social science definition essay

Communication

What is a Social Science Essay?

[Ed. – We present this article, adapted from a chapter of Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide , as a resource for Academic Writing Month.]

There are different types of social science essay, and essays of different lengths require slightly different approaches (these will be addressed later). However, all social science essays share a basic structure which is common to many academic subject areas. At its simplest, a social science essay looks something like this:

Title | Every essay should begin with the title written out in full. In some cases this will simply be the set question or statement for discussion.

Introduction | The introduction tells the reader what the essay is about.

Main section | The main section, or ‘body’, of the essay develops the key points of the argument in a ‘logical progression’. It uses evidence from research studies (empirical evidence) and theoretical arguments to support these points.

Conclusion | The conclusion reassesses the arguments presented in the main section in order to make a final statement in answer to the question.

List of references | This lists full details of the publications referred to in the text.

What is distinctive about a social science essay?

As you are no doubt aware, essay writing is a common feature of undergraduate study in many different subjects. What, then, is distinctive about essay writing in the social sciences? There are particular features that characterize social science essays and that relate to what is called the epistemological underpinning of work in this area (that is, to ideas about what constitutes valid social scientific knowledge and where this comes from). Among the most important of these characteristics are:

• the requirement that you support arguments with evidence, particularly evidence that is the product of systematic and rigorous research;

• the use of theory to build explanations about how the social world works.

Evidence is important in social scientific writing because it is used to support or query beliefs, propositions or hypotheses about the social world. Let’s take an example. A social scientist may ask: ‘Does prison work?’ This forms an initial question, but one that is too vague to explore as it stands. (This question might be about whether prison ‘works’ for offenders, in terms of providing rehabilitation, or re-education; or it might be about whether it ‘works’ for victims of crime who may wish to see retribution – or any number of other issues.) To answer the question in mind, the social scientist will need to formulate a more specific claim, one that can be systematically and rigorously explored. Such a claim could be formulated in the following terms:

‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of subsequent reoffending’. This claim can now be subjected to systematic research. In other words, the social scientist will gather evidence for and against this claim, evidence that she or he will seek to interpret or evaluate. This process of evaluation will tend to support or refute the original claim, but it may be inconclusive, and/or it may generate further questions. Together, these processes of enquiry can be described as forming a ‘circuit of social scientific knowledge’. This circuit can be represented as in this figure.

Undergraduates may sometimes be asked to conduct their own small-scale research, for instance a small number of interviews, or some content analysis. However, the focus of social science study at undergraduate level, and particularly in the first two years of study, will be largely on the research of others. Generally, in preparing for writing your essays, the expectation will be that you will identify and evaluate evidence from existing research findings. However, the principle holds good: in writing social science essays you will need to find evidence for and against any claim, and you will need to evaluate that evidence.

Theory is important in social scientific writing because the theoretical orientation of the social scientist will tend to inform the types of question she or he asks, the specific claims tested, the ways in which evidence is identified and gathered, and the manner in which this evidence is interpreted and evaluated. In other words, the theoretical orientation of the social scientist is liable to impact upon the forms of knowledge she or he will produce.

Take, for example, the research question we asked above: ‘Does prison work?’ A pragmatic, policy-oriented social scientist may seek to answer this question by formulating a specific claim of the sort we identified, ‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of reoffending’. She or he may then gather evidence of reoffending rates among matched groups of convicted criminals, comparing those who were imprisoned with those who were given an alternative punishment such as forms of community service. Evidence that imprisonment did not produce significantly lower rates of reoffending than punishment in the community may then be interpreted as suggesting that prison does not work, or that it works only up to a point. However, another social scientist might look at the same research findings and come to a different conclusion, perhaps that the apparent failure of prison to reduce reoffending demonstrates that its primary purpose lies elsewhere. Indeed, more ‘critically’ oriented social scientists (for example, those informed by Marxism or the work of Michel Foucault) have sought to argue that the growth of prisons in the nineteenth century was part of wider social attempts to ‘discipline’, in particular, the working class.

The issue here is not whether these more ‘critical’ arguments are right or wrong but that a social scientist’s theoretical orientation will inform how she or he evaluates the available evidence. In fact, it is likely that a ‘critical’ social scientist of this sort would even have formulated a different research ‘claim’. For example, rather than seeking to test the claim, ‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of reoffending’, the critical social scientist might have sought to test the proposition, ‘Prisons are part of wider social strategies that aim to produce “disciplined” subjects’. The point for you to take away from this discussion is, then, that the theories we use shape the forms of social scientific knowledge we produce (see Figure 2).

There is considerable debate within the social sciences about the exact relationship between theory and evidence. To simplify somewhat, some social scientists tend to argue that evidence can be used to support or invalidate the claims investigated by research and thereby produce theoretical accounts of the social world that are more or less accurate. Other social scientists will tend to argue that our theoretical orientations (and the value judgements and taken-for-granted assumptions that they contain) shape the processes of social scientific enquiry itself, such that we can never claim to produce a straightforwardly ‘accurate’ account of the social world. Instead, they suggest that social scientific knowledge is always produced from a particular standpoint and will inevitably reflect its assumptions.

What you need to grasp is that essay writing in the social sciences is distinguished by its emphasis on: the use of researched evidence to support arguments and on theory as central to the process by which we build accounts of social worlds. Your own writing will need to engage with both elements.

Common errors in essays

Having identified what distinguishes a social science essay we can return to the more practical task of how to write one. This process is elaborated in the chapters that follow, but before getting into the details of this, we should think about what commonly goes wrong in essay writing.

Perhaps the most common mistakes in essay writing, all of which can have an impact on your marks, are:

• failure to answer the question;

• failure to write using your own words;

• poor use of social scientific skills (such as handling theory and evidence);

• poor structure;

• poor grammar, punctuation and spelling; and

• failure to observe the word limit (where this is specified).

Failing to answer the question sounds easy enough to avoid, but you might be surprised how easy it is to write a good answer to the wrong question. Most obviously, there is always the risk of misreading the question. However, it is frequently the case that questions will ‘index’ a wider debate and will want you to review and engage with this. Thus, you need to avoid the danger of understanding the question but failing to connect it to the debate and the body of literature to which the question refers. Equally, particularly on more advanced undergraduate courses, you are likely to be asked to work from an increasing range of sources. The dangers here include failing to select the most relevant material and failing to organize the material you have selected in a way that best fits the question. Therefore, make sure that you take time to read the question properly to ensure that you understand what is being asked. Next, think carefully about whether there is a debate that ‘lies behind’ the question. Then be sure to identify the material that addresses the question most fully.

Writing in your own words is crucial because this is the best way in which you can come to understand a topic, and the only way of demonstrating this understanding to your tutor. The important point to remember is that if you do plagiarize, your essay risks receiving a fail grade, and if you plagiarize repeatedly you risk further sanctions. You must therefore always put arguments in your own words except when you are quoting someone directly (in which case you must use the appropriate referencing conventions). The positive side of what might seem like a draconian rule is that you will remember better what you have put in your own words. This ensures that you will have the fullest possible understanding of your course. If there is an end-of-course exam, such an understanding will be a real asset.

Social science essays also need to demonstrate an effective use of social scientific skills. Perhaps the most obvious of these skills is the ability to deploy theory and evidence in an appropriate manner (as you saw in the previous section, this is what distinguishes social scientific essay writing). However, particularly as you move on to more advanced undergraduate courses, you should also keep in mind the need to demonstrate such things as confidence in handling social scientific concepts and vocabulary; an awareness of major debates, approaches and figures in your field; the ability to evaluate competing arguments; and an awareness of potential uncertainty, ambiguity and the limits of knowledge in your subject. These are important because they indicate your ability to work creatively with the tools of the social scientist’s trade.

An effective structure is important and pragmatic because it helps the person who marks your essay to understand what is going on. By contrast, a list of unconnected ideas and examples is likely to confuse, and will certainly fail to impress. The simplest way to avoid this is to follow the kind of essay writing conventions briefly outlined above and discussed in later chapters of this guide. Chapter 8, on the main body of the essay, is particularly relevant here, but you will also need to keep in mind the importance of a well-written introduction and conclusion to an effectively structured argument.

The ability to spell, punctuate and use grammar correctly is, generally speaking, something you are expected to have mastered prior to embarking on a degree-level course. This is really a matter of effective communication. While it is the content of your essay that will win you the most marks, you need to be able spell, punctuate and use grammar effectively in order to communicate what you have to say. Major problems in this area will inevitably hold down your marks, so if this is an issue in your work, it will be a good idea to seek further help.

Finally, observing the word limit is important – and, as you probably realize, more difficult than it sounds. The simplest advice is always to check whether there is a word limit and what this is, and then to be ruthless with yourself, focusing only on the material that is most pertinent to the question. If you find that you have written more words than is allowed, you will need to check for irrelevant discussions, examples, or even wordy sentence construction. Too few words may indicate that you haven’t provided the depth of discussion required, or that you have omitted essential points or evidence.

In the light of the above, we can identify four golden rules for effective social scientific essay writing.

Rule 1: Answer the question that is asked.

Rule 2: Write your answer in your own words.

Rule 3: Think about the content of your essay, being sure to demonstrate good social scientific skills.

Rule 4: Think about the structure of your essay, being sure to demonstrate good writing skills, and observing any word limit.

Why an essay is not a report, newspaper article or an exam answer

This section has mainly focused on what is distinctive about a social science essay, but there is something distinctive about essays in general that is worth keeping in mind. Many students come from professional backgrounds where report writing is a common form of communication. For other students a main source of information is newspapers or online websites. These are all legitimate forms of writing that serve useful purposes – but, apart from some of the content on academic websites, they just aren’t essays. There are exam conventions that make exam writing – even ‘essay style’ exams – different from essay writing.

