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Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study

• Anna Williams 1 ,
• Jennifer R. Stevens 2 ,
• Rondi Anderson 3 &
• Malin Bogren 4  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  523 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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English is generally recognized as the international language of science and most research on evidence-based medicine is produced in English. While Bangla is the dominant language in Bangladesh, public midwifery degree programs use English as the medium of instruction (EMI). This enables faculty and student access to the latest evidence-based midwifery content, which is essential for provision of quality care later. Yet, it also poses a barrier, as limited English mastery among students and faculty limits both teaching and learning.

This mixed-methods study investigates the challenges and opportunities associated with the implementation of EMI in the context of diploma midwifery education in Bangladesh. Surveys were sent to principals at 38 public midwifery education institutions, and 14 English instructors at those schools. Additionally, ten key informant interviews were held with select knowledgeable stakeholders with key themes identified.

Surveys found that English instructors are primarily guest lecturers, trained in general or business English, without a standardized curriculum or functional English language laboratories. Three themes were identified in the key informant interviews. First, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Second, language labs were poorly maintained, often non-functional, and lacked faculty. Third, an alternative education model, such as the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum,  has potential to strengthen English competencies within midwifery schools.

Conclusions

ESP, which teaches English for application in a specific discipline, is one option available in Bangladesh for midwifery education. Native language instruction and the middle ground of multilingualism are also useful options. Although a major undertaking, investing in an ESP model and translation of technical midwifery content into relevant mother tongues may provide faster and more complete learning. In addition, a tiered system of requirements for English competencies tied to higher levels of midwifery education could build bridges to students to help them access global evidence-based care resources. Higher levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level would follow a multilingualism approach, teach using an ESP curriculum, and have complementary emphasis on the mother tongue.

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Introduction

As the international language of science, English holds an important position in the education of healthcare professionals. Globally, most scientific papers are published in English. In many non-native English-speaking countries, English is used as the language of instruction in higher education [ 1 ]. The dominant status held by the English language in the sciences is largely considered to increase global access to scientific information by unifying the scientific community under a single lingua franca [ 2 ].

In Bangladesh, where the mother tongue is Bangla and midwifery diploma programs are taught in English, knowledge of English facilitates student and instructor access to global, continuously updated evidence-based practice guidance. This includes basic and scientific texts, media-based instructional materials (including on life-saving skills), professional journals, and proceedings of medical conferences. Many of these resources are available for free online, which can be particularly useful in healthcare settings that have not integrated evidence-based practice.

In addition to opportunity though, English instruction also creates several challenges. Weak student and faculty English competency may impede midwifery education quality in Bangladesh. Globally, literature has linked limited instructor competency in the language of instruction with reduced depth, nuance, and accuracy in conveying subject matter content [ 3 ]. This can lead to the perpetuation of patterns of care in misalignment with global evidence. In addition, students’ native language proficiency in their topic of study can decline when instruction is in English, limiting native language communication between colleagues on the job later on [ 4 , 5 ].

In this paper, we examine the current status of English language instruction within public diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh. Midwifery students are not required to demonstrate a certain skill level in English to enter the program. However, they are provided with English classes in the program. Midwifery course materials are in English, while—for ease and practicality—teaching aids and verbal classroom instruction are provided in Bangla. Following graduation, midwifery students must pass a national licensing exam given in English to practice. Upon passing, some new midwives are deployed as public employees and are posted to sub-district health facilities where English is not used by either providers or clients. Others will seek employment as part of non-governmental organization (NGO) projects where English competency can be of value for interacting with global communities, and for participating in NGO-specific on-the-job learning opportunities. The mix of both challenge and opportunity in this context is complex.

Our analysis examines the reasons for the identified English competency gaps within midwifery programs, and potential solutions. We synthesize the findings and discuss solutions in the context of the global literature. Finally, we present a set of viable options for strengthening English competencies among midwifery faculty and students to enable better quality teaching and greater learning comprehension among students.

Study design

We employed a mixed-methods study design [ 6 ] in order to assess the quality of English instruction within education programs, and options for its improvement. Data collection consisted of two surveys of education institutes, a web-search of available English programs in Bangladesh, and key informant interviews. Both surveys followed a structured questionnaire with a combination of open- and closed-ended questions and were designed by the authors. One survey targeted the 38 institute principals and the other targeted 14 of the institutes’ 38 English instructors (those for whom contact information was shared). The web-search focused on generating a list of available English programs in Bangladesh that had viable models that could be tapped into to strengthen English competencies among midwifery faculty and students. Key informant interviews were unstructured and intended to substantiate and deepen understanding of the survey and web-search findings.

No minimum requirements exist for students’ English competencies upon entry into midwifery diploma programs. Students enter directly from higher secondary school (12th standard) and complete the midwifery program over a period of three years. Most students come from modest economic backgrounds having completed their primary and secondary education in Bangla. While English instruction is part of students’ secondary education, skill attainment is low, and assessment standards are not in place to ensure student mastery. To join the program, midwifery students are required to pass a multi-subject entrance exam that includes a component on English competency. However, as no minimum English standard must be met, the exam does not screen out potential midwifery students. Scoring, for instance, is not broken down by subject. This makes it possible to answer zero questions correctly in up to three of the subjects, including English, and pass the exam.

Processes/data collection

Prior to the first survey, principals were contacted by UNFPA with information about the survey and all provided verbal consent to participate. The survey of principals collected general information about the resources available for English instruction at the institutes. It was a nine-item questionnaire with a mix of Yes/No, multiple choice and write-in questions. Specific measures of interest were whether and how many English instructors the institutes had, instructors’ hiring criteria, whether institutes had language labs and if they were in use, and principals’ views on the need for English courses and their ideal mode of delivery (e.g., in-person, online, or a combination). This survey also gathered contact information of institute English instructors. These measures were chosen as they were intended to provide a high-level picture of institutes’ English resources such as faculty availability and qualifications, and use of language labs. To ensure questions were appropriately framed, a pilot test was conducted with two institute principals and small adjustments were subsequently made. Responses were shared via an electronic form sent by email and were used to inform the second survey as well as the key informant interviews. Of the 38 principals, 36 completed the survey.

