case study of ground water pollution in india

Groundwater governance in India – A case study by World Bank

It examines the impediments to better governance of groundwater, and explores opportunities for using groundwater to help developing countries adapt to climate change. It attempts to understand the practical issues that arise in establishing robust national governance frameworks for groundwater and in implementing these frameworks at the aquifer level.

The case study focused on the national, state and local levels. At the national and state levels, it analyzed the policy, legal, and institutional arrangements to identify the demand and supply management and incentive structures that have been established for groundwater management. At the local level, it assessed the operations, successes, and constraints facing local institutions in the governance of a number of aquifers within peninsula India, on the coast and on the plain of the Ganges river valley.

The report is divided into eight chapters following which a list of references used in the paper is used is provided. The first chapter in the beginning provides a brief background to the study and defines “groundwater governance”. In this report it refers to “refers to those political, social, economic, and administrative systems that are explicitly aimed at developing and managing water resources and water services at different levels of society that rely solely or largely on groundwater resources”. Following this the methodology used to carry out the study is elaborated where emphasis on pragmatic approaches, which can bring is incremental improvements with the given institutional framework is highlighted. The study is based on:

• the findings and recommendations of  “Deep Wells and Prudence: Towards Pragmatic Action for Addressing Groundwater Overexploitation in India” ,which focused mainly on aquifer intensive abstraction groundwater issues (World Bank 2010).
• number of  Groundwater Management Advisory Team (GW-MATE) case profile and strategic overview series publications, which addressed in more detail the local level in seven rural and urban aquifers; and
• reports on groundwater quality-related aspects prepared by two local consultants aimed at addressing the technical/managerial and legal/institutional dimensions of aquifer protection in the country.

 Chapter 2 is on “Resource   Setting: Overexploitation and Groundwater Pollution”. It begins by highlighting the need to understand both physical and socio-economic environment to determine the availability of groundwater and its sustainability issues. It then goes on to elaborate the remarkable use of ground water for various purposes that has led to over exploitation of the resource. The chapter provides statistical data state wise on various issues related to ground water. Further the chapter sheds light on the ground water pollution.

 Chapter 3 is on “The Governance Framework”. With a brief over view of key aspects related to ground water and its lacunas in the national water policy of 1987 and 2002 the report points at ground water in the Indian legal system and policy framework. Following which the institutions that govern the development and management of ground water is elaborated. This section covers the following issues: quality protection and pollution of ground water, its monitoring and surveillance the institutional capacity of institutions and financial issues.

 Chapter 4 is on “Case Study Aquifers/Pilot Projects”. To cover the diverse rural and urban environments with different socioeconomic features seven cases of aquifers had been selected for this study. The chapter discusses in detail about these cases.

 Chapter 5 is on “Findings and Lessons Learned”. It states that technical, legal, and institutional provisions are in a more or less acceptable. As far as the implementation of actions proposed by GWMATE is also uncertain as the institutional capacity is weak. The chapter then lays down a list of lessons learned about intensive groundwater use in hardrock peninsular India and alluvial Indo Gangetic Plain. It also highlights on the issue of coping with groundwater pollution issues.

 Chapter 6 is on “Groundwater Governance and Climate Change Adaptation”. It gives a brief description (conjunctive use and recharge enhancement) of the World Bank’s study on ground water and climate change in cases where GW-MATE has been involved.

Chapter 7 is on “Recommendations”. A summary of: recommended implementation actions for managing intensive groundwater abstraction and actions required for protecting ground water pollution is given in this chapter. Further it also highlights at the actions required to strengthen state groundwater development and management agencies.

 Chapter 8 provides list annexes of the report.

 Click below to download the report.

Addressing groundwater depletion: Lessons from India, the world’s largest user of groundwater

India is home to 16% of the world’s population, but only holds 4% of the world’s freshwater resources.

Not only is water scarce in India, but the extraction of groundwater has been on the rise for decades. Since the 1960s, the government’s support for the “green revolution” to ensure food security has increased the demand for groundwater for agriculture. Rapid rural electrification combined with the availability of modern pump technologies has led to an increase in the number of borewells to meet that demand. Over the last 50 years, the number of borewells has grown from 1 million to 20 million, making India the world’s largest user of groundwater.

The Central Groundwater Board of India estimates that about 17% of groundwater blocks are overexploited (meaning the rate at which water is extracted exceeds the rate at which the aquifer is able to recharge) while 5% and 14% , respectively, are at critical and semi-critical stages. The situation is particularly alarming in three major regions – north-western, western, and southern peninsular.

Groundwater pollution and the effects of climate change, including erratic rainfall in the drier areas, put additional stress on groundwater resources which serve about 85% of domestic water supply in rural areas, 45% in urban areas, and over 60% of irrigated agriculture. Current overexploitation rates pose threats to livelihoods, food security, climate-driven migration, sustainable poverty reduction and urban development.

The World Bank has been working with the Government of India to enhance groundwater management in affected areas. The lessons below stem from the experience of World Bank groundwater management projects in India, and are part of a broader IEG evaluation of the World Bank’s support for sustainable and inclusive natural resource management .  

Integrated demand and supply side solutions offer the best option for sustainable use. IEG case studies in Rajasthan, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh showed that the success of supply-side measures, such as watershed management programs, aquifer recharging and tank rehabilitation activities, did not lead to sustainable use in the absence of demand-side action. Measures such as surface water harvesting through farm ponds and check-dams, the installation of water-efficient irrigation systems (e.g. more efficient drips and sprinklers) and growing less water intensive crops, need to be integrated on the demand side for improved management and reduced depletion.

Weak regulatory action to limit demand for groundwater can hinder the success of programs in reversing groundwater depletion . Weak regulations result in the expansion of groundwater irrigated areas and drilling of additional wells. This can more than offset water savings created by demand-side measures, or the water increases created by supply-side measures, leading to further depletion. The government of India regulates groundwater exploitation in water-stressed states through “notification” of highly overexploited blocks that restrict development of new groundwater structures (except those for drinking water). However, only about 14% of the overexploited blocks in the country are currently notified. Local level regulatory action in all threatened blocks before they reach the “overexploited” stage is vital to avert depletion.

Strengthening community participation and rights in groundwater governance can improve groundwater management. World Bank projects in peninsular India, where more spread out and specifically defined hydrological sites prevail, were successful on several fronts by implementing the Participatory Groundwater Management approach (PGM). The PGM approach empowers communities in a defined aquifer area by providing governance rights, community awareness, capacity development, and knowledge and motivation for social regulation and the implementation of coordinated actions.

However, there are limits to the success of the PGM approach . It did not work when local institutions were weak, supply-side interventions failed to replenish groundwater or when tanks failed to store water due to recurrent droughts, leading to increased overexploitation. The approach is also unlikely to work in areas with extensive alluvial aquifers that require coordination among large numbers of users.