In part, this is to do with ‘academic register’ or ‘voice’. Part of what you will develop as you become a stronger essay writer is a ‘voice’ that is your own, but that conforms to the conventions of academic practice. For social scientists, as we have noted above, this practice includes the use of evidence to support an argument and providing references that show where your ideas and evidence have come from. It also includes the ability to write with some confidence, using the vernacular – or language – of your subject area. Different forms of writing serve different purposes. The main purpose of academic writing is to develop and share knowledge and understanding. In some academic journals this can take the form of boisterous debate, with different academics fully and carefully defending, or arguing for, one position or another. For students of social science, however, there may be less at stake, but essays should nevertheless demonstrate knowledge and understanding of a particular issue or area. Conforming to some basic conventions around how to present ideas and arguments, helps us more easily to compare those ideas, just as conforming to the rules of a game makes it easier for one sports team to play against another: if one team is playing cricket and the other baseball, we will find there are similarities (both use bats, have innings, make runs), but there will also be lots of awkward differences. In the end, neither the players nor the spectators are likely to find it a very edifying experience. The following looks at other forms of serious writing that you may be familiar with, but that just aren’t cricket.

Report writing

Reports take a variety of forms, but typically involve: an up-front ‘executive summary’, a series of discussions, usually with numbered headings and subheadings. They are also likely to include ‘bullet points’ that capture an idea or argument in a succinct way. Professional reports may include evidence, arguments, recommendations and references. You may already have spotted some of the similarities with essays – and the crucial differences. Let’s begin with the similarities. Reports and essays both involve discussion, the use of evidence to support (or refute) a claim or argument, and a list of references. Both will have an introductory section, a main body and a conclusion. However, the differences are important. With the exception of very long essays (dissertations and the like), essays do not generally have numbered headings and subheadings. Nor do they have bullet points. They also don’t have executive summaries. And, with some notable exceptions (such as essays around areas of social policy perhaps), social science essays don’t usually require you to produce policy recommendations. The differences are significant, and are as much about style as they are about substance.

Journalistic writing

For many students, journalistic styles of writing are most familiar. Catchy headlines (or ‘titles’) are appealing, and newspapers’ to-the-point presentation may make for easier reading. News stories, however, follow a different set of requirements to essays – a different set of ‘golden rules’. In general, newspaper and website news articles foreground the ‘who, what, where, when and why’ of a story in the first paragraph. The most important information is despatched immediately, with the assumption that all readers will read the headline, most readers will read the first paragraph, and dwindling numbers will read the remainder of the article. Everyday newspaper articles often finish with a ‘whimper’ for this reason, and there may be no attempt to summarize findings or provide a conclusion at the end – that’s not the role of news journalists. (Though there is quite a different set of rules for ‘Op Ed’ or opinion pieces.) Student essays, by contrast, should be structured to be read from beginning to end. The introduction should serve to ‘outline’ or ‘signpost’ the main body of the essay, rather than cover everything in one fell swoop; the main body should proceed with a clear, coherent and logical argument that builds throughout; and the essay should end with a conclusion that ties the essay together.

Exam writing

Again, exam writing has similarities and differences with essay writing. Perhaps the main differences are these: under exam conditions, it is understood that you are writing at speed and that you may not communicate as effectively as in a planned essay; you will generally not be expected to provide references (though you may be expected to link clearly authors and ideas). Longer exam answers will need to include a short introduction and a conclusion, while short answers may omit these. Indeed, very short answers may not resemble essays at all as they may focus on factual knowledge or very brief points of comparison.

Peter Redman and Wendy Maples

Peter Redman is a senior lecturer in sociology at The Open University. With Stephen Frosh and Wendy Hollway, he edit the Palgrave book series, Studies in the Psychosocial and is a former editor of the journal, Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society . Academic consultant Wendy Maples is a research assistant in anthropology at the University of Sussex. Together they co-authored Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide (Sage, 2017) now in its fifth edition.

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Mixed Methods As A Tool To Research Self-Reported Outcomes From Diverse Treatments Among People With Multiple Sclerosis

What does heritage mean to you?

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SAGE Publishing — the parent of Social Science Space – will hold its Third Annual Critical Thinking Bootcamp on August 9. Leaning more and register here

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On Friday, April 23rd, join the Population Association of America and the Association of Population Centers for a virtual congressional briefing. The […]

Connecting Legislators and Researchers, Leads to Policies Based on Scientific Evidence

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Involving patients – or abandoning them?

The Covid-19 pandemic seems to be subsiding into a low-level endemic respiratory infection – although the associated pandemics of fear and action […]

Public Policy

Jane M. Simoni Named New Head of OBSSR

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Canada’s Federation For Humanities and Social Sciences Welcomes New Board Members

Annie Pilote, dean of the faculty of graduate and postdoctoral studies at the Université Laval, was named chair of the Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences at its 2023 virtual annual meeting last month. Members also elected Debra Thompson as a new director on the board.

Britain’s Academy of Social Sciences Names Spring 2024 Fellows

Forty-one leading social scientists have been named to the Spring 2024 cohort of fellows for Britain’s Academy of Social Sciences.

National Academies Looks at How to Reduce Racial Inequality In Criminal Justice System

To address racial and ethnic inequalities in the U.S. criminal justice system, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine just released “Reducing Racial Inequality in Crime and Justice: Science, Practice and Policy.”

Survey Examines Global Status Of Political Science Profession

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Report: Latest Academic Freedom Index Sees Global Declines

The latest update of the global Academic Freedom Index finds improvements in only five countries

The Risks Of Using Research-Based Evidence In Policymaking

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Surveys Provide Insight Into Three Factors That Encourage Open Data and Science

Over a 10-year period Carol Tenopir of DataONE and her team conducted a global survey of scientists, managers and government workers involved in broad environmental science activities about their willingness to share data and their opinion of the resources available to do so (Tenopir et al., 2011, 2015, 2018, 2020). Comparing the responses over that time shows a general increase in the willingness to share data (and thus engage in Open Science).

Unskilled But Aware: Rethinking The Dunning-Kruger Effect

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Coping with Institutional Complexity and Voids: An Organization Design Perspective for Transnational Interorganizational Projects

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Hype Terms In Research: Words Exaggerating Results Undermine Findings

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Five Steps to Protect – and to Hear – Research Participants

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New Tool Promotes Responsible Hiring, Promotion, and Tenure in Research Institutions

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Safiya Noble on Search Engines

In an age where things like facial recognition or financial software algorithms are shown to uncannily reproduce the prejudices of their creators, this was much less obvious earlier in the century, when researchers like Safiya Umoja Noble were dissecting search engine results and revealing the sometimes appalling material they were highlighting.

Gamification as an Effective Instructional Strategy

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Immigration Court’s Active Backlog Surpasses One Million

In the first post from a series of bulletins on public data that social and behavioral scientists might be interested in, Gary Price links to an analysis from the Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse.

Webinar Discusses Promoting Your Article

The next in SAGE Publishing’s How to Get Published webinar series focuses on promoting your writing after publication. The free webinar is set for November 16 at 4 p.m. BT/11 a.m. ET/8 a.m. PT.

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New Dataset Collects Instances of ‘Contentious Politics’ Around the World

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Watch The Lecture: The ‘E’ In Science Stands For Equity

According to the National Science Foundation, the percentage of American adults with a great deal of trust in the scientific community dropped […]

Watch a Social Scientist Reflect on the Russian Invasion of Ukraine

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Research impact will be the focus of a new webinar series from Epigeum, which provides online courses for universities and colleges. The […]

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• Can We Trust the World Health Organization with So Much Power?
• Melissa Kearney on Marriage and Children
• Raffaella Sadun on Effective Management

What is Social Science?

• What are the social sciences and why do they matter?

Social science is the study of people: as individuals, communities and societies; their behaviours and interactions with each other and with their built, technological and natural environments. Social science seeks to understand the evolving human systems across our increasingly complex world and how our planet can be more sustainably managed. It’s vital to our shared future.

Social science includes many different areas of study, such as how people they organise and govern themselves, and broker power and international relations; how wealth is generated, economies develop, and economic futures are modelled;  how business works and what a sustainable future means; the ways in which populations are changing, and issues of unemployment, deprivation and inequality; and how these social, cultural and economic dynamics vary in different places, with different outcomes.

Did you know…

UK social sciences are ranked among the best in the world for their research.

Popular A Levels

Of the 12 most popular A level subjects, five are social sciences: business studies; economics; geography; psychology; sociology.

Around 40% (>230,000) of new undergrad students chose to study social science subjects at UK universities in 2020-2021. Social sciences are in demand.

Social science graduates are well paid. Many earn as much as STEM graduates.

Vital to business

Social science knowledge and skills from leadership and strategic planning to international liaison, sustainability, consumer growth, marketing, legal and financial management are vital to business.

In a recent survey, two thirds of the research questions the UK government sought answers to centred on social science.

Social science helps us make sense of our changing human world, inspiring us to be culturally sensitive, environmentally aware and socially responsible citizens.

Social Science Disciplines

Social science comprises 16 major disciplines and many sub-disciplines and specialisms. Find out about each and how they help us understand our contemporary human world.

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study, generally using ethnographic methods, of how different groups of people create and give meaning to their social world – ‘society’ – and how that social world places constraints on their behaviour and relationships. It is interested in what societies have in common, what differentiates them and how they change.

Business and Management

This is an interdisciplinary field including accounting, EDI, ethics, finance, HR, information systems, leadership, marketing, operations, organisational behaviour and strategy. It includes qualitative and quantitative analyses of individuals, organisations, systems, change and the role of organisations and management in society, environment and economy.

