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THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

• Academic Programs
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• MS Degree Requirements
• PhD Degree Requirements

Learn more about the program by visiting the Department of Physics and Astronomy

See related Interdisciplinary Clusters and Certificates

Degree Types: PhD, MS

Graduate Programs in Physics prepare students for careers in research, teaching, or industry. Students first acquire a strong theoretical background in quantum mechanics, statistical physics, electrodynamics, and classical mechanics.

Our department is particularly strong in multi-disciplinary research, with joint faculty in materials science, chemistry, and electrical engineering. Theoretical research in many fields is carried out with the aid of parallel supercomputers on campus and at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications in Champaign, Illinois. We also have strong ties to the Argonne National Laboratory, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, and ground-based observational facilities around the nation.

It is not unusual for students to conduct the bulk of their research with physicists outside the department, and in some cases outside the nation.

Additional resources:

• Department website
• Program handbook(s)

Program Statistics

Visit Master's Program Statistics for statistics such as program admissions, enrollment, student demographics and more.

Program Contact

Contact Nou Yang Graduate Program Assistant 847-491-3685

Degree Requirements

The following requirements are in addition to, or further elaborate upon, those requirements outlined in  The Graduate School Policy Guide .

Physics is a broad subject, ranging from pondering the origins of the universe to designing better electronic memory devices.

Young students and junior researchers from around the world are welcome to obtain a solid basis in the fundamentals of physics and to pursue their particular interests and professional goals at Northwestern.

The master's program in Physics is designed to meet the needs of individuals who have the interest and skills needed to learn physics but who will not spend several years in graduate school earning a doctorate. Students are meant to complete the requirements within four quarters, starting with basic "core" courses in classical mechanics, electrodynamics, quantum mechanics and statistical physics, followed by a number of elective courses drawn from many departments at Northwestern.

The keyword for the program is flexibility - students should be empowered to study what is most relevant to their goals.

For inquiries, please contact the Director of the master's program, Andrew Geraci .

Within the master's program, there are two paths to completion, called "Standard" and "Broad." They share the same core requirement.

Standard Path:

• Five core courses (see below)
• Four elective courses (see below)
• Either an in-depth reading project, or a research project, supervised by an appropriate faculty member, similar to PHYSICS 499-0 Independent Study
• Thesis to be presented for evaluation
• Should be completed by end of summer quarter

Broad Path:

• Seven elective courses (see below)

The Standard Path to the master's degree should be completed within one calendar year; the nine courses would be taken during the winter, fall and spring quarters and the master's thesis would be written during the summer. The Broad Path would be completed typically in 15 months; nine courses would be taken during the winter, fall and spring quarters, and the additional three courses would be taken in the fall quarter of the second year.

Core Courses : To be completed in fall & winter quarters

Elective Courses : At least four from this list, during spring and fall quarters.

Last Updated: September 12, 2023

MS Degree Requirements for PhD Students

Students enrolled in the Ph.D. program have the opportunity to obtain a formal master's degree as they work toward completion of the Ph.D. These requirements are as follows:

• Completion of seven core courses in the first year
• Completion of five or more elective courses in the second year
• GPA of 3.0 or higher

Total Units Required: 13

(All but electives are required for the MS degree.)

Other PhD Degree Requirements

• Examinations:  There is no longer a written qualifying exam. Should a student’s grades in the core courses fall below a 3.0, the student will be required to sit for an oral qualifier with a chosen committee.
• Research/Projects : original research project of publishable quality
• PhD Dissertation:  none specified beyond the PhD degree requirements outlined in the Current Students section of the web site
• Final Evaluations:  none specified beyond the PhD degree requirements outlined in the Current Students section of the web site

Our research explores the fundamental interactions of light and matter, including atoms, molecules, nano-scale structures, and magnetic materials. The Stern Group’s research objective is to explore the novel optical, spin, and magnetic properties of integrated nano-scale and hybrid photonic systems, focusing on the quantum interactions and collective behavior between photons and low-dimensional electronic structures. Probing a variety of systems such as single-atomic layer materials and hybrid photonic devices with diverse experimental approaches such as time-resolved spectroscopy and single-photon quantum optical detection, the Stern Group works to understand how light and matter interact on the smallest scales, with potential impact throughout the disciplines of photonics, quantum information, magnetism, materials science, and nanoscience.