The second survey, targeting English instructors, gathered information on instructors’ type of employment (e.g., institute faculty or adjunct lecturers); length of employment; student academic focus (e.g., midwifery or nursing); hours of English instruction provided as part of the midwifery diploma program; whether a standard English curriculum was used and if it was tailored toward the healthcare profession; use of digital content in teaching; education and experience in English teaching; and their views on student barriers to learning English. These measures were chosen to provide a basic criterion for assessing quality of English instruction, materials and resources available to students. For instance, instructors’ status as faculty would indicate a stronger degree of integration and belonging to the institute midwifery program than a guest lecturer status which allows for part time instruction with little job security. In addition, use of a standard, professionally developed English curriculum and integration of digital content into classroom learning would be indicative of higher quality than learning materials developed informally by instructors themselves without use of listening content by native speakers in classrooms. The survey was piloted with two English instructors. Based on their feedback, minor adjustments were made to one question, and it was determined that responses were best gathered by phone due to instructors’ limited internet access. Of the 14 instructors contacted, 11 were reached and provided survey responses by phone.

The web-search gathered information on available English language instruction programs for adults in Bangladesh, and the viability of tapping into any of them to improve English competency among midwifery students and faculty. Keywords Bangladesh  +  English courses , English training , English classes , study English and learn English were typed into Google’s search platform. Eleven English language instruction programs were identified. Following this, each program was contacted either by phone or email and further detail about the program’s offerings was collected.

Unstructured key informant interviews were carried out with select knowledgeable individuals to substantiate and enhance the credibility of the survey and web-search findings. Three in-country expert English language instructors and four managers of English language teaching programs were interviewed. In addition, interviews were held with three national-level stakeholders knowledgeable about work to make functional technologically advanced English language laboratories that had been installed at many of the training institutes. Question prompts included queries such as, ‘In your experience, what are the major barriers to Bangla-medium educated students studying in English at the university level?’, ‘What effective methods or curricula are you aware of for improving student English to an appropriate competency level for successful learning in English?’, and, ‘What options do you see for the language lab/s being used, either in their originally intended capacity or otherwise?’

Data analysis

All data were analyzed by the lead researcher. Survey data were entered into a master Excel file and grouped descriptively to highlight trends and outliers, and ultimately enable a clear description of the structure and basic quality attributes (e.g., instructors’ education, hours of English instruction, and curriculum development resources used). Web-search findings were compiled in a second Excel file with columns distinguishing whether they taught general English (often aimed at preparing students for international standard exams), Business English, or English for Specific Purposes (ESP). This enabled separation of standalone English courses taught by individual instructors as part of vocational or academic programs of study in other fields, and programs with an exclusive focus on English language acquisition. Key informant interviews were summarized in a standard notes format using Word. An inductive process of content analysis was carried out, in which content categories were identified and structured to create coherent meaning [ 7 ]. From this, the key overall findings and larger themes that grew from the initial survey and web-search results were drawn out.

The surveys (Tables  1 and 2 ) found that English instructors are primarily long-term male guest lecturers employed at each institute for more than two years. All principal respondents indicated that there is a need for English instruction—18 of the 19 reported that this is best done through a combination of in-person and computer-based instruction. Ten institutes reported that they have an English language lab, but none were used as such. The other institutes did not have language labs. The reported reasons for the labs not being in use were a lack of trained staff to operate them and some components of the technology not being installed or working properly. The findings from the instructors’ survey indicated that English instructors typically develop their own learning materials and teach general English without tailoring content to healthcare contexts. Only two mentioned using a standard textbook to guide their instruction and one described consulting a range of English textbooks to develop learning content. None reported using online or other digital tools for language instruction in their classrooms. Most instructors had an advanced degree (i.e., master’s degree) in English, and seven had received training in teaching English. Interviews with instructors also revealed that they themselves did not have mastery of English, as communication barriers in speaking over the phone appeared consistently across 10 of the 11 instructor respondents.

The web-search and related follow up interviews found that most English instruction programs (10 out of the 11) were designed for teaching general English and/or business English. The majority were offered through private entities aiming to reach individuals intending to study abroad, access employment that required English, or improve their ability to navigate business endeavors in English. One program, developed by the British Council, had flexibility to tailor its structure and some of its content to the needs of midwifery students. However, this was limited in that a significant portion of the content that would be used was developed for global audiences and thus not tailored to a Bangladeshi audience or to any specific discipline. One of the university English programs offered a promising ESP model tailored to midwifery students. It was designed by BRAC University’s Institute of Language for the university’s private midwifery training program.

Three themes emerged from the other key informant interviews (Table  3 ). The first was that, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Of the 34 faculty members intending to participate in the 2019–2020 cohort for the Dalarna master’s degree, half did not pass the prerequisite English exam. Ultimately, simultaneous English-Bangla translation was necessary for close to half of the faculty to enable their participation in the master’s program. English language limitations also precluded one faculty member from participating in an international PhD program in midwifery.

The second theme highlighted the language labs’ lack of usability. The language labs consisted of computers, an interactive whiteboard, audio-visual equipment, and associated software to allow for individualized direct interactions between teacher and student. However, due to the lack of appropriately trained staff to manage, care for and use the language lab equipment, the investment required to make the labs functional appeared to outweigh the learning advantages doing so would provide. Interviews revealed that work was being done, supported by a donor agency, on just one language lab, to explore whether it could be made functional. The work was described as costly and challenging, and required purchasing a software license from abroad, thus likely being impractical to apply to the other labs and sustain over multiple years.

The third theme was around the ESP curriculum model. The program developers had employed evidence-informed thinking to develop the ESP learning content and consulted student midwives on their learning preferences. Due to the student input, at least 80% of the content was designed to directly relate to the practice of midwifery in Bangladesh, while the remaining 10–20% references globally relevant content. This balance was struck based on students’ expressed interest in having some exposure to English usage outside of Bangladesh for their personal interest. For conversation practice, the modules integrated realistic scenarios of midwives interacting with doctors, nurses and patients. Also built into written activities were exercises where students were prompted to describe relevant health topics they are concurrently studying in their health, science or clinical classes. Given the midwifery students’ educational backgrounds and intended placements in rural parts of Bangladesh, an ESP curriculum model appeared to be the most beneficial existing program to pursue tapping into to strengthen English competencies within midwifery programs. This was because the content would likely be more accessible to students than a general English course by having vocabulary, activities and examples directly relevant to the midwifery profession.