World Bank interventions support local institutional capacity for groundwater governance, but such institutions are often not viable after the end of the project. Two local institutions are mainly involved in groundwater management in India: Water User Associations (WUA) and groundwater management committees (GWMC). WUAs are formal institutions with a wider mandate to manage irrigation systems (surface and groundwater) and have budget allocations for maintaining the systems and collecting user charges. In contrast, GWMCs are informal groups created through World Bank–supported projects to facilitate PGM. These committees become dormant and dysfunctional once projects close. The key institutional challenge for groundwater governance is strengthening local institutions and helping the informal groups to remain viable during the post-project phase.

Power subsidies for pumping groundwater accelerate the depletion of aquifers in stressed areas. Several states affected by depletion of groundwater provide free or heavily subsidized power (including solar pumps) for pumping groundwater for irrigated agriculture. This creates perverse incentives that enable overexploitation and depletion of scarce groundwater resources. In the long-run, sustainable groundwater management will depend on cross-sectoral reforms to address the water-energy-agriculture nexus and providing the right incentives to resource users. This requires better coordination of policy, market and regulatory measures as well as repurposing current distortive public support to more climate-smart solutions. Strengthening World Bank analytical support and investments in these directions would be useful for future.

Groundwater extraction has allowed rural families to reduce short-term vulnerability but may incur trade-offs and increase the risk of depletion and ultimately increase vulnerability in the long term . Increased access to groundwater resources and extraction allows households to boost agricultural production in the short term. Many farm households owning wells indicated that their vulnerability is lower partly because of income growth and diversification and buffers provided by social safety nets. However, without sufficient regulation or replenishment of aquifers, the increased access to and use of groundwater for irrigation could lead to declining water tables and increasing water scarcity, which risks escalating long-term vulnerability.

pictured above: Women draw water from a well in the drylands of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, India. By Yavuz Sariyildiz via Shutterstock (November 9, 2014).

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Problem of groundwater pollution: a case study from Madras City, India

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Krishna Kumar Subbiah

The aim of the present study is to investigate the pollution vulnerability of groundwater aquifers in the coastal regions of Tuticorin city, Tamil Nadu, India. Fourteen samples were analyzed to determine the concentration of trace elements (Pb, Zn, Cd, Hg, Cr and Cu) in the groundwater. Among the total samples six were collected from industrial areas and eight from non-industrial areas of Tuticorin city. The concentration of trace element ranges from 0.01 to 0.19 mg/kg-1 for Pb, from 0.01 to 0.16 mg/kg-1 for Zn, from BDL to 0.21 mg/kg-1 for Cd, from BDL (Below Detection Limit) to 0.023 mg/kg-1 for Hg, from 0.02 to 0.18 mg/kg-1 for Cr and from 0.01 to 0.16 mg/kg-1 for Cu. The trace element concentration in groundwater is higher than the WHO suggested maximum permissible limit except Zn and Cu.

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ATHAR HUSSAIN

IOSR Journals

A study was investigates the concentration of trace elements in the surface water and groundwater of Adyar River Basin. For this study 50 water samples were collected from in and around of the lake and along the river. These samples were subjected for elements like Fe, Mn, Ni, Cu, Co, Cr, Pb, and Zn by using AAS. The water parameters reach as pH (6.8-7.9), EC (932-2909), TDS (496-1761). The result reveals that the concentration of these metals in the study area was compared with (WHO 2011). The order of dominance is as follows: Fe>Mn>Co for Groundwater and Mn>Cu>Zn for Surface water. The abundance of the metals in order of Cu>Cr>Pb>Zn and Co>Pb>Ni>Fe post-monsoon seasons. Cluster analysis identified four clusters among the studied heavy metals. Cluster 1 consisted of Pb, Cu, and cluster 3 included Cr, Fe; also each of the elements Zn, Co and Ni was located in groups with single member. The same results were obtained by factor analysis. Statistical investigations revealed that anthropogenic factors and notably lead and zinc are the major problems due geochemical pollution sources are influencing water quality in the studied area.

Habibah Lateh

Analytical Letters

Naseem Akhtar

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The study has been carried out to assess the groundwater quality of Kali river Sub-basin of Aligarh City U.P. India. About 100 water samples were collected during pre monsoon and post monsoon period for the year 2015 and analyzed for Heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb,) to understand their behavior in subtropical fluvial system. The study have shown that there is a considerable variation in the concentration of heavy metal from one sampling station to other which may be due to the variation in the quality of industrial and sewage waste being added to the river at different places. The result are compared with the specification prescribed by the Bureau of Indian standard (BIS) 1993 and World Health organization (WHO) 2004. It is revealed that the concentration of Cr, Cd, Ni, Pb, Fe and Mn is higher than the permissible limit prescribed by the Bureau of Indian standard (BIS) 1993 and World Health organization (WHO) 2004. The Heavy industrialization and the increasing urbanization are responsible for the rapidly increasing stress on the ground water of the area. The enormous quantity of waste water generated from domestic, commercial, industrial and other source has led to the problem of ground water in and around Aligarh City, and as in surface water of Kali River. It gives a sign of water quality deterioration, so it is necessary to take rational steps to manage water quality in this region before it becomes a crisis, as this will affect the economy and will also lead to various water-borne diseases.

Abdul Qadir

Groundwater is an important source for drinking and irrigation purposes. Due to anthropogenic activities, heavy metals have been leaching due to industrial waste and agricultural activities to the groundwater causing pollution. The assessment of groundwater quality is necessary to reduce the pollution to acceptable levels. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate heavy metal concentrations in the groundwater of the villages of Garautha Tehsil, Jhansi where the anthropogenic activities are active. The groundwater samples were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and the results were compared to the 2012 Bureau of Indian Standard limits. Three multivariate statistical methods were used to analyze the groundwater quality for irrigation and drinking purposes and to investigate the geological and hydrogeological processes. The results of principal component analysis (PCA) identified four factors responsible for the data structure by illuminating the total variance of 77.83% of the dataset. The majority of groundwater samples contained Al, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Cr, Pb, and Fe within the acceptable limits except at few locations. However, the Al, Fe, and Mn concentration were high at a few sites due to rock–water interactions, whereas the concentration of As, Cd, and Zn were lower than their respective permissible limits in all groundwater samples. Furthermore, the groundwater quality for the use of irrigation is found to be acceptable at 19 locations, with only one high result.

