on March 18, 1968. www.informationclearinghouse.info/article27718.htm ii Simon Kuznets, who created GDP, warned expressly against using it as a measure of wellbeing. Kuznets, Simon. “National Income, 1929–1932.” U.S. Congress, Senate Doc. No. 124–73, at 7 (1934) iii Professor Sen was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998 for his work in welfare economics.

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An Introduction to Theories of Human Development

• Neil J Salkind
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“The book is well written and the theorists and their respective work are well-presented and clearly explained. . . . As a text dealing with the historical overview of major theorists and their work in human development over the last century or so, it is extremely strong and could be widely used in a variety of both undergraduate and graduate courses.”

“In general, I found the websites and references listed at the end of each chapter to be very interesting and useful for taking students beyond what is in the text.”

“A fine choice for a classic theories course, and I believe that the level of presentation would be appropriate for advanced undergraduate or graduate students. . . . The up-to-date web sites at the end of each section are a definite plus.  The choice of sites is excellent.”  

Overall, An Introduction to Theories of Human Development is an excellent introduction for students who are already grounded – or who at the very least intend to become grounded – in traditional ways of ‘doing science.’ It is clear and well structured, reader-friendly (including summary boxes, illustrations, highlights of important points, and employs jargon only where it is necessary – without oversimplifying or dumbing down), orients to up-to-date additional readings and web sites, and, not irrelevant for students, it is not too expensive

Students found this text beneficial to their research especially for their assessment work that linked to life stage development. It is a full comprehensive text that covers a wide arch of theories from Piaget to Chomsky.

This book is an easy read covering the main theorists of human development - set out in easy to follow sections. Offering further reading at the end of each chapter. A relevant and detailed text - to support the essential reading on my units.

Excellent layout and easy to follow text with up to date theories and web sites. This is an excellent book for learners who want a more advanced insight into human development.

This provides the basic reading for students on the course and has been recommended to the library

this module is not runnig this year due to change in the programm structure.

The book would be more suitable for psychology students rather than social science students. The chapter with theories comparison can be usefull to prepare a review of different approaches in theories.

• A final, integrative chapter compares the various theories presented in the book using Murry Sidman's model of six criteria for judging a theory (introduced in chapter 1), thus helping students develop skills for critically assessing theory, guiding them toward the types of questions one should ask about theories and what kinds of answers one should expect.
• Boxed highlights contain material that focuses on the applied nature of developmental theories to enhance student understanding of everyday human behavior in settings that students in applied majors (education, social work, counseling psychology, etc.) are likely to encounter and appreciate.
• Pedagogical tools reinforce learning and assist in study and review:  chapter-opening quotes by famous psychologists, authors, and other historical figures that stimulate student interest; key terms that are boldfaced and defined in text and in a glossary at the end of the book; marginal comments that reiterate and emphasize important points; and in-text references to web sites that guide students to further exploration of a topic.
• Chapters conclude with annotated lists of material to extend students' exploration of topics beyond the text:  suggestions of further readings and references to still more web sites on topics covered in each chapter intended to further inform the student about the nature of different theoretical positions.

Sample Materials & Chapters

Chapter 1. An Introduction to the Study of Human Development

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Human Development - Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Human development encompasses the process of growth and maturation from infancy through adulthood. Essays might discuss theories of human development, stages of development, and the factors influencing physical, cognitive, and emotional development. Furthermore, discussions could extend to the societal and environmental factors contributing to human development, and the impact of policy on human development outcomes. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Human Development you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

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The Lifespan Development Perspective Essay

Introduction, the lifespan perspective of development, conclusions, reference list.

Lifespan development is a progressive process of development in a human being involving an increase in age, which begins at conception and ends with death (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). In addition, lifespan development can be divided into four levels depicting advanced functionality and character changes as an individual moves from one level to another.

These levels include childhood and adolescence; early adulthood; middle adulthood; and late adulthood (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). This paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development and two major theories of lifespan development. In addition, the impact of the interaction between genes and the environment on the process of human development is also discussed.

The lifespan perspective examines the changes that take place at each level of human development relative to the environmental (Society and culture) factors that influence these changes (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 84). Moreover, the lifespan perspective can be defined in many ways.

For instance, the lifespan perspective can be a progressive and lifelong process of development that is not limited to any single level in human development. On the other hand, there are three major aspects of the lifespan perspective of development, which include the cognitive, social, physical dimensions of change (Sugarman, 2000, p. 59).