Demography, Social Statistics & Methods

Demography is the study of human populations. Demographers and social statisticians use social statistics and demographic methods to analyse the influences on population structures and dynamics, such as population growth, fertility, mortality, ageing and migration patterns. The discipline supports social policy-making at all scales that requires sound demographic analysis for decision-making.

Development Studies

Development Studies investigates global, national and local processes of change, including social, economic, political, cultural, environmental and technological. It focuses largely on contexts characterised by poverty, inequalities, environmental vulnerability and socio-political conflict and involves the critical interrogation of development theories, structures, processes, policies and practices from multiple disciplinary perspectives.

Human beings interact with the physical world and each other to produce artefacts and services that support and enhance their lives – offering usefulness and pleasure. Economics is the study of the principles, laws and dynamics that drive these economic processes; about how such wealth is created and subsequently distributed.

Education is the study of learning, teaching and human development. A well-established discipline in universities, it also has strong multi-disciplinary links for example with sociology, psychology, and philosophy. The study of education in society, including the practice and policy of early years settings, schools, colleges and teacher education, is an important aspect.

People, places and environments are central to our lives. Geographers explore the interactions between them, globally and locally. Analysing and understanding the dynamics of cultures, societies and economies, how they vary between places, and why differences and inequalities exist, inform some of the big issues facing society today.

International Relations

International Relations focuses on interactions of states and non-state actors through the tools of diplomacy, trade, and violence. Pressing questions including climate change and migration are analysed at local and global levels. Attention is paid to how gender, race, and sexuality are affected by and shape responses to these challenges.

Leisure Studies

Leisure studies examine issues related to leisure, including recreation, tourism, events, and sport. It includes studies of individuals and the relationship between leisure and wider society.  It draws on scholars with backgrounds in many different social science disciplines, including economics, sociology, geography, psychology, planning, sports science, and recreation management.

Linguistics

Language is central to social interaction. Linguistics, and applied linguistics in particular, offers insights, often based on millions of words of data, into questions such as how language is used to inform, persuade and mislead – e.g. in business, healthcare and security contexts -and how we learn an additional language.

Space and place matter to us all. Planning is about creating efficient and equitable places.  It is about helping to make communities that are socially inclusive, economically competitive and environmentally sustainable.  Planners are at the heart of efforts to address the climate emergency, reduce regional inequalities and overcome housing shortages.

Political Studies

From democracy to dictatorship and local councils to international organisations, the study of politics examines how power is obtained, kept, lost, mobilised, divided, used and abused. It asks who gains and who loses from these processes, and why. Politics is studied in theory and practice, sometimes using scientific methods.

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and how it influences our behaviour, from communication and memory to thought and emotion.  It is both an academic discipline and a vital clinical practice, examining human behaviour, thoughts and feelings through observation, measurement, and testing.

Regional Studies

Regional Studies is interdisciplinary and concerns with the analysis of sub-national regions and regional issues. It investigates how and why regions and cities develop. It seeks to understand how economic and political processes are influenced by regional and local circumstances and vice versa.

The study of society, and the ways that social life is organised, structured, and experienced. Focusing on big issues such as inequality, poverty, crime, racism and climate change, and exploring how we make sense of, navigate and change our interpersonal and everyday lives, sociology combines the study of self and society.

Statistics underpin many other disciplines. They help us understand and quantify what is happening in society and the economy, and provide the methods and tools to help researchers of all kinds collect, analyse and interpret data.

Careers in Social Science

A wide range of well-paid and socially responsible careers are open to social science students. Some roles use skills and approaches learned in all social science disciplines. Other roles are more specific to individual subjects.

• Find out more

The We Society Podcast

Tackling the big questions through a social science lens, the We Society Podcast brings you some of the best ideas to shape the way we live.

Join acclaimed journalist and Academy president Will Hutton, as he invites guests from the world of social science to explore the stories behind the news and hear their solutions to society’s most pressing problems.

• Listen and find out more

Making a Difference

Recognition and funding for refugee-led social protection during covid-19.

Professor Alexander Betts FAcSS, Dr Evan Easton-Calabria, and Dr Kate Pincock, at The Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford undertook research to examine the role of refugee-led organisations (RLOs) in providing essential services to displaced communities during COVID-19.

Boosting productivity in ethnic minority microbusinesses

Decision Maker Panel

Equality, Diversity and Inclusion

Equality, diversity and inclusion matter to those who teach, learn and work in social science. Explore research into these issues and find out how some subjects are addressing EDI within their own communities.

I’m a Social Scientist

Polly neate cbe facss.

Polly Neate CBE FAcSS, Chief Executive, Shelter

Jonathan Breckon FAcSS

Jonathan is an independent researcher who mobilises social science research for smarter decision-making in government, NGOs, and professional bodies.

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 4. The Introduction
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why should I read it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1.  Establish an area to research by:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2.  Identify a research niche by:

• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3.  Place your research within the research niche by:

• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE:   It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation,
• The time period your study covers, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE:   Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III.  The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV.  Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

• Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study. 
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE:   It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.

Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.

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The Critical Turkey

Essay Writing Hacks for the Social Sciences

What Should Be in a Social Science Essay? Fundamentals and Essential Techniques

This blogpost is also available as a PDF download , so it can be stored on your desktop and used as a checklist before submitting your essay.

The following is a condensed overview of the most important features of social science essay writing. Its aim is to cut through the noise, and focus on the most essential (and important) elements of essay writing. Read it carefully, and use it as a check-list once you have completed your essay.

Before we get into the details, however, be aware: The purpose of writing essays in the social and political sciences is not so much to just demonstrate your knowledge. Rather, it is about applying this knowledge, using it to make a well-informed, well-reasoned, independently-reflected argument that is based on verified (and verifiable) evidence. What should be in an essay, and how you should write it, is all informed by this purpose.

What’s in an Essay?

The main focus of an academic essay, article or book is to address a research or essay question. Therefore, make sure you have read the essay question carefully, think about what aspects of the topic you need to address, and organize the essay accordingly. Your essay should have three parts:

• Introduction
• Provide context to the question. Be specific (not ‘since the dawn of time, social scientists have been arguing…’, but ‘one of the key debates in the study of revolutions revolves around…’, ideally providing references to the key authors of said debate).
• It is almost always a good idea to formulate an argument – an arguable statement – in relation to the essay question (e.g. if the question is ‘Evaluate Weber and Marx’s accounts of capitalism’, an argument could be ‘I am going to argue that Weber is most insightful on X, but Marx is important for Y’). This builds a nice critical element into your essay, your own take on things, going beyond merely describing what others have written.
• Essay plan: Tell the reader about the points you are going to cover, and the order in which you are going to do this (e.g. ‘First, the essay looks at…, second… third…’ etc.). Think of it as a roadmap to the essay.
• Define key concepts as necessary for understanding. Do not use general dictionaries, as they often contain notions that social scientists try to challenge. Use definitions from the readings, and from sociological dictionaries.
• Length: Intro should be between 5 to 10%, and no more than about 10 per cent of the overall word count.
• Main Part / Body
• The structure of the essay body is informed by the research/essay question: What points do you need to include in order to address the question? What sub-questions are there to the big question? Concentrate on the ‘need-to-knows’ rather than the ‘nice-to-knows’ .
• The order in which you arrange these points depends on what makes the most convincing line of argument. This depends on the essay question, but as a rule of thumb you want to build up your argument, from the basics to the more elaborate points, from the weaker to the stronger, from what contradicts your argument to what supports it.
• The different points should be addressed in appropriate depth. Make sure you explain not just what something is, but also how it works, and use examples and illustration.
• There should be a coherent thread running through the essay and connecting the various points to one another and the overall argument. Indicate these connections in strategic places with appropriate signposting. These signpostings should also help you develop your argument as you proceed.
• Excellent essays often raise counter-arguments to the argument presented, and then provide arguments against those counter-arguments. Think about why and how someone might disagree about what you are saying, and how you would respond to them.
• Use peer-reviewed academic sources and present evidence for the points you make, using references, reliable statistics, examples etc. Any opinion you express should be built on reliable evidence and good reasoning.
• What, finally, is your answer to the question? Bring the various strings of the essay together, summarize them briefly in the context of the essay question, and round off by connecting to the bigger discussion that the essay question is part of. It is usually a good idea to have a differentiated conclusion, in which you e.g. agree with a statement to a certain extent or under specific circumstances (and explain which and why), but disagree with some other aspects of it, rather than making undifferentiated black-or-white statements. You can also contextualise your argument with your ideas from the introduction. It is normally not a good idea to introduce new material in the conclusion. You are wrapping up here, and rounding off, not starting new discussions.
• Conclusion should be about, and no longer than, 10 per cent of the overall word count.

Notes on Writing Style

• Find the right balance between formal and informal. Avoid being too informal and conversational on the one hand. But also don’t use overly convoluted and complicated language, as it makes your writing inaccessible, and can lead to a lack of clarity. You may at times encounter academic writing that seems deliberately obscure or overcomplicated, but those are not examples you should try to emulate.
• Clarity and specificity should indeed be a top priority. Are the words you are using expressing what you want to express? Is it clear who specifically is doing what or saying what? Pay attention to this when proofreading the essay. Could someone understand this differently? Avoid ambiguities.
• Key concepts should be clearly defined and  used throughout the essay in the way you defined them. Choose the definitions that are most useful for your discussion.
• Avoid hyperbole (don’t do ‘shocking statistics’ or ‘dire consequences’ etc.).