Warta Geologi

For human use, groundwater is a critical resource. Because of natural and anthropogenic activities, groundwater pollution is reducing water quality across the Jhansi district, Bundelkhand area. The Bundelkhand Gneissic Complex (BGC) and granite terrain in the southern part of Achaean to recent era, and alluvial plains or highly eroding composite plains in the northern part of the district of the Quaternary period, make up this area. As a result, the aim of this study was to use a multivariate statistical technique like factor analysis (FA), Pearson correlation coefficient (r), and cluster analysis to investigate heavy metal concentrations using an inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP- MS) and to analyse water quality and contamination source in groundwater using multivariate statistical techniques like factor analysis (FA), Pearson correlation coefficient (r), and cluster analysis (CA). The results of the ICP-MS were compared to WHO (2017) and BIS (2017) criteria (2012). The concentration of Al was within reasonable limits, and the range of As, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn were lower than acceptable limits, while the concentrations of Fe, Mn, and Ni in the rest of the groundwater samples were higher than allowable limits. Furthermore, the PCA findings revealed three factors that were responsible for the data structure, accounting for 77.416 percent of the overall variance of the dataset, which was specified by three variables: 37.954 percent, 23.331 percent, and 16.132 percent. Whereas the results of factors 1, 2, and 3 indicated that (Cu, Pb, Zn), (Al, Mn), and (As, Ni) showed strong positive loading, indicating that the sources of these metals were naturally occurring and over-application of pesticides and fertilisers in agriculture, respectively. Furthermore, the obtained results of (r) revealed a strong positive correlation of Cu with Pb (r = 0.921), a moderate relationship of Mn with Al (r = 0.619), As with Ni (r = 0.496), Cr with Co (r = 0.556), Cu with Zn (r = 0.700), Fe with Pb (r = 0.541), and Pb with Zn (r = 0.709), as well as a negative correlation of Cd with Zn (r = -0.502), Cr with Cu (r = -0.528), Zn (r = -0.522) and (r = -.0923). The finding of (r) revealed that the positive correlation was a common source and the negative association was a separate source of groundwater, as well as that this relationship between heavy metals means that one variable increase while the other decreases and inversely. Furthermore, CA results revealed three clusters: A, B, and C, each of which suggested low to high emissions due to weathering and anthropogenic activities. Overall, 50% of groundwater samples were suitable for drinking and irrigation, while 50% of samples were not suitable for people use. In addition, this study suggests that groundwater be treated before it is used for human use.

Balasubramanian M

Trace element analyses were carried out in South Chennai coastal area, and its concentration (Fe, Mn, Cu, Cr, Zn, Pb, Ni, Co) in groundwater were quantified. Totally, fifty groundwater samples were collected during pre and post-monsoon of the year 2014-2015 and analyzed in Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). The analytical results were compared with Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS, 2012). The Cu concentrations were above permissible limit in Pudhupakkam, Sathankuppam, Vanuvampettai, Chromepet, Vengadamangalam, Sirucheri, Palavakkakuppam and Chinnadikuppam during both seasons. In Thiruvanmiyur, Guindy, Sathankuppam and Pallavaram locations Cr value was observed to be above permissible limit. The Fe concentrations were observed to be above permissible limit in Palavakkam, Sathankuppam, Vanuvampettai and B.V. Nagar locations. In Kumenan Nagar, and Besant Nagar locations Mn concentration were above the permissible limit. Health hazards that are related to Cu, Cr, Fe and Mn are given. The other trace elements concentrations in groundwater of the study area were within the permissible limit.

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ICESMART - 2015 (Volume 3 - Issue 19)

River water pollution:a case study on tunga river at shimoga-karnataka.

• Article Download / Views: 3,326
• Total Downloads : 16
• Authors : Dr. H. S. Govardhana Swamy
• Paper ID : IJERTCONV3IS19035
• Volume & Issue : ICESMART – 2015 (Volume 3 – Issue 19)
• Published (First Online): 24-04-2018
• ISSN (Online) : 2278-0181
• Publisher Name : IJERT

Dr. H. S. Govardhana Swamy

Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering RajaRajeswari College of Engineering,

Bengaluru, India

Abstract Tunga River has been one of the most prominent and important river of Karnataka in Shimoga District. Unfortunately, certain stretches of River Tunga are much polluted. Various urban centers are located on the banks of Tunga River, draw fresh river water for various activities. In almost the entire wastewater generated by these centers is disposed off into the river. The objective of the monitoring studies undertaken for water body is to assess variation in water quality with time. Four sampling stations were selected along the river for sampling purpose from August 2013 to August 2014.Water samples were analyzed in terms of physico-chemical water quality parameters.

Keywords Thunga River, water quality, point pollution, Physico-chemical parameters

INTRODUCTION

In nature, water is the essential fluid from which all life begins. All living things need water to maintain their life too. In domesticity, it is very useful, such as for washing and cleaning. In industry, it is the common solvent for Paper and water, textile and electroplating. Besides, the generation of electricity also requires water. It has many uses. However, it can be easily polluted. Pollutants deteriorate the quality of the water and render it unfit for its intended uses [1]. The pollution of rivers and streams with chemical contaminants has become one of the most critical environmental problems of the century. It is estimated that each year 10 million people die from drinking contaminated water. Water is one of the most common and precious resources on the earth without there would be no life on earth [2]. Pollution is a serious problem as almost 70% of Indias surface water resources and a growing number of its groundwater reserves have been contaminated The quality of water is described by its physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics. Therefore a regular monitoring of river water quality not only prevents outbreak of diseases and checks water from further deterioration, but also provides a scope to assess the current investments for pollution prevention and control. In this study, seasonal variations of physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics of water quality in Tunga river was assessed in Shimoga town in Karnataka.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Shimoga is town, situated between the North and South branches of river Tunga. It is located on the Bangalore Honnavar highway.Though it is a town of medium population, the temples and historically significant monuments of this town attracts a large number of tourist people resulting in a very high floating population. Because of this reason the river Tunga along Shimoga town stretch is prone to anthropogenic activities such as bathing, washing and disposal of wastes. The ground level in the town slopes towards river so that most of the storm and sewerage drains discharge into river Tunga. There are two stream monitoring stations and 15 drains located in this town stretch

Monitoring Stations

Station – S1

Station S1 is located on the north side of the river, near the Shimoga Thirthahalli new bridge. It is an upstream station and near this station water is being drawn for supply to the town.

Station – S2

This station is about 300 m downstream of station S1.The station S2 is located on a drain that enters the river from the industrial town areas. The flow in the drain is mainly comprised of industrial waste.

Station – S3

The station S3 is an most affected station and is positioned near the Vinayaka temple(Ramanna shetty park). It is downstream of the sewage disposal point from the station S3. A bathing ghat exists near this Station.

Station S4 is located on the south side of the river, near the Shimoga Bhadravathi new bridge. Two number of sewage drains dispose city sewage water in to the river directly.

Data Preparation

The data sets of 4 water quality monitoring stations which comprised of 10 water quality parameters monitored monthly over 2 years (2013-2014) are used for this study. The data is obtained from the water Quality Monitoring work of Tunga River Basin in Shimoga District,

Karnataka State Although there are more water quality parameters in these stations, only 10 most important parameters are chosen because of their continuity in measurement through the 12 years. The 10 selected water quality parameters include Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Chlorides (Cl), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Conductivity, Temperature and pH.