The study findings demonstrate key weaknesses in the current model of English instruction taught in public midwifery programs. Notably, the quantitative findings revealed that some English instructors do not have training in teaching English, and none used standard curricula or online resources to structure and enhance their classroom content. In addition, weak mastery of English among midwifery faculty was identified in the qualitative data, which calls into question faculty’s ability to fully understand and accurately convey content from English learning materials. Global literature indicates that this is not a unique situation. Many healthcare faculty and students in low-resource settings, in fact, are faced with delivering and acquiring knowledge in a language they have not sufficiently mastered [ 8 ]. As a significant barrier to knowledge and skill acquisition for evidence-based care, this requires more attention from global midwifery educators [ 9 ].

Also holding back students’ English development is the finding from both the quantitative and qualitative data that none of the high-tech language labs were being used as intended. This indicates a misalignment with the investment against the reality of the resources at the institutes to use them. While setting up the costly language labs appears to have been a large investment with little to no return, it does demonstrate that strengthening English language instruction in post-secondary public education settings is a priority that the Bangladesh government is willing to invest in. However, scaling up access to an ESP curriculum model tailored to future midwifery practitioners in Bangladesh may be a more worthwhile investment than language labs [ 10 ]. 

The ESP approach teaches English for application in a specific discipline. It does this by using vocabulary, examples, demonstrations, scenarios and practice activities that are directly related to the context and professions those studying English live and work (or are preparing to work) in. One way ESP has been described, attributed to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), is, “ESP should properly be seen not as any particular language product but as an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning” [ 11 ]. It is proposed by linguistic education researchers as a viable model for strengthening language mastery and subject matter comprehension in EMI university contexts [ 12 ].

Though it did not arise as a finding, reviewing the literature highlighted that Bangla language instruction may be an additional, potentially viable option. Linguistic research has long shown that students learn more thoroughly and efficiently in their mother tongue [ 12 ]. Another perhaps more desirable option may be multilingualism, which entails recognizing native languages as complementary in EMI classrooms, and using them through verbal instruction and supplemental course materials. Kirkpatrick, a leading scholar of EMI in Asia, suggests that multilingualism be formally integrated into EMI university settings [ 13 ]. This approach is supported by evidence showing that the amount of native language support students need for optimal learning is inversely proportional to their degree of English proficiency [ 14 ].

Ultimately, despite the language related learning limitations identified in this study, and the opportunities presented by native language and multilingualism approaches, there remains a fundamental need for members of the midwifery profession in Bangladesh to use up-to-date guidance on evidence-based midwifery care [ 11 ]. Doing that currently requires English language competence. Perhaps a tiered system of requirements for English competencies that are tied to diploma, Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD midwifery programs could build bridges for more advanced students to access global resources. Higher academic levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level could follow a multilingualism approach—teaching using an ESP curriculum and integrating Bangla strategically to support optimal knowledge acquisition for future practice in rural facilities. Ideally, scores on a standard English competency exam would be used to assess students’ language competencies prior to entrance in English-based programs and that this would require more stringent English skill development prior to entering a midwifery program.

Methodological considerations

One of the limitations of this study is that it relied on self-reports and observation, rather than tested language and subject matter competencies. Its strengths though are in the relatively large number of education institutes that participated in the study, and the breadth of knowledge about faculty and student subject matter expertise among study co-authors. It was recognized that the lead researcher might be biased toward pre-determined perceptions of English competencies being a barrier to teaching and learning held by the lead institution (UNFPA). It was also recognized that due to the inherent power imbalance between researcher and participants, the manner of gathering data and engaging with stakeholders may contribute to confirmation bias, with respondents primarily sharing what they anticipated the researcher wished to hear (e.g., that English needed strengthening and the lead agency should take action to support the strengthening). The researcher thus engaged with participants independently of UNFPA and employed reflexivity by designing and carrying out the surveys to remotely collect standard data from institutes, as well as casting a wide net across institutes to increase broad representation. In addition, while institutes were informed that the surveys were gathering information about the English instruction within the institutes, no information was shared about potential new support to institutes. Finally, the researcher validated and gathered further details on the relevant information identified in the surveys through key informant interviews, which were held with stakeholders independent of UNFPA.

Adapting and scaling up the existing ESP modules found in this study, and integrating Bangla where it can enhance subject-matter learning, may be a useful way to help midwifery students and faculty improve their knowledge, skills, and critical thinking related to the field of midwifery. Given the educational backgrounds and likely work locations of most midwives in Bangladesh and many other LMICs, practitioners may want to consider investing in more opportunities for local midwives to teach and learn in their mother tongue. This type of investment would ideally be paired with a tiered system in which more advanced English competencies are required at higher-levels of education to ensure integration of global, evidence-based approaches into local standards of care.

Declarations.

Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Bangladesh Rehabilitation Assistance Committee

English medium instruction

English for Specific Purposes

Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

United Nations Population Fund

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge Farida Begum, Rabeya Basri, and Pronita Raha for their contributions to data collection for this assessment.

This project under which this study was carried out was funded by funded by the Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office.

Open access funding provided by University of Gothenburg.

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Authors contributions in the development of this paper were as follows: AW- Concept, acquisition, drafting, revision, analysis, interpretation. JRS- Concept, revision. RA- Concept, analysis MB- Revision, analysis, interpretationAll authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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This study was part of a larger project in Bangladesh approved by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) with project ID UZJ31. The MOHFW project approval allows data collection of this type, that is carried out as part of routine program monitoring and improvement, including informed verbal consent for surveys and key informant interviews.