Furthermore, other studies claim that the perspective is plastic in nature because some domains of lifespan development increase while others decrease. This plasticity of the lifespan perspective occurs in response to various environmental factors that influence human development.

In addition, the perspective is embedded in the lifelong events that occur in the life of an individual. Thus, this perspective is studied by scientists, anthropologists, and psychologists, which brings out its multidisciplinary nature (Sugarman, 2000, p. 63). On the other hand, the perspective has different contextual implications. Therefore, human development is determined by biological, cultural, social, and physical environmental factors.

The three aspects of the lifespan perspective are also implicated in different developmental changes. The physical aspect of development involves changes in weight, height, shape, and the changes in individual experiences with the external environment (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86).

On the other hand, the social aspect of development involves changes in different phases of human development, which are directly influenced by the social environment such as social skills and relationships. Lastly, the cognitive domain of human development entails change in an individual’s thinking capacity, memory, and decision-making (Sugarman, 2000, p. 64).

The changes characterizing the lifespan perspective of development can also be divided into eight stages of human development. The first stage also known as the Trust vs. Mistrust stage occurs during the period between birth and one year.

Here, development of trust depends on the relationship between the toddler and the care-giver (Sugarman, 2000, p. 66). The second stage also known as Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt period occurs during the early childhood stage. During this stage, the child is capable of making choices relative to the individualized willingness.

The Initiative vs. Guilt is the third stage in development, which occurs during the middle childhood stage. During this stage, children develop a sense of purpose through engaging in goal-oriented activities (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 88). The fourth stage also called the Industry vs. Inferiority period occurs at the late childhood period. Here, children develop competence through learning social norms, basic education, and culture.

Additionally, the adolescence stage signifies the Identity vs. Role Confusion period. Here, individual values and choices develop because individuals are able to account for their actions. The Intimacy vs. Isolation period occurs during early adulthood and it is characterized by development of intimate relationships, marriage, and families (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 90).

The Generativity vs. Stagnation period occurs during the middle adulthood stage. Here, individuals are committed with providing for their families and developing their careers. Lastly, the Integrity vs. Despair stage occurs during the late adulthood stage. The elderly individuals are self-contented and they are full of life experiences and advice.

Theories of Lifespan Development

There are many theories that attempt to explain the process of human development from different perspectives such as Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development. Erikson’s theory posits that an individual encounters several conflicts during the development process, which depend on the type of relationship existing between this individual and the society.

Therefore, as an individual moves through the eight stages of development discussed above, he/she must solve the conflicts involved in one stage before moving to another. This ensures that one develops a sound personality; otherwise one may encounter difficulties in addressing conflicts in subsequent stages if the previous ones were not sufficiently resolved (Sugarman, 2000).

On the other hand, Freud’s theory states that the process of personality development occurs at the early childhood stage. Subsequently, the behavioral changes observed in developing individuals are influenced by the childhood events. Here, personality development occurs through several stages during the early childhood stage.

During this stage, the pleasure-oriented capabilities of an individual become focused on specific areas in one’s body. These capabilities also known as sexual libido or psychosexual energy play a major role in the subsequent behavioral changes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008).

Thus, if all the issues involved in the psychosexual stages of development are adequately resolved, then an individual develops a sound personality. However, if the psychosexual issues remain unresolved, the person involved is trapped in a particular stage until all the issues are resolved.

The Theories on Human Development

• Categories: Human Development Human Physiology

About this sample

Words: 494 |

Published: Nov 19, 2018

Words: 494 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Works Cited

• Berger, K. S. (2014). The Developing Person Through the Life Span. Worth Publishers.
• Essay UK. (2014). Sigmund Freud And Erik Erikson Theories Of Human Development. Retrieved from https://www.essay.uk.com/essays/psychology/sigmund-freud-and-erik-erikson-theories-of-human-development/
• Feist, J., & Feist, G. J. (2018). Theories of personality. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Friedman, S. L. (2018). Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of development: Young adults' resolution of the intimacy versus isolation crisis. Journal of Adult Development, 25(2), 81-92.
• Hall, G. S. (1922). Senescence: The Last Half of Life. D. Appleton.
• Hoffman, L. (2017). A critical analysis of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Human Development, 60(6), 327-341.
• Kline, P. (2019). Personality: The psychometric view. Routledge.
• Lerner, R. M. (2018). Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Theory and method. John Wiley & Sons.
• Mcleod, S. (2018). Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
• Stevens, R. (2018). Freud's psychosexual stages of development. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html