Topics of Interest

Interactions of Light and Nanoscale Matter

Quantum Optics and Photonics

Low-Dimensional Heterostructures

Spins and Magnetic Nanomaterials

Chemomechanical Modification of Single Photon Emitters

2D materials are dominated by their surface, which provides access for controlling the properties of these materials in ways not possible with bulk materials. This surface presents an intriguing opportunity for modifying quantum emission of single photons from defects in the material. We explore how chemical functionalization can be combined with mechanical strain to engineer the properties of localized quantum emitters in 2D materials.

Spin Dynamics in Monochalcogenides

The ability to dynamically control spin with polarized light offers opportunities for fast, nondestructive, and magnet free control over spin information. Optical orientation of spin is an important prerequisite for spintronic phenomena and devices, and studies of layer-dependent optical excitation of spins in InSe, a III-VI monochalcogenide 2D layered material, builds the foundation for combining layer-dependent spin properties with advantageous electronic properties.

Chiral Photonics and Nanomagnetism

By studying the hybrid dynamics of magneto-exciton-polaritons, we aim to develop and expand a new platform for chiral photonics, where the spin degree of freedom of light is controlled via the optical properties of magnetic nanomaterials. By understanding the fundamentals of these spin correlated light-matter interactions we open up the possibility for new and interesting chiral photonic devices.

Lateral Confinement in 2D Semiconductors

When device dimensions are shrunk to the nanoscale, size-dependent quantum effects can materialize from the confinement of electronic wavefunctions. We are using novel fabrication techniques to create laterally-confined quantum dots and nanowires out of monolayers of transition metal dichalcogenides, thereby further manipulating the dimensionality of this class of two-dimensional materials.

Layer-Dependent Control of Electronic Properties of Two-Dimensional Semiconductors and Heterostructures

Optical and electronic properties of layered materials can be controlled by manipulating the discrete number of atomically-thin two-dimensional crystal layers. We explore how discrete changes in layer number from single atomically-thin layers to multilayers can manipulate the optical and electronic properties of layered heterostructures.

On-Chip Optical Resonators for Astrophotonics

We collaborate with Argonne National Laboratory and the Australian Astronomical Observatory to design and fabricate silicon-based photonic circuits for applications in improving sensitivity in astrophysical measurements.

Hybrid States of Light and Matter in Low-Dimensional Materials

Confining photons to small volumes can enhance light-matter interactions and lead to quantum states formed by coherent superpositions of light and matter. In the Stern Group, we explore the novel polarization properties of hybrid light-matter quasiparticles, exciton-polaritons, that arise in monolayer 2D semiconductors embedded in microcavities.

Gabrielse Research Group

In the center for fundamental physics, department of physics and astronomy, (847) 467-6678; 2145 sheridan road, evanston, il.

• Gabrielse Group Home
• Gerald Gabrielse Resume
• Publications
• Lepton Magnetic Moment
• Cavity Dark Matter
• Laser Cooling of a Hydrogen Beam
• ACME Electron EDM
• Cryocrystals for Quantum Sensing
• Investigation of a One-Electron Qubit
• ATRAP Antihydrogen Studies
• Proton and Antiproton Magnetic Moments
• Why Does Sideband Mass Spectroscopy Work?
• Comparing Q/M of the Antiproton and Proton to 9 parts in 10 11
• Methods to Slow, Trap, Electron-Cool, and Accumulate Cold Antiprotons
• Brown-Gabrielse Invariance Theorem
• Inventing Designs for Penning Traps
• Superconducting Solenoid that Shields Magnetic Field Fluctuations
• Theory of One Particle in a Penning Trap

New Measurement of the Electron Magnetic Moment: paper and colloquium by Prof. Gabrielse

One-Electron Quantum Cyclotron as a Milli-eV Dark-Photon Detector: paper and CFP colloquium by X. Fan

• Make the most precise measurements of properties of elementary particles to test the Standard Model's most precise predictions.
• Test the fundamental symmetries of the Standard Model.
• Measure where the Standard Model and its alternatives make differing predictions.