Notes on the Writing Process

• Proofreading: When you are first writing, don’t think of it as the final product, but treat it as a first draft. Go through several drafts until you are happy with it. At a minimum, proofread the entire essay once or twice. Don’t be perfectionist when you start out, as you can always come back and improve on whatever you’ve written.
• Small steps: Focussing on the small, concrete steps of your writing process rather than constantly thinking of the big task at hand will help you feel in control.
• Procrastination: Feeling overwhelmed, as well as being too perfectionist, are among the leading causes for procrastination. The two previous points should therefore help you address this issue as well. Don’t be too harsh on yourself when you do procrastinate – almost everyone does it to some extent .
• Over the years, keep addressing areas you want to improve on, and keep looking for information. Search online, for example ‘how to cite a book chapter in Harvard Sage’, ‘developing an argument’, ‘ using quotations ’, ‘memory techniques’, ‘how to read with speed’, ‘understanding procrastination’, or ‘ what does peer-reviewed mean ’. There is plenty of information, and some seriously good advice out there. See what works for you. Read the feedback you get on your writing, and incorporate it into your next essay.

Final Thoughts

Essay Writing skills are good skills to have in any situation (except maybe in a zombie apocalypse). They will make the studying process easier over time, and hopefully also more fun. But in a wider sense, they are general skills of critical engagement with the world around you, and will help you filter and prioritise the overload of information you are confronted with on an everyday basis. In that sense, they might actually even be helpful in a zombie apocalypse.

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1 What are the social sciences?

Learning Objectives for this Chapter

After reading this Chapter, you should be able to:

• understand what the social sciences are, including some fundamental concepts and values,
• understand and apply the concept of ‘phronesis’ to thinking about the purpose and value of the social sciences.

History and philosophy of the social sciences

Some of the earliest written and spoken accounts of human action, values, and the structure of society can be found in Ancient Greek, Islamic, Chinese and indigenous cultures. For example, Ibn Khaldoun , a 14th-century North African philosopher, is considered a pioneer in the field of social sciences. He wrote the book Muqaddimah , which is regarded as the first comprehensive work in the social sciences. It charts an attempt to create a universal history based on studying and explaining the economic, social, and political factors that shape society and discussed the cyclical rise and fall of civilisations. Moreover, indigenous peoples across the world have contributed in various and significant ways to the development of scientific knowledge and practices (e.g., see this recent article by Indigenous scholar, Jesse Popp – How Indigenous knowledge advances modern science and technology ). Indeed, contemporary social science has much to learn from indigenous knowledges and methodologies (e.g., Quinn 2022 ), as well as much reconciling to do in terms of its treatment of indigenous peoples the world over (see Coburn, Moreton-Robinson, Sefa Dei, and Stewart-Harawira, 2013 ).

Nevertheless, the dominant Western European narrative of the achievements of the enlightenment still tends to overlook and discredit much of this knowledge. Additionally, male thinkers have tended to dominate within the Western social sciences, while women have historically been excluded from academic institutions and their perspectives largely omitted from social science history and texts. Therefore, much of the history of the social sciences represent a predominantly white, masculine viewpoint. That is not to say that the concepts and theories developed by these male social scientists should be outright discredited. Nevertheless, in engaging with them we must understand this context; they are not the only voices, nor necessarily the most important. Indeed, it is crucial therefore that the history of the social sciences is continually re-examined through a critical lens, to identify gaps within social scientific knowledge bases and allow space for critical revisions that broaden existing concepts and theories beyond an exclusively masculine, Western-centric perspective. We seek to adopt such an approach throughout this book. However, to critique and question Western social scientific perspectives, we must first understand them.

Social sciences in the Western world

The study of the social sciences, as developed in the Western world, can be said to emerge from the Age of Enlightenment in the late 17th Century. Beginning with René Descartes (1596-1650), both the natural and social sciences developed from the concept of the rational, thinking individual. These early Enlightenment thinkers argued that human beings use reason to understand the world, rather than only referring to religion. Other thinkers around this time such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau  (1712-1778), M. de Voltaire (1694-1778) and Denis Diderot (1713-1784), began to develop different methodologies to scientifically explain processes in the body, the structure of society, and the limits of human knowledge. It was during this period that the social sciences grew out of moral philosophy, which asks ‘how people ought to live’, and political philosophy, which asks ‘what form societies ought to take’. Rather than only focusing on descriptive scientific questions about ‘how things are’, the social sciences also sought answers to normative questions about ‘how things could be’. This is one of the central differences between the natural sciences and the social sciences. This era of Enlightenment marked an important turning point in history that gave way to further developments in both the natural and social sciences.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers for the development of the social sciences. In his work, Kant develops an epistemology that accounts for the objective validity of knowledge, due to the capacities of the human mind. In other words, how can we as individual people come to know facts about the world that are true for all of us. Social scientists, such as Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) and Max Weber (1864-1920) critically developed the work of Kant to explain social relations between individuals.

Émile Durkheim prioritised the validity of social facts over the values themselves, continuing the tradition of ‘ positivism ‘ (an ontological position that we discuss later in this Chapter). Durkheim argued that there is a distinction between social facts and individual facts. Rather than viewing the structure of the human mind as the basis for knowledge like Kant, Durkheim argued that it is society itself that forms the basis for the social experience of individuals. Social facts should therefore, “be treated as natural objects and can be classified, compared and explained according to the logic of any natural science” (Rose, 1981: 19). Durkheim developed his methodology using analogies to the natural sciences. For example, he borrowed concepts from biology to understand society as a living organism.

TRIGGER WARNING

The following section contains content which may be triggering for certain people. It focuses on the sociology of suicide, including discussion of self-harm and different forms of suicide as it exists within society.

Durkheim and Suicide

Emile Durkheim’s 1879 text ‘Suicide: a Study in Sociology’ is a foundational work for the study of social facts. Durkheim explores the phenomenon of suicide across different time periods, nationalities, religions, genders, and economic groups. Durkheim argues that the problem of suicide can not be explained through purely biological, psychological or environmental means. Suicide must, he concludes, “necessarily depend upon social causes and be in itself a collective phenomenon” (Durkheim 1897: 97). It was and continues to be a work of great impact that demonstrates that, what most would consider an individual act is actually enmeshed in social factors.

In his text, Durkheim identifies some of the different forms suicide can take within society, four of which we discuss below.

Egoistic Suicide

Egoistic suicide is caused by what Durkheim terms “excessive individuation” (Durkheim 1897: 175). A lack of integration within a particular community or society at large leads human beings to feel isolated and disconnected from others. Durkheim argues that “suicide increases with knowledge”(Durkheim 1897: 123). This is not to say that a particular human being kills themselves because of their knowledge; rather it is because of the decline of organised religion that human beings desire knowledge outside of religion. It is thus, for Durkheim the weakening organisation of religion that detaches people from their (religious) community, increasing social isolation. According to Durkheim, the capacity of religion to prevent suicide does not result from a stricter prohibition of self-harm. Religion has the power to prevent someone from committing suicide because it is a community, or a ‘society’ in Durkheim’s words. The collective values of religion increases social integration and is just one example of the importance of community in decreasing rates of suicide. Isolation of individuals, for Durkheim, is a fundamental cause of suicide: “The bond attaching man [sic] to life relaxes because that attaching him [sic] to society is itself slack” (Durkheim 1897: 173).

Altruistic Suicide

Durkheim notes another kind of suicide that stems from “insufficient individuation” (Durkheim 1897: 173). This occurs in social situations where an individual identifies so strongly with their beliefs of a group that they are willing to sacrifice themselves for what they perceive to be the greater good. Examples of altruistic suicide include suicidal sacrifice in certain cultures to honour their particular God, soldiers who go to war and die in honour of their country, or the ancient tradition of Hara-kiri in Japan. As such, Durkheim notes that some people have even refused to consider altruistic suicide a form of self-destruction, because it resembles “some categories of action which we are used to honouring with our respect and even admiration”(Durkheim 1897: 199).

Anomic Suicide

The third kind of suicide Durkheim identifies is termed anomic suicide. This type is the result of the activity of human beings “lacking regulation”, and “the consequent sufferings” that are felt from this situation (Durkheim 1897: 219). Durkheim notes the similarities between egoistic and anomic suicide, however he notes an important distinction: “In egoistic suicide it is deficient in truly collective activity, thus depriving the latter of object and meaning. In anomic suicide, society’s influence is lacking in the basically individual passions, thus leaving them without a check-rein” (Durkheim 1897: 219). 

Fatalistic Suicide

There is a fourth type of suicide for Durkheim, one that has more historical meaning than current relevance. Fatalistic suicide is opposed to anomic, and is the result of  “excessive regulation, that of persons with futures pitilessly blocked and passions violently choked by oppressive discipline” (Durkheim 1897: 239). These regulations occur during moments of crises, including economic and social upheaval, that destabilise the individual’s sense of meaning.  It is the impact of external factors onto the individual, where meaning is thrown to the wind for the individual, that characterises fatalistic suicide.

Durkheim’s sociological study of suicide was a groundbreaking work for social sciences. His methodology, multivariate analysis, provided a way to understand numerous interrelated factors and how they relate to a particular social fact. His findings, particularly the higher suicide rates of Protestants, compared to Jewish and Catholic people, was correlated to the higher rates to individualised consciousness and the lower social control. This study, despite criticisms of the generalisations drawn from the results, has had a remarkable impact on sociology and remains a seminal text for those interested in the social sciences.

Max Weber was also influenced by the work of Kant. Unlike Durkheim, Weber “transformed the paradigm of validity and values into a sociology by giving values priority over validity” (Rose, 1981: 19). Culture is thus understood as a value that structures our understanding of the world. According to Weber, values cannot be spoken about in terms of their truth content. The separation between values and validity means that values can only be discussed in terms of faith rather than scientific reason. For Weber, only when a culture’s underpinning values are defined can facts about the social world be understood.