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• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• Systematic Review
• Open access
• Published: 09 May 2024

Human adenoviruses in children with gastroenteritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• Pegah Khales 1 ,
• Mohammad Hossein Razizadeh 2 , 3 ,
• Saied Ghorbani 1 ,
• Afagh Moattari 1 ,
• Jamal Sarvari 1 ,
• Hassan Saadati 4 ,
• Shirin Sayyahfar 5 ,
• Zahra Salavatiha 2 ,
• Morteza Haghighi Hasanabad 3 ,
• Vahdat Poortahmasebi 6 , 7 &
• Ahmad Tavakoli 5  

BMC Infectious Diseases volume  24 , Article number:  478 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Human adenoviruses (HAdVs) have always been suggested as one of the main causes of gastroenteritis in children. However, no comprehensive report on the global epidemiology of these viruses in pediatric gastroenteritis is available.

A systematic search was conducted to obtain published papers from 2003 to 2023 in three main databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science.

The estimated global pooled prevalence of HAdV infection in children with gastroenteritis was 10% (95% CI: 9-11%), with a growing trend after 2010. The highest prevalence was observed in Africa (20%, 95% CI: 14–26%). The prevalence was higher in inpatients (11%; 95% CI: 8-13%) and patients aged 5 years old and younger (9%; 95% CI: 7-10%). However, no significant difference was observed between male and female patients ( P  = 0.63). The most prevalent species was found to be the species F (57%; 95% CI: 41-72%). The most common HAdVs observed in children with gastroenteritis were types 40/41, 38, and 2. Analysis of case-control studies showed an association between HAdV and gastroenteritis in children (OR: 2.28, 95% CI; 1.51–3.44).

This study provided valuable insights into the importance of HAdVs in children with gastroenteritis, especially in hospitalized and younger children. The results can be used in future preventive measurements and the development of effective vaccines.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Acute gastroenteritis is a serious threat to health that affects individuals of any age. It is especially serious for the very young, such as newborns and young children [ 1 , 2 ]. Because of their underdeveloped immunity, children are more susceptible to diarrheal illnesses. Different enteric pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminths, and fungi, can cause diarrhea. These pathogens are typically transmitted by ingesting contaminated food, water, or things infected with feces [ 3 ]. Previous studies have shown that the virus is the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis in individuals younger than 18 years of age [ 4 , 5 ]. The most common causes of acute gastroenteritis in children are rotavirus, norovirus (NoV), human adenovirus (HAdV), and human astrovirus (HAstV) [ 6 , 7 ].

HAdV is a member of the Adenoviridae family and the Mastadenovirus genus. HAdV is a non-enveloped, medium-sized virus (70–100 nm) with an icosahedral nucleocapsid that contains a 34–45 kbp double-stranded linear DNA genome [ 8 , 9 ]. HAdVs have been divided into seven species A to G based on pathogenicity and genetic features, with 115 distinct HAdVs genotypes being identified [ 10 ]. Based on the percentage of guanine plus cytosine in their DNA and other biochemical and biophysical criteria which are classified into 7 species (A-G). The word serotype is used to point to types up to 51 while newer types, which were differentiated by novel sequences or recombinant phylogeny in genes coding for major capsid proteins are known as genotype. Species G is composed of one type (type 52) and is extremely rare while other species are found in patients with various diseases including gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, respiratory infections, and to a lesser extent in intussusception in infants, hemorrhagic cystitis, meningoencephalitis, myocarditis, and hepatitis [ 11 ]. HAdV infection, a highly infectious disease, can infect a range of organs, including upper and lower respiratory tracts, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, eye, and other systems [ 11 ]. . Tissue tropisms vary by species. It has been determined that the primary cause of acute gastroenteritis among the seven species is the HAdV F species, also known as enteric HAdV, which contains the HAdV-F40 and HAdV-F41 genotypes [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Enteric species F (genotypes F40/41) strains were predicted using a mathematical model to be the third most common agent responsible for mortality in diarrheal children under the age of five, after rotavirus and Shigella [ 16 ]. Furthermore, stool samples from patients with acute gastroenteritis have regularly revealed the presence of several other non-enteric HAdV species (HAdV A-E and G species), including HAdV A, B, C, and D [ 12 , 13 , 15 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ].