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University Research Institutes & Centers

Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration & Research in Astrophysics (CIERA)

Center for Sleep & Circadian Biology (CSCB)

Center for Synthetic Biology (CSB)

Chemistry of Life Processes Institute (CLP)

Uses precise knowledge of human proteins to defeat disease and launch the next era of precision medicine

Affiliate: Proteomics Center of Excellence (PCE)

Initiative at Northwestern for Quantum Information Research and Engineering (INQUIRE)

Institute for Innovations in Developmental Sciences (DEVSCI)

To motivate and lead transformative science to engender a “healthier, earlier” population– beginning even before birth– and continuing throughout the lifespan.

Institute for Policy Research (IPR)

Institute for Sexual & Gender Minority Health & Wellbeing (ISGMH)

Institute for the Study of Islamic Thought in Africa (ISITA)

International Institute for Nanotechnology (IIN)

Catalyzes and unites cutting-edge nanotechnology research educational programs, and supporting infrastructure

Affiliates: Convergence Science & Medicine Institute (CSMI) Ronald & JoAnne Willens Center for Nano Oncology (WCNO)

Materials Research Center (MRC)

Advances cross-disciplinary materials science research, collaboration and commercial innovation

Affiliates: Center for Scientific Studies in the Arts (NU-ACCESS) Computationally-Based Imaging of Structure in Materials (CuBISM) Materials Research Science and Engineering Center (MRSEC)

National Institute for Theory and Mathematics in Biology (NITMB)

Northwestern - Argonne Institute of Science & Engineering (NAISE)

Fosters research collaborations in energy, biological systems and national security

Affiliates: Center for Hierarchical Materials Design (CHIMAD) Northwestern Center for Water Research (NCWR)

Northwestern-Fermilab Center for Applied Physics and Superconducting Technology (CAPST)

Northwestern University Atomic & Nanoscale Characterization Experimental Center (NUANCE)

Operates a state-of-the-art analytical characterization instrumentation facility

Affiliates: Soft and Hybrid Nanotechnology Experimental Resource (SHYNE)

Northwestern University Clinical & Translational Sciences (NUCATS)

Paula M. Trienens Institute for Sustainability and Energy

Enterprise-wide Institute for global sustainability and energy research, education, and engagement

Affiliates: Center for Catalysis & Surface Science (CCSS) Center for Molecular Quantum Transduction (CMQT)

Program of African Studies (PAS)

Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics (QSIB)

Science in Society (SIS)

Simpson Querrey Institute for BioNanotechnology (SQI)

Promotes research convergence in basic science, engineering, and medicine to improve human health

Affiliates: Center for Regenerative Nanomedicine (CRN) Center for Bio-Inspired Energy Science (CBES)

Spatial Intelligence & Learning Center (SILC)

Links to School and Unit-based INSTITUTES & Centers  

Current Research

Superconductivity.

Current research on superconductivity concentrates on coherent nonlocal effects between two normal metals mediated by a superconductor, noise measurements in normal-metal/superconductor heterostructures, the interaction between ferromagnetism and superconductivity on the mesoscopic scale, and superconductivity and the proximity effect in transition metal-dichalcogenides. Read more

Epitaxial complex oxides

We are studying the properties of the interface between LaAlO 3 and SrTiO 3 , which are two band gap insulators.  The interface is found to show many interesting phenomena, including the coexistence of superconductivity and magnetism.  Our current focus is on interfaces in the (111) crystal orientation, which have properties different from the more extensively studied (001) orientation. Read more

Low temperature scanning probe microscopy

Development of a low temperature, millikelvin range, scanning probe microscope capable of doing atomic force microscopy, magnetic force microscopy and electrostatic force microscopy at temperatures down to 50 mK. Read more

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APPLIED PHYSICS GRADUATE PROGRAM Joint PhD Program Between Weinberg College and Mccormick School of Engineering

Applied physics.

Watch our video to learn more about Applied Physics at Northwestern

Program research areas, condensed matter & materials physics.

Interface science by its very nature brings together a diverse community with interests in device physics, catalysis, biomembranes, zoxide film growth, semiconductors, geochemistry, surface physics, corrosion, nanoscience, energy storage, and electrochemistry.