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Williams, A., Stevens, J., Anderson, R. et al. Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 523 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8

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Middle School Counselor Student Services Officer 2 Job Code:   7502 Job Grade:   H FTE: 100%, Exempt   Stanford’s Online High School is an accredited, diploma-offering, highly selective independent high school, offering courses for grades 7-12. The mission of Stanford Online High School (OHS)   is to foster a worldwide community of intellectually adventurous students and teachers. Our courses, created and taught by specialists in their academic fields, encourage students to continuously develop and test their own views as they integrate knowledge across disciplines. Small class sizes and synchronous class meetings populated by curious and engaged classmates and teachers make learning a meaningful and social experience. Students form close bonds with each other and with the school community through classes, clubs, meetups, and other school activities, all supported by caring educators. Our school brings together students with diverse backgrounds from across the world. Stanford Online High School offices are located at the Stanford Redwood City Campus , however this position will be performed completely online and requires you to have the ability, technology, and appropriate tools to successfully perform all job duties online. You must be located within the United States of America and be available to travel to the main campus up to three times per year for important in-person events. The Middle School Counselor plays a key role in our MS program by offering direct counseling services and ensuring our 7th and 8th grade students have the support they need to succeed academically and thrive in their social-emotional development. As part of our robust student support staff, the MS counselor has the opportunity to provide intensive short-term individual counseling and is also responsible for designing, creating, and delivering workshops and other group-oriented experiences for students. The MS counselor works closely with our high school counseling staff and Student Life team to integrate the MS counseling program into a comprehensive approach to enhancing student well-being and extracurricular life. Your responsibilities include: 

• One-on-one short-term confidential counseling for students.
• Individual support for student academic success using a “fading scaffold approach,” in which as students gain competence and confidence, support fades, allowing them to take full ownership.
• Consultation with parents, instructors, and other educators, such as tutors or learning specialists with whom families are working.
• Referrals to in-house resources as well as outside support services, such as local learning specialists and mental health professionals, as needed.
• Development and delivery of workshops for middle school students on topics such as learning strategies, onboarding for new students, communication skills, stress management, and other topics.
• Intervention and advocacy at a systemic level within our school.

To be successful in this position, you will bring: 

• Bachelor’s degree and three years of relevant experience, or combination of education and relevant experience.
• Interpersonal Skills: Demonstrates the ability to work well with Stanford colleagues and clients and with external organizations.
• Promote Culture of Safety: Demonstrates commitment to personal responsibility and value for safety; communicates safety concerns; uses and promotes safe behaviors based on training and lessons learned.
• Strong communication skills to clearly and effectively communicate information to internal and external audiences, client groups, and management.
• Advanced analysis and problem solving skills.
• Advanced computer skills, including experience with Microsoft Office Suite.
• Advanced student service skills.
• Relevant computer systems/technology experience.
• Understanding of financial transactions.
• Ability to ensure and apply compliance with legal, financial, and university policies and external regulations.

Physical Requirements:

• Frequently sit, perform desk-based computer tasks.
• Occasionally stand, walk, twist, use fine manipulation, grasp, use a telephone, write by hand, sort and file paperwork, lift, carry, push, and pull objects that weigh up to 10 pounds.

This role is open to candidates anywhere in the United States. Stanford University has five Regional Pay Structures . The compensation for this position will be based on the location of the successful candidate. The expected pay range for this position is $56,000 to $86,000 per annum. Stanford University provides pay ranges representing its good faith estimate of what the university reasonably expects to pay for a position. The pay offered to a selected candidate will be determined based on factors such as (but not limited to) the scope and responsibilities of the position, the qualifications of the selected candidate, departmental budget availability, internal equity, geographic location, and external market pay for comparable jobs.

At Stanford University, base pay represents only one aspect of the comprehensive rewards package. The Cardinal at Work website ( https://cardinalatwork.stanford.edu/benefits-rewards ) provides detailed information on Stanford’s extensive range of benefits and rewards offered to employees. Specifics about the rewards package for this position may be discussed during the hiring process. Why Stanford is for You Imagine a world with limitless connections and access to knowledge. C onsider lives saved through first-ever organ transplants and research to cure illnesses. Stanford University has revolutionized the way we live and enrich the world. Supporting this mission is our diverse and dedicated 17,000 staff. We seek talent driven to impact the future of our legacy. Our culture and unique perks empower you with:

• Freedom to grow. We offer career development programs, tuition reimbursement, or audit a course. Join a TedTalk, film screening, or listen to a renowned author or global leader speak. 
• A caring culture. We provide superb retirement plans, generous time-off, and family care resources.
• A healthier you. Climb our rock wall, or choose from hundreds of health or fitness classes at our world-class exercise facilities. We also provide excellent health care benefits.
• Discovery and fun. Stroll through historic sculptures, trails, and museums. 
• Enviable resources. Enjoy free commuter programs, ridesharing incentives, discounts and more!

How to Apply We invite you to apply for this position by clicking on the “Apply for Job” button. To be considered, please submit a resume AND cover letter along with your online application. Applications will be considered until the position is filled. *Note: The job duties listed are typical examples of work performed by positions in this job classification and are not designed to contain or be interpreted as a comprehensive inventory of all duties, tasks, and responsibilities. Specific duties and responsibilities may vary depending on department or program needs without changing the general nature and scope of the job or level of responsibility. Employees may also perform other duties as assigned. *Visa sponsorship is not available for this position.  All candidates must be eligible to work in the U.S. *Consistent with its obligations under the law, the University will provide reasonable accommodation to any employee with a disability who requires accommodation to perform the essential functions of the job. *Stanford is an equal employment opportunity and affirmative action employer. All qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, disability, protected veteran status, or any other characteristic protected by law.