Analysis of samples

The water samples were collected from each of the five selected stat ions according to the standard sampling methods (IS: 2488, 1966 APHA, 1998).Samples for estimating dissolved oxygen (DO) and biochemical oxy gen demand (BOD) were collected separately in BOD(glass) bottles. Water temperature was recorded on the spot using thermometers.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Temperature was found to be ranged between 14 0C (minimum) to 280C (maximum) with average value of 210+9.90C from all the sites. Impinging solar radiation and the atmospheric temperature brings interesting spatial and temporal changes in natural waters. The rise in temperature of water accelerates chemical reactions, reduces solubility of gases, amplifies taste and odour and elevates metabolic activity of organisms (Usharani et al., 2010).

pH of the aquatic system is an important indicator of the water quality and the extent pollution in the watershed areas. pH was recorded to be varying from 6.43 (minimum) to 9.13 (maximum) with an average value of 7.78+1.91 from all the sites (Jonnalagadda et al.,2001). It has been mentioned that the increasing pH appear to be associated with increasing use of alkaline detergents in residential areas and alkaline material from wastewater in industrial areas (Chang, H., 2008)

Conductivity is a good and rapid method to measure the total dissolved ions and is directly related to total solids. Higher the value of dissolved solids, greater the amount of ions in water (Bhatt.,1999). The range of Electrical conductivity from all the sites was recorded as 340.00

µmhos (minimum) to 734.00 µmhos (maximum) with an average value of 537.00+278.60 µmhos

The value of Dissolved Oxygen is remarkable in determining the water quality criteria of an aquatic system. In the system where the rates of respiration and organic decomposition are high, the DO values usually remain lower than those of the system, where the rate of photosynthesis is high (Mishra et al., 2009). During the study period DO was found to be ranging between 4.90 mg/l (minimum) to 8.50 mg/l (maximum) from all the sites with an average value of 6.70+2.55 mg/l.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen in the water that is required by the aerobic organisms. The biodegradation of organic materials exerts oxygen tension in the water and increases the biochemical oxygen demand (Abida, 2008).BOD has been a fair measure of cleanliness

of any water on the basis that values less than 1-2 mg/l are considered clean, 3 mg/l fairly clean, 5 mg/l doubtful and 10 mg/l definitely. During the study period BOD varied from 3.00 mg/l (minimum) to 8.00 mg/l (maximum) with an average value of 5.50+3.54 mg/l at all the sites.

Chemical Oxygen Deand is a measure of the oxidation of reduced chemicals in water. It is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. The measure of COD determines the quantities of organic matter

found in water. This makes COD useful as an indicator of organic pollution in surface water (King et al., 2003).COD pointing to a deterioration of the water quality likely caused by the discharge of municipal waste water (Mamais et al., 1993). In the present study COD was found to be ranging from 11 mg/l (minimum) to 24 mg/l (maximum) with average value of 17.50+9.19 at all the sites.

Alkalinity of water is a measure of weak acid present. Total alkalinity of water is due to presence of mineral salt present in it. Alkalinity was ranged between 123.00 mg/l (minimum) to 240.00 (maximum) mg/l with average value of 181.50+82.73 mg/l from all the sites.

Total hardness is the parameter of water quality used to describe the effect of dissolved minerals (mostly Ca and Mg), determining suitability of water for domestic, industrial and drinking purpose attributed to presence of bicarbonates, sulphates, chloride and nitrates of calcium and magnesium (Taylor, 1949). The variation in Total hardness during study period at all the sites was recorded as

mg/l to 475.00 mg/l with average value of 352.50+173.24 mg/l

Chlorides occur naturally in all types of water. High concentration of chloride is considered to be the indicators of pollution due to organic wastes of animal or industrial origin. Chlorides are troublesome in irrigation water and also harmful to aquatic life (Rajkumar, 2004). The levels of chloride in the present study were ranging from 18.00 mg/l (minimum) to 32.00 mg/l (maximum) with an average value of 25.00±9.90 mg/l at all the sites.

Fluoride concentration is an important aspect of hydrogeochmistry, because of its impact on human health. The recommended concentration of Fluoride in drinking water is 1.50 mg/l. The values recorded in this study was ranged between 0.40 mg/l (minimum) to 1.20 (maximum) mg/l with an average value of 0.80±0.57 mg/l from all the sites.

Table 1: Physico-chemical qualities of river water

Where D.O.= Dissolved Oxygen, BOD= Biochemical Oxygen Demand, COD= Chemical Oxygen Demand, TH= Total Hardness.

The present study concluded that river water of study area was moderately polluted in respect to analyzed parameters. pH, total hardness, chloride and fluoride were found within permissible limit but the higher values of BOD and COD in present study attributed river water was not fit for drinking purpose. It needs to aware local villagers to safeguard the precious river and its surrounding

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Usharani, K., Umarani,K., Ayyasamy, P.M., Shanthi, K.Physico- Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristics of Noyyal River and Ground Water Quality of Perur, India. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. Vol.14(2) 29-35,2009

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank principal of RajaRajeswari College of Engineering and Management of RajaRajeswari Group of Institutions for extending encouragement and support to present the paper in the International Conference at T.John College of Engineering, Bangaluru

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• DOI: 10.1016/j.jksus.2024.103275
• Corpus ID: 270524614

Health risk assessment of groundwater quality: A case study of Pratapgarh district U.P, India

• Sandhya Maurya , Abhishek Saxena
• Published in Journal of King Saud… 1 June 2024
• Environmental Science, Geography
• Journal of King Saud University - Science

21 References

Hydrochemical characterization and water quality perspectives for groundwater management for urban development, the sources, leaching, remediation, and environmental concerns associated with groundwater salinity, nitrate contaminated groundwater and its health risk assessment in semi-urban land, spatiotemporal assessment of groundwater quality in the central ganga plain, india, using multivariate statistical tools, groundwater quality monitoring for assessment of pollution levels and potability using wpi and wqi methods from a part of guntur district, andhra pradesh, india, the remediation efficiency of heavy metal pollutants in water by industrial red mud particle waste, the combination of the quality index, isotopic, and gis techniques to assess water resources in a semi-arid context (essaouira watershed in morocco), hydrochemical characteristics and health risk assessment of groundwater in karst areas of southwest china: a case study of bama, guangxi, pollution characteristics and source analysis of microplastics in the qiantang river in southeastern china., appraisal of vulnerable zones of non-cancer-causing health risks associated with exposure of nitrate and fluoride in groundwater from a rural part of india., related papers.

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India Is Building a Mega-River

It could bring water to parched land—but scientists aren’t sure it’s worth the risk.

This article originally appeared in Hakai Magazine .

In India, severe water shortages in one part of the country often coincide with acute flooding in another. When these dual tragedies occur, Indians are often left wishing for a way to balance out the inequities—to turn one region’s excess into a salve for the other.

Soon, they may get their wish.

India is about to launch a massive engineering project—more than 100 years in the making—that will connect several of the subcontinent’s rivers, transforming the disparate flows of neighboring watersheds into a mega–water grid spanning from the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Fully realized, the National River Linking Project will see India’s National Water Development Agency dig 30 links that will transfer an estimated 7 trillion cubic feet of water around the country each year. The goal is to help irrigate tens of millions of hectares of farmland and bolster India’s hydroelectric-power generation. With an estimated price tag of $168 billion, the project is “ unique in its unrivalled grandiosity ,” experts say.

Similar—though less ambitious—water transfers happen in other parts of the world. China’s South-to-North Water Diversion Project will eventually carry trillions of cubic feet of water each year across more than 600 miles. And in Sri Lanka, where water is diverted from the Mahaweli Ganga river basin, people have benefited from improved food security and higher incomes, says Upali Amarasinghe, a data scientist with the International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka. India’s river-linking project could have some financial benefits, Amarasinghe says, but his calculations suggest they will come at the cost of displacing people and submerging large tracts of land.