Engineered Quantum Systems

The fields of applied quantum physics and engineered quantum systems inspires scientists in physics and electrical engineering worldwide. At Northwestern, it unites the interests of both experimental and theoretical research groups actively investigating applications of quantum physics for a broad array of tasks.

Photonics & Optical Properties of Matter

Current research at Northwestern focuses on exploration of the optical properties of materials, imaging methods, dynamical studies of charge and chemistry, hybrid light-matter systems, nano-scale photonics, and functional quantum optical and  opto-electronic  devices.

Soft-Matter & Biophysics

Soft condensed matter physics focuses on the study of both static and dynamic properties of matter and materials at energy scales where thermal fluctuation dominates. Systems of interest include liquids, colloids, polymers, foams, gels, granular materials, and glasses, as well as a variety of biological and complex materials.

Program Highlights

About the Program

The Applied Physics Graduate Program is a hub for collaboration between 9 different departments. The program is designed to prepare graduates for professional careers in science and technology, either in academics or in industry and allow students to complete their PhD studies in five years.

For a quick overview, check out our slide presentation.

Request Program Information

How to Apply

The Program seeks students who are passionate about pursuing graduate level research in Applied Physics with a strong undergraduate background in Physics. Students typically begin research in latter part of the first year.  The deadline to apply is December 20, 2024 .

Affiliated Labs

Top Research Facilities

Many of the research programs in Applied Physics take advantage of opportunities for research at national facilities, particularly Argonne National Laboratory, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the National High Field Magnet Laboratory.

News and Events

Events overview.

• Material Science and Engineering Colloquia Schedule
• Physics and Astronomy Colloquia Schedule
• Condensed Matter Physics Seminar Schedule

All Applied Physics Events

News and Announcements

The applied physics program celebrates the end of the academic year and its most recent graduates, brain’s structure hangs in ‘a delicate balance’, physics confirms that the enemy of your enemy is, indeed, your friend, advancing quantum leadership and community.

Research Areas

Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics

Material Informatics & Data Science

Material Synthesis

Molecular Approaches to Quantum Information Science and Engineering

Nanoscale Characterization

Superconducting Technologies

• Opportunities

Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA) logo

Nsf sponsored summer program for interdisciplinary astrophysics research, research experiences for undergraduates (reu).

Our Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) program provides students with the opportunity to pursue an astrophysics-based interdisciplinary research project in collaboration with Northwestern University faculty in:

• Applied Math
• Earth and Planetary Science (EPS)
• Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (CS)
• and/or Physics.

The program includes computer programming and science communication workshops, research talks, educational excursions, and a $5400 stipend (over nine weeks).

VIEW ALL SPEAKERS

Related News

Two REU students win American Astronomical Society Chambliss Awards

CIERA REU students present at 243rd meeting of the AAS

21 undergraduates conduct summer research with REU and ISG

REU Student Claire Zwicker Wins Chambliss Honorable Mention for Research Poster at AAS

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Undergraduate   /   Research Opportunities Summer Research Programs

All of the summer research programs on this page are well established and typically include a stipend.

Application due dates are early (from November to February) and enrollment is fairly competitive. Be sure to start your applications early.

Although some program names may imply a required specialization, many programs are interdisciplinary and accept students from a wide range of backgrounds. 

Program details change frequently so be sure to double check each program's website for more information.

For more information and general advice, consider participating in our Peer Advising in Research program, where you can talk to experienced undergraduate researchers in various fields.

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Northwestern Summer Research Programs

Non-northwestern summer research programs, study abroad summer research programs.

These programs are open to any eligible college undergraduate. Some Northwestern students have enrolled in these programs, but most Northwestern students doing summer research at NU go through a more informal process of approaching individual professors .

Paid Research Opportunities at NU Physical Sciences-Oncology Center

The NU Physical Sciences-Oncology Center is funded by the National Cancer Institute and uses physical sciences-based approaches to understand the molecular changes leading to cancer. The 8-week program includes hands-on laboratory research, weekly seminars in tumor biology, and two two-day workshops.