• Schedule: Full-time
• Job Code: 7502
• Employee Status: Regular
• Requisition ID: 103291
• Work Arrangement : Remote Eligible

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The Current Territorial Differentiation of the Industry of Irkutsk Oblast

N. a. ippolitova.

1 Sochava Institute of Geography, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 664033 Irkutsk, Russia

2 Irkutsk State University, 664003 Irkutsk, Russia

M. A. Grigoryeva

This article discusses recent changes in the development of industrial production in Irkutsk oblast from 2010 to 2019. Industry is the basic component in the economic complex; it provides about half of the region’s gross added value and is characterized by a multi-sectoral structure formed primarily on the basis of using natural resources and cheap electricity. It is pointed out that in the last decade, a significant change in the structure of industry has led to a structural simplification of its sectoral composition with a significant shift toward the raw materials sector. Cities remain the leading centers of concentration of the manufacturing industry. The grouping of municipalities according to the level of industrial development was carried out according to the available statistical data: the calculated share of the employed in industry and the volume of shipped products of large and medium-sized organizations. On the basis of their ratio, groups of regions with intensive development of the extractive industries, primarily the oil and gas sector, as well as territories in which the industrial profile was formed in Soviet times but underwent transformations under the influence of changes in the market, were identified. A group of regions with very low industrial development has been identified, in which economic activities are mainly related to agriculture, logging, transport, and tourism. It is shown that some of the municipalities have changed their position in the groups when compared to 2010. The rest of the composition is relatively stable. It was found that in the first and fourth groups a change in priority in the development of types of economic activity occurred, whereas the second and third groups show a change in their proportions. Large business contributes to the extremely uneven distribution of investments across the oblast in the implementation of investment projects.

INTRODUCTION

Irkutsk oblast, one of the key industrial regions of Siberia, has great industrial and natural resource potential, which, together with its competitive advantages, make it possible to occupy a leading position among other regions of the country. Research by N.N. Klyuev [ 1 ] shows that Irkutsk oblast is one of the ten Russian regions that maximized the volume of industrial production from 1990 to 2017.

The modern industrial structure of Irkutsk oblast is made up of several basic industries, including the electric power industry, mining and timber processing complexes, nonferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, as well as mechanical engineering and metalworking. With the start of oil and gas production, the oil and gas industry has developed.

Currently, the spatial development of Irkutsk oblast is based on large territorial production centers located in Irkutsk, Bratsk, Shelekhov, Angarsk, Sayansk, Ust-Ilimsk, Zheleznogorsk-Ilimsk, Taishet, Ust-Kut, and Bodaibo, where over 55% of the region’s population lives. These territories account for more than 85% of the added value produced in the region, and about 60% of investments [ 2 ].

The development of industrial production and its territorial features have been widely considered by domestic geographers at different times. It is worth noting the works devoted to the period of industrialization of the eastern territories [ 3 ], economic development [ 4 ], and issues of the location and development of certain industries [ 5 , 6 ]. In recent years, the main attention has been paid to the study of industry in the sectoral context [ 7 – 11 ], as well as using the theory of territorial production complexes [ 12 , 13 ]. The use of an integrated approach makes it possible to determine structural changes in the industry of the regions [ 14 ].

At the regional level, there are many methods and approaches to the construction of typologies and groupings for the socioeconomic development of territories, and in particular industrial development. Consideration of the intraregional level of industrial development in the scientific literature is less common, for example [ 15 – 18 ], which increases the relevance of this research, which is of an applied nature.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information base of the study, which covers 2010–2019, was the materials of the Federal State Statistics Service, including databases of indicators of municipalities and official sites of local governments (analytical and forecast reports).

It is assumed in this work that at present industrial production includes the following sections of OKVED-2: Extraction of minerals (B); Manufacturing industries (C); Provision of electricity, gas and steam; air conditioning (D); Water supply; sewerage, waste collection, and disposal, and pollution elimination activities (E). According to OKVED, in 2010 industrial production consisted of the following types of activities: Extraction of minerals (C); Manufacturing (D); Production and distribution of electricity, gas, and water (E). We note that the work did not take into account the subsection Forestry and logging, which is included in the section Agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishing, and fish farming (A), although logging is a specialization of individual municipalities of the region.

The statistical data used at the municipal level (shipped goods of its own production, performed works and services on its own; the average number of employees of organizations by type of economic activity; investments in fixed assets) are given by Rosstat for large and medium-sized organizations, excluding small businesses. For example, the difference between the volume of products shipped for large and medium-sized organizations and for the full range of organizations is 5.6%, and for those employed in industrial production it is about 15%.

Due to the fact that according to the indicator called shipped goods of our own production, performed works and services on our own (without subjects of municipalities), information on certain types of economic activity is not published for 29 out of 42 municipalities of Irkutsk oblast in order to ensure the confidentiality of primary statistical data [ 19 ], the materials posted on the official websites of the corresponding municipalities were taken into account.

This work used comparative geographical and statistical research methods.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the structure of gross value added in Irkutsk oblast, industry accounted for 31.7% in 2010, and 44.8% in 2018. The specific weight of the volume of shipped products of the region in Russia increased from 1.4% in 2010 to 1.7% in 2019, due to the fact that the volume of mining operations increased nine times. The average annual number of workers employed in the industrial sector decreased by 3.6%.

In 2010–2019, the production index in Irkutsk oblast, based on the results of its retrospective recalculation by Rosstat, did not fall below 100%, reaching its maximum value in 2010, 113.3%, and the minimum value in 2019, 100.4% ( Fig. 1 ). Growth rates of the industrial production index in 2010–2012, were due to significant volumes of mining (especially hydrocarbons). The drop in production volumes in 2019 is associated with a decrease in the production of crude oil, metal ores, and due to the current federal emergency in the region in the summer of 2019 (flooding of settlements) and coal. The trend continued in 2020 under the influence of external and internal factors (Russian participation in the agreement with the OPEC + countries and, accordingly, the restriction on oil production, as well as restrictions on the part of Russian Railways in accepting coal for export). Against the background of this situation, the manufacturing industry in 2020, in contrast, showed an increase in production (in particular, the contribution was made by Pharmasynthez, which began to produce medicines for the treatment of coronavirus infection).

The production indices of Irkutsk oblast, %. Types of economic activity: 1 , industrial production; 2 , mining; 3 , manufacturing; 4 , supply of electricity, gas and steam; air conditioning.