The project is already under way. India’s government has “accorded it top priority,” says Bhopal Singh, director general of India’s water agency. The government has obtained clearances for the first link in the grid—connecting the Ken and Betwa Rivers, in central India—and Singh says the contract for its construction will likely be awarded soon.

Scientists and water-policy experts, however, have doubts about the scheme’s scientific footing. They worry that the government hasn’t adequately accounted for the potential unintended consequences of moving such a large amount of water. Case in point: New research suggests that the river-linking project threatens to affect India’s monsoon season.

Read: Pollution in India could reshape monsoons

A quarter of the rain that parts of India receive during the annual monsoon comes from so-called recycled precipitation—water that evaporates from the land in one place and falls somewhere else as rain. Diverting large amounts of water could interfere with that natural process, says Tejasvi Chauhan, a water engineer and biosphere modeler at Germany’s Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry and the lead author of the new paper analyzing the river-linking project’s potential effect on India’s monsoon. The study shows that the project could actually exacerbate water stress by causing the amount of rain falling in September in some dry regions to drop by up to 12 percent while increasing rainfall elsewhere.

The “initial assumption,” Chauhan told me, “is that river basins are independent systems and output from one … can be used to feed the other.” But they exist as parts of a hydrological system. “Changes in one can lead to changes in another,” he said.

To further complicate the project’s value, research shows that rainfall has decreased over Indian river basins currently thought to contain a surplus of water.

Although today’s incarnation of India’s river-linking project is rooted in plans made in 1980, the idea dates to the 19th century, when the British irrigation engineer Arthur Thomas Cotton proposed linking southern India’s major rivers to improve irrigation and make it easier and cheaper to move goods. A similar proposal in the 1970s pitched linking two of India’s biggest rivers, the Ganga and Kaveri, while another proposal known as the Garland Canal envisaged connecting rivers in the north to those in the south.

Political support for the river-linking project wavered over the years, but in 2012, India’s supreme court ordered the government to get to work. The project, however, remained on the back burner until 2014, when the water minister said it was a dream project of the newly sworn-in Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s government, and could be achieved within a decade.

Beset by delays, construction of the first 137-mile link—the Ken-Betwa connection—is expected to take several years. Himanshu Thakkar, a coordinator with the Indian NGO South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers, and People, finds solace in the project’s slow pace.

Thakkar is concerned about the river-linking project—most notably its lack of transparency. Thakkar was part of a supreme-court-appointed committee on river linking but says he was not allowed to review the hydrological data behind the plan’s logic of defining certain watersheds as surplus basins and others as sites with water deficits.

The data are “a state secret” and have “not been peer-reviewed in any credible way,” Thakkar says. “We need to take democratic and informed decisions—that’s not happening.”

Beyond potentially disrupting the distribution of rainfall across India, the initial link of the project is expected to submerge large areas of a crucial tiger reserve and kill about 2 million trees . Thakkar says the project could also hurt populations of gharial (a family of fish-eating crocodiles), vultures, and several other species.

Singh, from India’s water agency, says the government is conducting a detailed environmental-impact assessment for every proposed link, with the intention of preserving ecosystems. He says the main challenge to the project’s rollout is politics—getting Indian states to arrive at a consensus on how the water will be shared. Singh is optimistic that the project will help solve India’s water crises “to a large extent.”

But with construction still largely in the blueprint stage, Amarasinghe and other water-management experts are urging the government to consider other measures—such as rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, and crop diversification—to address water-related issues in ways that are both less ambitious and more cost-effective.

After more than 100 years, India’s grand vision to reengineer its waterways is inching toward fruition. The question, Thakkar says, is: “Do we need it?”

Resilient and sustainable water management in agriculture

• Published: 26 June 2024

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• Pravat Kumar Shit 1 ,
• Partha Pratim Adhikary 2 ,
• Biswajit Bera 3 &
• Vishnu D. Rajput 4  

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Water resources and agricultural systems play a vital role in the global environment and human well-being, providing essential goods and services crucial for sustainable development worldwide (Adhikary et al 2021 ; Shit et al. 2021b , 2022 ). Water resource managers face the daunting task of making complex planning and management decisions amidst a rapidly changing environment, influenced by natural hazards, climate change, urban sprawl, and environmental pollution, leading to the degradation of natural resources (Shit et al. 2021a , 2024a ). In recent decades, the advent of computer-based technologies, such as remote sensing/Earth Observation (EO) data, Geographic Information Science (GIS), and machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL), has significantly contributed to understanding various parameters characterizing water resources (Adhikary et al 2021 ; Shit et al 2021a ). These technologies, when combined with conventional field surveying and spatial data analysis methods, as well as simulation process models, offer efficient means for monitoring and comprehending the water environment in a cost-effective and systematic manner (Shit et al. 2021b , 2024b ).

The aim of this special issue (SI) on “Resilient and Sustainable Water Management in Agriculture (RSWMA-22)” is to explore water resources and agricultural productivity from a decision-making and planning perspective through GIS data management. This SI will focus on computer-based GIS applications in planning, analysis, modeling, forecasting, operation, and sustainable management. After a meticulous peer-review process, sixteen (16) high-quality research papers have been accepted for publication. Major topics covered in this SI include water resources, water supply, reservoirs, pollutant transport, groundwater flow, hydraulic networks, water utilities, water distribution systems, river basins, lakes, flood control, and computer-aided design with database management.

The first paper titled “Bi-level hybrid game model for optimal operation of multi-function reservoir considering integrated water resources management” introduces two innovative bi-level hybrid game models: the non-cooperative hybrid game model (NCHG) and the cooperative hybrid game model (CHG). These models aim to enhance integrated water resource management in reservoir systems, balancing conflicting interests between maximizing downstream social and ecological benefits and upstream power generation. The study evaluates the stability, reliability, and equity of the models using performance indices and applies them to the Three Gorges Reservoir and adjacent areas. Results indicate that the CHG demonstrates higher systemic reliability and fairness in allocation compared to NCHG, generating favorable allocation schemes even with minor sacrifices in reservoir benefits. In wet, normal, and dry years, CHG consistently outperforms NCHG in systemic characteristic values while slightly reducing economic benefits and significantly improving social and ecological welfare at the system level. The developed CHG offers optimal water scheduling solutions to manage inter-regional water conflicts in multi-function reservoir systems, contributing to equilibrium management strategies.

The second paper titled “Measuring the crop water demand and satisfied degree using remote sensing data and machine learning method in monsoon climatic region, India” discusses the significance of water supply in agricultural production and food security in India’s monsoon climatic region. It introduces the Crop Water Requirement Assessment (CropWRA) model as a tool to assess the satisfied degree of crop water requirements (CWR) for sustainable water management in agriculture. Using DEM, hydrological, climatic data, and crop properties, the work calculates agricultural water requirements and satisfaction levels in the Bansloi River basin. It employs the random forest machine learning model to estimate soil moisture based on atmospheric variables, Landsat indices, and energy balance components. The study finds that the average crop water demand is 1.92 m, varying across different parts of the basin, with higher demand in the western region. The CropWSD (crop water satisfied degree) ranges from 17 to 116%, influenced by topography, river system, crop combination, land use, and water usage. The paper suggests that the CropWRA model can aid in sustainable water resource management, irrigation infrastructure development, and adoption of modern technologies in agriculture.