Materials Research Science and Engineering Center (MRSEC)

Applicants work under a Center faculty on an available project that best matches the student’s research interests. Research topics include polymers and polymer nanocomposites, multifunctional metal oxides, nanowires and molecular electronics, biologically relevant materials, art conservation, device fabrication, and computational modeling. This is an REU program.

Summer Research Opportunity (SROP)

The mission of SROP has been to increase diversity among students pursuing graduate education and to provide a valuable academic research experience for many students who might not otherwise have access to such opportunities. Each student selected to participate in the program will work with a faculty member in the student's area of interest. An Early Admission Decision Program exists, and course credit is available.

Continuing Umbrella of Research Experience (CURE)

CURE gives underserved college students the opportunity to work alongside top cancer researchers at the Lurie Comprehensive Research Center in downtown Chicago.

McCormick Summer Research Awards

McCormick recognizes and encourages excellence in undergraduate research by holding a competition for awards of up to $5,000 each for qualifying undergraduate summer research.

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The details and application requirements for summer research programs change frequently. Please contact the McCormick Office of Undergraduate Engineering to learn about current opportunities for summer research outside of Northwestern.

You can also take advantage of McCormick's  Peer Advising in Research  program to get more information about recent student experiences doing summer research. 

DAAD (Germany) - Research Internships in Science and Engineering (RISE)

RISE is a summer internship program for undergraduate students from the United States, Canada, and the UK, in the fields of biology, chemistry, physics, earth sciences and engineering to do research in top universities/institutions across Germany. DAAD provides various kinds of scholarships to intern and do research in Germany. Most of the scholarships are for summer period, but some allow three-month or year-long internships. Check eligibility requirements carefully.

The ThinkSwiss Research Scholarships

A scholarship offered through a program facilitated by the Swiss Embassy. Undergraduates and graduate applicants across the US compete for 15 research scholarships, to help support their research at a Swiss university. Applicants need to be accepted to a laboratory/research center in Switzerland prior to their application.

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Contact Info

Wesley Burghardt Associate Dean for Undergraduate Engineering

McCormick Office of Undergraduate Engineering Phone: 847-491-7379 Fax: 847-491-5341 Email Undergraduate Engineering

• IPR Intranet

INSTITUTE FOR POLICY RESEARCH

Faculty spotlight: eli finkel.

IPR social psychologist’s research sits at the intersection of relationships and politics

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With this sort of confusion that I had when I was looking at politics, I started to realize that we have created—Democrats and Republicans, for example—the most toxic marriage I can fathom.”

Eli Finkel IPR social psychologist

From a young age, IPR social psychologist Eli Finkel pursued a “life of the mind,” driven by curiosity. While studying social psychology as a Northwestern undergraduate, he quickly discovered his primary interest: relationships.

“Why is an individual attracted to one partner but not another? Why do some relationships end in divorce and others end up happily ever after?” Finkel said. “Those sorts of questions were extremely interesting to me, just like I think they’re interesting to most people.”

Until 2018, Finkel’s research primarily focused on romantic relationships, including initial attraction, marital dynamics, and the pursuit of shared goals. His book, the highly lauded The All-or-Nothing Marriage: How the Best Marriages Work (2017), delved into his research on the institution of marriage over time, finding that the best marriages of today are better than the best ones of the past.  

The same curiosity that led him to study relationships also guided him to a seemingly unrelated field: politics.

American Partisans: ‘The Most Toxic Marriage I Can Fathom’

Finkel, like many, was always politically aware, but considered it a hobby. That all changed with Brett Kavanaugh’s confirmation hearings to become a Supreme Court justice in July 2018. He watched, transfixed and disturbed, at the Rashomon -like scene as Kavanaugh and Christine Blasey Ford provided irreconcilable testimony before Congress regarding her accusation that he had sexually assaulted her in high school.  

Among the alarming conclusions Finkel drew from this event is that the addition of so much new information barely changed anyone’s mind. Gallup polling conducted before and after the hearing showed the share of people with an opinion on the matter grew, but the gap in percentages of those for and against Kavanaugh’s confirmation remained virtually unchanged—and Democrats and Republicans remained highly polarized in their views.

Finkel felt that America was split between two realities. “I started to think, ‘I don't know if there's a future for my nation,’” he said. “‘I think we're driving off a cliff and I don't know where the off-ramps are.’”