Transformational processes, which differ in intensity and direction in different periods, have formed the modern structure of the region’s industry, whose leading industries are: extraction of crude oil and natural gas, which accounts for 35.2% of the volume of shipped products; energetics , 10.3; metallurgical production, 9.1; production of paper and paper products, 4.7; wood processing, 4.5%. In 2010, the leading positions were occupied by the energy sector, 18.3%; production of machinery, equipment, vehicles, 16.3; metallurgical production, 15.3; extraction of fuel and energy minerals, 8.9; and chemical production, 7.6%.

The average number of employees of organizations (excluding small businesses) and the volume of goods, works, and services shipped by large and medium-sized organizations were used as indicators that characterize the level of development of industrial production in 42 regional municipalities in 2010 and 2019.

The ratio of these indicators made it possible to distinguish four groups of municipalities by the level of industrial development (high, medium, low, and very low) in 2010 and 2019. ( Figs. 2, 3 ).

The distribution of the share of people employed in industry and the volume of industrial production of large and medium-sized organizations in Irkutsk oblast in 2010

The distribution of the share of employed in industry and the volume of industrial production of large and medium-sized organizations in Irkutsk oblast in 2019

In 2019, compared to 2010, there was a transition of a number of territories of the region from one group to another. In three municipalities (Ust-Kutsky, Katangsky, and Alarsky districts) there was an increase in the level of industrial development, and in the other three municipalities (Angarsk, Shelekhovsky district, and Usolye-Sibirskoe) a decrease occurred.

The Highly developed group (Katangsky, Ust-Kutsky regions, and Bratsk) is characterized by high values of the share of people employed in industrial production and the volume of shipped products. It accounts for 21.2% of those employed in industrial organizations of the region (rotation work is also used) and 48.4% of investments in fixed assets. The northern regions continue to increase their concentration of the volume of shipped products in the region by the type of economic activity mining (2010, 43.8%; 2019, 73.6%). Oil and gas condensate production increased by 5.4 times, from 3.3 million tons in 2010 to 17.9 million tons in 2019. Oil produced from fields in the north of the region is fed to the Eastern Siberia–Pacific Ocean (ESPO) pipeline system; it is delivered to the Far East and then exported to China and other countries of the Asia–Pacific region. The main companies represented on the territory of these municipalities are Verkhnechonskneftegaz, Dulisma, and the Irkutsk Oil Company. The latter is the largest taxpayer to the regional budget (in 2018, the share of its contributions was 12.5%). Generally, oil producing enterprises provided 46% of all income tax revenues in 2018 in the structure of tax revenues of the consolidated budget of the region.

Industrial production in Bratsk is associated with the activities of such processing enterprises as RUSAL Bratsk (in 2019 it provided 38% of the aluminum production in Russia), the Ilim Group in Bratsk, and the Bratsk Ferroalloy Plant, which form the industrial image of the city. During the period an increase in the volume of shipped products in the manufacturing sector was noted in Bratsk (2010, 22.6%; 2019, 29.9%), which allows it to remain a large industrial hub of the region.

Group with an average level of development (the Angarsk, Svirsk, Sayansk, Ust-Ilimsk, Irkutsk, Bodaibinsky, Shelekhovsky, Nizhneilimsky, and Tulunsky districts) is distinguished by a high share of those employed in industry and an average volume of industrial production. About half of the region’s population lives in these municipalities, they produce 40.6% of industrial production, and concentrate 61.5% of those employed in the industrial sector, as well as 38.4% of investments. The group includes almost all major industrial centers in the region. Unlike the previous case, the sectoral composition of this group is more diverse and is represented by enterprises of nonferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical and petrochemical, pulp and paper, nuclear, pharmaceutical, and food industries (Irkutsk Aluminum Plant, Irkutsk Aviation Plant, Angarsk Petrochemical Company, Angarsk Polymer Plant, Sayanskkhimplast, Ilim Group in Ust-Ilimsk, Angarsk Electrolysis Chemical Plant, Pharmasintez, etc.). The production profile of these territories was formed back in the Soviet era, but at the present stage enterprises continue to play a significant role in the socioeconomic development of the region, especially for export-oriented industries.

The mining sector is represented by gold mining at ore and alluvial deposits (Polyus Verninskoe, Vysochaishy, Druza, Lenzoloto, etc., which provided more than 9% of the gold mining in Russia), iron ore (Korshunovsky GOK), and coal (Tulunugol open pit).

A separate place in this group is occupied by Irkutsk, the administrative center of the region with a diversified industry, which is the center of the emerging agglomeration of the same name. For Irkutsk, there is a significant increase in shipped products by the type of economic activity supply of electricity, gas, and steam, and air conditioning (in 2010, 27.9%, and in 2019, 87.4%). This increase is explained by a peculiarity of statistical accounting: most of the products produced on the territory of the region for this type of economic activity are attributed to the city. In reality, Irkutsk produces 25 times less of them. We note that almost all large energy companies, except for Vitimenergo, are registered in the regional center.

The low development group (Usolye-Sibirskoe, Winter, Tulun, Cheremkhovo, Kirensky, Zhigalovsky, Nizhneudinsky, Usolsky, Mamsko-Chuisky, Zalarinsky, Kazachinsko-Lensky, Taishetsky, Ust-Ilimsky, Bratsky, Nukutsky, Alarsky, Slyudyansky, Chunsky, Chunkhovsky, and Irkutsky) is the most numerous and heterogeneous in its composition. It is characterized by a small share of those employed in the industrial production of the region and a low volume of goods shipped. This group accounts for 8.8% of the volume of shipped goods, works, and services of the region, 16.8% of those employed in industry, and 12.7% of investments. In more than half of the municipalities, the leading type of economic activity is manufacturing, which is represented by medium-sized and large companies: a branch of the Ilim Group in the Bratsk District, Knauf Gips Baikal, Rusforest Magistralny, Usolye Salt Extraction and Processing Shop (part of Russol), and others.

Mining predominates in six municipalities (Gazprom Dobycha Irkutsk, IOC, Nedra mining company (GPK), Tyretsky salt mine, Cheremkhovugol open pit, etc.); in Tulunsky district, it is power engineering, and in Mamsko-Chuysky, it is water supply. At the end of 2022, gas is planned to be supplied from the Kovykta field (Irkutsk gas production center) to the Power of Siberia gas trunkline, which is oriented to external consumption (China).