While there are many reports from different parts of the world, there is a gap of knowledge in understanding the epidemiology and association of HAdVs and pediatric gastroenteritis. This study aims to fulfill this gap by comprehensively analysis various factors including age group, gender, geographical teacher, clinical setting, diagnostics methods, species, and genotypes in pediatrics gastroenteritis for the first time to provide valuable insights into the current status of HAdVs in children with gastroenteritis.

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline served as the foundation for this systematic review and meta-analysis approach [ 21 ].

Search strategy

To discover relevant papers, a systematic literature search was undertaken utilizing three electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The literature search was restricted to the period between inception to June 24, 2023. Table S1 provides information about the search terms for each database. We manually searched the reference lists of pertinent articles to find further research that met the eligibility criteria. For data management, the systematic literature search was loaded into EndNote software version X8 (Thomson Reuters, California, USA).

Selection criteria

Studies were considered qualified if they reported: (1) case-control and cross-sectional studies providing data related to the prevalence of enteric and non-enteric HAdVs among children less than 18 years with gastroenteritis published in the English language in peer-reviewed journals; (2) the prevalence of HAdV genome in stool samples and rectal swabs; (3) studies detecting HAdV genome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods; (4) studies detecting the prevalence of HAdV among inpatients and outpatients; (5) original articles and short communications with sufficient data. Studies that met any of the following criteria were excluded: (1) the prevalence of HAdV infection among adults patients with gastroenteritis; (2) the prevalence of HAdV infection among children presenting gastroenteritis with underlying conditions such as transplant recipients, HIV, immunocompromised status, and cancers; (3) the incidence of HAdV infection among children with gastroenteritis; (4) samples other than stool such as oral swabs, serum, cerebrospinal fluid, and conjunctival swabs; (5) detection of HAdV by assays othe than PCR-based methods such as antigen detection assays, immunochromatography, Loop-mediated isothermal amplification, next-generation sequencing-based viral metagenomics, microarray, latex agglutination, electronmicroscopy, DNA restriction enzyme analysis, enzyme immunoassay, culture techniques, immunoelectron microscopy, and nucleic acid hybridization; (6) seroprevalence of HAdV antibodies; (7) studies included patients with non-gastroenteritis symptoms such as respiratory symptoms, acute severe hepatitis, and asymptomatic; (8) letters, case series, notes, review articles, case reports, posters, and conference abstracts; (9) articles published in languages other than English.

Data extraction and quality assessment

Two reviewers separately examined the titles and abstracts of all identified papers, and studies that were unrelated to the study topic were eliminated. The reviewers got full texts of the selected papers and further analyzed them, and those that did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded. Finally, any differences among reviewers were settled by consulting with a third reviewer. Utilizing a modified checklist based on strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE), a quality assessment of the retrieved studies was carried out [ 22 , 23 ]. The checklist consisted of 12 questions that addressed various methodological approaches. Studies that received a validity score of at least 8 out of a maximum of 12 were considered eligible for the main meta-analysis. One reviewer extracted the data listed below from each eligible article: first author’s last name, year of publication, year of sampling, study location, study design, sample size, age ranges of patients, age groups of patients, the gender of patients, number of HAdV-positive cases, HAdV detection methods, types of patient care, species, and genotype of HAdV. The retrieved data were entered into a pre-designed Excel spreadsheet (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, Washington, USA).

Statistical analysis

We pooled the HAdV infection in children suffering from gastroenteritis using the metaprop package [ 24 ]. We applied the random-effects meta-analysis framework and subgroup analysis was conducted based on region, gender, age, detection method, sampling time, types of patient care, and genotype of HAdV. We also conducted meta-analyses of risk estimates for gastroenteritis and exposure to HAdV, and we reported pooled estimates of odds ratio (OR) and 95% CIs. DerSimonian and Laird method was used to compute the pooled estimate of OR with confidence interval (95% CI) using random models. Statistical heterogeneity between studies was evaluated with Cochran’s Q test and quantified by I 2 statistic [ 25 ]. We investigated the presence and the effect of publication bias using a combination of the visual inspection of funnel plots that were constructed, plotting the logarithmically transformed ORs against the standard error of the associated log (OR) and Begg’s test and Egger’s test. All statistical tests were two-tailed and the significance level was considered less than 0.05 for all, except heterogeneity test that were set at less than 0.1, and statistical analyses were performed using Stata 14.1 (Stata Corp, College Station, TX, USA).