The concern he felt following the hearing served as a catalyst for Finkel. He saw all-too-familiar patterns: The deep divide between Democrats and Republicans looked to him like a dysfunctional marriage—filled with contempt, negative interpretations, and isolation from opposing views. It pushed Finkel to take his experience in relationship science and apply it to politics.  

"With this sort of confusion that I had when I was looking at politics, I started to realize that we have created—Democrats and Republicans, for example—the most toxic marriage I can fathom,” he said.

In Science , Finkel and his co-authors, including IPR political scientist Mary McGrath , review evidence that the level of hatred partisan Americans feel toward their political opponents far exceeds their level of disagreement on policy. “This is the sort of thing that you see in corrosive marriages,” he said. “The sort of fights that, from an external perspective, you might say, ‘I don't really see why that was such a big deal,’ become sources of absolute, extreme moral outrage.”  

Such misperceptions apply well beyond the domain of policy. Finkel’s research shows that Americans have convinced themselves that those in the other major party hold values that oppose their own, whereas the opposite is true. Americans are “fighting phantoms,” as Finkel puts it. “They have created demons in their heads and are doing battle against those demons rather than engaging in partisan competition against the people who actually exist,” Finkel said.

Such misconceptions, Finkel said, are fueled by the news media and social media. In a study with Northwestern postdoctoral scholar in psychology Michalis Mamakos (PhD, 2023), he found that comments by politically engaged Reddit users are toxic even if they are not discussing politics. “This suggests that the most toxic people are especially likely to opt in to political discourse,” Finkel explained, which makes the public sphere unwelcoming for the rest of us.

Free Speech on Campus: Finding the Right Fault Line 

Finkel criticizes the prevailing either/or debate on free speech, especially on campuses , in which the question becomes, do you prioritize the First Amendment—or do you protect individuals from harmful speech?

"I think that’s the wrong fault line," Finkel said. “It ignores the people who are on the periphery who might enter the public sphere, who might enter the debate, but are prevented from doing so because the most aggressive voices turn the public sphere into the Thunderdome."

Instead, Finkel sees a need for an expansive approach to talking about important ideas, even potentially hurtful ones, while rejecting harmful ways of communicating such ideas.  

"We shouldn't get to communicate in a way that prevents other people from joining us," he stated.  

In February, Northwestern President Michael Schill appointed Finkel to a committee of 11 distinguished senior faculty members tasked with examining the issues of free expression and institutional speech. Finkel underscores the importance of respectful, open dialogue and thoughtful discussion to bridge divides. "I really do value the classic idea that we resolve things through debate and discussion," he said.

That same belief led him to launch the Center for Enlightened Disagreement at the Kellogg School of Management with his colleague Nour Kteily, professor of management and organizations and co-director of Kellogg’s Dispute Resolution Research Center.  

“ We’re not shying away from disagreement. Nobody wants a one-party state. Let's find where the actual disagreement is and lean into it,” he said. “I don't want to have people so polite, that they just pretend to get along with everybody and probably just reinforce whatever the status quo is. I want to have serious, intense, robust disagreement.”

The center is built on research, outreach, and curriculum development and will serve as a hub for discussion. It aims to harness the positive aspects of disagreement while reducing its negative aspects, such as false disagreements and unwillingness to listen. The goal is to identify and address conflicts openly and constructively, rather than letting them become corrosive.  

“We want to be a place where people from all walks of life can take disagreement and make goodness out of it rather than toxicity,” he said.

Eli Finkel is professor of psychology and management and organizations and a Morton O. Schapiro IPR fellow.

Published: August 15, 2024.

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Fighting coastal erosion with electricity

• Sustainability

New research from Northwestern University has systematically proven that a mild zap of electricity can strengthen a marine coastline for generations — greatly reducing the threat of erosion in the face of climate change and rising sea levels.

In the new study, researchers took inspiration from clams, mussels and other shell-dwelling sea life, which use dissolved minerals in seawater to build their shells.

Similarly, the researchers leveraged the same naturally occurring, dissolved minerals to form a natural cement between sea-soaked grains of sand. But, instead of using metabolic energy like mollusks do, the researchers used electrical energy to spur the chemical reaction.