The group includes territories both with industrial enterprises closed in the post-Soviet period and with new industrial facilities that have just begun to function. Single-industry towns (Usolye-Sibirskoye, Cheremkhovo, and Tulun) were given the status of a territory of advanced socioeconomic development to support the economy.

The very low development group (Osinsky, Kuytunsky, Bayandaevsky, Olkhonsky, Balagansky, Kachugsky, Bokhansky, Ekhirit-Bulagatsky, Ust-Udinsky, and Ziminsky districts). This accounts for only 0.1% of the volume of products produced in the region, 0.5% of those employed in industrial organizations of the region, 0.5% of investments in fixed assets. The industry is mainly represented by food. The districts specialize in agriculture, logging, and recreational activities. There are no large companies; small business prevails.

In the first and fourth groups, the priorities in the development of types of economic activity changed, and in the second and third groups, their proportions changed ( Fig. 4 ).

The change in the structure of types of economic activities by groups of municipalities of Irkutsk oblast in 2010 and 2019, %. Types of economic activity: 1 , mining; 2 , manufacturing industries; 3 , supply of electricity, gas and steam; air conditioning; 4 , water supply, sewerage, waste collection and disposal, activities to eliminate pollution.

From 2010 to 2019, the volume of shipped products and investments increased by 3.4 and 3.8 times, respectively (on average per one municipal district) (see Table 1 ), with a decrease in the population and employed in the industrial sector. The greatest change in these indicators is noted in the first and second groups.

Industrial development indicators by groups of municipalities of Irkutsk oblast in 2010 and 2019 (on average for one municipality)

The regional industry is dominated by local organizations of various sizes, a quarter of the large and medium-sized companies are controlled by holding companies such as Gazprom, Rosneft, Polyus, Ilim Group, Rosatom, Rostekh, Mechel, Renova, En+ Group, and RUSAL.

In recent years, as a result of the active development of oil and gas resources, the process of complex formation has begun 1 : for example, IOC is building a polymer plant in Ust-Kut (commissioning is planned in 2024) and is building the Ust-Kutsk gas processing plant for the supply of raw materials (to be launched in 2021).

RUSAL invested and attracted large investments in the construction of the Taishet aluminum plant (the launch was postponed to 2021), as well as the Taishet anode factory, which will meet the plant’s needs for baked anodes. The Ilim Group will build a pulp and cardboard mill in Ust-Ilimsk by 2023, which will increase the production of unbleached packaging materials. These and other projects, which were initiated by big business and are in an active stage, attract investments to the municipalities of the region ( Fig. 5 ).

The share of investments in fixed assets of large and medium-sized organizations of Irkutsk oblast, %. Municipalities: 1 , Irkutsk; 2 , Katangsky district; 3 , Bratsk; 4 , Angarsk; 5 , Usolye-Sibirskoye; 6 , Ust-Kutsky district; 7 , Taishetsky district; 8 , others.

In 2010 the share of investments of the five leading municipalities in the region was 71.2%, while by 2019 the concentration increased to 78.8%. In 2017–2019 investment growth rates increased, on average, in most municipalities (85.7%), especially in municipalities of the third group, the Tulun, Ust-Ilimsky, Kuytunsky, and Cheremkhovsky districts. Per capita investment rates are the highest for municipalities of the first and second groups, Katangsky, Ust-Kutsky, and Bodaibinsky northern regions, which is explained by the large volumes of investments made by large companies in the development of natural resources and the low population density.

CONCLUSIONS

In the last decade, an increase in the share of the raw materials sector (by four times) with a significant decrease in the share of mechanical engineering (by four times), chemical production (by almost two times), energy, and metallurgy determines the structural shifts in the region’s economy. The shift towards the extractive sector, which is more focused on the export of raw materials, structurally simplifies the sectoral composition of industry.

The existing main territories for gold and iron ore mining (Bodaibinsky, Nizhneilimsky regions), as well as peripheral northern regions (Katangsky, Ust-Kutsky), areas for the development of oil and gas resources, have increased their importance and increased concentration in industrial production. In 2019, they accounted for the largest volume of shipped products in the extraction of minerals, 89.1% (2010, 50.6%). This is also facilitated by the pipeline system, the main ESPO oil pipeline and the Power of Siberia gas pipeline (its section under construction in the region), as well as the increased demand for hydrocarbons in the markets of the Asia–Pacific region. The development of the oil and gas industry attracted labor resources from other regions of the country (Western Siberia, the Republic of Tatarstan, etc.). In 2019, the number of workers on a rotational basis exceeded 25 000 people per quarter, of which more than 30% are residents of the region.

The cities, the leading industrial centers of the region (Bratsk, Irkutsk, Angarsk, Shelekhov, Ust-Ilimsk, and Sayansk), whose large enterprises were created in Soviet times, have adapted to changing conditions and still retain their stability. In 2019, they formed 87% of the shipped products of the manufacturing industry (in 2010, 90.5%). Other cities (Tulun, Zima, and Usolye-Sibirskoye) lost their importance as a result of the closure of city-forming enterprises in the post-Soviet period; in 2013, Baikalsk was added to them. As a regional center, Irkutsk is statistically attributed to a significant volume of shipped goods, works, and services in the energy sector (2019, 87.4%), which complicates the territorial analysis of this industry.

To identify intraregional differentiation of the level of industrial development in 2010 and 2019 four groups of medical organizations were identified, which are different in composition depending on the distribution of quantitative criteria (the share of people employed in industrial production and the volume of shipped products of large and medium-sized organizations). Six MOs changed their position in the groups, while the rest retained their positions,

Over the past 10 years, only five municipalities (Irkutsk, Bratsk, Angarsk, Katangsky, and Ust-Kutsky districts) have concentrated more than two-thirds of their investments in fixed assets, which indicates the extreme unevenness of their distribution. Basically, the resource advantages of the region in the implementation of large investment projects in gas chemistry, nonferrous metallurgy, timber processing, pulp and paper production, and mining are used by large businesses that control significant enterprises. However, investment activity has little effect on improving socioeconomic conditions, which has been noted by other researchers [ 14 , 21 ].

