research paper topics about buddhism

258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for Buddhism essay topics? Being one of the world’s largest and most ancient religions, buddhism is definitely worth exploring!

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In your Buddhism essay, you might want to focus on the history of the religion or Buddhist attitude to controversial social issues. Another option would be to write about Buddhist philosophy or practices. Whether you need to write a short Buddhism essay or a more substantive paper, this article will be helpful. Here you’ll find a collection of 241 Buddhism topics for essays and research papers together with Buddhism essay examples.

🏆 Best Buddhism Essay Examples & Topic Ideas

• Japanese Buddhism vs. Chinese Buddhism: Differences The introduction and spread of Buddhism in Japan depended on the support that was offered by the Japanese rulers. Japanese Buddhist art has relied heavily on the Chinese art since the introduction of Buddhism in […]
• Buddhism and Sikhism Comparison: Four Noble Truths The four are dukkha, the origin of dukkha, the cessation of dukkha, and the path to the cessation of suffering. He forsook the luxuries and other benefits associated with life in the palace to join […]
• Buddhism and Hinduism: Similarities and Differences The most conspicuous similarity is the origin of the two religions in sub-continent India. Some worship and religious practices are similar but there is a profound difference in the style and purpose of life in […]
• ”The History of God” by Karen Armstrong: An Overview of the History of Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism “The History of God” by Karen Armstrong is a comprehensive overview of the history of the development of Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism.
• Judaism and Buddhism: Overview and Comparison If reform Judaism is on one side of the spectrum and orthodox Judaism is on the other one, conservative Jews are in the center.
• Hinduism and Buddhism: Comparative Analysis One of the basic concepts in Indian philosophy: the soul, drowning in the “ocean of samsara,” seeks liberation and deliverance from the results of its past actions, which are part of the “net of samsara”.
• The Idea Salvation in Buddhism Religion Focusing on the discussion of the concept of salvation in Buddhism, it is important to state that salvation is the emancipation of a person from the attachment to the reality and from the person’s focus […]
• Dharma in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism This essay aims to describe the ideas of dharma in the religions of Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism in terms of their doctrines, rituals, origin tales, and modes of worship.
• Role of Brahmanism in the Decline of Buddhism In addition to this, the persecution of Bramanical Kings together with the anti-Buddhism propaganda was a heavy hit to the Buddhists.
• Shinto and Its Relationship With China and Buddhism As such, those who identify with the two religions have continued to engage in practices of the Buddhist and Shinto faiths either knowingly or unknowingly.
• Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism Elements Hindus, the last power is discovered in the Vedas and the writing of the religious leaders willing to view the fact nature of reality.
• Buddhist Allegories in “The Monkey and the Monk” The Monkey and the Monk is not an ordinary story with a list of characters with the ability to develop particular relationships, grow in their specific ways, and demonstrate necessary lessons to the reader.
• Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy Buddhists believe in a higher power and life after death, they have a moral code of ethics, and they perform rituals; these things are the definition of established religion.
• The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism In the third Noble Truth, the Buddha identified a cure to the problem and in the fourth Noble Truth, he identified the prescription to end suffering.
• Comparison of Buddhism and the Baptist Religions The other structure in the Temple is the vihan which is the place where the members of the Temple assemble for prayers.
• Comparison of Hinduism and Buddhism Rituals Buddhism and Hinduism are some of the popular religions in the world with their origins dating back to the Common Era in India.
• Death and Dying in Christianity and Buddhism Birth and death are part of everybody’s life: birth is the beginning of living, and death is the end of it.
• Zhong Kui, the Keeper of Hearth and Home: Japanese Myth With Buddhist Philosophy Zhong Kui, the Demon Queller, or Shoki, as foreigners call this creature, is the keeper of the hearth and home in Japan and one of the most picturesque characters of Japanese legends.
• Wu Wei in Daoism and Zen Buddhism Therefore, the original ideas and thoughts of Taoism are believed to have influenced the development of Zen Buddhism in China. This discussion shows clearly that emptiness in Buddhism points to dependent origination as the true […]
• Philosophy of Confucius Compared to That of Buddhism This due to the fact that only the aspect of ethics in the Buddhist philosophy can be significantly likened to the Confucian philosophy.
• Buddhism Spread as Globalization of Knowledge Modern Buddhism has been integrated as a key part of the globalization movement, and it explains why the faith has spread throughout different parts of the world.[3] The correlation between Buddhism and globalization stems from […]
• Four Noble Truths as Buddhism Fundamentals The first noble truth in Buddhism teachings is the truth of suffering that is frequently referred to as Dukkha. The last interpretation of the Dukkha is the expression of suffering that is inevitable.
• Morality in Buddhism The purpose of this paper is to expound on the concept of morality in Buddhism, and how the various Buddhist teachings, such as the Four Noble Truths, have enhanced my morality in me and in […]
• Buddhism and Christianity Comparison In Buddhism, the ultimate goal is the acquisition of the Nirvana state, a state in which one is relieved of egos, desires, and cravings and saved from the suffering experienced due to reincarnations.
• Buddhism: The Concept of Death and Dying Life is permanent but death is the transition of a human soul to either one of the six Buddhist realms. The purpose of this paper is to explain the concept of death from the Buddhist […]
• Concepts of Buddhism At the age of twenty-nine, he left the comforts of the palace and went out to seek the real meaning of life.
• Anatman and Atman Concepts in Buddhism and Hinduism Rendering to the Atman notion, Atman is eventually in the custody of people’s reactions to what happens in the outside world. The idea of the self in assembly to God is where Hinduism and Buddhism […]
• Buddhism in ‘The World’s Religions’ by Huston Smith Although in his The World’s Religions, Huston Smith identifies speculation as one of the religious constants, Buddhism views humans’ endeavors to ascertain the truth as meaningless and fruitless pursuit: It is not on the view […]
• Buddhism and Hinduism: A Comparison Both of Hinduism and Buddhism have shared beliefs but they are different in the practice of duties, worshipped, the founders of the religions.
• Three Jewels of Buddhism and Their Role The three jewels of Buddhism which are the main ideals at the heart of Buddhism are together identified as the Three Jewels, or the Three Treasures.
• Buddhism. Allegory in “The Monkey and the Monk” In The Monkey & the Monk: an Abridgment of the Journey to the West, the Monkey is one of the main protagonists of the book, as is apparent from its title.
• Buddhism in Different Historical Regions He became Buddha and gathered disciples in the valley of the Ganges who spread the knowledge and contributed to the scripture.
• Descartes’ and Buddhist Ideas of Self-Existence It is the assumption of this paper that Descartes’ perspective and the teachings of Buddha on the self are inherently incompatible due to their different perspectives on what constitutes “the self”.
• Religious Studies: Hinduism and Buddhism Samsara refers to the processor rebirth whereby the individual is reincarnated in a succession of lives. This is what has led to the many differences that arise, causing Buddhism to be viewed as a religious […]
• How Does Mahayana Differ From Early Buddhism? According to Mahayana believers, the rituals and ceremonies are important in affirming their faith and in teaching vital traditions and rules that have to be followed by those who accept to be members of the […]
• Buddhism and Hinduism Thus it is each individuals role to return the soul but this is not possible because of the sins and impurities one becomes exposed to once living in this world and since the process of […]
• Emptiness: Buddhism, Dualism, and the Philosophy of Existence To understand the truth of life, the essence of objects, and the meaning of existence, it is necessary to set yourself aside from fixed thoughts.
• Myanmar Buddhism: Between Controversy and Ecumenism Firstly, the formation of a Buddha through the ritual performance by placing and identifying within a person’s body the traits of the Buddha that, in turn, become the Buddha.
• Buddhist Meditation’s Impact on Health My goal is to determine whether Buddhist meditation can help an individual find a sense of mental, emotional, and spiritual balance in their life.

👍 Good Essay Topics on Buddhism

• Hindu Pathways and Buddhist Noble Truths The Buddha relates life suffering in the Four Noble Truths to that of a physician who identifies the symptoms of the suffering, finds out the causes, identifies ways to stop, and finally administers treatment.
• Paths to Enlightenment in Hinduism and Buddhism This paper will compare the paths to moksha with the Four Noble Truths and argue that raja yoga would best utilize the Buddhist method of the Eightfold Path.
• Mahayana Buddhism: Growth and Development of Buddhism The Mahayana elaboration of this concept is unusual in that it uses the term “bodhisattva” to refer to anyone who has the desire to become a Buddha and does not require that this desire be […]
• Distribution Features of Confucianism and Buddhism Confucianism is more a philosophical doctrine than a religion, and its connection with the East is strong due to the specifics of the Asian mentality.
• Buddhism and Christianity: Similarities and Differences While Buddhists see suffering as an integral part of life, in Christianity people can put a stop to it finding unity with God, a notion that may cause misunderstanding on the part of Buddhist adepts.
• Ethics in the Buddhist Tradition The concept of ethics and morality is one of the perfection followers of Buddhism must strive to achieve enlightenment. Techniques include entering into the flow and control of the senses, understanding the practice of return, […]
• Health Beliefs in Buddhist Religion Moreover, the body and mind are interdependent; thus, Buddhists consider greed, anger, and ignorance as the main aspects affecting the deterioration of human well-being.
• Indigenous Religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism For example, Confucianism is one of the modern national religions of China, which was formed at the turn of the new era based on the ethical-philosophical teachings of Confucius and his followers.
• Buddhism and Christianity: Comparison and Contrast The principal teachings of the religion are on enlightenment which is thought to be attained through a life of self-deprivation. Christianity is evident in the existence of one supreme being who is the creator of […]
• Analysis of Buddhism Idea and Paradox The most important aspect that attracted me to this film was the authentic depiction of the traditions of old Ceylon and the excellent atmosphere of the festival.
• Buddhism and the Definition of Religion On the one hand, the concepts of ‘laukika’ and ‘lokottara,’ which can be roughly translated as ‘of the world’ and ‘not of the world,’ more or less corresponding to Western ideas of profane and sacred.
• Why Was the Silk Road So Important in the Spread of Buddhism The fundamental importance was the spread of Buddhism from India to the rest of the world. Trade development along the Silk Road resulted in the expansion of Buddhism to Eastern Asia and China.
• Karma and Other Concepts in Buddhism The afflictions that propel rebirth in the wheel of existence are the teachings of new reality after death in a circumstance known as samsara.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: A Comparative Study While in the case of Hinduism, samsara is the cyclical rebirth of the soul that remains unchanged, Buddhism teaches that samsara is the transformation of a person into something else.
• Hinduism, Buddhism, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Ramayana in the News Media It also implies that the government of the country where Hinduism is the predominant religion is concerned because of the mistakes revealed by mass media.
• Architeture and Function in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islamic Religion In Buddhism religion, various architectural structures like Stupas which are oldest in Buddhism and Pagodas which are major form of architectural structures in Buddhism have been used for long time up to date.
• An Introduction to Buddhism The doctrines of suffering and rebirth are contained in dharma which is also the teachings of Buddhism. It is celebrated to remember a historical and important event that took place in the life of Budha.
• A Conversation With a Buddhist The biggest role when discussing Buddhism is often given to the ability to see the light and become one of the sources of it.
• Reflection on Self in Buddhism and Hinduism The specificity of the Buddhist concept of the human self lies in the acceptance of the distinction between self and general in a spiritual aspect.
• Buddhism: Ancient Wisdom and Modern Times The problem of wanting more and more is often the main reason why people fail to follow the Five Precepts of Buddhism, resort to violence, get lost in indulging themselves, and defy moral principles.
• Healthy Grief: Kübler-Ross, Job, and Buddhist Stages of Grieving The author also recognizes the fact that the five phases of grieving do not necessarily manifest in the same order in everyone. In the ‘anger’ stage, people begin to comprehend the reality of the situation.
• Comprehending Heart Sutra in Mahayana Buddhism The sutra is chanted in Chinese, but the general message is the same regardless of the language or even the version of the verses.
• Buddhism and Sexuality: Restraining Sexual Desires for Enlightenment It is considered to be more honest to refuse to stick to the aforementioned rules than to be a hypocritical member of the community, who consciously violates the codes.
• Buddhist Arts and Visual Culture In contrast, the Gandhara sculptures were usually made of grey sandstone, whereas the ones found in Sarnath are in the buff one.
• Soul Concept in Islam and Buddhism And since this pursuit is ever continual, the soul is therefore eternal.’The Soul’ in Buddhism: One of the most distinct concepts of Buddhism is the assertion that there is no soul.
• Religion. How Buddhism Views the World Evaluating the general information about this religion, it appears that Buddhism is seen as one of the most popular and widespread religions on the earth the reason of its pragmatic and attractive philosophies which are […]
• Animal Ethics From the Buddhist Perspective In biomedical research and ethics, one of the most frequently debated issues regarding the use of animals in healthcare research is the concept of animal rights.
• Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism in America: A Country of Many Religions This paper aims to explore the impact of Islam, Hindu, and Buddhism on the diversity in America today and answer the question what role they are playing in the society.
• Buddhism in China: Yogācāra Buddhism However, the logical structure of the Yogak ra was not mere speculation, and the ultimate scopes of tradition remained the attainment of the Buddhahood and liberation from the Sams ra.
• The Emergence of Tibetan Buddhism According to modern historians, it is widely believed that the religion based on the Buddha’s teachings first came to Tibet in the seventh century of the Common Era, with the period of its most active […]
• China Impact on Transformation of Buddhist Teachings The unique Chinese Buddhist tradition was formed under the impact of the long-established worldview of the Chinese culture on the original ideas of Buddhism.
• No-Self or Anatman Concept in Buddhism In his teachings, the Buddha used the idea of no-self to disprove the logical consistency of seeing people as creatures that are independent in terms of perception and knowledge.
• The Unexamined Life and the Buddhist Four Noble Truths One is happy to see healthy grandkids playing in the green backyard of the beautiful house because the life goals are met and this brings happiness because there have been so many questions and uncertainties […]
• Buddhism: Definition and Origins of Buddhism However, there is admittance to the existence, reality and truth that in one general conscious awareness, Buddhism is man’s inclination to support or be loyal to and to agree to an opinion of the Teaching […]
• Comparing Early Christian and Buddhist Sculpture During his reign, the territory of the Byzantine Empire expanded significantly, having become the largest during the whole history of the Byzantine Empire; it is possible to say that the cult of Justinian existed in […]
• The Place of Buddhism Among Other Religions The purpose of this paper is to analyze the eight fold path in Buddhism and its similarities with other religion. Buddhism is one of the major religions in the world and shares a lot in […]
• Hindu and Buddhism: Concept of Karma Indeed, the teachings tend to create a balance between spirituality and ordinary human life in the sense that, by following the path of attaining knowledge and the quest to understand the oneself as human through […]
• Nature of Self, Death, and Ethics in Buddhism The state of ultimate reality is pervasive and it builds the foundation of being and the source of energy in every atom and the life of every creature.
• Vedic Hinduism, Classical Hinduism, and Buddhism: A Uniting Belief Systems The difference between Vedic and Classical Hinduism is fundamentally approach towards life rather than beliefs or reformation and the progression from the former to latter is not clear in terms of time.

💡 Easy Buddhism Essay Topics

• The Comparison of Buddhism and Taoism Philosophies In Taoism the aim is attain Tao while the Buddhists strive to reach the nirvana and adhere to the four noble truths.
• Nirvana in Buddhism and Atman in Hinduism The Mantras which is the text of the Vedas are the personification of the Brahman and are divided into two forms which are the karma-Kanda and the Jnana-Kanda.
• Buddhist Religion, Its Past and Its Present The first and the foremost form of Buddhism that has long been practiced is known as the Theravada Buddhism, which is also known as Southern Buddhism; sporadically spelled as Therevada has been the governing discipline […]
• Thailand’s Social Investment Project and Buddhist Philosophy According to the World Bank, the first priority area of the Social Investment Project was to respond to the economic and financial crises through the provision of vital social services to the poor and unemployed […]
• World Religions. Buddhism and Its Teaching As per the teachings of this religion, happiness and contentment is possible. The Fourth Noble Truth is all about Noble eightfold path, as being the path leading to the end of suffering.
• How Tibetan Buddhism Is Represented by Hollywood LITTLE BUDDHA is a well-represented film by Hollywood that tells the story of Jesse Conrad and has a major parallels story of a prince Siddhartha in which the story talks about the birth of Buddhism.
• The History of Buddhism in Korea: Origin, Establishment, and Development The Koryo dynasty’s era witnessed the creation of the Korean Tripitaka, this is a collection of all of the Buddhist sacred books or the scriptures and era of the spread of Buddhism also the period […]
• Buddhism. “The Burmese Harp” Drama Film When the Japanese troops are supposed to surrender and a soldier is sent to other Japanese troops to tell them to drop their guns, they deny the orders and continue to fight and thereby, continue […]
• Ways in Which the Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Criticize the Body as a Source of Suffering Yet Use It as Path to Enlighten The level of how weakness and sensibility to pain, adversity is discouraged is shown when the lord Krishna makes it a point to elaborate to Arjuna, that in his position as a warrior he has […]
• Buddhism and Greater Peace: Conflict, Visions of Peace The main reason for this Buddhism teaches is that by encouraging people in the communities to live in peace with neighbors, chances of conflicts would greatly be diminished.
• Middle Path’ in Chinese Buddhism and Zen Buddhism Followers of Mahayana tradition consider their doctrine as the finding of the truth about the nature and teachings of the Buddha in contrast to the Theravada tradition, which they characterize as Lesser Vehicle, known as […]
• The Feminine Aspect of Tibetan Buddhism One of the inspiring stories of the first of enlightened females in the literature is of Princess Yeshe Bawa who was a follower of the Buddha of her time and was determined to become enlightened.
• Existence Viewed by Modern America, Buddhism, and Christianity Humans of all generations and historical periods seek to find the answer to the cause about the cause of life, the destiny and the role of each human in the life of others.
• Karuna Part of Spiritual Path in Buddhism and Jainism The purpose of this paper is to study the concept of karuna in Buddhism and its relevance to the two major sects in that religion namely Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism.
• Buddhism Studies: A Visit of the Jade Buddha Temple The teachings of the Buddhist are essentially meant to change ourselves and not others like a Christian believer and in the teaching the change occurs when we are “filled with” or we are awaken to […]
• Buddhism: Brief History of Religion From Origin to Modern Days The faith of Buddhism was shaped by a man by the name of Siddhartha Gautama who is supposed to have been imagines by a miraculous conception “in which the future Buddha came to his look […]
• Buddhism in Koryo Analysis Although some of the concepts similar to the teachings Buddhism had spread to Paschke and Koguyo, the places inhabited by the Koryo people, the religion preached by Buddha could not be firmly established in two […]
• Meeting of Buddhist Monks and Nuns The stupa became a symbol of the Buddha, of his final release from the cycle of birth and rebirth – the Parinirvana or the “Final Dying,” the monk explained. He explained that the main Buddha […]
• Teachings of Buddhism as a Means to Alleviate Sadness Buddhism, one of the major religions of the world, provides valuable teachings on how to alleviate sadness in life, among others specifically advocating Contentment, Peace of Mind and Love, all of which lie at the […]
• Presenting Christianity to Buddhism A Buddhist can therefore relate to the phrase ‘kingdom of God’ as the process of living and discovering the heaven that is located within a person’s heart.
• Buddhism and William James’ Theory of Religions It can also be learned from the theory that philosophy is the head of emancipation, and the proletariat is its heart.
• Salvation and Self in Hinduism and Theravada Buddhism The accomplishment of the elevating state of ‘Moksha’ is the final goal of Hinduism, whereas Buddhism aspires to attain the elevating state of ‘Nirvana’ as its final aim.’Moksha’, the final outcome of which is ultimate […]
• Formation and Development of Tibetan Buddhist Canon Kangyur means “translations of the word” of the Buddhas and consists of sutras, tantras, and the root texts attributed to the Buddhas Buddha Shakyamuni and later enlightened beings, like Guru Padmasambhava.
• Buddhist Teachings Allegory in “Monkey” by Lamport The Monkey is one of the masterpieces of literature that contains the ethics, morality, religion, and culture of the Eastern world.
• Monkey Novel as an Allegory of Buddhist Teachings The purpose of this paper is to explain why Monkey is an allegory of Buddhist teachings in the selected novel. The reader also observed that Tripitaka is a representation of the physical outcomes and experiences […]
• Buddhism in Taiwan Then and Now The origin and development of Buddhism is attributed to the life experiences and achievements of the Buddha. 1 The Dutch colonialists and settlers from China presented the teachings of the Buddha to the people.
• Nirvana and Other Buddhism Concepts Different regions have adopted specific ways of being religious that have been influenced by the cultural attributes of the people, influence from other religions, and the ideas associated with various Asian philosophies.
• Buddhism in the 19th and 20th Centuries The 19th and 20th centuries brought challenges and opportunities for Buddhism, as a religious sect, which underlined the need for change from an amorphous and disorganized outfit to the formation of institutions of governance and […]
• Changes to Buddhism in Modern Times Buddhism originated in the middle of the first millennium BC in northern India as an opposition to the religion of Brahmanism that dominated in those days. Tolerance of Buddhism undoubtedly contributes to its attractiveness in […]
• Religion in Japan: Buddhism, Shintoism, and Daoism Unlike in different European and American nations, the citizens of this country uphold unique ideas informed by the concepts of Buddhism and Shintoism.
• The Tibetan Buddhism Lecture On the journey to Nirvana, traditions of donation of money and donation of the body are important, as charity is said to benefit those around you and make the journey easier. Tibetan Buddhism is very […]
• Buddhism in China, Its Spread and Sinification The lack of material concerning the early spread of Buddhism into China and the appearance of a dignified form of Buddhism has suggested a series of factors that contributed to filtering the original Indian doctrine […]
• World Religions: Confucianism and Buddhism Birth as the first stage of human life is supported by rituals that have to protect the woman and her child.
• Religions: Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam In the Bhagavad Gita, three yogas, or paths to liberation, are outlined: jnana yoga, which liberates one via knowledge; karma yoga, which liberates one via actions; and bhakti yoga, which liberates one via devotion.
• Hinduism and Buddhism: Definition and Comparison The only technique required in this context is wouldevotion.’ The followers of this religious group are required to demonstrate outstanding devotion as they strive to serve their religious faiths.
• Buddhism and Christianity: Comparative Religious Analysis The wiremen’s interpretation of the dream was that there was going to be born a son to the royal family. Christ was born of the Virgin Mary, Siddharta was a son to the Queen.
• Jainism and Theravada Buddhism The cause of this violence, according to Jainism, is greed and so for a person to attain the ultimate goal, which is bliss or liberation from karma.
• Buddhism Practices, Theories, Teachings, Rituals The author provides the evolution of Buddhism and the main religious figures that influenced the formation of the Buddhist vision of the world.
• Religious Rituals in Judaism and Buddhism This whole process causes the religious follower to learn that the sacred or the spiritual is a vital part of the human world.