In laboratory experiments, a mild electrical current instantaneously changed the structure of marine sand, transforming it into a rock-like, immoveable solid. The researchers are hopeful this strategy could offer a lasting, inexpensive and sustainable solution for strengthening global coastlines.

The study was published in the journal Communications Earth and the Environment, a journal published by Nature Portfolio.

“Over 40% of the world’s population lives in coastal areas,” said Northwestern’s Alessandro Rotta Loria , who led the study. “Because of climate change and sea-level rise, erosion is an enormous threat to these communities. Through the disintegration of infrastructure and loss of land, erosion causes billions of dollars in damage per year worldwide. Current approaches to mitigate erosion involve building protection structures or injecting external binders into the subsurface.

Nearly 26% of the Earth’s beaches will be washed away by the end of this century, a 2020 study finds.

“My aim was to develop an approach capable of changing the status quo in coastal protection — one that didn’t require the construction of protection structures and could cement marine substrates without using actual cement. By applying a mild electric stimulation to marine soils, we systematically and mechanistically proved that it is possible to cement them by turning naturally dissolved minerals in seawater into solid mineral binders — a natural cement.”

Rotta Loria is the Louis Berger Assistant Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Northwestern’s McCormick School of Engineering . Andony Landivar Macias, a former Ph.D. candidate in Rotta Loria’s laboratory , is the paper’s first author. Steven Jacobsen , a mineralogist and professor of Earth and planetary sciences in Northwestern’s Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences , also co-authored the study.

Sea walls, too, erode

From intensifying rainstorms to rising sea levels, climate change has created conditions that are gradually eroding coastlines. According to a 2020 study by the European commission’s Joint Research Centre, nearly 26% of the Earth’s beaches will be washed away by the end of this century.

To mitigate this issue, communities have implemented two main approaches: building protection structures and barriers, such as sea walls, or injecting cement into the ground to strengthen marine substrates, widely consisting of sand. But multiple problems accompany these strategies. Not only are these conventional methods extremely expensive, they also do not last.

“Sea walls, too, suffer from erosion,” Rotta Loria said. “So, over time, the sand beneath these walls erodes, and the walls can eventually collapse. Oftentimes, protection structures are made of big stones, which cost millions of dollars per mile. However, the sand beneath them can essentially liquify because of a number of environmental stressors, and these big rocks are swallowed by the ground beneath them.

“Injecting cement and other binders into the ground has a number of irreversible environmental drawbacks. It also typically requires high pressures and significant interconnected amounts of energy.”

Turning ions into glue

To bypass these issues, Rotta Loria and his team developed a simpler technique, inspired by coral and mollusks. Seawater naturally contains a myriad of ions and dissolved minerals. When a mild electrical current (2 to 3 volts) is applied to the water, it triggers chemical reactions. This converts some of these constituents into solid calcium carbonate — the same mineral mollusks use to build their shells. Likewise, with a slightly higher voltage (4 volts), these constituents can be predominantly converted into magnesium hydroxide and hydromagnesite, a ubiquitous mineral found in various stones.

When these minerals coalesce in the presence of sand, they act like a glue, binding the sand particles together. In the laboratory, the process also worked with all types of sands — from common silica and calcareous sands to iron sands, which are often found near volcanoes.

“After being treated, the sand looks like a rock,” Rotta Loria said. “It is still and solid, instead of granular and incohesive. The minerals themselves are much stronger than concrete, so the resulting sand could become as strong and solid as a sea wall.”

While the minerals form instantaneously after the current is applied, longer electric stimulations garner more substantial results. “We have noticed remarkable outcomes from just a few days of stimulations,” Rotta Loria said. “Then, the treated sand should stay in place, without needing further interventions.”

Ecofriendly and reversible

Rotta Loria predicts the treated sand should keep its durability, protecting coastlines and property for decades.

Rotta Loria also says there is no need to worry negative effects on sea life. The voltages used in the process are too mild to feel. Other researchers have used similar processes to strengthen undersea structures or even restore coral reefs. In those scenarios, no sea critters were harmed.

And, if communities decide they no longer want the solidified sand, Rotta Loria has a solution for that, too, as the process is completely reversible. When the battery’s anode and cathode electrodes are switched, the electricity dissolves the minerals — effectively undoing the process.