The work was carried out at the expense of the state assignment (АААА-А21-121012190019-9).

1 According to P.Ya. Baklanov, the processes of the initial formation and subsequent development of territorial combinations of nodal elements, various enterprises (or territorial-production complexes) are complex formation [ 20 , p. 213].

Contributor Information

N. A. Ippolitova, Email: ur.tsil@pi-anin .

M. A. Grigoryeva, Email: ur.xednay@9irgram .

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Sanatorium "Bratskoye Vzmorye"

Description of Sanatorium "Bratskoye Vzmorye"

• Location: Bratsk, Irkutsk Oblast, Russia
• Number of children per shift: up to 275
• Language of service: Russian
• Type of eduaction: mixed.

Sanatorium "Bratskoye Vzmorye" is one of the most famous places for family recreation and rehabilitation in the Irkutsk region. The institution works all year round, receives up to 275 guests at a time on the campus near the Bratsk reservoir, surrounded by a beautiful Siberian forest, water spaces and a multi-kilometer beach.

The sanatorium has a large territory with several accommodation options for both people coming alone and families with children. In the "Fraternal Seaside" there are many medical installations that prevent diseases of different body systems: digestion, respiration, heart and blood vessels, nerves, muscles and bones. It employs highly qualified specialists with medical education, who have extensive experience in prevention and treatment in their specialties.

Every year, groups of children come to the campus of the "Fraternal Seaside" who want to relax and improve their health during the school holidays.

Programs and prices, tuition fees in Sanatorium "Bratskoye Vzmorye"

Leisure programs with treatment.

The combination of services included in the voucher can be chosen independently. Families with children, couples and vacationers alone can live in a sanatorium, enjoying the surrounding nature, as well as undergo medical procedures in different areas of recovery. Many cultural events, concerts and festivals are organized on campus, if desired, you can walk around the sights of the city or take advantage of excursion tours.

Children's recreation programs

• Age - from 7 years.

Pupils of the "Fraternal Seaside" will be able to undergo effective rehabilitation on the basis of mineral water, many medical procedures. The program includes four meals a day, accommodation on the territory of the sanatorium, sports and cultural events, active games in the fresh air and much more. Children are looked after around the clock by employees of the sanatorium and counselors.

Accommodation, meals, prices

Two residential buildings were built on the territory, connected by a covered passage with other buildings of the sanatorium. All guests are accommodated in single, double rooms or superior rooms - suites.

Children arriving in groups with accompaniment live in a building with sectional placement of rooms, joint bathrooms. Triple rooms are fully furnished, bedding, bathrobes, towels are provided.

Daily cost of living:

• Sectional numbers – 1500-2000 rub.
• Single, double private rooms – 2000-2900 rub.
• Family Rooms – 2900
• Nine suites are two-room suites for four people. It ideally accommodates families with children - from 2800 to 4940 rubles.

All living areas are equipped with beds, wardrobes and cabinets, desks, TVs and refrigerators. The suites have private bathrooms, toilets with showers or Jacuzzi, additionally provide a hairdryer, iron, crockery.

For a comfortable stay, you need to take with you:

• Seasonal clothing and footwear
• Clothes for medical procedures
• Clothing for entertainment
• Personal hygiene items.

Groups of children arriving during school holidays are provided with four meals a day on a balanced menu. Families with children or individual vacationers can visit both the dining room and the banquet hall, having chosen the food option in advance.

The cost of four meals a day:

• Groups of schoolchildren – 500-800 rub
• Families with children, single tenants - 800-2600 rub.

Activities Sanatorium "Bratskoye Vzmorye"

Those who come to the sanatorium will be able to visit the Bratsk Drama Theater, the Solnechny swimming pool, entertainment centers. Travel agencies organize many thematic excursions around the city.

On the territory of the sanatorium dance evenings, concerts of invited artists and musicians, events prepared by the vacationers themselves are held.

In winter, residents of the "Bratsk Seaside" have the opportunity to go skiing and skating, play golf on ice and visit ice slides. In the summer, rest on the beach is popular among vacationers, where volleyball games, tennis are held, yacht trips along the Bratsk Sea, picnics are organized. Campus staff organize sports competitions, creative competitions and concerts for children.

• Equipment for disease prevention
• Sanatorium for all ages
• Family or single occupancy.

Facilities and equipment at Sanatorium "Bratskoye Vzmorye"

On the basis of the sanatorium, many methods of effective recovery and recreation are used. In the medical building there are specialized rooms for mud and physiotherapy, classical and reflex-segmental massage, climatotherapy and other specializations. On the territory there are two wells with mineral water, as well as small shops selling this water in bottles. The natural properties of these waters help the regeneration and rapid healing of tissues outside and inside the body.

Guests of the sanatorium can use the entire infrastructure of the campus:

• Dining room, banquet hall, bar
• Treatment rooms
• Sauna, bath
• Relaxation areas with billiards, table tennis, darts, chessboards and checkers
• Mini Golf Course
• Library, reading room
• Cinema hall with a projector, karaoke machine.

"Bratskoe Vzmorye" provides a free transfer within the city of Bratsk by prior request.

Admission dates and extra charges

You can come to the sanatorium at any time of the year, having bought a voucher in advance. Additional costs will include options not acquired as part of the voucher: food, procedures.

Entry requirements, how to apply, what is required to enrol

Those wishing to relax in the sanatorium should provide:

• Birth certificate or passport of the child, if he comes with his family
• Insurance policies for all holidaymakers
• An extract of the medical history for the last month.

When sending a child as part of a group, you should provide:

• Sanatorium-resort map with analyzes
• Certificate of sanitary epidemiological environment
• Copies of medical insurance policy, birth certificate or passport, vaccination certificate.

You can buy a voucher on the official website or on the territory of the sanatorium.

Scholarships Sanatorium "Bratskoye Vzmorye"

All vacationers have the opportunity to return 50% of the cost of paying for the voucher, paying for it with a card of the Mir system and having registration in the loyalty program.

Institution on the map

Residence permits, citizenship and other services.

• Guardianship services during the studies
• Student supervision

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