⭐ Buddhism Research Paper Topics

• The Key Features of Buddhist Thought and Practice These three characteristics are always connected with existence as they tend to illuminate the nature of existence as well as helping the faithful to have knowledge of what to do with existence.
• Asian Philosophy: Veddic Period and Early Buddhism In the creation hymn of the Rg Vega, Aditi is acknowledged to be the god of all gods because he is the creator and has equally been granted the status of five men.
• Death of the Historical Buddha in Zen Buddhism The hanging scroll Death of the Historical Buddha is a perfect example of an idiosyncratic subgenre of the nirvana images, which permeated Japanese art in the sixth century after the adoption of Buddhism.[4] The composition […]
• Filial Piety in Zen Buddhist Discursive Paradigm Nevertheless, there appears to have been a phenomenological quality to the development in question, because during the initial phase of Buddhism’s expansion into China this concept used to be commonly regarded contradictory to the religion’s […]
• Daoism’s Influence on Chan Buddhism in China To comprehend the connection between Daoism and Buddhism and the possible influence of the former on the latter, it is expected to identify the main concepts of Taoism in Chinese philosophy and culture first.
• Buddhism and Confucianism in Modern China In the article “Concepts and Institutions for a New Buddhist Education: Reforming the Sa gha between and within State Agencies,” Stefania Travagnin discusses the opposition between Buddhist education and Western education in China the beginning […]
• The Role of Meditation in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism Some of the claims in the article sound farfetched, but it is apparent that one of the characteristics of the Tibetan Buddhists is the mystical powers possessed by some of the individuals.
• How Enterprises Appropriate the Vocabulary of Buddhism? This popular association that has been created by advertisers for the purposes of commodification has transformed Buddhism into a resource of imagery and concepts for vendors within the context of a modern marketplace.
• Purpose of Meditation in Buddhism One of the key roles of meditation in the Buddhist faith is the relaxation of the mind and the improvement of mental alertness.
• Confucianism and Daoism Influence on Zen Buddhism The concept of “emptiness” and “nothingness” is often mentioned and discussed in Zen philosophy. Together with the concept of ephemerality, Zen and Daoism explain that reality is conceived rather than seen.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: Religious Differences In Hinduism, only representatives of higher varnas, Brahmins, can attain moksha with the help of gods. Hinduists believe in the multitude of gods who can be the manifestations of one Great God.
• Philosophy of Science: Approaches on Buddhism In this view, this research paper aims at understanding the Tibetan monks’ practice of feeding the remains of one of their own to vultures, upon their demise, based on the Durkheim and Wittgensteinian’s approaches to […]
• Denver Buddhist Temple: Cultural Outing In this connection, the paper aims at identifying Buddhist religion that is prevalent in Vietnam focusing on three paramount concepts I learned in class such as the moral policy of the Denver Buddhist Temple, symbolic […]
• How Does Buddhism Explain the Nature of Our Existence? One of the largest world religions, Buddhism is based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama who emphasized a significant role of nature in our lives and the importance of personal harmony with nature.
• Nagarjuna’s Buddhist Philosophy Investigation Additionally, it is possible to say that it is not just a religion, however, it is the way of life and philosophy.
• Buddhist Traditional Healing in Mental Health To understand the traditional healing in Buddhist culture in mental health, it is important to start by understanding the origin of Buddhism as a religion.
• Buddhism as the Most Peaceful Religion He is mainly spread on the East of our planet, that is why it is not surprising that it is one of the most popular and recognized religions all over the world, as the majority […]
• Four Noble Truths in Buddhist Teaching The Buddha said that there is dukkha, there is an origin of dukkha, there is an end of dukkha and there is a path that leads to the end of dukkha.
• Buddhism Revitalization in China and Japan The comparison stems from the idea of general similarity between the theological traditions that are valued by the citizens of two countries.
• Buddhism and Hinduism Differences One of the main differences between Buddhism and Hinduism is the fact that Theravada Buddhism has no gods, as Buddha is not a god, he is an enlightened being that has reached and realised the […]
• Zen Buddhism Religion in Japanese Culture The uniqueness of Zen is in rejecting the importance of doctrines and emphasizing the role of the spiritual growth of the person through the practice of meditation.
• The Highest Good of Buddhism: Arahantship This state of awakening is the highest good that a human being can achieve, and all Buddhists are urged to aspire to achieve it.
• Religious Studies Discussion: Hinduism and Buddhism It is believed that Hinduism evolved and later spread to other areas in India. In conclusion, the objectives and practices of Hinduism and Buddhism are similar in many ways.
• Buddhism Studies in the Far East This emanates from the fact that the religion is only popular in one part of the world. Woo writes that it is possible to have many misconceptions about a belief, a religion and a practice […]
• Asian Religions in Practice: Buddhism, Islam and Sikhism This school of thought claims that salvation is possible through believing in the power of Amitabha and the desire to be reborn in a gracious place. This means that it advocates for people to be […]
• Religious Teachings of Buddhist Doctrine To substantiate the validity of his opinion, in this respect, Nagasena came up with the ‘parable of the lamp.’ According to the monk, just as it is the case with the flame of a burning […]
• Religious Teachings: Jainism vs. Buddhism and Hinduism The Jains believe in the existence of a divine being, and they attribute the forces that govern their fate in life to the Supreme Being.
• Religion Comparative Aspects: Hindu and Buddhism The similarities and differences in the ethical teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism include the following. Fourth, the act of lying is unacceptable in both Hinduism and Buddhism.
• Bhagavad Gita: Buddhism and Ancient Indian Philosophy First of all, it should be said that Bhagavad Gita is a part of the great epic of Mahabharata, which is known to be one of the greatest literary works of Ancient India.
• History of Buddhism and the Life of Buddha Buddha took the opportunity of being a member of the loyal family to influence the development of Buddhism. One of the factors that contributed to the speedy development of Buddhism was its inspirational teachings.
• David Hume’s and Buddhism Self Concepts Correlation Hume’s philosophy is based on the ideas that all the knowledge of the world is gained from the interaction of human’s experiences and the thoughts.
• Women and the Buddhist Religion According to Arvandi Sharma, ancient Indian women chose to become Buddhists nuns purely due to the influence of Buddha’s positive ways, teachings and the Buddhism doctrines.
• What Brings Women to Buddhism? Once establishing the source that has the greatest influence on the women and the ways which are most typical of women to be converted into Buddhism, whether it is the doctrinal one, or the one […]
• India’s Women in Buddhism’ Religion Regarding the place of women in Buddhism, it is interesting to note that Buddhism is not attached to any gender despite the fact that Buddha himself has historically been a man.
• Buddhism Religion History in China The differences between the two regions of China led to the advancement of the northern and southern disciplines hence the emergence of the Mahayana Buddhism.
• To What Extent Was China a Buddhist Country? The religion was associated with super powers and the potential to prosper, and thus many people were challenged to learn and experience it since it had compatible aspects with the Chinese Daoism.
• Buddhism Religion in the East Asian Societies This paper explores an argument whether Buddhism was a change for better or worse for the East Asian societies and concludes that even though Buddhism created a lot of discomfort during the period of introduction, […]
• Religious Studies: Morality in Buddhism In this case, much attention should be paid to a collection of restrictions or taboos that should govern the decisions or actions of a person. This is one of the issues that should not be […]
• History: Women in Hinduism and Buddhism For instance, one of the main problems that arise when examining the situation of women in Karimpur is the fact that there is a considerable level of disparity in the survival rates between male and […]
• Buddhism Characteristics and Attributes
• The Comparison of Buddhism and Daoism Principles
• Dalai Lama and Buddhism Tradition
• Anapanasati: As a Method for Reading the Buddhist Goal
• Buddhism in a Post- Han China
• Buddhism Believer’s Practice: Meditation
• The Main Aspects of Buddhism
• Exploring Buddhism: An Introduction to the Chinese Philosophy. In Search for the Enlightenment
• Buddhism Psychology in Changing Negative Behaviors
• Buddhism on Animal Treatment
• Sustainability of Buddhism in the Health System
• How Zen Buddhism Has Influenced the Development of Tea Ceremony
• Thich Nhat Hanh’s Engaged Buddhism
• Christianity vs. Buddhism
• The Journey of One Buddhist Nun: Even Against the Wind
• Comparison Between Hinduism and Buddhism
• Buddhism: The History of Development
• Siddhartha Gautama and Buddhism
• Asian Studies: Confucianism and Buddhism in China
• Tibetan Buddhist and Christian Symbols of Worship
• Buddhism, Sikhism and Baha’ism
• The Zen Temple as the Place of Worship in Japanese Zen Buddhism
• Buddhism in Canada
• Buddhism and Its impact on Japan
• Newspaper Response on Buddhism
• Buddhism in China: Origin and Expansion
• Religion of Christianity and Buddhism – Similarities and Difference
• Anger Emotion and Buddhism
• Padmasambhava’ Effects on Buddhist Beliefs
• Buddhism as a Sacred Tradition
• Buddhism and Christianity
• Buddhism’s Things and Ideas
• Buddhism: Analysis of the Religion’s Faith and Practices
• The Confluence of Buddhism and Hinduism in India
• The Origin of Buddhism
• Zen Buddhism’s Religion
• Misconceptions About Buddhism
• Zen Buddhism and Oneida Community
• Dialogue Over the Interfaith Christian and Buddhist Perspectives
• Buddhism & Hinduism: Comparisons and Contractions

🥇 Most Interesting Buddhism Topics to Write about

• A Brief Comparison of Native American Religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, and Taoism
• A Biography of Buddhism Born From a Single Man Siddhartha Gautama the Buddha in Factors in Achieving Enlightenment
• A Comparative Study between the Teachings of Two World Religions: Islam and Buddhism
• Affirmative Action Confucius Buddhism And Taoism
• An Analysis of Buddhism in Women and World Religions
• A History of Buddhism and an Analysis of the Teachings of the Buddha
• A History of the Influence of Buddhism and Hinduism on the South Asian Culture
• An Analysis of Buddhism First Sermon Which Should be Treated With Circumspection
• The Concept of Buddhism and the Figure of Buddha as a Central Symbol and Reality for Buddhist Monks
• Convergence of Ideas About Christianity and Buddhism in Living Buddha, Living Christ by Thich Nhat Hanh
• Early Life of Buddha, His Enlightenment, Founding of Buddhism and the Buddhist Literature
• An Analysis of Impermanence, Selflessness and Dissatisfaction on Buddhism as a Religion Nor a Philosophy
• Life and Teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), the Founder of Buddhism
• An Argument in Favor of the Quote Life is Dukkha and Explanation of My Opinion on the Goals of Buddhism
• An Examination of Asian Philosophy and the Different Philosophical Schools: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism and Confucianism
• An Overview of the Selflessness in Buddhism and the Works by Buddha in Contrast to the Monks
• Buddhism And Pop Culture Details The Comparison Between The Movies The Matrix And Fight Club And Buddhists Beliefs
• Buddhism: The Discipline and Knowledge for a Spiritual Life of Well-Being and the Path to Awakening the Nirvana
• Enlightened Revolutionary How King Asoka Entrenched Buddhism into Indian
• Reincarnation as an Important Part of the Teachings of Tibetan Buddhism
• Religion and Homosexuality: Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam
• The Growing Popularity of the Tibetan Buddhism and the Suspicion of the Non-Believers
• Zen Buddhism And Its Relationship To The Practical Psychology Of Daily Living

✅ Controversial Buddhism Topics for Essay

• How Buddhism Reflect The Human Understanding Of God?
• How Does Buddhism Relate And Help To Formulate A Local Understanding Of Transsexuals In Thailand?
• How Climate Change is Affecting Human Civilization and the Relationship Between Buddhism and Climate Change in Today’s Society?
• How Buddhism Has Interacted With Nature And Environment?
• What Role Does Karma Play in Buddhism? Who Does It Affect, and How Does It Affect Them in This Life, the Afterlife, and the Next Life?
• What do Buddhism and Christianity Teach About the Significance, Purpose And Value of Human Life?
• What Are The Core Beliefs Of Buddhism? How Do Buddhists View Craving?
• Why Are Experiences of Stillness and Reflection (Meditation) Important to Buddhism?
• Why A Key Part Of The Beliefs Of Tibetan Buddhism Is Reincarnation?

❓ Research Questions about Buddhism

• How Applied Buddhism Affected Peoples Daily Activities?
• What Is the Influence of Shen Hui on Chinese Buddhism?
• How Buddhism and Hinduism Share a Belief That Life Suffering Is Caused by Desire?
• What Are the Similarities and Differences Between Buddhism and Jainism?
• How Has Tibetan Buddhism Been Incorporated Into Modern Psychotherapy?
• What Are the Key Differences Between Christianity and Buddhism?
• How Is Japanese Culture Related to Buddhism?
• What Parallels and Deviations Can Science Learn From Buddhism?
• Precisely How Zen Buddhism Gives Influenced the Progress of Tea Services?
• Why Did the Rise of Buddhism in Britain Come About?
• What Are Buddhist Beliefs and the Role of the Dalai Lama in Tibetan Buddhism?
• How Did Chinese Culture Shape a New Form of Buddhism?
• What Significant Overlap Between Buddhism and Neuroscience Research Work?
• How does Buddhism Affect Chinese Culture History?
• What Is the Middle Way According to Mahayana Buddhism?
• How Did Buddhism Appear and Spread?
• What Are the Similarities Between Buddhism and Christianity?
• How Did Buddhism Spread in Southeast Asia?
• What Are the Differences Between Hinduism and Buddhism?
• What Is the Impact of Buddhism on Western Civilization?
• What Are the Beliefs and Values of Buddhism?
• How Do Buddhists View Craving?
• What Are the Core Beliefs of Buddhism?
• What Does Buddhism Teach?
• Why Did Buddhism Become So Powerful in Ancient History?
• What Role Did Zen Buddhism Play in Shaping the Art of Japan?
• What Role Does Karma Play in Buddhism?
• When Buddhism Was the Dominant Tradition in India?
• Who Were the Founders of Buddhism in Japan?
• Why Did Buddhism Fail To Take Hold in India?
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130 Buddhism Essay Topics

Welcome to our enlightening compilation of Buddhism essay topics! Explore the profound teachings, rich traditions, and philosophical insights of this ancient religion. Write the best Buddhism research paper on mindfulness, compassion, or the pursuit of enlightenment. These project ideas will uncover the wisdom and relevance of this religion today.

☸️ TOP 7 Buddhism Essay Topics

🏆 best buddhism research paper topics, 💡 simple buddhism essay topics, 👍 catchy buddhism project ideas, ❓ more research questions about buddhism, 🎓 interesting buddhism essay topics.