The third research paper titled “Spatial pattern of groundwater arsenic contamination in Patna, Saran and Vaishali districts of Gangetic plains of Bihar, India” addresses the pressing issue of arsenic contamination in groundwater, posing significant challenges to drinking water safety and public health in the Gangetic plains of Bihar, India. The study conducted a comprehensive assessment of arsenic levels in groundwater samples collected from various GPS-based locations in the Patna, Saran, and Vaishali districts. Sophisticated analytical techniques such as ICP-MS, GF-AAS, and HG-AAS were employed to detect arsenic concentrations, revealing widespread contamination exceeding the permissible limits set by WHO and BIS standards. Results indicate that over 90% of the groundwater samples exceeded the WHO’s limit of 0.01 mg L −1 , affecting the health of millions in the state. The mean arsenic concentration was found to be 0.87 mg L −1 , with variability ranging from 0.002 to 7.801 mg L −1 . Additionally, total dissolved solids were identified in a subset of samples, indicating further water quality concerns. The study underscores the urgent need for mitigation strategies and water management interventions to address arsenic contamination and safeguard public health in the region.

The fourth paper titled “Imputation of missing monthly rainfall data using machine learning and spatial interpolation approaches in Thale Sap Songkhla River Basin, Thailand” addresses the challenge of missing rainfall data, crucial in hydrology and meteorology. The study evaluates the effectiveness of machine learning (ML) and spatial interpolation (SI) techniques in estimating missing monthly rainfall data. Six ML algorithms and four SI methods were compared in terms of their performance using 12 rainfall stations in the Thale Sap Songkhla River Basin and nearby areas. The ML algorithms outperformed SI methods, with genetic programming (GP) showing the highest performance, followed by support vector regression (SVR) and random forest (RF). Among SI methods, normal ratio (NR) performed the best. The study emphasizes the importance of considering neighboring stations for SI methods but not for ML methods. The findings suggest that ML techniques, particularly GP, offer promising solutions for imputing missing rainfall data, providing valuable insights for hydrological and meteorological studies in the region.

The fifth paper titled “Geospatial assessment of agricultural drought vulnerability using integrated three-dimensional model in the upper Dwarakeshwar river basin in West Bengal, India” highlights the critical need to measure agricultural drought vulnerability (ADV) for sustaining food security in rain-fed agro-based economies. The study employs a multi-dimensional mixed-method index approach, integrating remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) techniques to delineate ADV status. An integrated three-dimensional model is utilized, comprising exposure index (EI), sensitivity index (SI), and adaptive capacity index (ACI), which includes environmental, social, and economic adaptive capacities. Forty parameters derived from meteorological, geoenvironmental, social, and remote sensing data are used for ADV modeling. The study classifies the region into five vulnerability zones and validates results with long-term Aman paddy yield data. The ADV model demonstrates a good fit and significant relationships, with SI and EI positively associated with ADV, while ACI shows a negative association. This model aids in identifying drought-responsive areas and enhancing drought mitigation strategies, offering valuable insights for sustainable agricultural development and food security in the region.

The sixth paper titled “Evaluation and prediction of irrigation water quality of an agricultural district, SE Nigeria: an integrated heuristic GIS-based and machine learning approach” addresses the challenge of assessing and predicting irrigation water quality (IWQ) in agricultural districts, crucial for sustaining agricultural productivity. Traditional methods for evaluating IWQ are time-consuming and prone to errors, necessitating a more efficient approach. The study utilizes the overlay weighted sum technique to generate IWQ maps, revealing varying suitability levels across the district. Integrating multi-layer perceptron artificial neural networks (MLP-ANNs) and multiple linear regression models (MLR), the study accurately predicts IWQ parameters using input variables such as Cl − , HCO 3 − , and SO 4 2− . Both models demonstrate high accuracy, with MLP-ANNs showing slightly better performance. Sensitivity analysis identifies key influential parameters for IWQ, including HCO 3 , pH, and EC. The integration of GIS and machine learning offers rapid decision-making tools for planning and improving agricultural productivity. This study highlights the importance of employing advanced techniques for effective IWQ management, essential for sustainable agricultural development in the region.

The seventh paper titled “Delineation of groundwater potential zones at micro-spatial units of Nagaon district in Assam, India, using GIS-based MCDA and AHP techniques” addresses the pressing issue of groundwater management in densely populated regions like Assam, India. With increasing population and urbanization, there is immense pressure on groundwater resources, necessitating the identification and mapping of groundwater potential zones (GWPZs) for sustainable utilization. The study employs GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and analytical hierarchy process (AHP) techniques, considering ten influencing factors such as geology, rainfall, and soil texture. Weightages assigned through AHP prioritize factors like geology and lineament density. The district is classified into four GWPZs: low, moderate, high, and very high potential zones, aiding in sustainable groundwater resource management. Validation with groundwater levels from tube wells and ring wells demonstrates high reliability of the methodology. The delineation of village-wise GWPZs is crucial for water resource management and rural development planning. Overall, the study provides valuable insights for the sustainable utilization, development, and management of groundwater resources in the district.

The study titled “Combined tactic of seasonal changes and ionic processes of groundwater in Tamirabarani river basin, India” aims to develop metrics for assessing groundwater quality using a multi-proxy approach. Collecting 45 groundwater samples from the Tamirabarani river basin, the study employs spatial–temporal analysis, statistical evaluation, and hydrogeochemical analysis to evaluate suitability for agriculture and domestic use. Analysis reveals elevated concentrations of calcium (Ca) and chloride ions (Cl) in certain locations, likely due to untreated water disposal and agricultural practices. Principal component analysis indicates that the post-monsoon season accounts for the highest variance in groundwater quality. The dominant cations and anions observed are Na + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + and Cl − , HCO 3 − , SO 4 2− , NO 3 − respectively. Different types of water compositions are identified, suggesting significant degradation and salinity in the groundwater due to urban pollutants and contamination from unprotected river sites. This research provides valuable insights into groundwater quality dynamics in the Tamirabarani river basin, highlighting the need for effective management strategies to mitigate contamination and ensure sustainable water resources.

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs), widely used in various industries, pose a threat to aquatic ecosystems, but detailed understanding of their effects on organisms is lacking. The nineth paper titled “Copper oxide nanoparticles exhibit variable response against enzymatic toxicity biomarkers of Moina macrocopa ” investigates the toxic effects of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) on Moina macrocopa , an ecologically significant aquatic species. The study finds CuONPs to be severely toxic to M . macrocopa within 48 h of exposure, with a lethal value (48 h LC50) of 0.137 ± 0.002 ppm. Enzymatic toxicity biomarkers reveal varied responses of M. macrocopa to CuONPs, with significant decreases in acetyl cholinesterase and digestive enzymes (trypsin, amylase) activities and complete inhibition of β-galactosidase. Antioxidant enzymes show mixed responses, with increases in superoxide dismutase and glutathione-S-transferase activities and decreases in catalase activity. Alkaline phosphatase activity increases significantly after exposure to CuONPs. The study also observes CuONP accumulation in the gut region of M . macrocopa , altering enzyme activities. These findings highlight the sensitivity of enzymatic biomarkers in detecting CuONP toxicity in non-target crustacean species, emphasizing the need for careful monitoring of nanoparticle pollution in aquatic environments.