The philosophy of G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831) also greatly shaped the development of the social sciences. As argued by Herbert Marcuse (1941: 251-257), Hegel instigated the shift from abstract philosophy to theories of society. According to Hegel, human beings are not restricted to the pre-existing social order and can understand and change the social world. Our natural ability to reason allows human beings to create theories about our world that are universal and true.

Karl Marx (1818-1883), often regarded as the founder of conflict theory, was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Hegel. For example, Hegel emphasises that labour and alienation are essential characteristics of human experience, and Marx applies this idea more concretely to a material analysis of society, dividing human history along the lines of the forces of production. In other words, Marx understood that labour was divided in capitalist society according to two classes that developed society through a perpetual state of conflict: the working class, or ‘ proletariat’ , and the class of ownership, or ‘ bourgeoisie’ (we talk more about Marx’s conflict theory in Chapter 3).

Overall, the social sciences have a long and complex history, influenced by many different philosophical perspectives. As alluded to earlier, however, any account of the historical beginnings of the social sciences must be understood to be embedded within dominant systems of power, including for example colonisation, patriarchy, and capitalism. Indeed, any history of the social sciences is already situated within a narrative, or ‘discourse’. Maintaining a critical lens will allow for a deeper understanding of the genesis of the social sciences, as well as the important ability to question social scientific approaches, understandings, findings, and methods. It is this disposition that we seek to cultivate throughout this book. After all, as Marx famously wrote, “The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways. The point, however, is to change it.”

Defining Key Terms

Descriptive : A descriptive claim or question seeks to explain how things work, what causes them to work that way, and how things relate to one another.

Normative : A normative claim or question seeks to explain how things ought to work, why they should work a certain way, and what should change for things to work differently.

Labour : For Marx, labour is the natural capacity of human beings to work and create things. Under capitalism, labour primarily produces profits for the ruling class. (Please note, we return to the notion of labour in later chapters, and explore other understandings and definitions of this term.)

Alienation : Workers, separated from the products of their labour and replaceable in the production process, become separated or ‘alienated’ from their creative human essence. (Please also see Chapter 3 for a further explanation of the concept of alienation under Marxism.)

What are the social sciences?

The social sciences are a ‘broad church’, including lots of different disciplinary and sub-disciplinary areas. These include, for example, sociology, anthropology, criminology, archaeology, social policy, human geography, and many more. At their core, they apply the ‘scientific method’ to the analysis of people, societies, power, and social change.

Before we move on, let’s touch briefly on what we mean by the scientific method . At its core, the scientific method is essentially a series of steps that scientists take in order to build and test scientific knowledge. These steps include:

• Observation :  Scientists observe the world around them, in order to better understand it. 
• Question :  Scientists ask ‘research questions’ about how the world works.
• Hypothesis: Scientists come up with ideas or theories about how they think the world works, which they then seek to test through their research.
• Experiment: In experimental research, scientists use a specific experimental design (which includes a control and experimental group) to test hypotheses. This is not always possible or desirable in the social sciences, so social scientists tend to rely on a broader array of methods to collect data that can help them test their hypotheses about the social world. 
• Analysis:  Scientists use various different approaches to analyse the data they collect; the approach to analysis depends on the kind of data collected, and what questions are being asked of the data. 
• Conclusions:  Scientists develop conclusions, based on the results of their analyses. They consider how these either reinforce or further develop existing knowledge and understandings, as well as what there is left to find out (the latter of which informs future research endeavours). 

Over time, social scientists have developed their own ontological and epistemological leanings, which in many ways represent a departure from the typical positivist approaches of the natural sciences. While the natural sciences tend to assume there are objective ‘truths’ waiting to be discovered through, for instance, sensory experience (seeing, looking), social scientists tend to understand truth as being socially constructed. Thus, social scientists tend to adopt interpretivist and constructivist approaches to understanding the world, seeing knowledge as being co-constructed, rooted in context, and an important source/expression of power.

Consolidate your learning: ‘Introduction to the social sciences’ video

To consolidate your understanding of the social sciences, watch the following short video – Introduction to the social sciences (YouTube, 8:34) .

Flyvbjerg (2001) referred to the ‘science wars’, by which he meant the ongoing battle between the natural and social sciences. Often in public and political discourse, the natural sciences are seen as being more ‘scientific’ and a source of ‘stronger’ or ‘more objective’ knowledge than the social sciences. However, the reality is that both have equally important but different things to offer. As Flyvbjerg (2001: 3) argued:

…the social sciences are strongest where the natural sciences are weakest: just as the social sciences have not contributed much to explanatory and predictive theory, neither have the natural sciences contributed to the reflexive analysis and discussion of values and interests…

As Flyvbjerg (2001) sees it, social scientists should not try to replicate the natural sciences but should instead embrace their ability to take a different ontological and epistemological outlook, which enables deep, reflexive, and contextualised analysis about people and societies as a point of departure for values-based action . He called this ‘phronetic social science’ (which we elaborate on later in the Chapter).

Defining key terms

‘Ontology’: Ontology is the study of reality and being. When we refer to ‘ontology’, we are not just talking about people’s views of the world, but also their lived experience and actual being in the world, as well as their beliefs and claims about the nature of their existence. Some key questions are ‘what and who exists in the world?’ and ‘what are the relationships between them’?

‘Epistemology’ : Epistemology concerns the origin and nature of knowledge, including how knowledge claims are built and made. Some key questions are ‘what is knowledge?’ and ‘how is knowledge acquired’?

Positivism: Positivism is an ontology that assumes there is an objective ‘truth’ waiting to be discovered. Positivism involves, therefore, the search for a universal/generalisable ‘truth’.

Constructivism: Constructivism is an ontology that assumes that there are multiple ‘truths’ that are subjective and socially constructed. Truths are not, therefore, universal but are instead rooted in social, historical, and geographical context. These ‘truths’ are also bound up with power. For instance, those who hold power get to say what is ‘true’ and what isn’t.

In addition to the above,  Argentine-Canadian philosopher Mario Bunge ‘s (2003: 285ff) glossary of key terms includes a range of ontological concepts used in the social sciences that are useful to think with:

“Definitions of Twelve Ontological Concepts

•   Ontology: The philosophical study of being and becoming.
•   Realism (ontological): The thesis that the world outside the student exists on its own.
•   Phenomenalism (ontological): The philosophical view that there are only phenomena (appearances to someone).
•   Constructivism (ontological): The view that the world is a human (individual or social) construction.
•   Dialectics: The ontological doctrine, due to Hegel and adopted by Marx and his followers, according to which every item is at once the unity and struggle of opposites.
•   Materialism: The family of naturalist ontologies according to which all existents are material.
•   Naturalism: The family of ontologies that assert that all existents are natural-hence none are supernatural.
•   Idealism. The family of ontologies according to which ideas pre-exist and dominate everything else.
•   Subjectivism. The family of philosophies according to which everything is in a subject’s mind (subjective idealism).
•     Holism: The family of doctrines according to which all things come in unanalyzable wholes.
•     Individualism: The view that the universe is an aggregate of separate individuals: that wholes and emergence are illusory.
•     Systemism (ontological): The view that everything is either a system or a component of some system.”

Source: Bunge, M. (2003). E mergence and Convergence: Qualitative Novelty and the Unity of Knowledge . University of Toronto Press. Pp. 285ff

Reflection exercise

Take a few moments to think about what you have read above. Then, write a short (~100 word) reflection explaining:

• primary ways in which the natural and social sciences differ, and
• some things that the social sciences offer that the natural sciences cannot.

Why study the social sciences?

In their 2019 publication, Carré asked, ‘what are the social sciences for’? In response, they propose a framework for thinking about the different approaches and contributions of social science research, which encompasses three continuums: 1) return on investment versus intrinsic value; 2) citizen (societal) relevance versus academic relevance; and 3) applied research versus basic research (see the Figure below, adapted from Carré [2019: 23]).

While Carré (2019) argues that social scientists move along these continuums, he also suggests that there is good justification for finding middle grounds between the extremes. For instance, while applied research will tend to focus on and find solutions for specific social issues (e.g. youth crime), ‘basic’ research tends to adopt a more high-level theoretical approach to shaping how we understand the world, which can lead to longer-term substantive change (such as changing the way we think about and understand youth crime). As Carré (2019: 22) explains: “either research is conducted to directly solve pressing social issues, or it takes a full step back from the social word, in order to reflect about it without directly meddling [and] being involved in its events and discussions.” However, both are incredibly useful for moving knowledge forward and making crucial contributions. Similarly, they can have important symbiotic relationships; applied research might be informed and guided by the knowledge created through basic research, and conversely, applied research studies might be meta-analysed (a type of combined analysis) to inform broader theoretical development that is often the purview of basic research.

A central question raised by Carré (2019) is, what should social science ‘give back’ to the society that supports it? Take a piece of paper and write down some responses to this, based on your own views and beliefs.

According to Flyvbjerg (2001), and as also covered by Schram (2012), the concept of ‘phronetic social science’ can help bring social scientists back to the central value of the social sciences, rather than seeing them try to emulate the natural sciences and their search for universal and generalisable theories and truths. Instead, phronetic social science recognises that ‘truth’ is dependent on context, is in constant flux, and is bound up with power. This is not to say that we live in a ‘post-truth’ world where anything goes, but merely that we need to interrogate how knowledge and truth are created and how societies and social structures can play a role in this. Famous sociologist, Michel Foucault (1926-1984) referred to this as a ‘politics of truth’: something we’ll continue to discuss in greater detail over coming chapters.