• Judaism and Buddhism: Similarities and Differences
• Comparison Between Buddhism and Christianity
• China Buddhism vs. Japan Buddhism and Shintoism
• Karma and Rebirth in Hinduism and Buddhism Religions
• Hinduism and Buddhism: Similarities and Differences
• Buddhism and the Life Teaching of Siddhartha
• Karma and Reincarnation in Buddhism
• Hinduism vs. Buddhism: Similarities & Differences The differences and similarities between Buddhism and Hinduism do not reveal their weaknesses or strengths but prove how diverse and critical human beliefs can be.
• Gender Roles in the Buddhist Culture In the Buddhist culture, women are considered weak beings and require men to provide them with protection. Furthermore, men are considered to be the strong and family breadwinners.
• Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism: The Afterlife Concepts The purpose of this paper is to compare the afterlife, as presented in Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism, through an examination of both primary and secondary sources.
• Personality Psychology and Zen Buddhism Zen Buddhism is a movement that occurred in the 1960s and involves monks, their feats and their monasticism, and the study of doctrines.
• Basic Beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism This paper gives an insight into how the concepts of Karma and Rebirth are practiced in the religious traditions of both Hinduism and Buddhism.
• Tibetan Buddhism and Zen Buddhism Comparison The Five Tibetan rituals are considered to be life changing which helps the Tibetan’s in the spiritual and religious obligations they desire. It’s also actually great for your body
• Buddhism: The Concept of Mahayana The Mahayana is believed to be the largest Buddhist section worldwide, and its practice is extreme compared to other Buddhist movements.
• God Concept in Christianity and Buddhism Religions The core purpose of Christianity is to love God, forgive others, and repent for one’s sins. The key beliefs in Buddhism revolve around nirvana and Four Noble Truths.
• Gender Roles in Society: Hinduism and Buddhism Both Hindu and Buddhist beliefs have a strained relationship with the concept of gender, while in the two cases, men and women are supposed to be equal, it is not really true.
• Non-christian World Religions: History, Concepts, and Beliefs of Buddhism Buddhism is one of the widespread non-Christian religions in the world today. This paper discusses the history, beliefs, ethics, people and subdivisions of Buddhism.
• Zen Buddhism: Main Features Zen Buddhism can safely be considered as a philosophy due to its lack of a “god” aspect. It is a religion that is based on basically the act of meditation.
• Buddhism vs. Christianity: Studying Religions Buddhism and Christianity are both of the most popular religions. The followers of Buddhism are primarily concentrated in the Asian region, with India being its birthplace.
• Buddhism and Denver Zen Center Experience For the purposes of learning more about different traditions and writing this assignment, the author visited the Denver Zen Center and found out more about Buddhism.
• Principles and Values of Buddhism The paper states that it is challenging for people of other confessions to understand Buddhism. It is essential to communicate with Buddhism followers.
• Zen Buddhism: Brief Giude The major point of Zen Buddhism is single – every human being is a Buddha and he or she needs only to realize this by reaching enlightenment.
• Buddhist Culture in Thailand In Thailand, Buddhism is the official religion of the state based on century-old traditions and principles.
• Zen Buddhism in America Zen Buddhism is a separate school of Mahayana Buddhism that emphasizes mindfulness and meditation practices as the path to achieving enlightenment.
• Buddhism and Classical Hinduism Each religion of the East teaches separate principles from one another. This paper compares and contrasts the fundamental concepts and values of Buddhism and Classical Hinduism.
• Buddhist Meditation Practices The paper looks at the differences between acalminga (samatha) and ainsighta (vipasana) Mahayana teachings of Buddhist meditation.
• Role of Buddhism in World Culture and the Formation of Worldviews The relevance and scientific significance of the study of the social aspects of Buddhism is determined by the interest in studying the heritage of Buddhist thought.
• Christianity and Buddhism Comparison Christianity is a more pragmatic religion than Buddhism. It is due to more realistic principles and practices. In addition, Christianity is based on real historical events.
• Buddhism in the Novel “Siddhartha” by Hermann Hesse In “Siddhartha”, Hermann Hesse presents the theme of enlightenment as a quest for the truth, which he considers essential for a connection with the world.
• Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity in Society This paper analyses three of the most common religions: Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity, in order to identify their role in the life of society.
• The Dukkha Concept in Buddhism Dukkha is a traditional element of the religious philosophy of Buddhism, aimed at describing the prevailing situation in the surrounding material world.
• Tea in the Prism of Zen Buddhism and Health The tea ceremony is connected with Zen Buddhism not only in its actual development but mainly in preserving the spirit with which it is imbued.
• Foundations of Buddhism and Meditation Different religions illustrate the diversity of philosophies, customs, many different communities in the world are inspired by similar truths and purposes.
• The History and Beliefs of the Theravadan Buddhism
• Biblical Worldview and Buddhism Worldview
• Parallels, Departures, and What Science Can Gain From Buddhism
• Buddhism: The Role Desires Play in Our Everyday Lives
• Doctrinal and Philosophical Sizing of Buddhism
• Basic Philosophical Differences Between Zen, Buddhism, and Taoism
• Buddhism as Religion That Offers Peace, Wisdom, and True Enlightenment
• The History and Evolution of Buddhism Across the World
• Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Buddhism
• The Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism
• Buddhism and the Vietnamese Buddhist Association
• Key Differences Between Christianity and Buddhism
• Korean Development and the Influences of Shamanism, Confucianism, and Buddhism
• Buddhism: The Four Noble Truths
• The Dalai Lama and the Spiritual Leader of Buddhism
• Comparing Buddhism and Shinto in Japan
• Buddhism, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the Four Noble Truths
• Ancient Greek Philosophy, Buddhism, and Vedanta Hinduism
• Beliefs and Practices: Judaism, Buddhism, and Hinduism
• Buddhism: Seeing the Familiar in the Strange
• Hinduism and Buddhism’s Influence of Indian Culture in Southeast Asia
• The Political and Religious Impact of Buddhism in Thailand
• Human Life and Death in Christianity and Buddhism Illness often leads to agony and prompts the search for the meaning of life as people try to understand the reasons behind their predicaments.
• Buddhist Spirituality: Contribution to Psychological Well-Being Buddhist Spirituality is based on the principles that can enhance one’s psychological well-being significantly. Buddhism teaches people how to avoid negative emotions and harmful mental states.
• The Christian and Buddhist Perspectives in Healthcare This paper purposes to conduct a comparative analysis on the Christian and Buddhist perspectives regarding healthcare provision and its implications for healthcare practice.
• Death and Dying Rituals in Buddhism The Buddhist perspective on death is undeniably positive as it helps in relieving pain and grief and preparing the living for eventual death.
• Mahayana Buddhism’s Beginnings Some components of Mahayana Buddhism, in its older Indian incarnations, are conservative, especially concerning monastic morality.
• Tibetan Buddhism, Scottish, and Mexican National Cultures The paper discusses Tibetan Buddhism, Scottish, and Mexican national cultures. They place such a strong focus on serenity and freedom.
• The Importance of the Dalai Lama in Buddhism The paper discusses the significance of the Dalai Lama in Buddhism as an authority figure who unites the Tibetan people, a teacher of the religion, and a promoter of compassion.
• The History of Tibetan Buddhism The history of Buddhism is rich and full of interesting nuances. There are different schools of Tibetan Buddhism, their development, and the influence they had.
• World Religions: Researching of Buddhism Buddhism will be examined from the perspective of the crucial concepts within the philosophy, namely the Four Noble Truths, the wheel of birth and death, karma, and Nirvana.
• Secularism and Buddhism: Rise of Violent Buddhist Rhetoric Since the dawn of civilization, the paradigm of religion has been one of the central narratives for a national community and its value system.
• Aspects of Buddhist Monasticism The paper discusses Buddhist monastic orders. They are the oldest types of institutionalized monasticism and Buddhism’s essential organizations.
• The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism in Personal Life Buddha spent time learning the basic teachings of the Four Noble Truths, dealing with human suffering, which he had fully understood.
• Buddhism and Hinduism: Differences and Comparisons Buddhism and Hinduism are two ancient world religions, which have their origins in India. These religions share many similar concepts and terminologies.
• The Pragmatic Theory of Truth in Buddhism and Christianity Pragmatically, the Buddha belief and the Christians’ beliefs are true as believers tend to achieve their desired effects.
• Religion Research: Hinduism and Buddhism The paper describes and compares two religion: Hinduism and Buddhism from aspects of history, popularity and areas of rerligion.
• Christianity and Buddhism: Interreligious Relations There are many similar points between Christianity and Buddhism, but the differences are likely to outweigh them.
• Buddhism: New Religions and Human Balance The paper indicates that Buddhism, one of the fundamental world religions, has been introduced in a series of new forms over the past years.
• Discussion of History of Buddhism The discussion describes the short history of Buddhism from the 19th century and how it overcame some of the challenges arising from Christianity.
• Buddhism’s Resilience from Western Ideologies This paper addresses how believers of the Buddhism faith have been initiating and planning various methods to make the religion resilient from western ideologies and Christianity.
• Healthcare Provider and Faith Diversity: Native American Spirituality, Buddhism, and Sikhism This paper outlines an explicit view on the following diverse faiths in regard to healthcare provision: Native American spirituality, Buddhism, and Sikhism.
• Buddha as a Leader of a Buddhism Religion This essay will analyze the reasons behind Buddha’s teachings, events, and ideas that shaped the views during his time and the relevance of Buddhism presently.
• What Are the 4 Main Beliefs of Buddhism?
• Is Buddhism a Belief System or Ideology?
• How Has Buddhism Impacted the World?
• What Are the Differences Between Mainstream Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism?
• Does Anything Survive Death in Buddhism?
• How Did Early Buddhism Impact Western Culture?
• What Are the Two Main Branches of Buddhism?
• Who Were the Founders of Buddhism in Japan?
• Are Women Allowed to Practice Buddhism?
• How Has Buddhism Interacted With Nature and Environment?
• What Are the Gender Roles in Buddhism?
• Does Neuroplasticity Relate to Buddhism?
• How Does Buddhism Reflect the Human Understanding of God?
• Are There Similarities Between Buddhism and Islamic Religion?
• How Does Dalai Lama Exemplify the Ultimate Meaning of Buddhism in His Life and Works?
• What Is the Link Between Mahayana Buddhism and Chinese Culture?
• How Did Buddhism Spread Through China?
• What Does Buddhism Teach About Human Life?
• How Does Buddhism Treat Its Women?
• Is There Social Conflict Between Buddhism and Catholicism?
• How Does Geoffrey Samuels Portray Tibetan Buddhism?
• What Are the Origins, History, and Beliefs About Evil in Buddhism?
• How Does Samsara Work in Buddhism?
• Does Buddhism Believe in Equality?
• What Are the Similarities Between Buddhism and Other Eastern Religions?
• Description of “Buddhism in America” by Seager This paper covers the first seven chapters of the book “Buddhism in America”. The author starts by giving background information concerning the American Buddhist landscape.
• Buddhism in China and Japan Buddhism is one of the major religions in the world, and it is now practiced in various countries, including China and Japan.
• Environmental, Social or Political Conflict in Buddhism There is a simple fact which is known to every Buddhist: although Buddha was beyond routine, still, he gave guidelines concerning good government.
• Buddhism and Christianity: Understanding of Religions This essay is intended to help bring out the Buddhist’s understanding of Christianity and correct the wrong perceptions through pointing out relevant scriptures.
• Religion and Architecture: Christian Church, Buddhist, Islamic Mosques Religious architecture is mainly concerned with design and building of houses of reverence or holy deliberate places such as stupas, mosques, churches and temples.
• How Buddhism do not believe in Gods? Our research focuses and defends the basic concept of how and in what manner Buddhists do not stick to the existence of the Omnipotent.
• Cosmogony: Catholic and Buddhist Approaches This paper presents a dialogue between two believers- a Catholic and a Buddhist concerning creation of the world.
• Christianity and Buddhism: Religion Comparison Christianity only became a religion, in full sense of this word, when materialistic spirit of Judaism was being transformed into something opposite to what it originally used to be by European mentality.
• Zen Buddhism: Basic Teachings The principles and beliefs of Buddhism is what has given it popularity and a vast fellowship. These beliefs are founded on human experience.
• The Religious Position of Women and Men in Buddhist Countries: Sri Lanka The position accorded to women in all spheres of activity has been a subject of considerable interest in recent decades.
• King Asoka Spreading Buddhism Along the Silk Road King Asoka’s commitment to Buddha’s Four Noble Truths and the encouragement of missionary work substantially facilitated the transmission of Buddhism to distant states.
• Death & Dying Ethics in Buddhism and Christianity The paper describes the ethical challenge the patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is facing and the best approaches to support him using religious values or ideas.
• Incurable Disease in Christianity and Buddhism This paper examines Christianity and Buddhism in regards to views on life and death and applies the concepts to the case study of a patient with an untreatable illness.
• Death & Dying Ethics in Christianity and Buddhism The paper will discuss the attitude toward the deliberate ending of life from the viewpoint of Christianity and Buddhism.
• Buddhism, Caring and Moral Obligations This paper argues that the Buddhist account of the personality and the self provides an applicable approach to caring as well as moral obligations.
• Buddhism and Life: Living the Principles of the Buddhist Religion Contrary to the popular thought that suggests that the Buddhist belief seeks to view the world from a negative perspective, the religion conceives life from its imperfect face.
• Buddhist Religion and Western Psychologies Buddhists believe that any conception of “self” is an illusion; no separate “self” exists, only a collection of parts.
• Beliefs in Buddhism and Classical Hinduism This paper shows that Buddhism progressed from Hinduism, with the main difference being that they do not share similar beliefs.
• Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist Teachings Theravada and Mahayana are both schools of Buddhism. The primary differences that exist between the two came into existence after Buddha’s death.
• Spiritual Philosophy: Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism as spiritual philosophies stress on the acceptance of things the way they are, overcoming desires and humility.
• Buddhism and Classical Hinduism Concept and Values Buddhism and classical Hinduism are the oldest religions in the world. It is worth to note that both religions originated from India.
• Medical Ethics: Christianity and Buddhism Perspectives Ethical concerns are present in any working conditions. However, ethics in medicine is particularly important, and it has many complicated issues.
• Euthanasia in Christianity and Buddhism This paper provides a discussion on a case study on euthanasia of a man, who finds out he has a severe disease that will disable him within several years.
• Christianity and Buddhism for Terminally Ill Patient The patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis has been thinking about euthanasia. Christianity and Buddhism offer different answers to death-related questions.
• Death and Dying in Christianity and Buddhism Using Christianity and Buddhism as two diverse religious perspectives, this discussion explores how patient’s health demands can be met by healthcare practitioners.
• Self-Concept in Buddhist Reductionism This paper investigates the idea of self in its relation to the Buddhist perception of suffering and discusses the notion of objectual and intentional properties.
• Deities in Hinduism and Buddhism This paper dwells upon the differences in roles of Hindu and Buddhist deities from mythological and scientific perspectives.
• Buddhism’ Religion: The Life and Teaching of Siddhartha The paper studies the teaching of Buddhism according to the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination and reveals spread of Buddhism and upheaval of democracy in India.
• What Is Buddhism? History of the Religion, Beliefs, and Rituals This paper will set out to elaborate on what Buddhism is by providing a history of the religion and underscoring some of the beliefs and rituals practiced in this religion.

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74 Buddhism Research Paper Topics & Essay Examples

Buddhism is one of the most ancient yes still popular religions in the world. It was born in India more than 2500 years ago. The followers of Buddhism believe that that good behavior, ascetic lifestyle, and spiritual practices are the means to achieve nirvana.

If you need to write a persuasive or argumentative essay on Buddhism, you’re in the right place! On this page, we’ve collected top Buddhism research paper topics, thesis statement ideas, and essay samples that focus on the historical aspects and current issues of the religion. Go on reading to find the perfect Buddhism essay topic for your assignment!

📝 Buddhism Research Paper Topics & Examples

💡 buddhism essay topics, ❓ buddhism discussion questions.

• Religion Comparison: Judaism, Buddhism, Islam and Hinduism This essay seeks to establish the similarities and differences between the religions in terms of origin, issue of salvation and creation, and their perception of God.
• Religion in India: Hinduism and Buddhism This paper will focus on rituals and divine worship associated with Hinduism and Buddhism as well as their importance in both religions.
• World Religions Studies and Key Concepts Religion can be defined as beliefs and practices that underscore the relationship between people and their God.
• Dharma, Karma, and Samsara – Essay on Religion in India What is the relationship between the ideas of Dharma, Karma, and Samsara? This essay on religion in India focuses on this concept. It explains what role they play in Hinduism and Buddhism.
• Afterlife in Different World Cultures Most modern religions including atheists do not believe in the existence of an afterlife. Atheists do not believe in a supernatural God.
• Buddhism: Teachings of Buddha The teachings of Buddha are found in the Dhammapada and clearly states that if these laws are followed people will have peace and happiness.
• Japanese and Chinese Culture: Comparison and Contrast The purpose of this paper is to contrast the mentalities, worldviews, religion, traditions, habits, and everyday routines of both Japan and China and prove that they are different.
• Buddhism: History, Origins and Rituals There is contemplation that Buddhism is a philosophy, way of life, and the code of ethics, but many declare untrue to it the characteristic of a religion.
• Death, Views of Asian and Western Culture on Death and Dying The Asians receive death with happiness, and in case a person was on medication and felt the time was ready to die, one would forfeit medication to embrace death wholeheartedly.
• Buddhism Religion and Philosophy Founded in India
• Buddhism’s Spread Throughout the East
• The Impact Buddhism Had on Human Rights in China
• Analyzing Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism
• Buddhism as an Extensive and Internally Diverse Tradition
• The Second Noble Truth of Buddhism
• Medical and Religious Ethics in Death and Dying The paper is devoted to the investigation of a particular ethical dilemma presented in a patient’s case study and religious perspectives on it.
• Buddhism as a Faith Founded by Siddhartha Gautama
• The Life and Influence of Shen-Hui on Chinese Buddhism
• Zen Buddhism Combined With Psychotherapy
• Tracing Back the Origins of Buddhism and Its Main Characteristics
• The Role and Status of Women in Buddhism
• Understanding the Mahayana Doctrine in Buddhism
• Healthcare and Faith Diversity: Christianity and Buddhism This paper presents a comparative analysis of two faith philosophies towards the delivery of quality healthcare. The targeted philosophies include Christianity and Buddhism.
• The Spread and Emergence of Buddhism
• History and Comparison of Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam
• The Teachings and Core Beliefs of Buddhism
• Linking Buddhism Based Charity and Philanthropy
• The Rising of Christianity and the Fall of Buddhism
• Integrating Democracy With Tibetan Buddhism
• Three Faiths: Buddhism, Shintoism and Bahai Religion This paper will investigate the religious beliefs concerning health care providers of three different religious faiths.
• Existence in the Buddhist Religion
• Repentance Between Bible and Buddhism
• The Middle Way According to Mahayana Buddhism
• How Buddhism Agrees with Science
• Buddhism and Shamanism Within Mongolian Culture
• The Link Between Mahayana Buddhism and Chinese Culture
• Euthanasia Debates, Death and Dying The issue of voluntary euthanasia elicits heated debates. The contention is usually based on religious views concerning whether individuals can decide the fate of life.
• The Rise and Development of Buddhism
• Buddhist Meditation Practice and Buddhism
• Holy Books of Buddhism
• Buddhist Teachings and Beliefs of Buddhism
• The Main Emotions Covered in Buddhism
• Incorporating Tibetan Buddhism Into Modern Psychotherapy
• Understanding the Two Forms of Happiness in Buddhism
• Lotus Versus Zen Buddhism
• Buddhism’s Life-Changing Experience
• Zen Buddhism From Chinese Buddhism
• The Rise and Enlightenment of Buddhism
• The First Mention of the Buddhism
• Supreme Being of Buddhism
• Twenty-First Century Challenges to Buddhism
• Ashoka as the Greatest Promoter of Buddhism
• Buddhism as a Question About Yourself
• How Does Buddhism Reflect the Human Understanding of God?
• Who Were the Founders of Buddhism in Japan?
• How Does Buddhism Teach Us to Experience Anger and Forgiveness?
• How Does Buddhism Affect Chinese Culture History?
• How Does Buddhism Treat Its Women?
• How Has Buddhism Changed Over Years?
• How Applied Buddhism Affected Peoples’ Daily Activities?
• How Buddhism Transformed and Transformed Chinese Culture?
• How Did Buddhism Spread Through China?
• How Has Buddhism Interacted With Nature and Environment?
• How Buddhism and Hinduism Share a Belief That Life Suffering Is Caused by Desire?
• What Does Buddhism Teach?
• How Did Chinese Culture Shape a New Form of Buddhism?
• What Are the Similarities Between Buddhism and Other Eastern Religions?
• What Are the Core Beliefs of Buddhism?
• When Diving Into the Depths of Buddhism?
• Where Buddhism Meets Science?
• When Buddhism Was the Dominant Tradition in India?
• What Role Does Karma Play in Buddhism?
• What Are the Main Differences Between Sikhism and Buddhism?
• How Was Buddhism Expressed Differently Across Cultures, Geographies, and Languages?

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Printing Woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana in Haeinsa Temple, Hapcheon

Academic Journals

• ACTA ASIATICA
• ARTIBUS ASIAE
• Asian Philosophy
• Buddhist Studies Review
• Buddhist-Christian Studies
• Canadian Journal of Buddhist Studies
• Contemporary Buddhism
• Critical Review for Buddhist Studies
• The Eastern Buddhist
• Education About Asia
• Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
• HKU Journal of Chinese Studies (formerly Journal of Oriental Studies)
• Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies
• International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture
• Journal of Asian History
• Journal of Buddhist Ethics
• Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies
• Journal of Chinese Religions 
• Journal of Gandhāran Buddhist Texts
• Journal of Global Buddhism
• Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies
• Journal of Indological Studies
• Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 
• Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities
• Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies
• Journal of the Pali Text Society
• Korea Journal of Buddhist Studies  
• MONUMENTA NIPPONICA
• MONUMENTA SERICA
• Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies
• The Journal of Asian Studies

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It’s hard to find a self-help book today that doesn’t praise the benefits of meditation, mindfulness and yoga.

Many individuals engage in meditation and other practices associated with Buddhism. But not all realize the complexities of the religion, according to Stanford expert Paul Harrison. (Image credit: FatCamera / Getty Images)

Many of these practices are rooted in the ancient tradition of Buddhism, a religion first developed by people in India sometime in the fifth century BCE.

But according to Stanford Buddhist scholar Paul Harrison , Buddhism is more than finding zen: It is a religious tradition with a complicated history that has expanded and evolved over centuries. Harrison has dedicated his career to studying the history of this religion, which is now practiced by over 530 million people.

In a recent book he edited, Setting Out on the Great Way: Essays on Early Mahāyāna Buddhism , Harrison brings together the latest perspectives on the origins and early history of a type of Buddhism that has influenced most of today’s Buddhist practices around the world.

This new work focuses on the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, which evolved about 400 years after the birth of Buddhism. It is an elaborate web of ideas that has seen other types of Buddhism branch from its traditions. Unlike other Buddhists, Mahayana followers aspire to not only liberate themselves from suffering but also lead other people toward liberation and enlightenment.

Stanford News Service interviewed Harrison, the George Edwin Burnell Professor of Religious Studies in the School of Humanities and Sciences, about Buddhism and the latest research on its origins.

What are some things that people may not know about Buddhism?

Some people, especially those in the Western world, seem to be bewitched and mesmerized by the spell of Buddhism and the way it’s represented in the media. We’re now saturated with the promotion of mindfulness meditation, which comes from Buddhism.

Paul Harrison (Image credit: Connor Crutcher)

But Buddhism is not all about meditation. Buddhism is an amazingly complex religious tradition. Buddhist monks don’t just sit there and meditate all day. A lot of them don’t do any meditation at all. They’re studying texts, doing administrative work, raising funds and performing rituals for the lay people, with a particular emphasis on funerals.

Buddhism has extremely good press. I try to show my students that Buddhism is not so nice and fluffy as they might think. Buddhism has a dark side, which, for example, we’ve been seeing in Myanmar with the recent persecution of the Rohingya people there.

It’s as if we need to believe that there is a religion out there that’s not as dark and black as everything else around us. But every religion is a human instrument, and it can be used for good and for bad. And that’s just as true of Buddhism as of any other faith.

Why is it important to study the origin of Buddhism and other religions?

Religion plays a hugely important role in our world today. Sometimes it has extremely negative consequences, as evidenced by terrorism incidents such as the Sept. 11 attacks. But sometimes it has positive consequences, when it’s used to promote selfless behavior and compassion.

Religion is important to our politics. So, we need to understand how religions work. And part of that understanding involves trying to grasp how religions developed and became what they became.

This new book of essays on Mahayana Buddhism is just a small part of figuring out how Buddhism developed over time.

What is Mahayana Buddhism and what are its distinct features?

The word Mahayana is usually translated as “the great vehicle.” The word maha means “great,” but the yana bit is trickier. It can mean both “vehicle” and “way,” hence the title of this book.

As far as we know, Mahayana Buddhism began to take shape in the first century BCE. This religious movement then rapidly developed in a number of different places in and around what is now India, the birthplace of Buddhism.

Buddhism itself started sometime in the fifth century BCE. We now think that the Buddha, who founded the religion, died sometime toward the year 400 BCE. As Buddhism developed, it spread beyond India. A number of different schools emerged. And out of that already complicated situation, we had the rise of a number of currents, or ways of thinking, which eventually started being labeled as Mahayana.

The kind of Buddhism before Mahayana, which I call mainstream Buddhism, is more or less a direct continuation of the teachings of the founder. Its primary ideal is attaining liberation from suffering and the cycle of life and rebirth by achieving a state called nirvana. You can achieve nirvana through moral striving, the use of various meditation techniques and learning the Dharma, which is the Buddha’s teachings.

Eventually, some people said that mainstream Buddhism is all fine and well but that it doesn’t go far enough. They believed that people need to not just liberate themselves from suffering but also liberate others and become Buddhas too.

Mahayana Buddhists strive to copy the life of the Buddha and to replicate it infinitely. That effort was the origin of the bodhisattva ideal. A bodhisattva is a person who wants to become a Buddha by setting out on the great way. This meant that Mahayana Buddhists were allegedly motivated by greater compassion than the normal kind of Buddhists and aimed for a complete understanding of reality and greater wisdom.

That’s Mahayana in a nutshell. But along with that goes a whole lot of new techniques of meditation, an elaborate cosmology and mythology, and a huge number of texts that were written around the time of the birth of Mahayana.

What’s the biggest takeaway from the latest research on the origin of Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism?

The development of Buddhism and its literature is much more complicated than we have realized. In the middle of the 20th century, scholars thought Mahayana Buddhism was developed by lay people who wanted to make a Buddhism for everybody. It was compared to the Protestant movement in Christianity. But we now know that this picture is not true.

The evidence shows that Mahayana Buddhism was spearheaded by the renunciants, the Buddhist monks and nuns. These were the hardcore practitioners of the religion, and they were responsible for writing the Mahayana scriptures and promoting these new ideas. The lay people were not the initiators.

But the full story is even more complicated than that. Buddhism’s development is more like a tumbleweed than a tree. And Mahayana Buddhism is sort of like a braided stream of several river currents, without one main current.

Why is it challenging to figure out how Mahayana Buddhism came about?

What’s special about Buddhist studies and makes it different from studying religions like Christianity is that there is still a huge amount of material that has not been translated or studied properly.

In the last two or three decades, scholars have also discovered a whole lot of texts in a long-lost language, called Gandhari, some of which are related to the Mahayana. These documents, the oldest of which date to the first century BCE, have been found in a region that now includes Pakistan and parts of North India, Afghanistan and Central Asia.

A lot of these texts are very hard to translate and understand. And there is more material that keeps surfacing. All of that is changing our view of the early history of Buddhism.

Media Contacts

Alex Shashkevich, Stanford News Service: (650) 497-4419, [email protected]

Buddhism and the Sciences: Historical Background, Contemporary Developments

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• Published: 23 November 2020
• Volume 3 , pages 219–243, ( 2020 )

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• Richard K. Payne   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3164-2914 1  

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While discourse on the relation between Christianity and science has a long history, it has only been in the last century that Buddhists and Buddhist scholars have begun to consider the relation between their own religious tradition and the promises and challenges of modern science. This does not mean that there has not been a long history of a relation between Buddhism and the sciences. However, rarely has that relation been conceived of in terms of “discourse on religion and science” as such. As a result, much of the recent work done in the area of science and religion, though significant in its own right, inadequately considers many core Buddhist concerns. Originally published in 1993, this version has been updated with a preface surveying developments over the last three decades.

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Acknowledgements

The essay that follows this new Preface was originally published in Bridging Science and Religion , edited by Ted Peters and Gaymon Bennett, SCM Press, 1993, and reprinted by Fortress Press, 2003, pp. 153–172. It is republished here with the permission of both presses, to whom we wish to express our gratitude.

I would also like to express my gratitude to the editors of this special issue, Thomas Calobrisi and Devin Zuckerman for this opportunity to republish this essay. In addition to making it accessible to a wider audience, this allows me to make some minor corrections. Other than some grammatical changes, however, the essay itself remains as originally published. It was written for a general audience, and therefore does not include the diacritics or the reference citations normal to an academic publication.

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2 Buddhism and Science

B. Alan Wallace is founder and president of the Santa Barbara Institute for Consciousness Studies.

• Published: 02 September 2009
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While Buddhism is often referred to as a ‘non-theistic religion’, it has the potential to play a unique mediating role between theistic religions, with their emphasis on faith and divine revelation, and the natural sciences, with their ideals of empiricism, rationality, and scepticism. The main body of this article focuses on Buddhist approaches to cultivating eudaimonic well-being, probing the nature of consciousness, and understanding reality at large. In each case, religious, scientific, and philosophical elements are blended in ways that may not only lend themselves to dialogue with Western science, but push forward the frontiers of scientific research as well as interdisciplinary and cross-cultural inquiry. The article also argues that Buddhism has developed a science of consciousness, with a few exceptions regarding sciences with no controlled experiments.