The tenth paper titled “Geo environmental green growth towards sustainable development in semi-arid regions using physicochemical and geospatial approaches” focuses on land suitability analysis (LSA) to promote sustainable development in semi-arid regions. Using remote sensing data, 12 thematic maps are prepared, including land use land cover (LULC), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), top soil grain size index (TGSI), geomorphology (GM), slope, and drainage density (DD). Geological and soil data are also incorporated. Physicochemical parameters like soil EC and N-P-K are assessed through fieldwork. The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is employed to generate LSA, categorizing the study area into highly, moderately, marginally suitable, and not suitable zones for agricultural green growth. GIS and multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approaches are utilized. Results indicate a significant portion of the region as not suitable for agriculture, with accuracy assessment validating the LSA map’s accuracy at 84.22%. The study’s findings offer insights into locating productive agricultural areas globally, demonstrating the efficacy of the AHP-GIS approach in decision-making for sustainable development in semi-arid regions.

The 11th paper, titled “Geospatial approaches of TGSI, and morphometric analysis in the Mahi River basin using LANDSAT 8 OLI/TIRS and SRTM-DEM” focuses on geospatial approaches for analyzing the Mahi River basin’s morphometric parameters and structurally controlled morphological terrains. Utilizing Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS and SRTM-DEM data, the study employs ArcGIS software for analysis. Morphometric analysis reveals the basin’s characteristics, such as its area and drainage pattern, highlighting significant meandering and structural disorder. Positive dependency factors like drainage density and stream frequency indicate high permeability and runoff. Topsoil grain size index (TGSI) analysis is performed using Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS and SRTM-DEM data, revealing the dominant terrain type as pediment pediplain complex (PPC), characterized by structural dominance. The study identifies structural linear features such as faults, fractures, and ridge plains within the Mahi catchment. The findings underscore the effectiveness of remote sensing data and GIS methodology in morphometric analysis, suggesting the potential use of TGSI data for basin management and hydrological studies in the future.

The 12th paper, titled “Efficacy of GIS-based AHP and data-driven intelligent machine learning algorithms for irrigation water quality prediction in an agricultural-mine district within the Lower Benue Trough, Nigeria” explores the efficacy of GIS-based analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and data-driven machine learning algorithms in predicting irrigation water quality (IWQ) in the Okurumutet-Iyamitet agricultural-mine district within the Lower Benue Trough, Nigeria. Integrating GIS, AHP, and machine learning, the study assesses IWQ suitability using six water quality criteria classified into four major hazard groups. Thematic maps based on IWQ parameters are generated, facilitating the creation of an irrigation suitability map. Results indicate that 28.2% of the area is suitable for irrigation, 43.7% is moderately suitable, and 28.1% is unsuitable, with deterioration in quality towards the central-southeastern direction. Machine learning models, including multi-layer perceptron neural networks (MLP-NNs) and multi-linear regression (MLR), are integrated to predict IWQ parameters, with MLP-NN demonstrating higher performance accuracy. Sensitivity analysis identifies key influencers on IWQ. The study underscores the effectiveness of GIS-AHP and machine learning integration in rapid decision-making for IWQ monitoring and prediction, offering insights for efficient water resource management and sustainability.

The 13th paper delves into the understanding of environmental pollution and its anthropogenic impacts during the COVID-19 period. The COVID-19 pandemic has not only posed significant health emergencies but has also led to adverse effects on the environment and human society globally. The post-pandemic scenario has witnessed a dramatic alteration in nature due to the surge in biomedical waste and other pollutants. Inadequate management of healthcare waste, chemical disinfectants, and single-use plastics has resulted in contamination of water, air, and agricultural fields, fostering the growth of disease-causing agents. The outbreak has particularly exacerbated environmental and health concerns in developing countries due to infectious waste. Plastic pollution has emerged as a transboundary menace to ecosystems and public health, with long-lasting implications. The review provides a comprehensive overview of the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on environmental pollution, public health, and natural ecosystems, highlighting both short- and long-term scenarios. It underscores the need for short-term solutions to mitigate immediate adverse effects and emphasizes the importance of long-term strategies, including proper plastic waste management, guided by scientific research and policymaking, to ensure a sustainable future. Additionally, the paper identifies crucial research gaps to enhance national disaster preparedness for future pandemics.

The 14th research paper focuses on groundwater quality assessment and health risks in the extended part of the Chhotanagpur granite gneiss complex in India. Given the widespread reliance on groundwater for drinking purposes, especially in areas facing rapid population growth, there is a pressing need to evaluate groundwater potential zones (GWPZs) and assess water quality. Using a multi-criteria decision-making model and geospatial technology, the study identifies that approximately 29% of the watershed area has good GWPZs, while 43% experiences low GWPZs. The model’s accuracy is found to be 92%. Water quality analysis reveals that 68% of samples exhibit excellent to good quality, but 24% are unsuitable for drinking due to contamination, possibly from mineral-rich weathered rocks. Notably, fluoride levels beyond the WHO’s permissible limit are found in 18% of samples, posing health risks, particularly to children. The study underscores the importance of sustainable exploration of GWPZs and emphasizes the necessity of assessing drinking water quality before consumption to mitigate health risks. Additionally, it highlights the need for continued vigilance and preventive measures to safeguard public health in such regions.

The 15th paper focuses on predicting the future water balance of the Silwani watershed in Jharkhand, India. Using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and Cellular Automata (CA)-Markov Chain model, the researchers simulated the combined impact of land use and climate change. Climate projections were based on INMCM5 model data under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway 585 (SSP585), reflecting global fossil fuel development trends. After model validation, various water balance components such as surface runoff, groundwater contribution to stream flow, and evapotranspiration (ET) were simulated. The study projected a slight increase in groundwater contribution to stream flow and a minor decrease in surface runoff between 2020 and 2030 due to anticipated changes in land use/land cover (LULC). These findings provide valuable insights for watershed planners, aiding in the formulation of conservation strategies for similar watersheds in the future.

Hydrological droughts pose significant challenges for water supply, irrigation, and hydropower generation, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of their characteristics. However, limited access to continuous streamflow records impedes such investigations. The last paper addresses this critical issue of hydrological droughts in the Narmada River Basin, India. The researchers utilized high-resolution Global Flood Awareness System (GloFAS) v3.1 streamflow data spanning from 1980 to 2020. Employing the Streamflow Drought Index (SDI) at various timescales, they characterized drought occurrences starting from June, the beginning of the water year in India. The study reveals that the basin experienced frequent hydrological droughts, with 5 to 11 drought years observed during the study period. Notably, the eastern portion of the basin, particularly the Upper Narmada Basin, exhibited higher frequencies of hydrological droughts. Trend analysis indicated increasing drying trends in the easternmost areas, while the middle and western regions, possibly influenced by numerous reservoirs and their operations, displayed different patterns. The research underscores the utility of open-access global datasets in monitoring hydrological droughts, particularly in ungauged catchments, emphasizing the importance of such tools for effective water resource management.