‘Phronetic’ social science

Phronetic social science draws on the concept of phronesis, a term coined by Aristotle (384-322 BC) to refer to practical wisdom that arises from experience. Thus, phronetic social science “is designed not to substitute for, but instead to supplement, practice wisdom and to do so in ways that can improve society” (Schram 2012: 16). In terms of improving society, phronetic social science is then also concerned with praxis, or the practical application of knowledge to the betterment of society. Finally, phronetic social science is not attached to particular methods (e.g. quantitative versus qualitative), instead being “open to relying on a diversity of data collection methods in order to best inform attempts to promote change related to the issues being studied” (Schram 2012: 20).

Schram (2012: 18-19) presents four justifications for phronetic social science as follows:

• “Given the dynamic nature of human interaction in the social world, social inquiry is best practiced when it does not seek general laws of action that can be used to predict courses of action, but instead offer a critical assessment of values, norms and structures of power and dominance. Social inquiry is better when it is linked to questions of the good life, that is, to questions of what we ought to do.
• While the social world is dynamic, social research is best seen as dialogical. Social inquiry is not a species of theoretical reason but of practical reason. Practical reason stays within a horizon of involvements in social life. For Flyvbjerg, this entails a context-dependent view of social inquiry that rests on the capacity for judgement. Understanding can never be grasped analytically; it is a holistic character. Understanding also has intrinsic subjective elements requiring researchers to forgo a disinterested position of detachment and enter into dialogue with those they study.
• As the study of dynamic social life, dialogical social inquiry is best practiced when we give up traditional notions of objectivity and truth and put aside the fact-value distinction. Instead, we should emphasise a contextual notion of truth that is pluralistic and culture-bound, further necessitating involvement with those we study.
• Dialogical social inquiry into a dynamic and changing social world provides a basis for emphasising that interpretation is itself a practice of power, one that if conducted publicly and in ways that engage the public can also challenge power and inform efforts to promote social change.”

This concept of phronetic social science is a helpful means of understanding how the social sciences differ to the natural sciences, and can add value in different ways. However, it doesn’t tell us  how  to do  social science, or how to  be  social scientists. What tools, for instance, might we use to undertake the sort of dialogical social inquiry that Schram refers to above? And how might we start ‘thinking’ like social scientists? We turn to these questions in the chapter that follows.

‘Phronesis’: Described by Aristotle as ‘practical wisdom’, and juxtaposed with techn é (‘know how’ of practice) and epistem é (abstract and universal knowledge).

‘Dialogical’: Exploring the meaning of things and creating knowledge through dialogue/conversation.

‘Quantitative’ : A term used to describe research methods that typically involve measurement and counting of phenomena, regularly involving numerical data.

‘Qualitative’: A term used to describe research methods that typically involve understanding and interpretation of lived experiences (how people think, feel, act), regularly involving textual data.

Think about the concept of phronetic social science. Write a short paragraph (~30-40 words) to explain it in your own words. Then read back over the content in this chapter content to check your understanding.

Resources to support further learning

Relevant readings:

• Gorton, W. ‘ The Philosophy of Social Science .’
• Flyvbjerg, B. 2001. ‘The science wars: a way out.’ In. Flyvbjerg, B. Making social science matter, chapter 1. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
• Carré, D. 2019. ‘ Social sciences, what for? On the manifold directions for social research .’ In. Valsiner, J. (Ed.) Social philosophy of science for the social sciences, pp. 13-29. Springer: Cham.
• Schram, S. 2012. ‘Phronetic social science: an idea whose time has come.’ In Flyvbjerg, B., Landman, T. and Schram, S. (Eds.) Real social science: applied phronesis. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
• Bunge, M. (2003). E mergence and Convergence: Qualitative Novelty and the Unity of Knowledge . University of Toronto Press.

Other resources:

• Video: Soomo, ‘An animated introduction to social science’ (YouTube, 4:35) .
• Video: ‘Introduction to the social sciences’ (YouTube, 8:34) .
• Podcast: Theory and Philosophy Podcast, ‘Bent Flyvbjerg – Making Social Science Matter’ (YouTube, 44:06) . (Note, discussion of  phronesis  starts at 7:51)
• Video: ‘Importance of social science with Professor Cary Cooper’ (YouTube, 4:13) .

Introduction to the Social Sciences Copyright © 2023 by The University of Queensland is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What is social science?

Social science is, in its broadest sense, the study of society and the manner in which people behave and influence the world around us.

Social science tells us about the world beyond our immediate experience, and can help explain how our own society works – from the causes of unemployment or what helps economic growth, to how and why people vote, or what makes people happy. It provides vital information for governments and policymakers, local authorities, non-governmental organisations and others.

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Social Science

What are social sciences.

The Social Sciences comprise disciplines that aim to study various aspects of human society, which include its functioning and development, interaction and interpersonal relationships between individuals, etc. The social sciences can be divided into several disciplines that primarily focus on a specific aspect of society and its institutions.

Political Science

• Anthropology
• Geography, etc.

The aforementioned subjects focus on specific fields of study related to society, culture, human behaviour, language, institutions, and systems that govern and make up societies. At the university level, these subjects are further divided into specialised areas like criminal psychology, international economics, demography, ethnic studies, econometrics, etc., which gives students an array of options to choose from, based on their interests and career plans.

Scope and Importance of Social Sciences

Social Science is a discipline that broadens the horizons of young minds. It not only lays a strong foundation for understanding the complexity of a society and its systems, but it also delves into its genesis. Various disciplines that are part of the social sciences aid students to understand real-world problems like unemployment, poverty, inflation, illiteracy, and climate change, and make them more socially conscious individuals.

Social Sciences and humanities play a very important role in making children appreciate their history, culture, language, etc. This not only fosters creativity, critical thinking skills, and ingenuity in children, but also makes them well-rounded individuals. Over the years, the scope of social sciences has widened, and a plethora of opportunities await young people who want to pursue a career in this field. A good understanding of the social sciences can help in paving a finer path for the future.

In the following sections, we will discuss the role and importance of geography, political science and history, and what a student can gain by learning these subjects.

Political science is a field of study that focuses on governance at various levels, including political theories and principles, the electoral process, the role of a constitution, and so on.

It also contains political ideas, processes, and institutions that aid in economic manoeuvring . It helps students understand the nuances of policy making, and the factors that play a vital role in effective governance.

Political Science, for the Indian curriculum, broadly covers the following areas:

• What is Politics?
• Political Theory
• Political ideologies like liberalism, communism, socialism, etc.
• Concepts like Federalism, Sovereignty, Secularism, Liberty, Democracy, Equality, Social Justice
• Different kinds of Rights and the role of the State
• Sources and kinds of Law
• Citizenship and its importance
• The Constitution of India, its philosophy and comparison
• Election and Representation
• Legislature
• Local governments
• Rise of popular movements
• Recent developments in Indian Politics
• The Cold War era
• International organisations
• Globalisation
• Contemporary South Asia
• US and World Politics, etc
• Non-Aligned Movement
• Regional Cooperation

History is a window into the past. It helps us comprehend the evolution of societies, our culture, language, art, architecture, etc.

It not only aids in understanding important events and personalities that shaped the world but also the present-day issues that originated in the past. History can be divided into Ancient Indian history , Mediaeval Indian history, Modern Indian history, and World history.

The areas covered under these four categories are given below.

I – Ancient Indian History

• Prehistoric Age in India
• Indus Valley Civilization
• Vedic civilization and Vedic literature
• Persian and Greek Invasions of Ancient India
• Rise and Growth of the Magadha Empire
• Buddha and His Teachings
• Chandragupta Maurya and the Rise of the Mauryan Empire
• Emperor Ashoka and his Edicts
• Post-Mauryan India – Sunga Dynasty
• Post-Mauryan India – The Satavahanas
• Kushana Empire
• Gupta Empire
• King Harshavardhana
• Pala Empire
• Chalukya Dynasty
• Post-Mauryan Age – Crafts, Trade & Towns
• Mahajanapadas
• Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas
• Sangam Literature

II – Mediaeval Indian History

• Bhakti Movement
• The North Indian Kingdoms – The Rajputs
• The Kingdoms of the Deccan
• Mughal Empire – Babur
• Rashtrakutas
• Sultanate of Delhi
• Sur Dynasty
• Mamluk Dynasty
• Khilji Dynasty
• Tughlaq Dynasty
• Arab and Turkish Invasions
• Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties
• The Vijayanagar Empire

III – Modern Indian History

• Battle of Plassey
• Third Battle of Panipat
• Battle of Buxar
• Anglo-Mysore Wars
• Anglo-Maratha Wars
• The Regulating Act of 1773
• Pitt’s India Act, 1784
• The Permanent Settlement of Bengal
• Ryotwari and Mahalwari Systems of Land Revenue
• Charter Act of 1813
• Charter Act of 1833
• Anglo-Sikh Wars
• Doctrine of Lapse
• Carnatic wars
• First War of Independence
• Government of India Act 1858
• Indian Councils Act 1861
• Morley-Minto Reforms
• Partition of Bengal 1905
• The moderates and the extremists
• Indian Freedom Movement
• Government of India Act 1919
• The Lucknow Pact, 1916
• Non-Cooperation Movement
• Home Rule Movement
• Salt Satyagraha
• Simon Commission
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact
• Round Table Conferences
• Government of India Act 1935
• Cripps Mission
• Quit India Movement
• Nehru Report
• C R Formula
• August Offer
• Wavell Plan
• Cabinet Mission
• Constituent Assembly of India
• Indian Independence Act 1947
• Indian National Army (INA)

IV – World History

• Early Societies, human evolution, tools, language, art, hunter-gatherers in Africa
• Writing and city life: Mesopotamia and its geography, urbanisation, literacy, temples and kings
• Empires: The Central Islamic lands and nomadic empires
• The three orders (clergy, nobility, peasants), changing cultural traditions and confrontation of cultures
• Industrial Revolution
• European Imperialism
• Paths to Modernisation

The term “geography” is derived from two Greek words: “geo”, which means earth, and “graphos,” meaning description. Therefore, geography can be broadly defined as the “description of the earth”.