Introduction

When reading an essay on Buddhism and science, it is natural to assume that Buddhism is a religion, together with Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, because our Western concept of religion has been modelled primarily on the basis of the three Abrahamic traditions. In the West we have developed separately the constructs of science and philosophy , as initially inspired by Greek and Roman modes of inquiry. Since Buddhism is one among many traditions of inquiry that arose outside the Mediterranean basin, there is no reason to expect it to fit neatly into any of the categories of religion, science, and philosophy that have been forged in the West. To understand what Buddhism brings to the dialogue between religion and science, it should be met on its own terms, without insisting that it conform to Western conceptual categories. Buddhism is both more and less than the sum of these three Western traditions of inquiry.

While Buddhism is often referred to as a ‘non‐theistic religion’, a problematic characterization in many ways, it does have the potential to play a unique mediating role between theistic religions, with their emphasis on faith and divine revelation, and the natural sciences, with their ideals of empiricism, rationality, and scepticism. It may serve as a catalyst for reintroducing the spirit of empiricism in religion with respect to the natural world and in science with respect to spiritual realities and subjective experience in general. This might even lead to a science of religions that would earn the respect and trust of religious believers, scientists, and the public at large.

Religion is often regarded as addressing questions concerning the meaning and purpose of life, our ultimate origins and destiny, and the experiences of our inner life. Moreover, we commonly deem a system of belief and practice to be religious if it is concerned primarily with universal and elemental features of existence as they bear on the human desire for liberation and authentic existence ( Harvey 1981 : ch. 8 ; Gilkey 1985: 108–16 ; Gould 1999: 93 ). Stated in such broad terms, Buddhism can certainly be classified as a religion.

Science may be defined as an organized, systematic enterprise that gathers knowledge about the world and condenses that knowledge into testable laws and principles. In short, it addresses questions of what the universe is composed of and how it works ( Wilson 1998: 58 ; Gould 1999: 93 ). Buddhism is an organized, systematic enterprise aimed at understanding reality, and it presents a wide range of testable laws and principles, such as the propositions set forth in the Four Noble Truths ( Dalai Lama 1997 ). Although Buddhism has not developed historically along the lines of Western science, it is a time‐tested discipline of rational and empirical inquiry that could further evolve in ways more closely resembling science as we have currently come to understand it.

Furthermore, philosophy, as it is defined primarily within the context of Western civilization, consists of theories and modes of logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe, and it includes such branches as ethics, aesthetics, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics. While there is a general consensus that scientific theories must be testable, at least in principle, by empirical observation or experiment, no such stipulation is made for philosophical theories. They may be evaluated on the basis of reason alone. Buddhism has from its origins included theories and modes of logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe. So in this regard, Buddhism may be viewed as a philosophy, or—given the great range of theories within the Buddhist tradition—as a diverse array of philosophies.

While theistic religions are centrally concerned with transcendental realities, such as God, Buddhism is naturalistic in the sense that it is centrally concerned with the causality within the world of experience (Sanskrit: loka ). Its fundamental framework is the Four Noble Truths, pertaining to the reality of suffering, its necessary and sufficient causes, the possibility of freedom from suffering and its causes, and the practical means for achieving such freedom. This basic structure of the Buddhist enterprise is pragmatic, rather than supernatural or metaphysical, so it bears only some of the family resemblances of Western religions.

While science has overwhelmingly focused on understanding the objective, quantifiable, physical universe in order to gain power over the natural world (Bacon 2004), Buddhism is primarily focused on understanding subjective, qualitative states of consciousness as a means to liberate the mind from its afflictive tendencies ( klesha ) and obscurations ( avarana ). Given the scientific focus on the outer world, the Western scientific study of the mind did not begin until more than 300 years after the time of Copernicus, whereas the rigorous, experiential examination of the mind has been central to Buddhism from the start. Buddhist theories are not confined to the Buddha's inquiries alone, but have been rationally analysed and experientially tested by generations of Buddhist scholars and contemplatives over the past 2,500 years ( Wallace 2000: 103–18 ). Buddhist insights into the nature of the mind and related phenomena are presented as genuine discoveries in the sense that any competent practitioner with sufficient training can replicate them (though different kinds of training pursued within different conceptual contexts do lead to different, and sometimes conflicting, insights). They could thus be said to be empirical in the sense that they are based on immediate experience, but that experience consists primarily of first‐person, introspective observations, not the third‐person externalist observations more commonly associated with science.

In addition, many Buddhist writings are clearly philosophical in nature and can be cross‐culturally evaluated as such ( Bronkhorst 1999 ; Tillemans 1999 ). However, empirical or intellectual inquiry motivated simply by curiosity or knowledge for its own sake has never been a widespread Buddhist ideal. Unlike both Western science and philosophy, the Buddhist pursuit of knowledge occurs within the framework of ethics ( shila ), focused attention ( samadhi ), and wisdom ( prajña ). These comprise the essence of the Four Noble Truths, the path to liberation.

The main body of this chapter focuses on Buddhist approaches to cultivating eudaimonic well‐being, probing the nature of consciousness, and understanding reality at large. In each case, religious, scientific, and philosophical elements are blended in ways that may not only lend themselves to dialogue with Western science, but push forward the frontiers of scientific research as well as interdisciplinary and cross‐cultural inquiry.

The Buddhist Pursuit of Eudaimonic Well‐being

Buddhist tradition identifies itself not in terms of the Western constructs of religion, science, and philosophy, but with the Indian notion of dharma . While this word takes on a wide variety of meanings within different contexts, ‘Buddhadharma’ refers to the Buddhist world‐view and way of life that lead to the elimination of suffering and the realization of a lasting state of well‐being. Such ‘sublime dharma’ ( saddharma ) is presented in contrast to mundane dharmas ( lokadharma ), which include the classic set of ‘eight mundane concerns’: namely, material gain and loss, stimulus‐driven pleasure and pain, praise and ridicule, and fame and ill repute ( Wallace 1993 : ch. 1 ).

These two types of dharma correspond closely to two approaches to well‐being studied in psychology today: hedonic and eudaimonic ( Ryan and Deci 2001 ). The hedonic approach, corresponding to mundane dharma, is defined in terms of the pursuit of mental and physical pleasure and the avoidance of pain, whereas the eudaimonic approach, corresponding to sublime dharma, focuses on striving for the perfection that represents the realization of one's true potential ( Ryff 1995: 100 ; Kahneman, Diener, and Schwarz 1999 ). Hedonic well‐being includes pleasurable emotions and moods aroused by agreeable stimuli. I would argue that the evolutionary process of natural selection facilitates such happiness in the course of modifying living organisms so that they can survive and procreate. Eudaimonic well‐being, on the other hand, appears to arise not as a result of natural selection, but primarily from practices of the kind Buddhists call sublime dharma .

A Buddhist Model of Suffering

The sublime dharmas taught in Buddhism as a whole have as their principal aim the decrease and eventual complete liberation from suffering ( duhkha ), of which three levels are commonly identified: explicit suffering, the suffering of change, and ubiquitous suffering of conditionality ( Tsong‐kha‐pa 2000: 289–92 ). Explicit suffering refers to all physical and mental feelings of pain and distress. The suffering of change refers not to unpleasant feelings, but to pleasurable feelings and mental states aroused by pleasant stimuli, as well as the stimuli themselves. It is so called because when the stimulus is removed, the resultant happiness fades, revealing the underlying dissatisfaction that was only temporarily veiled by the pleasant stimulus. The ubiquitous suffering of conditionality refers to the state of existence in which one is constantly vulnerable to all kinds of suffering due to the mind's afflictive tendencies. These include the ‘three mental toxins’ of craving, hostility, and delusion, which are fundamental sources of dissatisfaction. In short, the ground state of such an afflicted mind is suffering, even when one is experiencing hedonic well‐being, and this is overcome only through the pursuit of eudaimonic well‐being, in which all forms of suffering are ultimately severed from their root.

A Buddhist Model of Happiness

As a remedy to the above three‐tiered model of suffering, Buddhists aim toward a similarly three‐tiered model of happiness ( sukha ). The most superficial level of sukha consists of all forms of explicit pleasure that arise from pleasant chemical, sensory, intellectual, aesthetic, and interpersonal stimuli. Some of these are ethically neutral, such as the pleasure of eating sweets; some are ethically positive, such as the joy of performing an act of altruistic service, or taking delight in one's children's success; and some are ethically malignant, such as taking satisfaction in another's misery. A second level of sukha consists of traits of eudaimonic well‐being that arise from an ethical way of life and from exceptional states of mental health and balance. The highest level of sukha consists of the eudaimonic well‐being resulting from freedom from all mental afflictions and obscurations and the complete realization of one's potentials for virtue. One who experiences such total freedom and realization is known as a buddha , literally ‘one who is awake’.

Hedonic psychology is concerned with the avoidance of explicit suffering and the accomplishment of explicit happiness, and it measures the success of that approach in terms of the amount of happiness and suffering one experiences from day to day. The Buddhist pursuit of eudaimonic well‐being, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with gaining freedom from the second and third levels of duhkha and realizing the second two levels of sukha . However, there is an asymmetry in the causal relation between hedonic and eudaimonic well‐being. While the hedonic pursuit of stimulus‐driven pleasures may or may not contribute to eudaimonic well‐being and may actually interfere with it, the eudaimonic approach enables one to derive increasing pleasure from life in the midst of both adversity and felicity. The hedonic approach focuses on the short‐term causes of stimulus‐driven happiness, whereas the eudaimonic approach focuses on the long‐term causes of well‐being that arise from mental balance.

While hedonic well‐being is contingent upon outer and inner pleasant stimuli, and is often pursued with no regard for ethics, the Buddhist eudaimonic approach begins with ethics, then focuses on the cultivation of mental balance, and finally centres on the cultivation of wisdom, particularly that stemming from insight into one's own nature. In this regard, eudaimonic well‐being may be characterized as having three levels: social and environmental well‐being stemming from ethical behaviour in relation to other living beings and the environment, psychological well‐being stemming from mental balance, and spiritual well‐being stemming from wisdom. These three elements—ethics, mental balance derived from the cultivation of focused attention, and wisdom—are the three ‘higher trainings’ that comprise the essence of the Buddhist path to awakening.

The essence of the first training in ethics consists of the avoidance of injurious behaviour and the cultivation of behaviour that is conducive to one's own and others' well‐being. While the topic of ethics in Western civilization is commonly a matter of religious belief or philosophical analysis, and has not been a focus of psychology, in the Buddhist tradition as a whole it is a practical, experiential matter that is at the very core of well‐being. All of us are called upon to examine our own physical, verbal, and mental behaviour, noting both short‐term as well as long‐term consequences of our actions. Although some activity may yield immediate pleasure, if over time it results in unrest, conflict, and misery, it is deemed unwholesome ( akushala ). On the other hand, even if a choice of behaviour involves difficulties in the short term, it is regarded as wholesome ( kushala ) if it leads eventually to contentment, harmony, and eudaimonic well‐being for oneself and others. This raises the possibility of ecological, sociological, and psychological research into the role of ethics, not in terms of religious doctrines or societal contracts, but with respect to the types of behaviours that impede and nurture our own and others' genuine well‐being.

In Buddhist tradition, ethics is taught before introducing the second kind of training—meditative practices designed to reduce mental afflictions and enhance mental balance—for it has been found that without this foundation, such practices will be of little or no value. Indeed, they may aggravate pre‐existing neuroses and other mental imbalances. Likewise, we can reflect upon the limited benefits of teaching people sophisticated therapeutic techniques to reduce depression, anxiety, or rage without exploring the effects of how they are leading their lives.

Mental Balance

While many environmental problems and social conflicts stem from unethical behaviour, according to Buddhism most mental suffering is due to imbalances of the mind to which virtually all of us are prone. A person whose mind is severely imbalanced is highly vulnerable to all forms of duhkha , including anxiety, frustration, boredom, restlessness, and depression. These are some of the symptoms of an unhealthy mind, and Buddhists claim that the underlying problems can be remedied through skilful, sustained mental training ( Gethin 2001 ). On the other hand, just as a healthy, uninjured body is relatively free of pain, so a healthy, balanced mind is relatively free of psychological distress.

This is the point of the second phase of Buddhist practice, a key element of which is the cultivation of focused attention ( samadhi ). The training in samadhi , however, refers to much more than the development of attentional skills. More broadly, it includes (1) conative balance , or the cultivation of desires and intentions conducive to eudaimonic well‐being ( Tsong‐kha‐pa 2000 ); (2) attentional balance , including the development of exceptional attentional stability and vividness ( Gunaratana 1991 ; Lamrimpa 1995 ; Wallace 2005 a ); (3) cognitive balance , including the application of mindfulness to one's own and others' bodies, minds, and the environment at large ( Nyanaponika Thera 1973 ; Gunaratana 1991 ); and (4) affective balance , in which one's emotional responses are appropriately measured and conducive to one's own and others' well‐being ( Goleman 1997 , 2002 ; Davidson et al. 2005 ; Nauriyal 2005; Wallace 2005 b ).

A basic hypothesis of Buddhism is that to the extent that the mind loses its balance of any of the above four kinds, its ground state, prior to any chemical, sensory, or conceptual stimulation, is one of duhkha , or dis‐ease. In response to such dissatisfaction, there are two major options: (1) to follow the hedonic approach of smothering the unpleasant symptoms of these fundamental imbalances; (2) to adopt the eudaimonic approach of getting to the root of these symptoms by cultivating mental balance. Modern society has provided us with a plethora of means to stifle unhappiness, from mood‐altering drugs to sensory bombardment, to extreme sports. The more the mind is in a state of imbalance, the more intense the stimuli it requires to smother its internal unrest.

According to Buddhism, no pleasurable stimuli are true sources of happiness in the sensethatanartesianwellisasourceofwaterand the sunisasourceofheat.Ifthey were, we should experience happiness whenever we encounter pleasurable stimuli, and the degree of our happiness should be directly correlated to the intensity and duration of our contact with those stimuli. While sensory experiences, attitudes, other people, and situations seemto‘makeus happy’, infact the most theycandois contribute to our well‐being; they cannot literally deliver happiness to us. The only way, according to the Buddhist hypothesis, to achieve eudaimonic well‐being is to balance the mind, and to the extent that this occurs, one discovers a sense of well‐being from within, which lingers whether one is alone or with others, active or still.

We turn now to the third element of Buddhist practice, the cultivation of wisdom, particularly through the investigation of consciousness.

Buddhist Science of Consciousness

In his classic work Science and Civilization in China (1956) Joseph Needham explored the historical reasons why the civilizations of China and India never developed science as we understand it in the modern West: namely, a quantitative, technologically driven science of the outer, physical world. Similarly, one may ask why Western civilization has never developed a science of consciousness ( Whitehead 2004 ), in which a consensus is reached regarding the definition of consciousness and means are devised to examine directly the nature of consciousness, as well as its necessary and sufficient causes and its causal influences. Buddhism, I maintain, has developed such a rational and empirical discipline of inquiry.

I shall begin by outlining a hierarchy among the natural sciences, showing both the strengths and weaknesses of modern science. While the physical sciences rely heavily on quantitative analysis, axioms of mathematics do not define, predict, or explain the emergence of the physical universe. Isaac Newton modelled the physical laws presented in his Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy on the axioms of geometry, but his discoveries would have been impossible without careful observations of celestial and terrestrial physical phenomena. Likewise, the current laws of physics alone do not define, predict, or explain the emergence of life in the universe. Biologists needed to develop their own unique modes of observing living organisms, such as Darwin's studies on the Galapagos Islands, as a basis for defining and explaining the emergence and evolution of life in the universe. Similarly, the laws of biology alone do not define, predict, or explain the emergence of consciousness in living organisms; nor is consciousness detected by the instruments of biology. Given the pattern of the physical and life sciences, it follows that cognitive scientists must also devise sophisticated, rigorous means of directly observing mental phenomena as a basis for defining and explaining the origins and nature of consciousness. Galileo refined the telescope and used it to make precise observations of celestial phenomena, and Van Leeuwenhoek used the microscope to make precise observations of minute living organisms. But cognitive scientists have failed to devise a methodology for making reliable, direct observations of the whole spectrum of mental phenomena themselves, which can be made only from a first‐person perspective, as I shall discuss below.

William James, a great pioneer of American psychology, proposed that psychology should consist of the study of subjective mental phenomena, their relations to their objects, to the brain, and to the rest of the world. To develop this scientific study of the mind, he proposed a threefold strategy: mental phenomena should be studied indirectly through the careful observation of behaviour and of the brain, and they should be examined directly by means of introspection. Among these three approaches, he declared that for the study of the mind, ‘ Introspective Observation is what we have to rely on first and foremost and always ’ ( James 1890/1950: i. 185 ). Much as the theories of Copernicus, Darwin, and Mendel were largely ignored for decades after their deaths, so this threefold strategy of James has been discarded for the most part, while behaviourism, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience have dominated the cognitive sciences. The current means of observing mental phenomena directly has not achieved the level of sophistication of the behavioural and neurosciences, so, in this regard, James's comment that psychology today is hardly more than what physics was before Galileo still retains a high degree of validity (James 1892).

There are certainly problems in incorporating introspection—a first‐person, qualitative mode of inquiry—into the framework of science, which is centred upon third‐person, quantitative methods. Indeed, there have been examples in Western psychology of employing inadequately developed methods of self‐reporting that were never able to clarify general principles for understanding mental functions ( Danziger 1980 ). However, these problems may be surmounted by improving the necessary skills for making precise, reliable, introspective observations. Another reason why first‐person observation has been so neglected since the time of James is the neuroscientific interest in identifying the mechanisms underlying mental processes. Despite this focus, cognitive scientists have yet to identify any mechanism that explains how neural processes generate or even influence subjectively experienced mental processes, or, conversely, how mental events influence the brain. They have succeeded in identifying the neural correlates to specific perceptual and conceptual processes, but the exact nature of those correlations remains a mystery. A widespread assumption among cognitive scientists is that neural and mental processes are actually flip sides of the same coin, but this belief has yet to be validated by either empirical evidence or rational argument. All we really know is that specific kinds of neural events are necessary for the generation of specific kinds of mental processes. That hardly amounts to a proof of identity.

In light of the history of science, this insistence on identifying the mechanisms of mental processes may be premature. From the time when Newton identified the natural laws of gravity in 1687, it was 228 years before the mechanism of gravity was explained in Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. Likewise, for the laws of natural selection, a century passed after the publication of Darwin's On the Origins of Species in 1859 and Gregor Mendel's formulation of his theories of genetics in 1865 before James Watson and Francis Crick were able to model the structure of DNA. And according to quantum theory, which is commonly cited as the most successful of all scientific theories, no mechanisms have yet been found to explain such phenomena as non‐locality, the uncertainty principle, or the collapse of probabilistic wave functions.

It is quite possible that no mechanisms will ever be found to explain the causal interactions between neural and mental events, but this should not deter scientists from developing rigorous methods for observing mental phenomena in the only way possible: through first‐person, introspective observation in conjunction with careful observation of behaviour and of the brain, as James proposed more than a century ago.

The physical sciences have undergone two revolutions: the Copernican revolution and the twentieth‐century revolution of relativity and quantum theory. The biological sciences have witnessed one revolution, beginning with Darwin and culminating in the Human Genome Project. The cognitive sciences have achieved no similar radical shift in their understanding of mind or consciousness. The basic assumptions about the mind and its relation to the brain that were common in the late nineteenth century remain unchanged and largely unchallenged to this day. Although great advances have been made recently in measuring neural correlates of mental phenomena, it is far from clear whether these objective measures will ever reveal the nature of those correlations and therefore the nature of mind–brain interactions or consciousness itself.

Despite the West's failure to bring about a revolution in the cognitive sciences, it would be hasty to assume that no other civilization has revolutionized the scientific study of the mind. Much as Galileo refined the telescope and used it in unprecedented ways to directly observe celestial phenomena, so the Buddha refined the practice of samadhi and used it in unprecedented ways to explore states of consciousness and their objects ( ÑāŅamoli 1992 ). As a result of his own experiential explorations, he came to the conclusion: ‘The mind that is established in equipoise comes to know reality as it is' ( Kamalaśīla 1958: 205 ). While such introspective inquiry may seem more philosophical than scientific, consider the definition of the scientific method as ‘principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of knowledge involving the recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data through observation and experiment, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses’ ( Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary ). There is nothing in that definition that insists on third‐person observation or quantitative analysis, especially for phenomena that are irreducibly first‐person in nature ( Searle 1994 ).

Derived from exactly this kind of exploration, three dimensions of consciousness may be posited on the basis of contemplative writings common to the Mahayana Buddhist tradition (which emerged around the beginning of the Christian era). The first of these is the psyche ( chitta )—the whole array of conscious and unconscious mental processes that occur from birth to death. In Buddhism the primary reason for exploring the psyche is to identify and learn to overcome the afflictive mental processes that generate suffering internally. This is the central theme of the Four Noble Truths and the Buddhist pursuit of liberation.

A thorough understanding of the human psyche must include insight into its origins. The vast majority of contemporary cognitive scientists assume, often unquestioningly, that the brain is solely responsible for producing all mental processes. The uniformity of this view is remarkable in light of the fact that scientists have yet to identify the neural correlates of consciousness or its necessary and sufficient causes ( Searle 2002: 49–50 ; Searle 2004: 119 ). Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence question whether a carbon‐based brain is necessary for the generation of consciousness, and there is no scientific consensus regarding its sufficient causes. The belief that the brain is solely responsible for all states of consciousness stems immediately from the metaphysical principles of scientific materialism, which dominate most scientific thinking today, muchas Roman Catholic theology dominated and constrained intellectual life during the time of Galileo ( Wallace 2000 ).

Substrate Consciousness

Through the development and utilization of highly advanced stages of samadhi , which remain unexplored by science, contemplatives in the ‘Great Perfection’ (Dzogchen) tradition of Indo‐Tibetan Buddhism claim to have discovered a second dimension of consciousness: a continuum of individual mental awareness that precedes this life and continues on beyond death, which they call the substrate consciousness (alayavijñana) ( Wallace 1996 : ch. 23 ; Düdjom Lingpa 2004: 31 and 68 ; Wallace 2000 a : 77–8 and 164–6). This relative ground state of the mind is characterized by three qualities: bliss, luminosity, and non‐conceptuality. It is most vividly apprehended by meditatively enhancing the stability and vividness of attention, but it naturally manifests in deep sleep and in the dying process.