Adhikary PP, Shit PK, Santra P, Bhunia GS, Tiwari AK, Chaudhary BS (2021) Geostatistics and geospatial technologies for groundwater resources in India, Springer Cham, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62397-5

Shit PK, Adhikary PP, Sengupta D (2021a) Spatial modeling and assessment of environmental contaminants- risk assessment and remediation, Springer Cham, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63422-3

Shit PK, Bhunia GS, Adhikary PP, Dash C (2021b) Groundwater and society-applications of geospatial technology, Springer Cham, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64136-8

Shit PK, Bhunia GS, Adhikary PP (2022) Case studies in geospatial applications to groundwater resources, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2020-0-03556-5

Shit PK, Datta DK, Bera B, Islam A, Adhikary PP (2024a) Spatial modeling of environmental pollution and ecological risk, Elsevier, Cambridge, United States. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2021-0-02605-5

Shit PK, Dutta D, Das TK, Das S, Bhunia GS, Das P, Sahoo S (2024b) Geospatial practices in natural resources management, Springer Cham, Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38004-4

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We, the guest editors, would like to thank the Editor-in-Chief of the ESPR journal, the editorial assistant, and all the supporting staff for giving us this opportunity. We would also like to extend our sincere thanks to all the contributors and reviewers who have made this special issue possible. We hope that the papers in this special issue will inspire further research and innovation in this important field.

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Shit, P.K., Adhikary, P.P., Bera, B. et al. Resilient and sustainable water management in agriculture. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34003-4

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UMass Amherst Study Finds Clean Water Act Leaves Over Half of River Flow Vulnerable to Pollution

The Supreme Court ruled last year that rivers that only flow in response to weather events—called ephemeral streams—do not fall under the protection of the Clean Water Act. New research published in the journal  Science , led by University of Massachusetts Amherst recent doctoral graduate  Craig Brinkerhoff and co-authored by colleagues at Yale University, suggests that this now leaves many U.S. waterways vulnerable to pollution.

Consider the Connecticut River, says  Colin Gleason , Armstrong Professor of civil and environmental engineering at UMass Amherst and an author on the paper. The Connecticut has rules regulating where and what kinds of sediments, nutrients and pollutants can be dumped into the river, “and if you now just go up into the hills and dump it in a dry gully… there’s every chance it ends up in the main stem of the Connecticut that you’ve worked so hard to protect once it rains,” he explains.

While perennial streams flow continually, an ephemeral stream does not contain groundwater, so these non-perennial streams only run when they fill up with rain.

The researchers set out to determine just how much water these sometimes-dry river beds contribute to a river system’s total output.

Using hydrology models, theory and field data, the researchers built a model that identifies every ephemeral stream in the contiguous U.S. and determines the percentage of a river’s flow (for its annual average condition) that came from these ephemeral streams.

They found that, on average, ephemeral streams contribute 55% of the water that comes out of the mouth of regional river systems across the United States, but there is a strong east-west divide. River basins west of the Mississippi are more influenced by ephemeral streams than eastern rivers. For instance, 94% of the water coming out of the river systems in Black Rock Desert, Nevada, and Humboldt County, California, comes from ephemeral streams.

On a day in which every stream in the Connecticut River is flowing with its average annual condition, 59% of the water entering Long Island Sound was sourced from these ephemeral streams—a.k.a., dry gullies in the woods.

Colin Gleason, Armstrong Professor of civil and environmental engineering at UMass Amherst

This makes sense, says Brinkerhoff. “Normally, when we think about ephemeral streams, we think of dry riverbeds in the desert,” he explains. “The groundwater table is always way below the land surface.”

But the researchers were surprised to discover just how influential these ephemeral streams were on the East Coast as well: “Even on the East Coast, even in a humid place where there’s a ton of groundwater, ephemeral streams are still exerting a big influence,” Brinkerhoff continues.

Gleason points to his home watershed to illustrate this point. “On a day in which every stream in the Connecticut River is flowing with its average annual condition, 59% of the water entering Long Island Sound was sourced from these ephemeral streams—a.k.a., dry gullies in the woods,” he says.

However, these ephemeral streams are no longer regulated by the Clean Water Act (CWA). Last summer, in the case of  Sackett v. Environmental Protection Agency , a majority of the Supreme Court defined the bodies of water that fall under CWA protection as “only those relatively permanent, standing or continuously flowing bodies of water forming geographical features that are described in ordinary parlance as streams, oceans, rivers, and lakes.”

In theory, pollution in those ephemeral streams will ultimately influence water many kilometers away that is, at least nominally, still regulated by the Clean Water Act.

Craig Brinkerhoff, recent UMass Amherst doctoral graduate

“The Clean Water Act regulates where and how much we can dump into water bodies—water bodies being rivers, lakes, wetlands, reservoirs, etc.,” says Brinkerhoff. And the implications of this new research for water pollution are clear: “[Ephemeral streams are] not flowing most of the time, but then you get a big enough rainstorm and all of a sudden you’re pushing the stuff that’s been accumulating in those rivers downstream. In theory, pollution in those ephemeral streams will ultimately influence water many kilometers away that is, at least nominally, still regulated by the Clean Water Act,” he says.

Doug Kysar, Joseph M. Field ’55 Professor of Law at Yale Law School, and one of the study’s authors, says that this work helps provide a constitutional basis to include ephemeral streams in the CWA. “Water pollution is a transboundary issue that clearly implicates interstate commerce, such that Congress could regulate ephemeral streams even if they are not the kind of ‘navigable waters’ that Congress has historically exerted federal authority over.”

However, he also says that it’s more likely that this responsibility will fall to state and local governments. “The irony is that the federal Clean Water Act was adopted precisely because state and local governments were thought to be doing a poor job of protecting the nation’s waterways,” he adds. “Our research helps to explain why that would be the case, as it shows just how far downstream from an ephemeral waterway the ultimate impacts of pollution can be felt. States don’t necessarily have incentives to adopt costly water protections when the benefits will be felt by ecosystems out of state.”

One thing the researchers emphasize is that the size of the river basin used for their modeling does influence the results. The 55% figure is only true when you divide river basins into a certain size—if they had used smaller basins, the ephemeral influence would be larger, and if they used bigger basins, the influence would be less. But even using the scale they did—which is the second-largest river basin scale defined by the U.S. Geological Survey—ephemeral streams still influenced more than half of rivers’ total water output. In other words, 55% is a quite surprising finding for rivers so large, the researchers say. Previous thinking was that ephemeral streams only influence their immediate areas.

“Our study provides more concrete evidence that all of these things are connected,” says Brinkerhoff. “We can’t regulate water bodies ad hoc.”

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