“The minerals form because we are locally raising the pH of the seawater around cathodic interfaces,” Rotta Loria said. “If you switch the anode with the cathode, then localized reductions in pH are involved, which dissolve the previously precipitated minerals.”

Competitive cost, countless applications

The process offers an inexpensive alternative to conventional methods. After crunching the numbers, Rotta Loria’s team estimates that his process costs just $3 to $6 per cubic meter of electrically cemented ground. More established, comparable methods, which use binders to adhere and strengthen sand, cost up to $70 for the same unit volume.

Research in Rotta Loria’s lab shows this approach also can heal cracked structures made of reinforced concrete. Much of the existing shoreside infrastructure is made of reinforced concrete, which disintegrates due to complex effects caused by sea-level rise, erosion and extreme weather. And if these structures crack, the new approach bypasses the need to fully rebuild the infrastructure. Instead, one pulse of electricity can heal potentially destructive cracks.

“The applications of this approach are countless,” Rotta Loria said. “We can use it to strengthen the seabed beneath sea walls or stabilize sand dunes and retain unstable soil slopes. We could also use it to strengthen protection structures, marine foundations and so many other things. There are many ways to apply this to protect coastal areas.”

Next, Rotta Loria’s team plans to test the technique outside of the laboratory and on the beach.

The study, “Electrodeposition of calcareous cement from seawater in marine silica sands,” was supported by the Army Research Office and Northwestern’s Center for Engineering Sustainability and Resilience .

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Kitaev physics in the two-dimensional magnet NiPSe 3

Cheng peng, sougata mardanya, alexander n. petsch, vineet kumar sharma, shuyi li, chunjing jia, arun bansil, sugata chowdhury, and joshua j. turner, phys. rev. research 6 , 033206 – published 22 august 2024.

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The Kitaev interaction, found in candidate materials such as α − RuCl 3 , occurs through the metal ( M )-ligand ( X )-metal ( M ) paths of the edge-sharing octahedra because the large spin-orbit coupling (SOC) on the metal atoms activates directional spin interactions. Here, we show that even in 3 d transition-metal compounds, where the SOC of the metal atom is negligible, heavy ligands can induce bond-dependent Kitaev interactions. In this work, we take as an example the 3 d transition-metal chalcogenophosphate NiPSe 3 and show that the key is found in the presence of a sizable SOC on the Se p orbital, one which mediates the super-exchange between the nearest-neighbor Ni sites. Our study provides a pathway for engineering enhanced Kitaev interactions through the interplay of SOC strength, lattice distortions, and chemical substitutions.

• Received 14 March 2024
• Revised 24 June 2024
• Accepted 1 August 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033206

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

Published by the American Physical Society

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• Physical Systems

Authors & Affiliations

• 1 Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory , Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
• 2 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Howard University , Washington DC 20059, USA
• 3 Linac Coherent Light Source , SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory , Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
• 4 Department of Physics, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
• 5 Department of Physics, Northeastern University , Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
• 6 Quantum Materials and Sensing Institute, Northeastern University , Burlington, Massachusetts 01803, USA
• * These authors contributed equally to this work.
• † Contact author: [email protected]
• ‡ Contact author: [email protected]

Article Text

Vol. 6, Iss. 3 — August - October 2024

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• Condensed Matter Physics

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(a) Lattice structure of a single NiPSe 3 layer viewed along c * , which is perpendicular to the a b plane. Ni atoms are positioned at the centers of the octahedral cages, and the edge-sharing octahedra form the honeycomb lattice of Ni. (b) The global coordinate axes { x ⃗ , y ⃗ , z ⃗ } and the spin superexchange paths for nearest-neighbor Ni atoms are indicated by gray ( y z plane), orange ( z x plane), and yellow ( x y plane) markers. The second- and third-neighbor Ni atoms are shown linked with blue dashed and black solid lines, respectively. (c)  3 d orbitals of Ni atoms with fully filled t 2 g orbitals in the bottom row and half-filled e g orbitals in the top row, which are aligned in accord with the global coordinate axis { x ⃗ , y ⃗ , z ⃗ } .

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