The human psyche, the first dimension of consciousness mentioned above, emerges, they conclude, not from the body but from this underlying stream of consciousness that precedes species differentiation. While the body conditions the mind and is necessary for specific mental processes to arise as long as the substrate consciousness is embodied, the psyche emerges from this underlying stream of consciousness that is embodied in life after life. This theory is compatible with all current scientific knowledge of the mind and the brain, so there is nothing illogical about it; nor is it simply a faith‐based proposition as far as advanced Buddhist contemplatives are concerned. Scientific materialists, however, insist that mental phenomena emerge solely from the brain, much as bile is secreted from the gall bladder ( Searle 2002: 115 ). What they commonly overlook, though, is that mental phenomena, unlike all other emergent phenomena known to science, cannot be observed by any objective, scientific means. So this assertion is a metaphysical assumption, not an established scientific fact. Something that is purely a matter of religious faith or philosophical speculation as far as scientists in the West are concerned may be an experientially confirmed hypothesis for contemplatives in the East. The demarcation between science and metaphysics—between theories that can and cannot be tested empirically—is determined by the limits of experiential inquiry, not Nature or God.

Thus far, experiential inquiry in science has been confined largely to the exploration of the objective world by way of our five physical senses and the instruments of technology. Mental phenomena themselves, as opposed to their neural and behavioural correlates, are invisible to such objective modes of observation. So, to this day, cognitive scientists have yet to come to a consensus regarding the definition of consciousness; they have noobjective meansof detecting the presenceof consciousness in anything; they have failed toidentify even the neural correlatesofconsciousness, and therefore remain in the dark regarding the necessary and sufficient causes of consciousness. All this suggests that mental phenomena are irreducibly first‐person phenomena, and that the only way to restore a true sense of empiricism to the scientific study of the mind is to acknowledge the primary role of introspective observation.

A major reason for the resistance on the part of many scientists to including introspection as a legitimate method of empirical inquiry is that it is quintessentially a private, first‐person kind of experience. Scientific inquiry, on the other hand, has achieved its great successes by way of public, third‐person observations. It is important to note that these advances in scientific knowledge have focused primarily on objective, quantifiable, physical processes, while conscious mental processes are subjective, qualitative, and invisible to the physical means of observation developed by science. But now, with the recent development of sophisticated psychological and neurophysiological methods of inquiry, the first‐person methods of introspection (based on the development of advanced stages of samadhi ) may be cross‐checked with the third‐person methods of the cognitive sciences in ways that may expand the horizons of both scientific and contemplative inquiry.

The Buddha claimedtohavegained direct knowledgeofthis continuityofindividual consciousness beyond death, as well as direct knowledge of the patterns of causal relationships connecting multiple lifetimes ( ÑāŅamoli 1992: 23–6 ). Many generations of Buddhist contemplativesthroughout Asia claimtohavereplicatedhis discoveries, so such reports are not confined to the testimony of one individual. From a third‐person perspective, all such discoveries based on introspective inquiry remain anecdotal, so only practitioners have ‘proof’ of their validity. As such, they are accessible only to a privileged few, but this has always been true of many of the most profound scientific truths. It takes years of training to become a qualified ‘third person’ capable of testing others' alleged discoveries in any advanced Weld of science. They have never been testable by the general public, who often take them on faith, much as religious believers take on faith the claims of their church. The Buddhist training in samadhi required to gain experiential access to the substrate may easily take 10,000–20,000 hours— comparable to the time required for graduate work in science—and until now, such professional training has never been available to cognitive scientists.

Particularly in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, for centuries there has been keen interest in identifying children who were allegedly accomplished meditators and teachers in their past lives. This has commonly been done by seeking out children who appear to remember their past‐life experiences, and scientific research into such instances has also begun ( Stevenson 1997 ). Most cognitive scientists have refused to consider any theory of reincarnation, insisting that it cannot belong in a scientific dialogue per se.

While there does not appear to be any neuroscientific means of disproving the hypothesis that the brain is necessary for all states of consciousness, few scientists have expressed concern over the non‐scientific nature of their fundamental assumptions about the mind—body problem. Similarly, the Buddhist hypothesis of the substrate consciousness does not easily lend itself to scientific repudiation; but scientific inquiry, with a suspension of disbelief, should Wrst be directed to examining whether any positive evidence exists, before worrying about whether it can be repudiated.

Indirect evidence may be provided by third‐person methods, such as the Weld studies of Ian Stevenson and his scientific successor Jim Tucker (2005) . The quantitative, objective tools of observation of science provide no immediate access to any kind of mental phenomena, so they are not likely to reveal any evidence for the substrate consciousness. This can come only from rigorous, Wrst‐person methods such as those proposed by the Buddhist tradition. Just as the existence of the moons of Jupiter can be verified only by those who gaze through a telescope, so the existence of subtle dimensions of consciousness can be verified experientially only by those willing to devote themselves to years of rigorous attentional training. And dedication to such refinement of attention is not contingent on accepting the hypotheses of Buddhism or any other contemplative tradition beforehand.

Primordial Consciousness

There is yet a third dimension of consciousness, known as primordial consciousness ( jñana ), or the Buddha‐nature ( buddhadhatu ) ( Ruegg 1989 ; Thrangu Rinpoche 1993 ;   Dalai Lama 2000 ). This is regarded in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition as the ultimate ground state of consciousness, prior to the conceptual dichotomies of subject and object, mind and matter, and even existence and non‐existence. This realm of consciousness is described metaphorically as being space‐like and luminous, forever unsullied by mental afflictions or obscurations of any kind. The realization of this state of consciousness is said to yield a state of well‐being that represents the culmination of the Buddhist pursuit of eudaimonic well‐being, knowledge, and virtue. With such insight, it is said that one comes to understand not only the nature of consciousness, but also its relation to reality as a whole. This raises the truly astonishing Buddhist hypothesis: ‘All phenomena are preceded by the mind. When the mind is comprehended, all phenomena are comprehended. By bringing the mind under control, all things are brought under control’ ( Śāntideva 1961: 68 ).

This primordial consciousness is, then, the ultimate basis for the other two dimensions of awareness. While each human psyche emerges from its individual substrate consciousness, all streams of substrate consciousness emerge ultimately from primordial consciousness, which transcends individuality. The substrate consciousness can allegedly be ascertained with the achievement of advanced stages of samadhi, whereas primordial consciousness can be realized only through the cultivation of contemplative insight ( vipashyana ) ( Bielefeldt 1988 ; Karma Chagmé 1998 ; Padmasambhava 1998 ; Wallace 2005 b : ch. 14 ). Thus, Buddhism postulates this dimension of awareness not as a mystical theology, but as a hypothesis that can be put to the test of immediate experience through advanced contemplative training open to anyone, without any leap of faith that violates reason.

The above theory of the multiple levels of emergence of consciousness flies in the face of the widespread assumption of cognitive scientists that the brain alone produces all states of consciousness. Such scientists commonly assume that they already know that consciousness has no existence apart from the brain, so the only question to be solved is how the brain produces conscious states. Neurologist Antonio Damasio, for instance, while acknowledging that scientists have yet to understand consciousness, declares, ‘Understanding consciousness says little or nothing about the origins of the universe, the meaning of life, or the likely destiny of both’ ( Damasio 1999: 28 ). This assumption is an instance of what historian Daniel Boorstin calls ‘an illusion of knowledge’. It is such illusions, he proposes, and not mere ignorance, that have historically acted as the greatest impediments to scientific discovery ( Boorstin 1985: p. xv ).

Prospectively, were the Buddhist theories of the substrate consciousness and primordial consciousness and the practices for realizing eudaimonic well‐being to be introduced into the realm of scientific inquiry, radical changes might occur in both traditions. Buddhism, like all other religions, philosophies, and sciences, is prone to dogmatism. As they encounter the empiricism and scepticism of modern science and philosophy, contemporary Buddhists may be encouraged to take a fresh look at their own beliefs and assumptions, putting them to the test, wherever possible, of rigorous third‐person inquiry. Buddhist societies have never developed a science of the brain, nor any quantitative science of behaviour or the physical world, so its understanding of the human mind may be enhanced by close collaboration with various branches of modern science.

The encounter between the cognitive sciences and Buddhism and other contemplative traditions may also bring about deep changes in the scientific understanding of the mind. One possibility is that the first revolution in the cognitive sciences may result from the long‐delayed synthesis of rigorous first‐person and third‐person means of investigating a wide range of mental phenomena. This would be the fulfilment of William James's strategy for the scientific study of the mind, which has been marginalized over the past century. This revolution could be analogous to the emergence of classical physics, culminating in the discoveries of Isaac Newton. If we speculate further into the future, we may envision a second revolution in the cognitive sciences emerging from the study of and with individuals with exceptional mental skills and insights acquired through sophisticated, sustained contemplative training. This might parallel the revolution in physics in the early twentieth century, which challenged many of our deepest assumptions about the nature of space, time, mass, and energy. Such revolutions in the cognitive sciences may equally challenge current scientific assumptions about the nature of consciousness and its relation to the brain and the rest of the world.

A Return to Empiricism

A reasonable scientific response to the above presentation of Buddhist views on the nature of eudaimonic well‐being and the three dimensions of consciousness is one of open‐minded scepticism. But such scepticism should be equally directed to one's own beliefs, which may be ‘illusions of knowledge’ masquerading as scientific facts. Richard Feynman wonderfully expressed this ideal of scientific scepticism thus:

One of the ways of stopping science would be only to do experiments in the region where you know the law. But experimenters search most diligently, and with the greatest effort, in exactly those places where it seems most likely that we can prove our theories wrong. In other words we are trying to prove ourselves wrong as quickly as possible, because only in that way can we find progress. ( Feynman 1983: 158 )

Buddhism, too, expresses a comparable ideal of scepticism. The Buddha is recorded as having said: ‘Monks, just as the wise accept gold after testing it by heating, cutting, and rubbing it, so are my words to be accepted after examining them, but not out of respect for me’ ( Shastri 1968 : k. 3587). The Dalai Lama maintains this self‐reflective spirit of scepticism when he writes: ‘A general basic stance of Buddhism is that it is inappropriate to hold a view that is logically inconsistent. This is taboo. But even more taboo than holding a view that is logically inconsistent is holding a view that goes against direct experience’ ( Varela and Hayward 1992: 37 ).

I have argued in this chapter that Buddhism has developed a science of consciousness, but serious objections may be raised. It may be pointed out that science is characterized by controlled experiments, repeated iterative evolving cycles of hypothesis formation, controlled testing, hypothesis revision, and prediction. However, these traits are not common to all branches of science. Astronomy, geology, meteorology, and ecology are some examples that do not lend themselves to all the above methods. Buddhist rational and experiential inquiry into the nature of consciousness and the world at large bears some qualities in common with modern science, but not all. This opens the possibility of a new contemplative science emerging from the interface between Buddhism and the cognitive sciences, in which rigorous Wrst‐person and third‐person methodologies are integrated in unprecedented ways. Such a science may serve to bring together spiritual and scientific modes of inquiry, to the enrichment of everyone.

Buddhism is also poised to serve as a mediator between theistic religions, which regard God (existing independently of human experience) as their ultimate authority, and science, which takes Nature (existing independently of human experience) as its ultimate authority. While many theologians claim that God can be known only through faith or reason (versus direct experience), and many scientists claim that the mind can be scientifically studied only inferentially by examining the brain and behaviour, Buddhist contemplatives claim that the potential range of immediate experience is far greater than is commonly assumed. The Buddhist challenge here is to retrieve spiritual realities and physical realities from their respective black boxes and return them to the world of experience, where they rightfully belong.

Such a move accords with William James's proposal of a science of religion that differs from philosophical theology by drawing inferences and devising imperatives based on the scrutiny of ‘the immediate content of religious consciousness’ ( James 1902/1985: 12 ). Such a science of religions, he suggested, might offer mediation between scientists and religious believers, and might eventually command public adherence comparable to that presently granted to the natural sciences. I conclude this chapter with James's challenge to restore a true spirit of empiricism to both religion and science:

Let empiricism once become associated with religion, as hitherto, through some strange misunderstanding, it has been associated with irreligion, and I believe that a new era of religion as well as philosophy will be ready to begin … I fully believe that such an empiricism is a more natural ally than dialectics ever were, or can be, of the religious life. ( James 1909/1977: 142 )

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• Published: 04 July 2017

An Experimental Approach to Buddhism and Religion

• John Nelson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4307-9308 1  

International Journal of Dharma Studies volume  5 , Article number:  16 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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Adaptations, modifications, and realignments of religious doctrine and practice can be found in any period of social history. It can be official and highly orchestrated (as in Vatican II) but more often it takes a subjective and reactionary form (as in the Hindutva movement). This paper promotes the idea of “experimental religion” as both an analytical concept and an observable set of behaviors that help identify how contemporary trends (such as individualism, secularity, information technologies, and market economies) reconfigure attitudes and motivations regarding the relevance and applicability of religious resources. Drawing from Buddhist-related case material in Japan and other liberal democracies, we see lay practitioners, priests, and occasionally institutions as well using innovation and activism to reposition and reboot existing paradigms. The intention is to fashion a religious practice responsive to individual concerns as well as to pressing environmental, political, and economic issues.

Most academic essays begin by referencing the topic at hand, citing relevant literature, or provoking thought through some telling anecdote. This article takes a slightly different approach and focuses instead on the intellectual history of each reader as its point of departure. In particular, I assume that anyone reading this essay has developed (or is in the process of doing so) a set of understandings about religion that draw upon a unique social moment in the second decade of the 21 st century. This is a time characterized by tremendous social change precipitated in part by technological advances, market capitalism, and liberal democracies, as well as political orders opposed to democratic principles. News headlines and current events remind us daily that we are living in a bipolar era of global integration (via social, economic, political and cultural networks and organizations) as well as one of unprecedented fragmentation and marginalization of huge populations (Dirlik 2003 : 149).

To fine-tune the previous statement, this is also a time when higher education, immigration, travel, and shifting moralities have led to more parity among genders in the workplace, as well as more opportunities and risks for individuals of all social classes. We see how normative traditions and orientations, especially those considered “religious,” continue to react, adjust, and reformulate their basic principles in order to accommodate some of the dynamics mentioned above. All socially-constructed traditions, whether secular or religious, are described frequently as being in a state of perpetual crisis as cultures, political alliances, ethnic groups, and worldviews respond to new opportunities and challenges.

It is likely that readers have experienced directly some or all of the features just described. It is also possible that a reader interested in this journal’s special symposium on religious experimentation has already formulated an approach to religious practice and belief that—similar to the selective and creative strategies she employs for other aspects of her life—is non-traditional and interactive with the secular trends of late modernity. Critical thought, problem solving techniques, perhaps even rational argument based on evidence are all tried-and-true methods for shaping spiritual and secular worlds in ways generally considered to be positive, progressive, and beneficial. Thus, whether Catholic, Hindu, or Buddhist, many people with religious affiliations attempt to fashion a belief system that accommodates key doctrines (such as karma, salvation, or morality) and yet leaves room for personal customization.

While the intended audience for this journal may have sophistication in how they personally approach and conceptualize religion, they know that a majority of people around the world do not get their religious orientations from books, academic study, or the Internet. Instead, it comes to them primarily through the values and structures of their families, communities, schools, and religious institutions—even when they may not participate as a member of a religion. This is not to say that individuals passively accept the religious heritage of their home communities because ethnographic and historical research (such as we find in this volume and elsewhere) shows otherwise. Meredith McGuire’s concept of “lived religion” reminds us to challenge the notion that religion is unified, coherent, “organizationally defined, (and a) relatively stable set of collective beliefs and practices” (McGuire 2008 : 200). She emphasizes there can be tremendous “within-group diversity” that destabilizes and appropriates organizational doctrines for personal agendas. Thus, for the individual, “religion appears to be a multifaceted, often messy or even contradictory amalgam of beliefs and practices” (208).

Another perspective that conceptualizes the individualization and subjectivity of religious traditions is Leonard Primiano’s idea of “vernacular religion.” Primiano writes that “there is always some passive accommodation, some intriguing survival, some active creation, some dissenting impulse, some reflection on lived experience that influences how these individuals direct their religious lives” (Primiano 1995 , 46). What is evident from both these examples is a dynamic that may not at first appear important because it has become so commonplace: the relative freedom to first interpret and then actively shape one’s own identity. Footnote 1 Familiar frameworks of the self once formed by ethnicity, occupation, race, and family (to name a few) are still present but have become increasingly negotiable due to a variety of factors unique to the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. So thoroughly have liberal democratic societies adopted a sense of self that is developmental rather than prescribed, we rarely consider how significantly this concept has altered forms of social and cultural organization. The ability to select, fashion, and then continually augment our identity in ways we hope are positive has come to dominate how we conceive of and construct our lives.

Nowhere is this freedom more evident than in our relationship with religious traditions. Of course, there are many parts of the world (including western societies) where religious institutions still have sufficient clout to arbitrate morality and ethics, legitimate authority, sanction social causes and political movements, and even validate the findings of physicians and scientists. But in societies that attempt to separate religion and politics through the rule of law, those powers have been limited. For the first time in human history, hundreds of millions of people are now able to choose for themselves which religious ideas to believe in, or whether to believe in religious propositions at all. Footnote 2 A 2014 survey by the Pew Research Center ( 2015 ) on “Changes in Religious Affiliation in the U.S.” indicated that roughly 42% of all Americans change religion at one point in their lives—which may partly explain why some readers are motivated to read this article in an academic publication that accommodates diverse and pluralistic religious interests. Footnote 3

Experimental Buddhisms in Context

The expansion and growth of Buddhist denominations worldwide provide many examples of adaptation and accommodation (Eddy 2012 ). There is an impressive range of options about which spiritual or religious path to follow among the various Buddhisms active today. Footnote 4 Before an individual “becomes” a practitioner of Zen, Vajrayana, Pure Land, or any of the other schools now accessible globally through actual and virtual sites, most newcomers (as well as many born into the religion), display an approach to teachings, rituals, guidelines, and communities that can be considered “experimental.” The adjective “experimental” calls particular attention to the ways the resources of religious traditions are negotiated by an individual, then implemented selectively and pragmatically over time. Through trial-and-error, relevant concepts or methods are sought, examined, and then applied to any number of agendas, some psychological, emotional, and spiritual, others social and political. This is not an idealized Buddhism of the monastery or popular culture but one fully engaged with contemporary sensibilities and situations.

What does the concept of “experimentation” contribute to an understanding of religious practice in general and Buddhism in particular? While the word may have been overused during the 1960’s regarding lifestyles, drug use, religious affiliation, music, and so on, the concept remains relevant for understanding a wide range of attitudes and behaviors. When we look at the term in the Oxford English Dictionary , we find its earliest known English usage in 1388, with its root form derived from the verb phrase “to experience.” “Experimental” means “trying out” a plan or method in actual situations rather than relying upon mere testimony or conjecture. “Experimental” is also derived from “experiment,” which can be either a noun or a verb. This range of meanings and associations references a very basic human behavior: testing an idea to see if and how it works before proceeding further. If the idea does not produce the expected results, we try again (depending on our motivation and circumstances). We might use a variety of methods until we arrive at an outcome considered acceptable (or until repeated failures lead us to abandon the endeavor entirely). While this process of cause and effect is as old as human civilization, much more recent is the way we can think objectively about the sequence of decisions and steps as a distinct methodology open to critical review and independent verification. Footnote 5

An experimental approach to religious practice, whether it be Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, or Jewish, follows a similar pattern. It is selective, pragmatic, and concerned primarily with achieving a satisfactory result that somehow improves human life or advances the agenda of an individual or group in ways thought to be beneficial. Like any concept, it is designed to organize and delimit what is a kinetic field of activity. In the case of contemporary Buddhism in Japan, which we will return to in a moment, religious experimentation is a field bristling with the energy of individuals often dissipated by the inertia of institutions.

The following five characteristics about experimental Buddhism point to correspondences between our unique historical era—where unprecedented global flows of information, people, and money have become familiar—and the ways in which religions like Buddhism must accommodate individuals influenced by and operating within these kinds of networks. Applicable both to Buddhist institutions and practitioners (committed, casual, and otherwise), the features that follow began in the late twentieth century but have “gone viral” in the last decade. Footnote 6

First and foremost, an experimental approach to Buddhism (or any religious tradition for that matter) concerns positioning. As if using a GPS navigation system, practitioners conceive of their lives as a set of mobile coordinates located within complex and interactive social, cultural, economic, and ecological networks. From this conjunction blending location, time, situation, and individuality, an assessment is made about the conditions of a person’s life. This is a highly subjective task and yet the “data” that comes from perceptions about interpersonal relationships, economic status, health and spiritual well-being, housing, and a variety of other factors all contribute to the dynamics of positioning. Motivated by a desire to improve, change, or simply comprehend one’s present circumstances, an experimental approach to religion views individuals, teachers, practices, and institutions as resources (some local and others global) that can advance spiritual progress and perhaps influence other aspects of one’s life in a positive way.

And while there is a great deal of specificity in this process of positioning—gender, education, race, class, and health all play their parts—there are also global systems that matter a great deal. Networks of information technology, transportation, finance, media cultures and so on can also shape a person’s understanding of their location in significant ways. If a university student is turned on by the idea of Theravadan “forest monks” ordaining trees to save them from logging, and determines to visit this part of northern Thailand, he will start by positioning himself vis-á-vis relevant teachings, monastic networks, environmental activism, and local centers where he might practice metta or “loving-kindness” meditation. Simultaneously local and global, we now accept the easy interactivity of these realms of activity and information as we position understanding about our lives.

Implicit in the first characteristic of an experimental practice is its second important feature, one already mentioned in this discussion: the agency of individuals to fashion a spiritual or religious significance for their lives. “Agency” is a well-traveled term in the social sciences indicating a creative process whereby culturally conditioned individuals select, test, and then verify a plan or process that they think will improve their circumstances. In an experimental Buddhist context, this means synthesizing teachings and methods to try to form an integrated stance that can negotiate perceived problems and challenges (which may themselves be conditioned by global forces and local contingencies).