Literature search

During the initial search, 3733 papers were identified, and 40 further papers were discovered by manually examining the reference lists of pertinent research. A total of 1592 duplicate papers were initially removed, and 1766 additional papers were removed after a manual check of titles and abstracts. After a thorough evaluation of the full text of the remaining 415 papers to determine their eligibility for the meta-analysis, 251 of them were removed. According to the modified STROBE checklist, 155 publications were deemed to be of good quality (scoring of 8 or higher), with 9 papers were failed to get a score of 8. Finally, this systematic review and meta-analysis contained 155 papers. An overview of the selection of relevant studies is depicted in Fig.  1 .

Flowchart presenting the steps of literature search and selection

Study characteristics

Out of the 155 studies considered, 134 were cross-sectional and 21 were case-control in design. The articles’ publication dates varied from 2003 to 2023. The largest research involved 85,001 gastroenteritis cases [ 26 ], while the smallest contained 24 cases [ 27 ]. Out of the 155 papers included in this meta-analysis, 19 research examined the gender distribution of HAdV infection, and 80 studies looked into the genotype distribution of HAdVs. Specific primers for the detection of HAdVs group F (types 40 and 41) and universal primers identifying all types of HAdVs have been used in 37 and 118 studies, respectively. The majority of study populations ( n  = 103,815) were children under 5 years of age and 12,982 were children between the ages of 6 and 18 years old. The majority of studies ( n  = 29) were conducted in China, followed by Brazil ( n  = 12), India ( n  = 11), and Japan ( n  = 10). Regarding the continent, 84 were conducted in Asia, 26 in South America, 18 in Europe, 16 in North America, 9 in Africa, and 2 in Oceania. The characteristics of included studies in this systematic review and meta-analysis are summarized in Table  1 .

Prevalence of HAdV infection among children with gastroenteritis

The estimated global pooled prevalence of HAdV infection among 222,267 gastroenteritis-affected children from 51 countries was 10% (95% CI: 9-11%; I²=98.6%; P  < 0.001). By age, children aged 13 to 24 months had a slightly greater prevalence of HAdV (14%; 95% CI: 9-20%) than children of other ages ( P  = 0.56). The frequency of HAdV infection was similar between males and females (8%; 95% CI: 6-11% vs. 8%; 95% CI: 6-10%, respectively; P  = 0.63) (Table  2 ).

According to our subgroup analysis, the highest prevalence of HAdV infection was seen in pediatric gastroenteritis patients from Gabon (42%, 95% CI: 16-70%), followed by Iraq (34%, 95% CI: 30-37%), Ethiopia (31%, 95% CI: 27-35%), and Rwanda (30%, 95%CI: 28-33%). Figure  2 depicts the global distribution of HAdV infection among children with gastroenteritis.

The global map presents the geographical variations in the prevalence of HAdV infection among pediatric patients with gastroenteritis in a period of 11 years (2003–2023)

With respect to HAdV detection methods, Nested PCR, Multiplex PCR, Real-time PCR, Conventional PCR, and Multiplex Real-time PCR methods were used. The prevalence of HAdV was 23% (95% CI: 12–37%), 5% (95% CI: 4–6%), 15% (95% CI: 12–19%), 9% (95% CI: 8–11%), and 17% (95% CI: 10–26%), when Nested PCR, Multiplex PCR, Real-time PCR, Conventional PCR, and Multiplex Real-time PCR methods were used, respectively ( P  < 0.001). Regarding patient setting, the higher prevalence of HAdV was found in inpatients than in outpatients (9%; 95% CI: 7-10% vs. 7%; 95% CI: 5-8%, respectively); however, the difference was not statistically significant (P  = 0.09) (Table  2 ).

A time trend analysis was conducted to assess variations in the prevalence of HAdV infection over time throughout the world. According to this analysis, the prevalence of HAdV was the highest (32%; 95% CI: 26-37%) between the years of 1996 and 2000. Since 2001 until 2010, the number of HAdV-positive cases among pediatric patients with gastroenteritis was dramatically decreased, so that the prevalence was 8% (95% CI: 4-12%) between the years of 2001 and 2005, and 8% (95% CI: 6-9%) between the years of 2006 and 2010. However, the prevalence of HAdV infection was remarkably increased after the year 2010, reaching a peak of 13% (95% CI: 6-21%) during the years of 2021 and 2022 ( P  < 0.001) (Table  2 ).