The study of geography can help in understanding issues and several phenomena like climate change , cyclones, landslides, heatwaves, forest fires, etc., which have been in the news for quite some time. It cultivates the habit of observation in students, which piques their curiosity and makes them appreciate their surroundings and environment.

Geography for classes 6 to 12 broadly comprises the following topics:

I – Physical Geography

• Earth and its interior
• Distribution of oceans and continents
• Geomorphic process
• Various landforms and their evolution
• Solar radiation, heat balance and radiation
• Atmosphere circulation and weather systems
• Water in the atmosphere
• Movements of ocean water
• World climate and climate change
• Ecology, biodiversity and conservation

II – India and its Physical Environment

• Location, structure and physiography
• Climate, drainage system, important river basins, soil and natural vegetation
• Natural hazards and disasters
• Union territories, states and their capitals
• National parks in India
• Forest cover in India, etc

III – Human Geography

• Population, its distribution, density, composition and growth
• Migration, its types and composition
• Human settlements
• Human development and its approaches
• Water resources
• Land resources and agriculture: crops and cropping seasons, types of farming, etc
• Mineral and energy resources
• Manufacturing industries
• Transport and communication
• International trade

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Frequently Asked Questions about Social Science

What are social sciences, what are the job opportunities available to students who take up social sciences, is studying social science easy, which subjects does social science include, what is physical geography, why is it important to study political science, what are the various branches of economics.

In high school, economics is generally divided into macroeconomics and microeconomics. However, at the University level, Economics is further divided into subjects like Indian economy, International Economics, Econometrics, Environmental Economics, Industrial economics, Public Economics and Finance etc.

What are the components of Modern Indian history?

What are the topics that students have to study in world history at high school.

In high school, students generally have to study the following topics in world history: Early Societies, human evolution, writing and city life, various important empires, Industrial Revolution, European Imperialism etc.

What does Mediaeval Indian history comprise?

Mediaeval Indian history focuses on the Bhakti Movement, major Arab and Turkish invasions, rule of important kings, their kingdoms and dynasties like that of the Rajputs, Babur, Humayun, Rashtrakutas, the Vijayanagar Empire, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, etc.

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social science

Definition of social science

Examples of social science in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'social science.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1746, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Dictionary Entries Near social science

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The Definition of Social Sciences

Introduction.

The reading response by Andrea McCarrick began by explaining the definition of social sciences through the summary of an article by Ian McLain. Social Sciences are the study of human beings in a society that explains the choices they make and their consequences (McLain, 2018). Next, an article, How Scientific is Social Science, shows that human behavior can be predictable. McCarrick draws a parallel between the previous article and a study by Kirkendall about the relationship between social sciences and politics – fear of science and its implications for society. The article by Hansen, Value and Social Sciences, explains how values matter when constructing social experiments, confirming the opinions of other responses. Lastly, McCarrick explains that the final article explains that social sciences are objective in their results.

The reading response by Antonio Gutierrez begins by examining an article that explains how personal bias can corrupt social science research. Gutierrez agrees with the other readers by stating in his analysis of How Scientific is Social Science that social sciences are very objective and hold value. Later, he explains how Mack examined the fear of social sciences, another point many others have written about in their reading responses. Their analysis of the article Value and Social Sciences differs from the previous reading response by concluding that it showed that society would view social problems through moral values. Lastly, they analyze the main research question – what sciences are soft or hard? He explains that there is no need for a hierarchy of sciences because establishing it wastes time.

In Mats reading response to the article by Raymond Mack, they outline how social sciences were a newly emerging field that was not readily accepted. They cite the Newsweek columnist Raymond Moley and other examples of scientific discoveries that were heavily scrutinized. Later, the response discusses the political implications of social sciences, specifically in the field of climate advocacy. Mats opinion aligns with the previous two students’ that the values of sociologists impact the results of their data. The reader also disagrees with other readers on the article Hierarchy of Sciences by stating that it is natural for researchers to desire their field to be taken seriously. They concluded by stating that social sciences are more scientific than other fields.

The week one reading response by Rachael Ericson has a detailed summary of How Scientific is Social Science. It first covers how social sciences must be considered a science because of their empirical data collection, logical deductions, and relevance to society’s results. However, in contrast to others, Ericson details how the article describes social sciences are probabilistic due to their ties to human interactions and psychology. On the topic of values, Ericson provides an example of unethical actions by oil companies. Like the rest of the responses, this paper expresses how social sciences are dismissed and feared because of their impact on politics. The article by Hanson described through its conclusion that social sciences do not need a hypothesis to be worthy of study.

Rylan O’Keefe begins the reading responses by stating in the article by McLain that social sciences are soft science that examines human relationships. Unlike McCarrick, the reader explains how social sciences cannot predict human behavior but only make generalized statements about it. O’Keefe explains how social sciences are a legitimate field of study that can sadly be corrupted by conflicting interests of the researchers, like others in their responses. Like other responses, this paper describes how unjust it is that social sciences are feared and censored because of their implications for politics and business. O’Keefe does not find an issue with social research being affected by the researchers values, and they find the discussion on Hierarchy of the Sciences by Hanson.

McLain, I. (2018). What is Social Science? The British Academy.  Web.

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What Is Social Science?

Understanding social science, branches of social science, social science in schools, the bottom line, social science: what it is and the 5 major branches.

Daniel Liberto is a journalist with over 10 years of experience working with publications such as the Financial Times, The Independent, and Investors Chronicle.

Erika Rasure is globally-recognized as a leading consumer economics subject matter expert, researcher, and educator. She is a financial therapist and transformational coach, with a special interest in helping women learn how to invest.

Investopedia / Mira Norian

Social science is the study of how people interact with one another. The branches of social science include anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, and sociology.

Social scientists study how societies work, exploring everything from the triggers of economic growth and the causes of unemployment to what makes people happy. Their findings inform public policies, education programs, urban design, marketing strategies, and many other endeavors.

Key Takeaways

• Social science is a group of academic disciplines that focus on how individuals behave within society.
• It attempts to explain how society works, exploring everything from the triggers of economic growth and causes of unemployment to what makes people happy.
• Social science is a relatively new field of scientific study that rose to prominence in the 20th century.
• Typical careers in social science include working as an advertiser, economist, psychologist, teacher, manager, and social worker.
• Social scientists generally rely more heavily on interpretation and qualitative research methodologies.

Social science as a field of study is separate from the natural sciences, which cover topics such as physics, biology, and chemistry. Social science examines the relationships between individuals and societies as well as the development and operation of societies, rather than studying the physical world. These academic disciplines rely more heavily on interpretation and qualitative research methodologies.

Some say there are seven social sciences, while others claim there are four, five, six, or something else. Opinions vary on what should be included, yet most pundits agree that the following five fields fall into this category:

Anthropology

• Political science
• Social psychology

History is also sometimes regarded as a branch of social science, although many historians often consider the subject to share closer links to the humanities. Both humanities and social science study human beings. What separates them is the technique applied: Humanities are viewed as more philosophical and less scientific.

Law, too, has some ties to social science, as does geography.

There are many fields within social science. The five main ones are anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, and sociology, although some people also include history, criminology, and geography in this conversation.

In the United States, early education in social science begins in elementary school and progresses throughout middle and high school, with an emphasis on aspects of core social sciences such as economics and political science. At the collegiate level, more specialized disciplines are offered.

Nowadays, colleges and universities offer numerous social science programs. For example, the University of California, Berkeley has 15 academic departments categorized as social sciences. They are:

• African American studies
• Cognitive science
• Ethnic studies
• Gender and women’s studies
• Global studies
• Linguistics
• Political economy

Master’s degree and Ph.D. programs at colleges and universities offer further opportunities for deeper specialization.

Social Science Careers

Typical careers in social science include working as an advertiser, psychologist, teacher, lawyer, manager, social worker, and economist .

The subject matter of social science—human behavior, relationships, attitudes, and how these things have changed over time—is useful information for any successful business to possess. The concepts of social science, such as demography, political science, and sociology, are frequently applied in many different business contexts. For example, advertising and marketing professionals often use theories of human behavior from these fields to more efficiently market their products to consumers.

Naturally, the social studies field of economics is key to the business sector. Many industries use economic analysis and quantitative methods to study and forecast business, sales, and other market trends. In fact, economists are some of the most sought-after workers in the U.S., especially behavioral economists , who use psychology to analyze and predict the economic decision-making processes of individuals and institutions.

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) , the projected change in employment for economists from 2021 to 2031 is 6%, about the same as the average 8% projection for all occupations. Social workers, too, are expected to reach a similar level of demand, with the BLS predicting employment in this particular field to grow by 9% from 2021 to 2031.

Economists and social workers are among the most sought-after employees in the U.S., according to the BLS.

Social Science Wages

The BLS also reports that those with a social science degree generally command higher salaries than their peers with other types of degrees but it can depend heavily on the field of employment they enter into.

According to BLS research, the median wage for a social worker was $55,350 in May 2022 while the median pay for an economist was $113,940 at that time. The median wage for those with a social science degree overall was $68,000 a year earlier in 2021, almost $13,000 more than that of a social worker a year later.