Traditional authority within most Buddhist denominations—based as they are upon doctrines, teachers, lineages, institutional sites, and so forth—has been slow to adjust to this historical shift. As a result, the agency of common individuals who skillfully employ the media, wield economic influence, or advance new technologies has impacted most Buddhist traditions in significant (though not always positive) ways. Footnote 7 Personal agendas for spiritual and religious advancement may not always harmonize with doctrinal or traditional patterns. When this occurs, such as when a newcomer discovers to her dismay an entrenched patriarchy and discrimination against women among Buddhist priests, why risk frustration when there are many other spiritual options that promise the same liberation of heart and mind? As sociologist James Beckford reminds us, the “fashioning,” “shaping,” and “patterning” involved in constructing religious practice can also be deconstructed or reconstructed (Beckford 2015 :12).

Since many Westerners tend to view religious authority with some caution, a third feature entails the wary negotiation that occurs before making a commitment to participate in and support a particular Buddhist tradition. Individuals independently and collectively evaluate concepts, doctrines, teachers, practices, institutions, and so on to imagine how a specific version of the dharma will play out in the “field experiment” of their lives. This endeavor is common among lay practitioners of course, but we find it increasingly among priests, monks, and other religious specialists. In my research on contemporary Buddhist priests in Japan, there is great inventiveness (often coupled with dogged determination) in rebooting the application of ancient temples and teachings to become relevant for people living in one of the world’s most advanced consumer cultures. While the concerts, cafés, websites, symposia, and social welfare-related initiatives these priests organize and promote are not always successful, at least no one can accuse them of inaction or indifference. (More about these endeavors in the second part of this essay.)

A fourth attribute of an experimental Buddhism is its rational and keenly observant quality regarding a religious practice grounded in everyday life. From an initial hypothesis about the utility of an idea or method, to the testing we perform as the results become apparent, an experimental Buddhism orients practitioners to both the meditation cushion and to the messy conditions of contemporary social orders. And while that sounds somewhat cliché, there’s one important twist of the plot: those hoping to make Buddhist teachings or practices transform their lives intuit that a subjective judgment about their progress, even when it comes from a venerated teacher, is not enough. Society, and not the temple or monastery, is becoming the ultimate testing ground and arbiter for what constitutes the viability and effectiveness of a Buddhist practice that “works.”

Some readers may consider this world- affirming approach ironic and perhaps mistaken, since it seems to undermine the whole point of stepping back from social conditioning to investigate the workings of one’s mind and emotions. While an occasional retreat may be necessary to maintain a foundation for this kind of Buddhist practice, the historical record indicates that, like the Buddha himself, monks in early sanghas were constantly on the move and interacted with all segments of society. Like the lay sage Vimalakirti chiding the monk Śariputra for “indulging” in tranquil forest meditation, experimental Buddhists know that leaving a controlled setting and venturing into everyday life situations exposes their practice to considerable uncertainty and challenge. The initial steps of learning meditation may have a great deal of what scientists call “internal validity,” whereby one’s efforts function smoothly within a structured environment. However, the same practice may lack “external validity” when the location is not a quiet room lit by candlelight but a noisy city street or an intensely busy office.

Finally, an experimental religious practice embraces the continual reinvention of not just Buddhism but all religious traditions. Whether their leaders like it or not, religious organizations have entered a historical moment where conventional teachings, methods, and institutional structures have little choice but to exit traditional contexts and fashion a new significance to engage the lives of contemporary men and women. Some types of Buddhism have done this better than others, or perhaps it is more accurate to say that a number of Buddhist teachers and administrators have drawn attention to their respective approaches based on what can be described as a more experimental approach. They position and emphasize the relevance of a 2500 years old tradition for diverse and resource-full audiences; they utilize global systems unique to modernity not only to disseminate their ideas but also appear in person to conduct workshops or give lectures; they provide a pragmatic and rational case for the effectiveness of their teachings, verified by experience instead of subjective opinion; and they are able to muster the necessary financial capital to keep all of these activities moving forward. The foundations may be rooted in a particular religious tradition, but the delivery and packaging of their message often appears more secular than not. Footnote 8

Since we find ourselves living at a time when it is the individual rather than the group that is privileged and empowered, practitioners are able to orient their Buddhisms to the worlds they have constructed rather than the other way around. Precedents are important, but individuals are now able to find ways that reconcile earlier models with their own deeply internalized dispositions that incline actions, thoughts, and feelings in ways consistent with social situations and cultural norms. In other words, individual agency (and the religious resources it selects as relevant) develops a competence to navigate the present without depending wholly on maps of the past. An experimental approach to Buddhist practice renders those historically inspiring yet somewhat static blueprints into creative resources, ones that everyday experience shapes into meaningful, and sometimes profound, applications.

In the remaining discussion, two areas relevant to both understanding and extending the concept of experimental Buddhism will be explored. The first involves innovation within existing Buddhist institutions and practices, and the second focuses on activism based on perceived “Buddhist values.” Despite the compelling nature of these examples, they represent a small fraction of the majority of Buddhist denominations in Japan today. Footnote 9

What we now refer to as “Buddhist modernism” (McMahan 2008 ; Rocha 2012 ) creates both a category and a context for assessing how Buddhist traditions are seen as relevant for women and men in contemporary society. Social engagement, new forms of leadership by lay people, a rational orientation toward doctrine and ethics, a compatibility with democracy and science, and even troubling forms of religious nationalism are all features that can play a significant role in the (re)conceptualization of Buddhist traditions for both individuals and institutions. Each of these modes can be considered experimental as an individual tests, applies, assesses, and retools their practice and understanding into new systems of meaning and self-definition. Footnote 10

It might seem arbitrary to start this brief survey of innovation in Buddhist traditions in Japan. And yet, there are few societies that have such a remarkable heritage in domesticating forms and concepts that come from sources outside this island nation. Nor are there many societies that have undergone such wrenching change, growth, destruction, and adaptation in the last 150 years. Due in part to this recent history, as well as domestic and global trends, Buddhist temples in Japan have entered a new and destabilizing period where conventional patterns of belief, practice, and traditional affiliations no longer guarantee institutional survival.

Because of increased education, the relativization of religious claims to truth, and skeptical attitudes about religion in general—all characteristics of late modernity and contributing factors to an experimental approach to religion—long-standing notions of divine retribution and karmic punishment have been undermined and no longer intimidate the general public as they once did. (Readers who have yet to read much Buddhist history —and think that it is free of a “fear factor” so prevalent in Christianity or Islam—are in for a shock. Buddhist hell realms and demonic activity are every bit as vivid and terrifying as anything imagined by Dante or fire-and-brimstone evangelical preachers.) Once the coercive dimension of religion loses its grip on popular imagination, there is a profusion of religious innovators who craft novel approaches, beliefs, and products that can be displayed and circulate in a kind of public commons (created by the Internet or other media) with little concern for stirring up the indignation of either deities or religious authorities. Criticism may occur, of course, but the market is generally indifferent to ideology and rewards business plans that respond to consumer preferences.

The democratization of technology and a proliferation of online information about Buddhist temples, denominations, and teachings on the Internet, as well as through guide books and tourism, is forcing priests to innovate in some of the same ways as their clientele. They may ask what resources are available in the current setting and situation that can produce tangible results of benefit to both individual and institutions. Temple websites often tout particular spiritual benefits—such as healing, salvation, or empowerment— which must be distinctive in some way so as to stand out and, if not attract attention, then at least not squander it. Priests know that potential visitors seeking a particular benefit or service now have the ability to compare religious traditions and “service-providers” without ever leaving their home. In most cases, they can also view information about transportation access, a temple’s primary Buddhist image and the benefits ( goriyaku ) attributed to it, temple art and landscaped gardens, and so forth. Footnote 11

The Internet and more broadly secular trends in education, religious freedom, and consumer culture have also diminished the ability of Buddhist denominations to censure what they see as interlopers elbowing for position in a marketplace that often rewards innovation and advertising appeal over substance and tradition. Take, for example, the profitable and booming industry of memorial services. Private companies not affiliated with any major denomination have sprung up in the last 15 years and now offer cut-rate prices on Buddhist posthumous names ( kaimyō ), grave stones and sites, memorial services, interment options, and memorials for pets, with a number of shady practices stealing market share from more traditional institutions. Footnote 12

Even more subversive to a once-dominant Buddhist grip on memorializing ancestors is the giant corporate discount chain Aeon’s 2009 incursion into the funeral business. This move is similar to Walmart (in the U.S.) or PoundSaver (in the U.K.) offering full funeral services—from the moment of death to the grave itself—as part of a corporate strategy to exploit a persistent weakness in traditional funeral proceedings. Aeon executives perceived a market opportunity based on the lack of transparency regarding actual costs of mortuary services provided by temples and funeral homes. As anyone who has had to pay for a funeral in Japan will tell you, both priests and funeral home directors suggest that their fees range between a low and high amount but then defer to the bereaved family to pay what they think is appropriate based on the quality of services provided. While this may sound as if the consumer has the upper hand, a combination of subtle pressure and social propriety prevents most survivors from paying the lowest amount. They fear being embarrassed as cheapskates, or of compromising future relations with a priest and the memorial services he provides over the coming years. On the contrary, Aeon’s website states clearly what the costs are for budget, average, and high-end funerals, although there is fine print qualifying all these expenses.

Pet funerals and memorials are another area of innovation that has rapidly developed in urban Japan. There are references to cherished household animals throughout history, with the oldest known grave marker for an animal, dedicated to a “wise cat,” dating to 1766. According to Barbara Ambros, the earliest pet cemetery in Japan dates to 1910 at Ekōin in Tokyo, although there are cases of animals such as horses and whales receiving Buddhist posthumous names throughout history (Ambros, personal communication). She also notes that postwar memorial services ( kuyō ) for animals have been carried out by scientific laboratories, food processing corporations, or restaurants specializing in a particular delicacy (such as eels), and zoos. It is hardly surprising that pets have become a lucrative side-business for a number of urban temples offering cremation, interment, and ongoing rituals for their peaceful repose. Out of some 900 pet cemeteries in Japan, around 120 are run by Buddhist temples (Ambros 2012 : 36).

On the whole, and in ways similar to interactions with their parishioners, many Buddhist priests have adopted a pragmatic, agnostic, and experimental attitude about the spirits of animals. Since there appear to be no guidelines in Buddhist scriptures or teachings prohibiting funerals and memorials for animals, priests regard the services they offer as benefiting owners by structuring the grieving process over the loss of a pet. It is also an opportunity to educate family members about the beneficial power of Buddhist rituals for dealing with death. If a family is treated well by a priest during services for their beloved pet, it is possible they may turn to the temple when faced with other significant life transitions. If we consider pet memorials from the broad perspective of experimental approaches to Buddhist religious practice, we see clearly that some of the features discussed earlier are relevant here: freedom of choice, personal agency, pluralistic ideas (about spirits and the afterlife in this case), and negotiating a combination of teachings and practices that work in everyday late modern contexts.

Innovative Musical Interludes

Japanese Buddhist traditions, like their Tibetan, Chinese, and Theravadan cousins, are highly performative. They all rely on the ritual expertise of priests to maximize spiritual benefits generated by prayers, offerings, chanting, and teachings of whatever Buddha is most relevant to the tradition. There is considerable scholarship (see Chen 1973 for starters) attesting to the historical heritage of music, magic, and the spoken word as key elements in promoting the dharma among audiences that were mostly illiterate. Today, there are frequent performances within Japanese Buddhist temples that aim to attract attention, evoke curiosity, disseminate Buddhist values and teachings, and provide entertainment and education for urban populations whose predominantly negative image of Buddhism is generally associated with funerals, memorials, and money.

I discuss many examples of musical performances within temples in my book, ranging from a global telecast of a rock and pop concert held in 1994 in front of the world’s largest wooden structure at Tōdaiji in Nara (Temple of the Great Buddha), to a performance of Beethoven’s 9 th symphony at the Shingon temple Anyōin in Tokyo, to a trio of priests who chant ancient sutras in a jazz club in Chiba (Nelson 2013 ). It has become much more common to find priests both young and old who have formed jazz trios, rock bands, and recorded music available online through temple or other websites. Footnote 13 Of course, there are also many concerts at temples using traditional instruments ( okoto, biwa, shamisen , flute), but these are also part of a strategy to use the temple’s location and setting to attract new members.

One priest in Tokyo, Rev. Tagai Kanshō, saw a brief rise in people coming to his Nichiren denomination temple, Kyōōji, largely as a result of efforts to create a community based on musical interests rather than traditional affiliations centered on ancestral veneration. With Kyōōji’s splendid main altar as the background, Rev. Tagai hosted rap, jazz, new age musical performances as well as traditional Japanese dance ( buyō ), theater, and even hybrid genres. He developed rap songs using the Lotus Sutra (basic to all Nichiren temples) and, thanks to profiles broadcast on local as well as international stations, became well-known as the “rapping priest.” However, after 10 years of hard work in promoting and performing at the temple, the pressure to produce an event of quality weighed heavily on his health and limited his interactions with the temple’s core clientele (most of whom never attended these performances). Although the performances were not designed primarily to cultivate new temple members, Rev. Tagai said he was surprised that so few first-time visitors returned for workshops and a deeper engagement. As a result of this innovative experiment, he has returned to more traditional approaches to disseminating key values in his tradition, such as carving Buddhist statues or practicing a combination of chanting, sutra-writing, and spiritual discipline ( shugyō ) in one’s everyday life (Nelson 2013 ). Footnote 14

Some of the same features of innovation in Japanese temple Buddhism can be applied to other forms of Buddhism around Asia and the world. Now that various Buddhisms have traveled and become established globally, one might expect the dynamics of an experimental approach whenever a new venture, initiative, or program is designed to attract public attention. Whether it be an “urban-dharma” program at the San Francisco Zen Center, a meditation session atop a skyscraper in downtown Saõ Paulo, or a Kalachakra empowerment conducted by the Dalai Lama in Washington D.C., the positioning of what is possible is contextualized by late modern social trends and an experimental approach to adapting diverse Buddhist teachings to contemporary lives.

Buddhist-inspired Activism

Aided in part by new communication technologies and increased social and demographic mobility, as well as charismatic religious leaders like the Dalai Lama and Pope Francis, we are now witnessing a growing alignment between the mission of a religion and civil society. It is not simply a matter of religions becoming more secularized; rather, the extension and application of religious values through social work, disaster relief, education, health care, and so on also gives a religious organization more visibility in a competitive spiritual marketplace. If a Mahayana-based Buddhism emphasizes “compassion” in some of its denominations, or “loving-kindness” is a theme prevalent in Theravada traditions, both practitioners and priests can activate these thematic resources in a public (and largely secular) sphere. An individual may want to embody these behaviors in order to be a better person and, at the same time, feel part of a broader moral and ethical imperative to lessen suffering in the world and thus activate some of the core teachings of historical Buddhism. The leaders of a temple can sense this concern among parishioners and the larger community, then promote events (such as rituals, programs, concerts, or other performances) that capitalize on the trend while at the same time linking the present day to Buddhist histories and traditions.

It has become commonplace for the term “engaged Buddhism” to refer to examples of activism and applied ethics among Buddhist priests, temples, and practitioners. Rather than rehash critiques raised in my book that point to the limited, misleading, and outdated nature of this term (Nelson 2013 : 128), I will here emphasize a more accurate and useful concept: Buddhist-inspired activism. The word “inspired” is important because it calls attention to values and concepts that are deemed amenable to activism, and it evokes the diversity of Buddhist traditions out of which this selection occurs. Since we know it takes actors to initiate activism, the new term restores agency to the process. Emphasizing “inspired” also positions this type of Buddhist practice within a range of other experimental approaches, including the selective and strategic use of key concepts to achieve particular goals. Thus, “Buddhist-inspired activism” can help identify and analyze actions and policies based upon Buddhist traditions that exhibit a pragmatic, experimental approach towards fostering social change.

Buddhist-inspired activism in Japan and elsewhere may still represent a small percentage of how most institutions operate, and yet it is safe to say that many practitioners believe their Buddhist practice and affiliation makes the world a better place. Even during Japan’s draconian Edo period (1600–1867) when the state’s temple registration system effectively shackled communities to their local temples, a priest’s role expanded to include the resolution of disputes, the distribution of shared resources, compliance with governmental edicts, shelter to victims of domestic violence, permission to travel, and so on (see Covell 2005 : 95–108). Later, after the Meiji revolution (1866–68) ended feudalism and embarked on rapid modernization from 1870 onward, temples representing several denominations reorganized along state mandates and provided schools, day-care facilities, orphanages, clinics, and so on for people of all social classes.

Today, this integration of Buddhist values and socio-political action continues in Japan and elsewhere around the world. Despite the demands placed on them by their clientele, and the often negative perceptions of their role in society as high-paid ritual performers at funerals and memorial services, some Japanese priests with vision, courage, and creativity (not to mention thick skins to deflect criticism) have shifted the weight of these burdens and refocused their mission. Even to many Japanese, it may seem odd for a Buddhist priest to devote time and resources to situations better handled by state or municipal agencies, but, as we have just seen, there are historical precedents to support this approach. Similar to past initiatives, today’s priests and lay practitioners still draw freely from texts and practices to address in Buddhist terms those complex social and personal issues conditioned by social forces like consumerism, technology, bureaucracy, and corporate restructuring. However, at their disposal are new means of communicating these ideas far and wide. They can disseminate their agendas and initiatives to a potentially broad audience and benefit from contact with activists outside the temple, and sometimes from outside Japan.

Since the passage of the 1998 Special Nonprofit Activities Law, non-governmental (NGO) and non-profit (NPO) organizations have proliferated through all sectors of Japanese society, including Buddhist denominations. As a response to the dismal performance of governmental relief agencies following the Kobe earthquake in 1995, the law ensures equal opportunity for gaining legal status by limiting bureaucratic discretion and discrimination against applicants. It also allows temples to create initiatives and organizations both inside and outside their immediate location that tackle pressing social, economic, and political issues of all kinds.

Until the “triple disaster” of March 3, 2011—when a massive earthquake and tsunami devastated coastal communities and caused the meltdown of a nuclear reactor— Japan’s social problems were persistently predictable. The main issues included a high suicide rate (“one death every 16 min”), bullying in schools and businesses, elder care, rising domestic violence, demographic shifts leading to depopulation of rural areas, right-wing efforts to promote historical and constitutional revisionism—all taking place within the context of a prolonged economic recession (1991–2002, “the lost decade”). My book surveys many examples where Buddhist priests have committed resources to the issues mentioned above, as well as new problems that have emerged following the triple disaster. We might expect that key Buddhist values such as practicing compassion or alleviating suffering would be central to activist initiatives, and yet, in the many interviews with priests I conducted, no specific ideology or theme emerged as a way to attract attention and participants. Instead, the work of priests was generally low-key, persistent, networked in some cases and solitary in others—focused on one or two social problems that a priest or lay individual felt they could engage and perhaps influence in a positive way.

Needless to say, the dynamics of an experimental approach to Buddhism sketched in the earlier part of this discussion are operative in the wide range of activism we currently find in Japan. Even when a priest voiced a traditional rationale for his activism, closer observation of his activities, policies, affiliations, and so on revealed he was quite flexible in devising strategies that he hoped would lead to positive results. Some of these initiatives include grief counseling after the tsunami, consultations for health care and other social services, housing, psychological concerns, establishing “safe” venues (such as mobile cafés) where people can gather and talk freely, rebuilding damaged structures (including many temple buildings), and so on have all received media attention. There are also priests working against the remilitarization of Japan, against the nuclear power industry responsible for the 2011 Fukushima reactor meltdown, against gender discrimination within Buddhist denominations and society at large, and to advance human rights legislation for disparaged minorities in Japan (Ainu, Koreans, Chinese and burakumin in particular).

While all this sounds positive and in line with basic Buddhist values, there are other types of “Buddhist inspired activism” that privilege “protecting the dharma ” over all else. Japanese Buddhists used this justification to support militarism during the war, much to their lasting regret. Today, the 969 movement led by the monk Wirathu in Burma, or the “Buddhist Power Society” (Bodu Bala Sinha, or BBS) from Sri Lanka, have targeted religious “others” (Christians and Muslims) as a threat to not only Buddhism but also to the stability of national and social orders. In their eyes, the need to protect cherished religious values is a type of “engaged Buddhism” that surpasses secular laws and even religious accountability and ethics. Most crucially, this stance temporarily suspends Buddhist vows of non-violence regarding all living creatures. In both countries, churches and mosques have been attacked and burned, Muslim or Hindu neighborhoods have been ransacked and sometimes torched, and violent confrontations have led to injuries and deaths of Rohingya Muslims in the Sittwe region of Myanmar. Footnote 15 Based in part on these recent developments, the utility and relevance of emphasizing “experimentation” within diverse Buddhist traditions holds analytical weight. It also helps promote understanding about motivations, agendas, available resources (including funding), and the agency of key monks who direct these harmful activities.

This essay has advocated a perspective that highlights an “experimental” approach for religious practice and affiliation. Other terms and concepts may be equally valid when surveying contemporary religious (and political) affairs, yet the rubric of “experimental” religion provides a credible cohesiveness when framing and interpreting doctrines, beliefs, institutions, and practitioners. For one thing, the term opens up a range of inquiry that must necessarily encompass and employ interdisciplinary tools of investigation. Texts, networks, education, economics, and sociocultural trends and contexts are all vital to this type of scholarship, not to mention first-hand observations gained through ethnographic methods.

“Experimentation” also emphasizes the agency of individuals in shaping their personal religious practices and beliefs, as well as in formulating institutional policies designed to advance key religious themes, strategic participation in the public sphere, or enhance revenue flow to temples and denominations. In all cases, remaining alert to both individual and organizational strategies helps identify how (religious) resources provide traction for advancing specific agendas. While these are generally positive and broadly humane, it is also possible that religious experimentation can lead to disruption and violence. Much more attentive work needs to be done if scholars of contemporary religions are to keep pace with rapid social change and the seemingly inexhaustible energy of individuals who shape their religions in experimental ways.

Although I use “identity” as a singular noun, it is a concept that needs to be plural in order to hold ethnographic value. An individual enacts multiple roles in the course of a regular day that may seem contradictory or in tension with a coherent and unified sense of self. The “good Christian” banker or stockbroker may privilege financial stability and shareholder returns over the lives of employees who are downsized or fired. Similarly, a protective mother of a small child may be stridently against liberalizing immigration laws for mothers and children coming to the U.S. from developing nations.

The anthropologist Clifford Geertz summarized this tendency as an ability “to hold religious beliefs rather than be held by them” (Geertz 1971 , 17).

See http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/

Although I will use the term “Buddhism” for convenience, it is vitally important to consider it as a plural noun, similar to “deer” or “people.” By adding an “s” or “-ies” to the singular categories that describe the world’s religions, we quickly move into the diversity, complexity, tensions, and contradictions that characterize religions in contemporary societies.