Regarding the continent, Africa showed a higher prevalence of HAdV in pediatric patients with gastroenteritis (20%, 95% CI: 14–26%) compared to Oceania (19%, 95% CI: 19–20%), the South America (16%, 95% CI: 10–22%), the North America (12%, 95% CI: 8–18%), Europe (9%, 95% CI: 7–12%), and the Asia (7%, 95% CI: 6–8%) ( P  < 0.001) (Table  2 ).

Distribution of species and types of HAdVs

Our results showed that the majority of HAdVs circulating in pediatric patients with gastroenteritis belonged to species F (57%; 95% CI: 41-72%) and species C (29%; 95% CI: 16-44%) ( P  < 0.001). Overall, twenty-eight types of HAdVs were detected among pediatric patients with gastroenteritis across studies. The most prevalent HAdVs observed in children with gastroenteritis were types 40/41 (59%, 95% CI: 49–68%), 38 (25%, 95% CI: 0–79%), and 2 (12%, 95% CI: 7–17%). Figure  3 shows more details on the frequency of HAdV types in children with gastroenteritis. Types 6 (20%; 95% CI: 12-28%) and 37 (5%; 95% CI: 1-14%) in Africa, types 1 (15%; 95% CI: 0-42%), 2 (29%; 95% CI: 17-43%) and 5 (12%; 95% CI: 3-28%) in Europe, types 3 (13%; 95% CI: 3-18%), 4 (1%; 95% CI: 0-2%), and 18 (4%; 95% CI: 0-10%) in Asia, and types 7 (8%; 95% CI: 2-20%), 12 (17%; 95% CI: 8-30%), 40/41 (66%; 95% CI: 17-100%) in South America were the most prevalent types in each one of the mentioned geographical areas. Africa and South America had equally the highest percentage of type 31 (Africa:12%; 95% CI: 0-33%; South America: 12%; 95% CI: 6-19% ) Analysis of other types in different continents was not possible due to lack or low number of reports.

Distribution of HAdV types in children with gastroenteritis

Prevalence of HAdV infection before and after coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Our analysis indicated that the prevalence of HAdV among children with gastroenteritis in studies with the sampling time in 2019 and earlier was (10%, 95% CI: 9–11%) while the prevalence in studies with sampling time from 2020 and later was (13%, 95% CI: 6–21%), showing a statistically significant difference (P  < 0.001).

Association of HAdV infection with gastroenteritis among children

The second analysis used data from case-control studies to look into the relationship between HAdV infection and the risk of gastroenteritis in children. There were 10,482 gastroenteritis patients and 7618 controls in 21 case-control studies. The results showed that the overall pooled odds ratio (OR) of the association of HAdV infection (detected by universal + species F primers) and gastroenteritis was 2.29 (95% CI: 1.52–3.44; I 2  = 89.6%) (Fig.  4 ). The association was much stronger between HAdV species F (detected by species F primers) and gastroenteritis (4.0; 95% CI: 1.68–9.53; I 2  = 91.1%) than between all types of HAdV (detected by universal primers) and gastroenteritis (1.75; 95% CI: 1.10–2.79; I 2  = 88.4%).

Forest plot of the association between HAdV infection and gastroenteritis risk in pediatric patients according to the random effect model in case case-control studies using universal and F primers for the detection of HAdV

Based on the funnel plot (Fig.  5 ) there was no evidence of publication bias in the meta-analysis, which was statistically supported by Begg’s test ( p  = 0.55) and Egger’s test ( p  = 0.82).

Funnel plot for assessment of publication bias

Sensitivity analysis

In a sensitivity analysis by successively removing a particular study at a time to assess the influence of every single study on pooled results, a significant positive association [range of summary ORs 2.14–2.43] between HAdV infection and gastroenteritis among children was observed consistently and did not alter the pooled results, which indicated that the meta-analysis model is robust.