History of Social Science

The origins of social science can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. The lives they led, as well as their early studies into human nature, the state, and mortality, helped to shape Western civilization.

Social science as an academic field of study developed out of the Age of Enlightenment (or the Age of Reason), which flourished through much of the 18 th century in Europe. Adam Smith , Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, Immanuel Kant, and David Hume were among the major intellectuals at the time who laid the foundations for the study of social science in the Western world.

Individuals began to take a more disciplined approach to quantifying their observations of society. Over time, similar aspects of society, such as linguistics and psychology, were separated into unique fields of study. Here’s more on the five key branches.

Anthropology, the study of the origin and development of human societies and cultures, has been a focal point for centuries but it really got off the ground and gained importance during the Age of Enlightenment. During that period, there was a big focus on advancing society and knowledge, and the key to achieving that goal was understanding human behavior.

The history of economic thought goes back all the way to ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Xenophon. Their works laid the foundation of nearly all social science, economics included. As travel became easier in the 15th to 18th centuries, and more nations were able to partake in international trade, the economic system of mercantilism grew. The economic actions of many nations were suddenly motivated by the belief that a country should maximize exports and minimize imports.

This predominating school of thought was challenged by writers such as Smith, commonly known as the father of modern economics. Smith’s ideas, along with those of Rousseau and John Locke , promoted the idea of a self-regulating economy and introduced the concept of what is known today as classical economics . Smith’s book The Wealth of Nations is still studied today and admired by many politicians.

Two other important economists who have shaped the way we think of the subject today are Karl Marx and John Maynard Keynes . Marx famously challenged capitalism as an appropriate economic model by placing an emphasis on the labor theory of value . While Marx’s ideas are by no means widely endorsed by most of today’s politicians, his critique of capitalism has had a huge impact on many thinkers.

The Keynesian school of economics , meanwhile, is very popular among today’s economists. Keynesian economics is considered a demand-side macroeconomic theory that focuses on changes in the economy over the short run and was the first to separate the study of economic behavior and markets based on individual incentives from the study of broad national economic aggregate variables and constructs.

Political Science

The origins of political science can be traced back to ancient Greece. Back then, the philosopher Plato wrote various dialogues about politics, justice, and what constitutes good government.

Plato’s early contributions would gradually take on a more scientific approach, led by thinkers including Aristotle, Thomas Hobbes, Marx, and Max Weber. Centuries of research into politics helped to boost democracy and assist politicians in making popular policy choices and get voted into power.

Psychology is one of the fastest growing fields of social science. It began as a medical field of study in the late 1800s and grew popular in the Western world throughout the 20th century, thanks in part to the work of Sigmund Freud.

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 20.3% of adults had received some form of mental health treatment in 2020. Although many still use psychiatric medicine to treat their mental health issues, more people in recent years are seeking alternative treatments, such as mindfulness and yoga in addition to traditional talk therapy.

Neuroscience, drug treatments, and a growing variety of approaches to psychotherapy are adding to the options for psychological treatment. Research on animal learning, social psychology, and economic psychology are other branches of the field.

Sociology as a science developed in Europe in the mid-1800s, a period of rapid social change. Political revolutions and the Industrial Revolution drastically altered how many people live—and not always for the better—prompting early sociologists to wonder how to maintain stability when everything is shifting so fast.

The first sociology course in the U.S. was taught at Yale University by 1875. In the years that followed, other colleges followed suit and the subject arrived in high schools in 1911.

What Are the 5 Major Branches of Social Science?

The five major branches of social science are anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, and sociology. Some people also consider history, law, and geography to be core social sciences.

Why Is Social Science Important?

The social sciences are important because they help people understand how to analyze not only their own behavior but also the behavior and motivations of their peers. The social sciences also give us a better understanding of how to create more inclusive and effective institutions.

How Do You Become a Social Scientist?

Typically, the path to obtaining a career in the social sciences begins by getting a four-year university degree in one of the social science subjects. If you’re interested in pursuing a career in social work or psychology, these careers often require additional schooling, certificates, and licenses.

Which Jobs Can You Get With a Social Science Degree?

A degree in the social sciences can help land you a job as an economist, psychologist, or survey researcher, as well as open up opportunities in sectors such as law, government, and academia.

Social science helps us to gain knowledge of our peers and the society in which we live. Human behavior is important, and having a decent grasp of it should, in theory, lead to greater efficiency and quality of life for everyone.

University of South Florida, Digital Commons. “ Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices ,” Pages 10-11.

University of South Florida, Digital Commons. “ Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices ,” Page 14.

University of California, Berkeley, College of Letters & Science. “ Social Sciences Division .”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Occupational Outlook Handbook: Economists: Job Outlook .”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Occupational Outlook Handbook: Social Workers: Job Outlook .”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. " Economists ."

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. " Social Workers ."

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Occupational Outlook Handbook: Field of Degree: Social Science .”

Lynn McDonald, via Google Books. “ The Early Origins of the Social Sciences ,” Chapter 2. McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1993.

Encyclopædia Britannica. “ Social Science .”

Thomas Hylland Eriksen and Finn Sivert Nielsen, via Google Books. “ A History of Anthropology ,” Pages 11–19. Pluto Press, 2013.

International Monetary Fund. “ What Is Keynesian Economics? ”

Washington State University, Open Text WSU. “ History of Psychology .”

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “ Mental Health Treatment Among Adults: United States, 2020 .”

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Yale University. “ Welcome to the Yale Sociology Department .”

Michael DeCesare, via JSTOR. “ The High School Sociology Teacher .” Teaching Sociology, vol. 33, no. 4, October 2005, pp. 345–354.

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Power Definition in Social Sciences Essay

How can we define or identify what power is? Is it something visible or invisible? Or can power be something like a force that makes things move and or stop from being in motion? Sometimes we think of it in many different ways and due to some people do associate power as the authority that we have over others, while others believe that is a measure of material possessions the people have.

However, it may be hard to exactly define the term power under one subject to represent a universal definition of all other subjects. So, what is very crucial in searching for the definition of power as well as seeking an in-depth understanding is to look up for detailed work on the topic of power from diverse subjects including social science, politics and political science, and even engineering subjects. It should therefore be noted that the meaning of the term power cannot be confined to a particular area or subject.

Furthermore, there should be no confusion of its users under the different fields of subjects in which its multiple meaning would sometimes appear to coincide in two or subject fields, while it may greatly differ in several other fields.

In the field of social science, power is broadly dealt with or seen under many sub-units. Some of us would look up for the term power in the point of personal attributes, which are more often referred to as characteristics.

Due to the unique personal characters that we all have, another group of individuals would think of it in different ways and search for an understanding of power under the individual’s methodologies of implementing strategies for a specific task and the ability to convert the available resources into final products or services. The last cohort of the people from our community/society may also take another approach, whereby it may focus on establishing the meaning and understanding of power by looking at it through the organization of the community/society on the basis of structural society’s relationship.

Even though social scientists seem to consent to one single idea of the meaning of power, social constructionists appear to differ compared to the other fellow sociologists. Deep studies on the constructionist view of power show to some extent that they shallowly addressed the power influence, and thus the theoretical work may not be adequate to resolve some of the hidden puzzling questions of the readers. In this connection, it may be assumed that constructionism partially addresses and accounts for the impacts or rather the influence of power on the society. While it is worth noting that constructionists mention several things related to the power, their work on some major factors or element of power such as the subject of materialism embodiment is partially handled.

Graphics and social illustrations. It is important to note and understand that power could be having an intimate relationship with embodiment. This was shown by Foucault and other sociologists who carried out experiment to provide some kind of evidence of the body response toward power. For many reasons, it might be hard for us to save one’s powers from such things like materials, personal character/ behavior, which in turn builds what is termed as personal behavior.

What is within, perhaps, makes what we call a person. But it should be considered that all that is within somebody may not be known. In most cases, the power within someone would make that what he/she wants to be. However, people are described not in one distinct way in their life because there is always the power to change or room of change. We therefore use language to describe ourselves depending on the circumstances in which we are found under certain time.

The words that we use differ widely to express what we are either in the basis of gender, race, ethnicity or even during explanation of our health conditions. The issues raised above were among some of matter of deep concern of constructionists Foucault for which he appeared to support the idea that power is a major factor in the driving out of discourse. On the side of Gergen, power may be a key in expressing and giving commands as it acts a warranting voice.

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IvyPanda. (2021, February 5). Power Definition in Social Sciences. https://ivypanda.com/essays/power-definition-in-social-sciences/

"Power Definition in Social Sciences." IvyPanda , 5 Feb. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/power-definition-in-social-sciences/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Power Definition in Social Sciences'. 5 February.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Power Definition in Social Sciences." February 5, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/power-definition-in-social-sciences/.

1. IvyPanda . "Power Definition in Social Sciences." February 5, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/power-definition-in-social-sciences/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Power Definition in Social Sciences." February 5, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/power-definition-in-social-sciences/.

• Is homosexuality an Innate or an Acquired Trait?
• Social Construction of Illness
• Personality Formation
• Managing Change: the Art of Balancing
• Social Constructionist and Biological Approaches to Understanding the Person
• Michel Foucault
• “History of Sexuality” by Michael Foucault
• History of Sexuality by Foucault
• Foucault on the Rise of Critical Thought
• "The History of Sexuality" the Book by Foucault
• Person-Environment Fit Theory and Work Satisfaction
• Integrated vs. Fragmented Sociological Theory
• Social Setting of a Monthly Office Meeting
• Bourdieu and Althusser on Culture and Ideology
• Louis Wirth's Sociological Theory of the City