At their core, both “experimental” and “experiment,” as well as the original meaning of “experience,” are all concerned with inquiry, exploration, and, as noted above, observation. In a controlled experiment (such as a proof, test, or trial), some element of change is introduced into a system whose existing components are known and predictable. The researcher then observes what happens when this independent variable interacts with known constants. I find this a fitting metaphor for the situation of contemporary Buddhism in Japan, where independent variables from outside traditional religious systems are forcing change, rethinking, and adaptation, as well as precipitating defense and survival strategies.

The characteristics of “experimental religion” are derived from interactions between several empirical sources. First, teaching religious studies in the San Francisco Bay Area provides access to a wealth of religious institutions, practices, and beliefs. My classes incorporate fieldwork assignments that require students to become “participant observers” and report on their findings. The diversity and breadth of this research has been nothing short of amazing. Second, I have been studying the Japanese religious “landscape” since the late 1970s and have had a front-row seat to all kinds of innovations that can be found in denominations with very long histories as well those freshly arrived on the scene. Third, extensive travel in 2013–2014 helped me see that individuals affiliated with Hinduism and Islam are no strangers to experimentation, especially in places like Bali, Central Java, urban and rural Turkey, and urban India. Finally, I am indebted to many colleagues (including the guest editor of this issue) for their sophisticated and nuanced publications that advance our collective understanding about the role of individuals in shaping religious practice and institutions.

A bit later in this discussion, I will reference an experimental trend among certain Buddhists in Sri Lanka and Myanmar that is caustic, racist, and has led to the destruction of property and human life.

A good case in point is the “meditation gym” titled MNDFL found in central Manhattan. See the Atlantic Monthly’s short video about how the organization works and presents itself to contemporary urban millennials. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqWTApRVQlU

It should also be mentioned that although a particular denomination has little power to thwart innovative competition in the religious “marketplace,” it does have the ability to criticize and marginalize individual priests within the denomination. A case in point was the “Priests’ Fashion Show” held in 2006 at a large True Pure Land temple in Tokyo. Some twenty thousand people attended the 3-days event, billed as a festival about sustainability. The highlight was a multi-denominational parade of priests in their finest robes walking in front of the temple’s main altar while accompanied by hip-hop drumming and electronic music. A number of conservative True Pure Land priests within Tokyo and the nation were highly critical of the non-traditional use of the main altar area, with the result that the young priest who organized the event was disciplined and dismissed

Recent publications representing many kinds of Buddhism exemplify some of the characteristics mentioned above. We have dramatic accounts of monks questioning and leaving their teachers in Tibetan Buddhism (Batchelor 2011 ), individuals accusing Zen, Theravadan, or Tibetan teachers of sexual and other moral improprieties (Oppenheimer 2013 ; Downing 2002 ), women challenging sexism and gender discrimination within Buddhist institutions and teachings (Fowles 2014 , Gross 1992 ), the use of violence to justify “Buddhist” agendas (Jerryson 2011 ), racist attitudes among Buddhist scholars (Hickey-Wakoh 2010 ) and so forth. These examples indicate that innovation and experimentation within Buddhist traditions is not always constructive (a topic we will return to in a moment) and may extend to multiple denominations, schools, institutions and individuals.

Japan’s so-called “new religions” (such as Sōka Gakkai, Shinnyoen, or Risshō Kōseikai) were especially quick to capitalize on the Internet to attract the attention of people seeking community based on shared interests rather than family traditions or residential proximity to a temple.

Starting as a tiny company in 2007, Rev. Hayashi Kazuma came to the Tokyo area because he was the second son of a priest in rural Gunma prefecture and therefore had little chance to assume the leadership of his family temple. Thanks almost entirely to the Internet—and building upon his knowledge about individuals without strong religious ties living in cities—he has carved out a viable and relatively inexpensive alternative to the costly temple and mortuary company ( sōgisha ) monopoly on funerals and posthumous names. On his website, obosan.com ( obōsan means ‘priest’), a number of profiles broadcast on leading media channels serve as testament to his entrepreneurial spirit. The company sends free-lance Buddhist priests to officiate at funerals and memorials, cutting out the temple and mortuary network. In a rather ironic twist of fate, he rocketed to nationwide attention thanks to a brief mention in a rather sensationalistic but much cited New York Times article titled, “In Japan, Buddhism May be Dying Out” (Ohnishi 2008 ).

The 2011 film, Abraxas no Matsuri (the Festival of Abraxas), portrayed a young Zen priest afflicted by depression and despair who believed that performing thrash-rock music would contribute to his salvation.

Whether or not an attempt at religious innovation or experimentation proves “successful” is not quickly assessed. Even if a big event goes off with no problems and has full attendance, how “success” is judged depends on many local dynamics. Some activities, such as using a temple for musical and theatrical performances, may take considerable time before a priest decides that the results were not what he had in mind for promoting his temple’s financial sustainability. Whatever happens, the basic process of creating a strategy that utilizes existing resources to enhance the standing or position of a religious institution is not necessarily compromised by failures. In fact, a failure may motivate a return to the “drawing board” where an examination of what worked and what didn’t can shape the next version of religious experimentation.

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Acknowledgement

I am deeply grateful and appreciative to Dr. Antoinette DeNapoli for her leadership as guest editor for this special issue, and for her expert knowledge about contemporary religious beliefs and practices.

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Nelson, J. An Experimental Approach to Buddhism and Religion. Int. J. Dharma Studies 5 , 16 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40613-017-0052-1

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• American Institute of Buddhist Studies at Columbia University The American Institute of Buddhist Studies was founded in 1972 with the ambitious mandate to translate and publish the originally Indian Buddhist artistic, scientific, and religious works collected in the Tibetan Tengyur (bstan 'gyur). more... less... In the last half-century, Indo-Tibetan scholarship has progressed markedly and a new generation of highly skilled and dedicated scholars has emerged. With improved analytical and technological tools, scholars are producing new translations, revising the pioneering works of their predecessors, and sharpening the critical edge of Buddhological, textual, and comparative methodologies.
• Barre Center for Buddhist Studies (BCBS) Offers the integration of study and practice in exploring the many streams of teaching and expression that flow from the sources of early Buddhism. more... less... Onsite and online programs combine contemplative and relational elements supportive of personal transformation. As an inclusive community, BCBS welcomes all interested in Buddhist inquiry as a way of developing wisdom and compassion for the benefit of all beings.
• The Buddhist Society The UK-based Buddhist Society was founded in 1924, with the object "to publish and make known the principles of Buddhism and to encourage the study and practice of those principles." more... less... The Society provides a range of classes and courses in the Buddha’s teachings, as well as instruction in Buddhist meditation and daily life practice. Courses start with the popular Introduction to basic Buddhism and interested members can then progress to our First Steps in Buddhist Practice, First Turning of the Wheel and Great Way Courses. There are regular classes in the major Buddhist traditions—Zen, Theravada, Pure Land and Tibetan.
• Generations of Buddhist Studies Project (@H-Buddhism) This online project, led by pioneering American scholar of Buddhism Charles Prebish, collects autobiographical/career sketches and reflections on the field of Buddhist Studies.
• H-Buddhism on H-Net H-Buddhism has been created to serve as a medium for the exchange of information regarding resources, events, projects, publications, job listings, and so forth, among the worldwide Buddhist scholarly community. more... less... The primary purpose of the network is to serve as a means for accredited scholars to keep in touch with each other regarding the most recent developments. Membership is restricted to those who hold an advanced degree in Buddhist studies or who are currently enrolled in an advanced degree program.
• Institute of Buddhist Studies The Institute of Buddhist Studies is a leading American Buddhist graduate school and seminary that provides graduate-level education across the full breadth of the Buddhist tradition. more... less... In addition to numerous graduate degree and certificate programs, IBS produces excellent and innovative scholarship, and fosters engaged and inclusive community through conferences, symposia, and other events of interest for scholars and practitioners alike.
• Khyentse Foundation Khyentse Foundation is a nonprofit organization to support all traditions of Buddhist study and practice. Since 2001, the foundation has supported individuals and institutions in more than 30 countries and has directly affected the lives of people around the world. more... less... Khyentse Foundation activities include major text preservation and translation projects, support for traditional monastic colleges in Asia, a worldwide scholarship and awards program, academic development of Buddhist studies in major universities, training and development for Buddhist leaders and teachers, Buddhist education for children, support for individual study and retreats, and more.
• Maitripa College Maitripa College is a Buddhist institution of higher education offering contemplative learning culminating in graduate degrees. Founded upon three pillars of scholarship, meditation, and service, Maitripa College curriculum combines Western academic and Tibetan Buddhist disciplines. more... less... Through the development of wisdom and compassion, graduates are empowered with a sense of responsibility to work joyfully for the wellbeing of others. We serve our students and the region through diverse and relevant educational, religious, and community programs.
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• Indian J Psychiatry
• v.55(Suppl 2); 2013 Jan

Buddha philosophy and western psychology

Tapas kumar aich.

Department of Psychiatry, Universal College of Medical Sciences, Bhairahawa, Nepal

Four noble truths as preached by Buddha are that the life is full of suffering ( Duhkha ), that there is a cause of this suffering ( Duhkha-samudaya ), it is possible to stop suffering ( Duhkha-nirodha ), and there is a way to extinguish suffering ( Duhkha-nirodha-marga ). Eight fold Path (astangika-marga) as advocated by Buddha as a way to extinguish the sufferings are right views, right resolve/aspiration, right speech, right action/conduct, right livelihood, right effort right mindfulness and right concentration.

Mid-twentieth century saw the collaborations between many psychoanalysts and Buddhist scholars as a meeting between “two of the most powerful forces” operating in the Western mind. Buddhism and Western Psychology overlap in theory and in practice. Over the last century, experts have written on many commonalities between Buddhism and various branches of modern western psychology like phenomenological psychology, psychoanalytical psychotherapy, humanistic psychology, cognitive psychology and existential psychology. Orientalist Alan Watts wrote ‘if we look deeply into such ways of life as Buddhism, we do not find either philosophy or religion as these are understood in the West. We find something more nearly resembling psychotherapy’.

Buddha was a unique psychotherapist. His therapeutic methods helped millions of people throughout the centuries. This essay is just an expression of what little the current author has understood on Buddha philosophy and an opportunity to offer his deep tribute to one of the greatest psychotherapists the world has ever produced!

INTRODUCTION

Most of us know the life and basic teachings of Siddhartha or Gautama Buddha since our childhood days. He was born in a royal family at Kapilavastu, on the foot-hills of Himalaya, in the 6 th century BC. The sights of disease, old age and death impressed the young prince with the idea that the world was full of suffering and he renounced the world early in life.

As an ascetic, he was restless in search of the real source of all sufferings and of the path or means of cessation from these sufferings. He sought answers to his questions from many learned scholars and religious teachers of his time, but nothing satisfied him. He practiced great austerities, went through intense meditations with an iron will and a mind free from all disturbing thoughts and passions. He endeavored to unravel the mystery of world's miseries. Finally, his mission was fulfilled and Prince Siddhartha became Buddha or “Enlightened”. The message of his enlightenment laid the foundation of both the Buddhist religion and philosophy.

Like all great teachers of ancient times, Buddha taught by conversation and our knowledge of Buddha's teachings depends on the “Tripitakas” or the three “baskets” of teachings of Gautama Buddha. The third part or “basket“ is known as the Abhidhamma in Pali; and Abhidharma in Sanskrit. Abhidhamma Pitaka articulates simultaneously a philosophy, a psychology, and an ethics, all integrated into the framework of a program for liberation.

TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA: A BRIEF ESSAY

The four noble truths.

Buddha was primarily an ethical teacher and reformer, not a metaphysician. He disliked metaphysical discussions devoid of practical utility. Instead of discussing metaphysical questions, which are ethically useless and intellectually uncertain, Buddha always tried to enlighten persons on the most important questions of sorrow, its origin, its cessation and the path leading to its cessation. The answers to these four questions constitute the essence of the Buddha's enlightenment. These have come to be known as four noble truths. They are: (a) Life is full of suffering ( Duhkha ), (b) There is a cause of this suffering ( Duhkha-samudaya ), (c) It is possible to stop suffering ( Duhkha-nirodha ), (d) There is a way to extinguish suffering ( Duhkha-nirodha-marga ).[ 1 , 2 ]

The first noble truth is life full of suffering. The very essential conditions of life appeared to be fraught with suffering-birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, grief, wish, despair, in short, all that is born of attachment, is suffering. The second noble truth is that there is a cause of this suffering. Suffering is due to attachment. Attachment is one translation of the word trishna, which can also be translated as thirst, desire, lust, craving, or clinging. Another aspect of attachment is dvesha, which means avoidance or hatred. A third aspect of attachment is avidya, meaning ignorance.

Buddha preaches about the chain of 12 links in the cause and maintenance of suffering. These chain of causes and effects lead to sufferings in the world. The suffering in life is due to birth, which is due to the will to be born, which again is due to our mental clinging to objects. Clinging again is due to thirst or desire for objects. This again is due to sense-experience, which is due to sense-object-contact, which again is due to the six organs of cognition. These organs are dependent on the embryonic organism (composed of mind and body), which again could not develop without some initial consciousness, which again hails from the impressions of the experience of past life, which lastly are due to ignorance of truth. These constitute the wheel of existence (bhaba-chakra): Birth and rebirth.

The third noble truth about suffering is that suffering can be extinguished. Nirvana is the state of being wherein all clinging, and so all suffering, can be eliminated here, in this very life. Buddha pointed out that work without attachment, hatred and infatuation (rāga, dveṣa, moha) does not cause bondage. The fourth noble truth about suffering is that there is a path (marga)-which Buddha followed and others can similarly follow-to reach to a state free from misery. He called it the Eightfold Path to liberation.

Eightfold Path (astangika-marga): This gives, in a nutshell, the essentials of ‘Buddha Ethics’. This Path is open to all, monks as well as laymen. The first two segments of the path are referred to as prajña, meaning wisdom:[ 1 ] Right views-understanding the Four Noble Truths, especially the nature of all things as imperfect, impermanent, and insubstantial and our self-inflicted suffering as founded in clinging, hate, and ignorance.[ 2 ] Right resolve/aspiration-having the true desire/determination to free oneself from attachment, hatefulness, and ignorance.

The next three segments of the path provide more detailed guidance in the form of moral precepts, called ‘sila’:[ 3 ] Right speech-Abstaining from lying, gossiping, and hurtful speech generally. Speech is often our ignorance made manifest, and is the most common way in which we harm others.[ 4 ] Right action/conduct-Right conduct includes the ‘Pancha-Sila’, the five vows for desisting from killing, stealing, sensuality, lying and intoxication.[ 5 ] Right livelihood-Making one's living in an honest, non-hurtful way.

The last three segments of the path are the ones Buddhism is most famous for, and concern samadhi or meditation. Despite the popular conception, without wisdom and morality, meditation is worthless, and may even be dangerous.[ 6 ] Right effort - Taking control of your mind and the contents thereof, effort to develop good mental habits. When bad thoughts and impulses arise, they should be abandoned. This is done by watching the thought without attachment, recognizing it for what it is and letting it dissipate. Good thoughts and impulses, on the other hand, should be nurtured and enacted.[ 7 ] Right mindfulness - Mindfulness refers to a kind of meditation (vipassana) involving an acceptance of thoughts and perceptions, a “bare attention” to these events without attachment. This mindfulness is to be extended to daily life as well. It becomes a way of developing a fuller, richer awareness of life.[ 8 ] Right concentration - One who has successfully guided his life in the life of last seven rules and thereby freed himself from all passions and evil thoughts is fit to enter into deeper stages of concentration that gradually take him to the goal of his long and arduous journey – cessation of suffering.

Right concentration, through four stages, is the last step in the path that leads to the goal-nirvana. (i) The 1 st stage of concentration is on reasoning and investigation regarding the truths. There is then a joy of pure thinking. (ii) The 2 nd stage is unruffled meditation even free from reasoning. There is then a joy of tranquillity. (iii) The 3 rd stage of concentration is detachment from even the joy of tranquillity. There is then indifference to even such joy but a feeling of a bodily case still persists. (iv) The 4 th and final stage of concentration is detachment from this bodily case too. There are then perfect equanimity and indifference. This is the state of nirvana or perfect wisdom. This is the highest form of Buddhist meditation, and full practice of it is usually restricted to monks and nuns who have progressed considerably along the path.

BUDDHISM AND WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY

Assessment of Buddhism in terms of modern western psychology started when British Indologist Rhys Davids translated Abhidhamma Pitaka from Pali and Sanskrit texts in 1900. She published the book entitled it, “Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics”.[ 2 ] In 1914, she wrote another book “Buddhist psychology: An inquiry into the analysis and theory of mind”.[ 3 ]

The mid-twentieth century saw the collaborations between many psychoanalysts and Buddhist scholars as a meeting between “two of the most powerful forces” operating in the Western mind. A variety of renowned teachers, clinicians and writers in the west such as Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Alan Watts, Tara Brach, Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, and Sharon Salzberg among others have attempted to bridge and integrate psychology and Buddhism, from time to time, in a manner that offers meaning, inspiration and healing to the common man's suffering.

Buddhism and Western Psychology overlap in theory and in practice. Over the last century, experts have written on many commonalities between Buddhism and the various branches of modern western psychology like phenomenological psychology, psychoanalytical psychotherapy, humanistic psychology, cognitive psychology and existential psychology.

Buddhism and phenomenological psychology

Any assessment of Buddhism in terms of psychology is necessarily a modern western invention. Western and Buddhist scholars have found in Buddhist teachings a detailed introspective phenomenological psychology. Rhys Davids in her book “Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics” wrote, “Buddhist philosophy is ethical first and last. Buddhism set itself to analyze and classify mental processes with remarkable insight and sagacity”.[ 2 ] Buddhism's psychological orientation is a theme Rhys Davids pursued for decades as evidenced by her other writings.[ 3 , 4 ]

Abhidhamma Pitaka articulates a philosophy, a psychology, and ethics as well; all integrated into the framework of a program for liberation. The primary concern of the Abhidhamma (or Abhidharma in Sanskrit), is to understand the nature of experience, and thus the reality on which it focuses is conscious reality. For this reason, the philosophical enterprise of the Abhidhamma shades off into a phenomenological psychology.[ 4 ]

Later on long-term efforts to integrate Abhidhammic psychology with Western empirical sciences have been carried out by other leaders such as Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche and the 14 th Dalai Lama.

In introduction to his 1975 book, Glimpses of the Abhidharma , Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche wrote: “Many modern psychologists have found that the discoveries and explanations of the abhidharma coincide with their own recent discoveries and new ideas; as though the abhidharma, which was taught 2,500 years ago, had been redeveloped in the modern idiom”.[ 5 ]

Every two years, since 1987, the Dalai Lama has convened “Mind and Life” gatherings of Buddhists and scientists.[ 6 ] Reflecting on one Mind and Life session in March 2000, psychologist Daniel Goleman, the author of the best-selling “Emotional Intelligence” and “Destructive Emotions: A Scientific Dialogue with the Dalai Lama” noted; “since the time of Gautama Buddha in the 5 th century BC, an analysis of the mind and its workings has been central to the practices of his followers. This analysis was codified during the first millennium, after his death within the system called Abhidhamma (or Abhidharma in Sanskrit), which means ultimate doctrine”.[ 7 ]

Buddhism and psychoanalytical psychotherapy

Psychoanalyst Carl Jung wrote the foreword to Zen's scholar Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki's introduction to Zen Buddhism, first published together in 1948. In his foreword, Jung highlights the enlightenment experience as the unsurpassed transformation to wholeness for Zen practitioners. “The only movement within our culture which partly has, and partly should have, some understanding of these aspirations for such enlightenment is psychotherapy”.[ 8 , 9 ]

Psychoanalysts like Karen Horney and Fritz Perls studied Zen-Buddhism. Karen Horney was intensely interested in Zen Buddhism during the last years of her life. Richard Wilhelm was a translator of Chinese texts into German language of the I Ching, Tao Te Ching and ‘the secret of the golden flower’, with a forward written by Carl Jung. R D Laing, another noted psychoanalyst, went to Ceylon, where he spent two months studying meditation in a Buddhist retreat. Later on, he spent time learning Sanskrit and visiting Govinda Lama, who had been a guru to Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert. Suzuki, Fromm and other psychoanalysts collaborated at a 1957 workshop on “Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis” in Cuernavaca, Mexico. In his contribution to this workshop, Fromm declared: “Psychoanalysis is a characteristic expression of the Western man's spiritual crisis, and an attempt to find a solution. The common suffering is the alienation from oneself, from one's fellow men, and from nature; the awareness that life runs out of one's hand like sand, and that one will die without having lived; that one lives in the midst of plenty and yet is joyless”.[ 9 ] Fromm continues: “Zen is the art of seeing into the nature of one's being; it is a way from bondage to freedom; it liberates our natural energies; and it impels us to express our faculty for happiness and love.[ 9 ]” “What can be said with more certainty is that the knowledge of Zen, and a concern with it, can have a most fertile and clarifying influence on the theory and technique of psychoanalysis. Zen, different as it is in its method from psychoanalysis, can sharpen the focus, throw new light on the nature of insight, and heighten the sense of what it is to see, what it is to be creative, what it is to overcome the affective contaminations and false intellectualizations which are the necessary results of experience based on the subject-object split”.[ 10 ]

Referencing Jung and Suzuki's collaboration as well as the efforts of others, humanistic philosopher and psychoanalyst Erich Fromm noted; “there is an unmistakable and increasing interest in Zen Buddhism among psychoanalysts”.[ 9 ] Erich Fromm also wrote the forward to a 1986 anthology of Nyanaponika Thera's essays on Buddhist philosophy.[ 11 , 12 ]

There have been many other important contributors,[ 13 , 14 ] to the popularization of the integration of Buddhist meditation with psychology, including Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Epstein and Nhat Hanh.

Psychoanalysis, pioneered and popularized by such philosophers/psychoanalysts rests upon the idea that uncovering and making conscious buried complexes and memories is a therapeutic process. The relocation of a complex or neurosis from the unconscious to the conscious easily equates to the principles inherent in right meditation and right understanding. One might recall that on Jung's deathbed, he was reading a translation of Hsu Yun's dharma discourses and was reputedly very excited by the succinct and direct methods of Chan's practice in working with the unconscious.