Acute gastroenteritis is still a prominent global health threat for children, especially in developing countries. In recent years, the improvements in sanitation have led to a decrease in the prevalence of bacterial and parasitical agents in the development of acute gastroenteritis, making viruses the main causative agent of the disease. While individuals of all ages can be infected by HAdVs, children are the main targets of these viruses. To the best of our knowledge, no systematic review and meta-analysis has been performed on the prevalence of HAdVs and pediatric patients with gastroenteritis. Our results showed a high (10%) prevalence of HAdVs in children with gastroenteritis, which highlights the role of HAdVs as a main cause of gastroenteritis among children worldwide. While rotavirus was known as the main cause of pediatric gastroenteritis, the introduction of rotavirus vaccine is changing the pattern [ 174 , 175 ]. We exhibited a higher prevalence of HAdVs infection in studies published after 2010, which show the increasing trend of HAdVs in the pathogenesis of pediatric gastroenteritis. Furthermore, the analysis of case-control studies indicated an association (OR: 2.28, 95% CI; 1.51–3.44) between HAdV infection and gastroenteritis in children. Therefore, in addition to respiratory infections [ 176 ], HAdVs are important pathogens in gastroenteritis among children.

Among the different regions, the highest prevalence was observed in Africa. Low micronutrition (such as vitamins and trace elements) intake as a result of malnutrition is a key factor that abates the ability of both innate and adaptive immune systems to fight pathogens [ 177 ]. Also, poor sanitation and hygiene can be a key contributor that facilitates the infection of the gastrointestinal tract by enteric viruses [ 178 ]. Other continents with high prevalence were South America and Oceania. Therefore, our results delineate an epidemiologic pattern with higher prevalence in the southern hemisphere. This can be due to malnutrition and lack of proper hygiene, which make children prone to infectious gastroenteritis by negatively affecting the immune system and exposing children to viral agents [ 174 ]. Interestingly, there was a significantly higher prevalence of HAdV in pediatric gastroenteritis cases after the initiation of the COVID-19 pandemic. It might be due to the fact that despite the effects of social distancing and mask mandate on respiratory infections, their effects on preventing viral gastroenteritis were limited and in some regions, schools were less focused on preventing gastroenteritis and therefore, school authorities could not efficiently report gastroenteritis cases, which enables the viruses to be transmitted to other children [ 179 ]. Moreover, the rise of malnutrition due to financial restrictions and lack of access to school meals for children [ 180 ] is another factor, which makes children more vulnerable to viral infection by weakening the immune system [ 181 ].

Our results did not indicate a significant difference ( P value = 0.06) between male and female patients. This suggests that the occurrence of HAdVs-related gastroenteritis does not exhibit a gender-based pattern among children. After puberty, different compartments of the immune system are affected by sex hormones. For example, androgens including dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and testosterone can suppress immune cell activities in post-pubertal individuals [ 182 ]. However, the impacts of sex hormones are not significant in this study due to the age of the included patients. Studies on various viral infections in children resulted in different results and therefore, a specific sex is not prone to viral infections [ 183 ].

Exploring the age-specific prevalence of HAdVs in pediatric gastroenteritis showed intriguing patterns in the distribution of infections across different age groups. Notably, the prevalence of HAdVs was significantly higher ( P  < 0.001) in children younger than 5 years old, which shows the higher susceptibility of this age group. This difference aligns with the well-established notion that young children are more susceptible to viral infections. This vulnerability is primarily due to the immaturity of their immune systems, which does not provide robust protection against viral pathogens [ 184 ]. Additionally, younger children often have limited pre-existing immunity and may lack previous exposure to HAdVs, which makes them more prone to infection [ 185 ]. The increased possibility of close contact in daycare settings, preschools, and households may further contribute to a higher risk of transmission in this age group. As children advance to later childhood, their immune systems become more mature [ 184 ] and exposure in early life fosters a natural immunity to pathogens [ 174 , 184 ]. Behavioral changes such as improved hygiene practices may also help the reduction of the risk of diarrhea [ 186 ]. These findings highlight the importance of monitoring HAdV transmission and infection in childcare and healthcare settings to avoid future outbreaks.

More than half of typed HAdVs in our study belonged to species F, which consisted of types 40/41 that are known for their role in gastroenteritis [ 11 ]. In addition, no significant difference ( P  = 0.06) was observed between universal primers and those that were designed to only detect species F, which shows the remarkable prevalence of this species in HAdVs-related gastroenteritis cases. Interestingly, we observed that species C, which is known to cause respiratory symptoms [ 11 ], is the second most prevalent species in pediatric gastroenteritis cases. This underscores the clinical importance of species C as a causative agent of respiratory and gastrointestinal infections among children. These data are good indicators of the most prevalent species and can be used to design effective vaccines.

In the context of clinical settings, the pooled prevalence for inpatients was found to be slightly higher than the prevalence among outpatients. While this difference did not reach statistical significance ( P  = 0.09), the trend suggests a potential association between HAdV infections and increased disease severity necessitating hospitalization. Noteworthy, the lack of statistical significance may stem from various factors, including heterogeneity in study populations, variations in healthcare practices, and potential underreporting in outpatient settings. Further research into the specific factors contributing to the observed prevalence differences between inpatients and outpatients can provide valuable insights into the clinical implications of HAdVs-associated gastroenteritis.

This systematic review and meta-analysis faced some limitations. There were no studies from some countries in various geographic regions such as Africa and Europe. We recommend researchers to conduct epidemiologic studies in those countries with no previous reports to gain a comprehensive insight into the HAdV epidemiology in pediatric gastroenteritis. Some reports did not mention the characteristics of isolated viruses including species and genotypes. Finally, in the context of systematic review and meta-analysis studies, publication bias and study heterogeneity are inevitable limitations.

This systematic review and meta-analysis highlights HAdVs as significant and increasing causes of pediatric gastroenteritis globally, particularly affecting children under 5 years old. The prevalence is considerably high in Africa, with also remarkable rates in South America and Oceania, which shows a southern hemisphere predominance possibly linked to factors such as malnutrition and poor sanitation. Furthermore, the absence of a gender-based pattern suggests equal susceptibility among male and female pediatric patients. Variations in diagnostic approaches indicate the importance of choosing sensitive tests such as Nested PCR. The dominance of species F adenoviruses, genotypes 40/41, shows potential targets for vaccine development. A higher prevalence among inpatients can be indicative of the potential of HAdVs to cause severe gastrointestinal symptoms. These results suggest future epidemiologic investigations, particularly in underrepresented regions to address existing gaps in HAdVs epidemiology in pediatric gastroenteritis.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Pegah Khales, Saied Ghorbani, Afagh Moattari & Jamal Sarvari

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Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Health, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran

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Research Center of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Institute of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

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A.T designed and administrated the study. H.S performed all statistical analyses. P.K, M.H.R, and S.G wrote the initial draft. M.H.R and H.S constructed all maps and graphs. A.M, J.S, V.P, and S.S performed intellectual interpretation. P.K, A.T, Z.S, M.H.H, and M.H.R performed search strategy and data extraction. All authors read and approved the final draft.

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Khales, P., Razizadeh, M.H., Ghorbani, S. et al. Human adenoviruses in children with gastroenteritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis 24 , 478 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-024-09386-x

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40 Facts About Elektrostal

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 10 May 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy, materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes, offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development.

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy, with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

Elektrostal's fascinating history, vibrant culture, and promising future make it a city worth exploring. For more captivating facts about cities around the world, discover the unique characteristics that define each city . Uncover the hidden gems of Moscow Oblast through our in-depth look at Kolomna. Lastly, dive into the rich industrial heritage of Teesside, a thriving industrial center with its own story to tell.

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Geographic coordinates of Elektrostal, Moscow Oblast, Russia

City coordinates

Coordinates of Elektrostal in decimal degrees

Coordinates of elektrostal in degrees and decimal minutes, utm coordinates of elektrostal, geographic coordinate systems.

WGS 84 coordinate reference system is the latest revision of the World Geodetic System, which is used in mapping and navigation, including GPS satellite navigation system (the Global Positioning System).

Geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) define a position on the Earth’s surface. Coordinates are angular units. The canonical form of latitude and longitude representation uses degrees (°), minutes (′), and seconds (″). GPS systems widely use coordinates in degrees and decimal minutes, or in decimal degrees.

Latitude varies from −90° to 90°. The latitude of the Equator is 0°; the latitude of the South Pole is −90°; the latitude of the North Pole is 90°. Positive latitude values correspond to the geographic locations north of the Equator (abbrev. N). Negative latitude values correspond to the geographic locations south of the Equator (abbrev. S).

Longitude is counted from the prime meridian ( IERS Reference Meridian for WGS 84) and varies from −180° to 180°. Positive longitude values correspond to the geographic locations east of the prime meridian (abbrev. E). Negative longitude values correspond to the geographic locations west of the prime meridian (abbrev. W).

UTM or Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system divides the Earth’s surface into 60 longitudinal zones. The coordinates of a location within each zone are defined as a planar coordinate pair related to the intersection of the equator and the zone’s central meridian, and measured in meters.

Elevation above sea level is a measure of a geographic location’s height. We are using the global digital elevation model GTOPO30 .

Elektrostal , Moscow Oblast, Russia