Buddhism and existential psychology

Buddha said that life is suffering. Existential psychology speaks of ontological anxiety (dread, angst). Buddha said that suffering is due to attachment. Existential psychology also has some similar concepts. We cling to things in the hope that they will provide us with a certain benefit. Buddha said that suffering can be extinguished. The Buddhist concept of nirvana is quite similar to the existentialists’ freedom. Freedom has, in fact, been used in Buddhism in the context of freedom from rebirth or freedom from the effects of karma. For the existentialist, freedom is a fact of our being, one which we often ignore. Finally, Buddha says that there is a way to extinguish suffering. For the existential psychologist, the therapist must take an assertive role in helping the client become aware of the reality of his or her suffering and its roots. Likewise, the client must take an assertive role in working towards improvement–even though it means facing the fears they’ve been working so hard to avoid, and especially facing the fear that they will “lose” themselves in the process.[ 15 , 16 ]

Buddhism and cognitive-behavior therapy principles

Buddhistic mindfulness practices have been explicitly incorporated into a variety of psychological treatments. More specifically psychotherapies dealing with cognitive restructuring share core principles with ancient Buddhistic antidotes to personal suffering.

Fromm distinguishes between two types of meditative techniques that have been used in psychotherapy: (i) auto-suggestion used to induce relaxation; and (ii) meditation “to achieve a higher degree of non-attachment, of non-greed, and of non-illusion; briefly, those that serve to reach a higher level of being”. Fromm attributes techniques associated with the latter to Buddhist mindfulness practices.[ 10 ]

Two increasingly popular therapeutic practices using Buddhist mindfulness techniques are Jon Kabat-Zinn's Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR),[ 17 , 18 ] and Marsha M. Linehan's dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT). Other prominent therapies that use mindfulness include mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT)[ 19 ] and Steven C. Hayes’ Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT).[ 20 ]

Mindfulness-based stress reduction

Kabat-Zinn developed the 8-week MBSR program over a 10-year-period with over 4,000 patients at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center. Describing the MBSR program, Kabat-Zinn writes: “This ‘work’ involves above all the regular, disciplined practice of moment-to-moment awareness or mindfulness , the complete ‘owning’ of each moment of your experience, good, bad, or ugly. This is the essence of full catastrophic living.”[ 17 ]

Kabat-Zinn, a one-time Zen practitioner, goes on to write: “Although at this time, mindfulness meditation is most commonly taught and practiced within the context of Buddhism, its essence is universal. Yet it is no accident that mindfulness comes out of Buddhism, which has as its overriding concerns the relief of suffering and the dispelling of illusions”.[ 18 ]

Not surprisingly, in terms of clinical diagnoses, MBSR has proven beneficial for people with depression and anxiety disorders; however, the program is meant to serve anyone experiencing significant stress.[ 19 ]

Dialectical behavioral therapy

In writing about DBT, Zen practitioner Linehan states: “As its name suggests, its overriding characteristic is an emphasis on ‘dialectics’ – that is, the reconciliation of opposites in a continual process of synthesis. This emphasis on acceptance as a balance to change flows directly from the integration of a perspective drawn from the practice of Buddhism with Western psychological practice.”[ 21 ] Similarly, Linehan writes:[ 22 ] “Mindfulness skills are central to DBT. They are the first skills taught and are reviewed every week. The skills are psychological and behavioral versions of meditation practices from Eastern spiritual training. Linehan has drawn heavily from the practice of Zen. Controlled clinical studies have demonstrated DBT's effectiveness for people with borderline personality disorder.”[ 21 ]

Dr. Albert Ellis, has written that many of the principles incorporated in the theory of rational-emotive psychotherapy are not new; some of them were originally stated several thousands of years ago, by Taoist and Buddhistic thinkers.[ 23 ] To give one example, Buddhism identifies anger and ill-will as basic hindrances to spiritual development. A common Buddhistic antidote for anger is the use of active contemplation of loving thoughts. This is similar to using a CBT technique known as “emotional training” which Ellis described.[ 24 ]

The school of Behaviorism describe (or reduce) human functions to principles of behavior, which can be manipulated to create positive effects in the life of the patient. In the Noble Eightfold Path we see reflections of this approach in the exhortations to Right Action, Right Speech and Right Livelihood. One may consider the story of the Buddha who was approached by a rich but miserly man who wanted to develop his spiritual life but was constrained by his seeming inability to share his wealth with others. The Buddha addressed this problem by telling him to get into the habit of using his right hand to give his left hand items of value and in doing so learn the art of giving!

Cognitive and cognitive-behaviorists focus more on training the mind to review and question assumptions, phobias, fears and beliefs. These therapists are typically associated with such techniques as visualization and positive self-talk designed to teach, or unlearn, principles that are, respectively, helpful or unhelpful. Again, the noble eightfold path and its focus on right mindfulness and right thinking are the corollary in Buddhist thought.

Buddhism and other psychotherapy principles

Gestalt Therapy is an approach created by Fritz Perls, based heavily on existentialist philosophy and significantly, Zen Buddhism (among other influences). In Gestalt, the premise is we must work with the whole person, the “gestalt” in German, which echoes the wisdom of Right Understanding. Its techniques encourage Right Mindfulness, and the focus on the immediate, phenomenological and experiential reality of the here and now, in the physical, emotional and mental realms.[ 25 ]

David Brazier in his book Zen Therapy makes a thoughtful comparison of some principal Buddhist concepts and person-centered (rogerian) Therapy.[ 26 ] Developed by Carl Rogers, this therapeutic approach includes virtually all effective therapy, either in principle or technique. In basic terms, its goal is to provide the patient a safe place, an environment where he or she may express their problems. The therapist does not direct the process, but works on the assumption the patient has the resources to deal with their own “cure” and self-growth, provided the environment is supportive of them. Like the Buddha, this non-authoritative approach suggests the patient can be “a light unto themselves”. Although the therapist may do little more than provide active and empathic listening, and reflect and validate the thoughts and emotions of the struggling patient, they nonetheless, provide three crucial components for change to occur; unconditional positive regard, empathy and congruence (or genuiness). These are the elements that are considered essential to create an environment where the individual can grow, learn and evolve.

This is of particular interest to the Buddhist student who is taught that all suffering stems from the three “bitter roots” or “poisons” of greed, hatred and delusion. Brazier demonstrates how, from a therapeutic perspective, Person-Centered Therapy counters each of these “poisons”; empathy is the “antidote” to hate, unconditional positive regard provides a model of acceptance of self and other which counters the grasping, needy nature of greed, and congruence (genuineness) is the opposite of delusion. Delusion itself, as Brazier suggests, could just as well be translated as “incongruence”, the separation of self and mind from what is real and what is present.

Buddha was commonly referred to as “the great physician” and like any therapist, made it his aim to identify, explain and end human suffering. All therapists do have similar aims. Four Noble Truths are the method to adopt a diagnostic format to explain suffering and its cure; the 1 st Noble Truth identifies the disease, the 2 nd provides etiology, the 3 rd gives a prognosis, and the 4 th suggests a remedy.

Philosopher and Orientalist Alan Watts once wrote: If we look deeply into such ways of life as Buddhism, we do not find either philosophy or religion as these are understood in the West. We find something more nearly resembling psychotherapy.[ 27 ] The main resemblance between these Eastern ways of life and Western psychotherapy is in the concern of both with bringing about changes of consciousness, changes in our ways of feeling our own existence and our relation to human society and the natural world.[ 28 ]

What Buddhism is really all about is returning to this life, your very own little life, with a “new attitude.” By being more calm, more aware, a nicer person morally, someone who has given up envy and greed and hatred and such, who understands that nothing is forever, that grief is the price we willingly pay for love… this life becomes at very least bearable. We stop torturing ourselves and allow ourselves to enjoy what there is to enjoy.[ 15 ]

Buddha was a unique psychotherapist. His therapeutic methods helped millions of people throughout the centuries. Today the Western world has realized the psychological essence of Buddhism. Many Psychotherapeutic systems in the West are derived from Buddha's teaching. Buddha showed empathy and non-judgmental acceptance to everyone who came to him. He helped people to gain insight and helped in growth promotion while eliminating troubling and painful emotions. His therapeutic methods are exceptional and can be applied for all times.[ 16 ]

Prince Gautama gave his entire life in understanding and then propagating his philosophy. People have devoted their entire lives in studying and understanding his philosophy. Being a student of modern psychiatry, I do not claim to be an expert in Buddhist philosophy and/or religion. This essay is just an expression of what little I have understood on His philosophy and an opportunity to offer my deep tribute to one of the greatest psychotherapists the world has ever produced!

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Conflict of Interest: None declared

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More than two millennia ago in India, Siddhartha Gautama became “the Buddha” and began to teach that one can only escape suffering and sorrow by living along a righteous path that ends with the extinction of desire and ignorance. The Buddha’s teachings lie at the core of what has become one of the world’s largest religions.

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Buddhism is the world’s fourth-largest religion after Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. Buddhism is approximately twenty-five hundred years old and has influenced cultures, events, and thought for generations. It is devoted to the improvement and eventual enlightenment of people, primarily through their own efforts.

The Indian philosopher Siddhartha Gautama founded Buddhism. The traditional dates of his life are 566 to 486 BCE, although recent studies suggest that Gautama was born as much as a century later. Gautama became known as “the Buddha” (the Enlightened One) after achieving enlightenment. He was born a prince of the Sakya clan in a small Indian kingdom in what is now Nepal. He had every luxury of the day and on the surface an apparently satisfying life. He married, had a son, and was destined to inherit his father’s kingdom. However, at the age of twenty-nine he became dissatisfied with his life of ease after being exposed to the true lot of humankind: suffering, old age, disease, and death. His father had protected him from these things because of a prophecy that Siddhartha would become either a great king or a great spiritual leader. His father’s hopes for a powerful successor were dashed when Siddhartha walked away from this life of ease and became an ascetic, a wandering holy man.

For six years he studied and learned from various gurus and holy men while depriving himself of all but the most meager nourishment. Siddhartha discovered that the extremes of self-deprivation were no better than the extremes of luxury and self-indulgence, so he sought the “Middle Way,” another name for Buddhism. Gautama found enlightenment while meditating under a bodhi tree. The Buddha achieved nirvana—the extinction of all desire and ignorance—and proceeded to teach others how to achieve the same state for the next forty-five years. Through discussions, parables, teaching, and living, the Buddha taught the “path of truth or righteousness” (Dhammapada). The scripture (sutta), “The Foundation of the Kingdom of Righteousness,” contains a succinct exposition of the major points that the Buddha taught.

Basic Beliefs

The Buddha preached “the Four Noble Truths” that define the existence of humankind: (1) Life is sorrow or suffering, (2) this suffering is caused by our selfish craving and desires, (3) we can remove sorrow by removing our desires, and (4) the removal of our desires is achieved by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Noble Eightfold Path defines the “correct” behavior as right conduct, right effort, right speech, right views, right purpose or aspiration, right livelihood, right mindfulness, and right contemplation or meditation. The Buddha had few prohibitions but listed “five precepts” that good Buddhists should generally adhere to: not to kill, not to steal, not to lie, not to imbibe intoxicants, and not to be unchaste or unfaithful.

The Buddha taught that skandas (experiential data) create our existence from moment to moment and that only karma (the law of cause and effect) operates through our experience and is never lost. However, everything is changeable and impermanent. The Buddha made few concrete statements about the afterlife or the nature of “god”—realizing that the Middle Way can be taught but that each person must experience dharma—the realization of nirvana. His final admonition to his followers was to “work out your salvation with diligence” (Buddhist suttas 2000, 114).

After the Buddha—Growth in India

The Buddha was a practical teacher who knew that people need instruction, and he established the sangha (community of Buddhist monks and nuns) to carry on his work and the work of their own salvation. The Buddha instructed the sangha that it could change or delete any of the lesser rules after his passing if the sangha saw fit. Ultimately, the Buddha urged his followers to be “a lamp unto themselves.” Buddhism provides a system that demonstrates where we err and how to correct our errors not by miracles but rather by hard work and contemplation.

One of the most noted people who helped to expand Buddhism was the Mauryan ruler Asoka, who ruled from 272 to 231 BCE. The Maurya Empire (c. 324–200 BCE) grew from the state of Magadha after the time of the Buddha and rapidly expanded after Alexander of Macedon invaded India in the 320s bce, creating the first really unified kingdom in India. Asoka became a convert to Buddhism and helped to expand it by providing for missionaries and monks, so that Buddhism became a world religion while Hinduism remained confined to India. He is often compared with Roman emperor Constantine in the West, whose conversion to Christianity in 312 CE helped that religion to grow. Inscriptions on pillars and rocks throughout Asoka’s realm encouraged the citizens of the empire to follow the dharma, limit the killing and cruelty to animals, and live a righteous life. Like Christianity, Buddhism may also have provided Asoka and the Mauryans with a code of conduct and a way to help manage, enlarge, and consolidate the empire. Buddhism also benefited from the patronage of a king who helped it to reach beyond the borders of India.

Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana Sects

The Maha-Parinibbana Sutta (Book of the Great Decease) concerns the final days and death of the Buddha and is important because the Buddha did not consider himself to be a deity. It illustrates the relationship between the Buddha and Ananda, a cousin of the Buddha who was a disciple and his personal servant. A warm, trusting relationship between the two shines through the text. The first Council of Buddhism met to organize and retain the teachings of the Buddha several months after his death. The Buddhist Suttas, probably recorded by the first or second century BCE, is the canon of the Buddhist faith.

However, by the second and first centuries BCE Buddhism had already begun to diverge into schools of thought that evolved into the major sects of Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. The Theravada claimed to adhere closely to the original teachings of the Buddha and evolved along more monastic lines to spread through Southeast Asia to Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, and Cambodia. Theravada is also known as “Hinayana,” which means “lesser vehicle.” Mahayana (greater vehicle) Buddhism became the more adaptive Buddhism. With an emphasis on compassion and flexibility, it meshed with the cultures it encountered to spread to China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Mahayanists also developed the idea of the bodhisattva (a being who compassionately refrains from entering nirvana in order to save others and is worshipped as a deity). Vajrayana (diamond vehicle) Buddhism is also known as “tantric Buddhism” and spread to Central Asia, primarily Tibet.

The Silk Roads and the Spread of Buddhism in Asia

A network of trade routes called the Silk Roads made travel possible from China to the Mediterranean and to India from about the second century CE to approximately the fifteenth century, connecting the world in ways it had not been before. Religions in particular found their way to new lands and different cultures via the Silk Roads. Buddhism originated in India and spread to the Kushan areas, part of what is today Pakistan and Afghanistan, by the first century CE. Buddhism developed a number of sects, built many monasteries, and became a consumer of many of the luxuries of the day, especially silk. Buddhist monasteries often provided solace for weary travelers, and Buddhist monks, nuns, and their devotees acquired massive quantities of silk for ceremonial functions. A symbiotic relationship existed whereby the growth of Buddhist monasteries increased demand for silk while also supporting its trade and movement.

The earliest schools of Buddhism to spread along the Silk Roads were the Mahasanghikas, Dharmaguptakas, and Sarvastivadins, eventually to be subsumed by the Mahayana sect. As Buddhism spread to Central Asia and China, pilgrims began to seek the origins of Buddhism, visiting its holy sites and bringing home its sacred texts. The travels of fifty-four Buddhists, starting as early as 260 CE, are documented in Chinese sources.

Xuanzang, also known as Hsuan-tsang, was a Chinese Buddhist monk; like many others he sought a more in-depth understanding of his faith by seeking out original documents and visiting places where the faith began in India. Xuanzang began his 16,000- kilometer journey in 629 CE and returned in 645. As Xuanzang began his journey, the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) emperor, Taizong, was beginning to restore China and make it a powerful force in Central Asia.

Xuanzang encountered Buddhist stupas (usually dome-shaped structures serving as Buddhist shrines) at Balkh and two large Buddhist figures at Bamian in Afghanistan. Although many areas of former Buddhist expansion were in decline, Xuanzang found in Kashmir one hundred Buddhist monasteries and five thousand monks. Welcomed in India at Nalanda by thousands, Xuanzang found a place of intellectual ferment. Cave paintings at Dunhuang record the triumphant passage of Xuanzang back to China; Xuanzang finished The Record of the Western Regions in 646 to document his journey. Gaozong, Taizong’s son and successor, built the Big Wild Goose Pagoda at Xuanzang’s urging to house relics and Buddhist scriptures.

A chaotic period of religious exchange and development began with the rise of the Mongols during the 1100s and 1200s. The Silk Roads’ pivotal role in cultural and religious exchange eventually declined with the advent of the Age of Exploration during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Additionally, Muslim control of long-distance trade routes helped to enhance the Islamization of Central Asia. Central Asian peoples apparently therefore accommodated themselves to those people who were the major participants in their trade connections. Trade led to cultural exchange; thus trade was an important factor in spreading the world’s great religions.

Buddhism in China and Japan

Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam spread in various areas, but to truly make a home in foreign lands these faiths often accommodated themselves to the local culture and modified or even changed some of their values or traditions. In China Buddhists spreading the faith emphasized the compassionate aspects of the faith rather than the disciplined aspects of Theravada Buddhism, and Nestorian Christians used Daoist (relating to a religion developed from Daoist philosophy and folk and Buddhist religion) or Buddhist terms, calling the books of the Bible “sutras” (precepts summarizing Vedic teaching).

Buddhism reached China by the first century CE, and a number of Mahayana sects developed there, including Tiantai, Huayan, Pure Land, and Chan. Pure Land developed as a way to reach the general population without its members having to grasp all the intricate philosophical teachings of Buddhism. Followers of Pure Land simply were to call or chant the name of Amitabha Buddha for salvation in paradise or the Pure Land.

The Indian monk Bodhidhanna is reputed to have brought Chan Buddhism to China during the sixth century CE. The word Chan (Zen in Japanese) derives from the Sanskrit word dhyana and means “meditation,” so Chan is meditation Buddhism. Towering figures such as Huineng (638–713) and Zhaozhou (778–897) strengthened Chan so that by the ninth century major schools of Chan called “Linji” and “Caodong” had developed and would later be exported to Japan as the Zen sects of Rinzai and Soto.

Buddhism had already arrived in Japan from China and Korea during the 500s CE. During the Kamakura period of Japanese history, from 1185 to 1333, Buddhism experienced dramatic growth and reinvigoration. Energetic and charismatic figures such as Nichiren (1222–1282) founded new sects. The medieval period has been characterized as one of the most religious times in Japanese history.

Buddhism had evolved in China to the point that, during the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279), Chan or Zen dominated Buddhist teachings. Scholars usually credit Myozen Eisai (1141–1215) for introducing Rinzai Zen and Dogen Kigen (1200–1253) for introducing Soto Zen. The Rinzai sect emphasizes koan (spiritual exercise) as its prime tool for achieving understanding and enlightenment, whereas the Soto sect emphasizes zazen (sitting meditation). Both Eisai and Dogen studied in China under Chan masters, receiving recognition of their enlightenment—an official document of lineage is important in Zen and helps to provide credentials to teach upon one’s return home. During the twentieth century, appreciation of Dogen’s work grew, and today Dogen is perceived as one of Japan’s greatest geniuses and the most noted Zen figure in Japan.

With the influx of Chinese masters during the 1200s and 1300s, Japanese Zen more closely resembled its Chinese Chan counterpart. In fact, the Five Mountains system of temple organization, which arose during the late 1300s, was based on the Chinese model. The ironic aspect of Zen growth is that Zen had few real practitioners. Its primary role initially was transmitting Chinese culture to Japan. The Japanese and Chinese masters achieved influence and success because of their access to Chinese culture during the Song dynasty (960–1279).

Buddhism and the West

Much of the early Western exposure to Buddhism came through the Japanese. Eight people, including three Buddhist priests, represented Japanese Buddhism at the World Parliament of Religions in 1893, held in Chicago. The writings of D. T. Suzuki helped to open Western eyes to Buddhism and began to popularize Zen Buddhism. During the last half of the twentieth century, new patterns of immigration and many U.S. and European citizens who turned to non-Western faiths helped Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, and Daoism have an impact on Western culture. Older and recent emigrants from Asia—Chinese, Koreans, Vietnamese, and Tibetans—have played a large role in establishing a Buddhist foothold in the West and exposing Westerners (Euro-Americans) to the traditions of Asia.

Buddhism’s rise in the United States can be attributed to people’s search for answers and the rapid changes brought about by a modern and consumer-driven society. Buddhism’s rise is also because of dedicated teachers, such as Sylvia Boorstein, Chogyam Trungpa, and Jon Kabat-Zinn, who have helped to popularize the faith. The Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh has had an important influence on U.S. Buddhism. The Dalai Lama (the spiritual head of Tibetan Buddhism) also has promoted a more engaged Buddhism with his pleas for Tibetan freedom from China. The Tibetan diaspora (scattering) has opened up access to teachers and lamas (monks) who, until the Chinese occupied Tibet in 1959, were little known outside their own country. The Dalai Lama himself has come to symbolize for many the face of Buddhism shown to the world. His character and compassion in the face of difficulties for his own people exemplify for many the best attributes of the Buddhist life.

Shunryu Suzuki was a Japanese Zen priest who came to the United States in 1959 and settled at a small temple in San Francisco. He is credited with establishing the first Zen monastery in the United States at Tassajara, California, in 1967. The Three Pillars of Zen (1965) by Philip Kapleau was one of the first books in English that discussed the practice of Zen Buddhism. The book has had an impact far beyond the students of Kapleau because many people in the United States lacked access to a Buddhist teacher but were shown how to begin meditating and practice on their own by Kapleau’s book. Much of the Buddhist faith in Asia is centered on the sangha, whereas in the United States no real sangha exists.

Buddhism and Change

Buddhism flowered in the West during the last three decades of the twentieth century, and Zen became a cottage industry. What attracted Westerners, particularly well-educated and professional people, to the faith? The beliefs of Buddhism “are more compatible with a secular scientific worldview than those of the more established Western religions” (Coleman 2001, 205).

In a world that grows smaller each day, the Internet has provided a link to the Buddhist communities of the world and has begun to house the vast amount of Buddhist scriptural writing. The Internet may hold hope for many who practice alone or who are in ill health to have access to qualified teachers. Nonetheless, Buddhism is uniquely suited to isolated practice and meditation. Whether Buddhism will continue to broaden its appeal in the West is difficult to say. Even in Asia monasteries and monkhood are difficult choices in an ever-broadening world consumer culture. Buddhism, like many of the great faiths of the world, has found ways to adapt and survive for centuries. Buddhism continues as a way, the Middle Way, to work toward peace, compassion, and enlightenment. Yet, we have only to look back to the Buddha’s own words to find the future of Buddhism. The Buddha said that the only really permanent thing in this world is change.

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